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356 Occupational Outlook Handbook Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides (0*NET 31-2021.00, 31-2022.00) Significant Points • Employment is projected to increase much faster than average; physical therapist aides may face keen compe tition from the large pool of qualified applicants. • Physical therapist assistants generally have an associate degree, but physical therapist aides usually learn skills on the job. • - ... 1 About 60 percent of jobs are in hospitals or offices of physical therapists. Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants and aides perform physical therapy procedures and related tasks. Physical therapist assistants and aides perform components of physi cal therapy procedures and related tasks selected by a supervising physical therapist. These workers assist physical therapists in pro viding services that help improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or disease. Patients include accident victims and individu als with disabling conditions such as low-back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Physical therapist assistants perform a variety of tasks. Com ponents of treatment procedures performed by these workers, under the direction and supervision of physical therapists, involve exer cises, massages, electrical stimulation, paraffin baths, hot and cold packs, traction, and ultrasound. Physical therapist assistants record the patient’s responses to treatment and report the outcome of each treatment to the physical therapist. Physical therapist aides help make therapy sessions productive, under the direct supervision of a physical therapist or physical thera pist assistant. They usually are responsible for keeping the treatment area clean and organized and for preparing for each patient’s therapy. When patients need assistance moving to or from a treatment area, aides push them in a wheelchair or provide them with a shoulder to lean on. Because they are not licensed, aides do not perform the clinical tasks of a physical therapist assistant. The duties of aides include some clerical tasks, such as ordering depleted supplies, answering the phone, and filling out insurance forms and other paperwork. The extent to which an aide or an assistant performs clerical tasks depends on the size and location of the facility. ited physical therapist assistant program. Not all States require licensure or registration in order for the physical therapist assistant to practice. The States that require licensure stipulate specific educational and examination criteria. Complete information on practice acts and regulations can be obtained from the State licens ing boards. Additional requirements may include certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and other first aid and a minimum number of hours of clinical experience. According to the American Physical Therapy Association, there were 238 accredited physical therapist assistant programs in the United States as of 2004. Accredited physical therapist assistant programs are designed to last 2 years, or 4 semesters, and culminate in an associate degree. Programs are divided into academic study and hands-on clinical experience. Academic course work includes algebra, anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and psychology. Many programs require that stu dents complete a semester of anatomy and physiology and have certifications in CPR and other first aid even before they begin their clinical field experience. Both educators and prospective employers view clinical experience as integral to ensuring that students understand the responsibilities of a physical therapist assistant. Employers typically require physical therapist aides to have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to assist people in need. Most employers provide clinical on-the-job training. Working Conditions Employment The hours and days that physical therapist assistants and aides work vary with the facility and with whether they are full- or part-time employees. Many outpatient physical therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours, to help coincide with patients’ personal schedules. About 30 percent of all physical therapist as sistants and aides work part time. Physical therapist assistants and aides need a moderate degree of strength because of the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. In some cases, assistants and aides need to lift patients. Constant kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods also are part of the job. Physical therapist assistants and aides held about 101,000 jobs in 2004. Physical therapist assistants held about 59,000 jobs, physi cal therapist aides approximately 43,000. Both work with physical therapists in a variety of settings. About 60 percent of jobs were in hospitals or in offices of physical therapists. Others worked primar ily in nursing care facilities, offices of physicians, home health care services, and outpatient care centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Physical therapist aides are trained on the job, but physical thera pist assistants typically earn an associate degree from an accred- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of physical therapist assistants and aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The impact of proposed Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the short-term job outlook for physical therapist assistants and aides. However, over the long run, demand for physical therapist assistants Service Occupations 357 and aides will continue to rise, in accordance with the increasing number of individuals with disabilities or limited function. The growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. These patients often need additional assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. The large baby-boom genera tion is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. In addition, future medical developments should permit an increased percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating added demand for therapy services. Physical therapists are expected to increasingly utilize assistants to reduce the cost of physical therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated and a treatment plan is designed by the physical therapist, the physical therapist assistant can provide many aspects of treat ment, as prescribed by the therapist. Physical therapist assistants and aides with prior experience working in a physical therapy office or other health care setting will have the best job opportunities. Physical therapist aides may face keen competition from the large pool of qualified individuals with a high school diploma. ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapists aides in May 2004 were: Earnings Sources of Additional Information Median annual earnings of physical therapist assistants were $37,890 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,060 and $44,050. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,110, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,110. Median annual eam- Career information on physical therapist assistants and a list of schools offering accredited programs can be obtained from: > The American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org Nursing care facilities................................................................... $40,360 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ 37,790 Offices of other health practitioners............................................. 37,120 Median annual earnings of physical therapist aides were $21,380 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,990 and $26,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,550. Median annual earnings of physical therapist aides in May 2004 were $21,120 in general medical and surgical hospitals and $20,360 in offices of physical therapists. Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision of physical therapists. Other workers in the health care field who work under similar supervision include dental assistants, medical as sistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, pharmacy technicians, and social and human service assistants. Protective Service Occupations Correctional Officers __ (0*NET 33-1011.00, 33-3011.00, 33-3012.00) Significant Points • The work can be stressful and hazardous. • Most correctional officers are employed in State and Federal prisons. Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. • Nature of the Work Correctional officers are responsible for overseeing individu als who have been arrested and are awaiting trial or who have been convicted of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a jail, reformatory, or penitentiary. Correctional officers maintain security and inmate accountability to prevent disturbances, assaults, and escapes. Officers have no law enforcement re sponsibilities outside the institution where they work. (For more information on related occupations, see the statements on police and detectives and on probation officers and correctional treatment specialists, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Police and sheriffs’ departments in county and municipal jails or precinct station houses employ many correctional officers, also known as detention officers. Most of the approximately 3,400 jails in the United States are operated by county governments, with about three-quarters of all jails under the jurisdiction of an elected sheriff. Individuals in the jail population change constantly as some are released, some are convicted and transferred to prison, and new offenders are arrested and enter the system. Correctional https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis officers in local jails admit and process about 12 million people a year, with about 700,000 offenders in jail at any given time. When individuals are first arrested, the jail staff may not know their true identity or criminal record, and violent detainees may be placed in the general population. This is the most dangerous phase of the incarceration process for correctional officers. Most correctional officers are employed in State and Federal pris ons, watching over the approximately 1.4 million offenders who are incarcerated there at any given time. Other correctional officers oversee individuals being held by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service pending release or deportation, or work for correctional institu tions that are run by private for-profit organizations. Although both jails and prisons can be dangerous places to work, prison populations are more stable than jail populations, and correctional officers in prisons know the security and custodial requirements of the prisoners with whom they are dealing. Regardless of the setting, correctional officers maintain order within the institution and enforce rules and regulations. To help ensure that inmates are orderly and obey rules, correctional officers monitor the activities and supervise the work assignments of inmates. Sometimes, officers must search inmates and their living quarters for contraband like weapons or drugs, settle disputes between inmates, and enforce discipline. Correctional officers periodically inspect the facilities, checking cells and other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, contraband, fire hazards, and any evidence of infractions of rules. In addition, they routinely inspect locks, win dow bars, grilles, doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Finally, officers inspect mail and visitors for prohibited items. Correctional officers report orally and in writing on inmate conduct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Officers also report security breaches, disturbances, violations of 358 Occupational Outlook Handbook rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily log or record of their activities. Correctional officers cannot show favorit ism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. Should the situation arise, they help the responsible law enforcement authorities investigate crimes committed within their institution or search for escaped inmates. In jail and prison facilities with direct supervision cellblocks, officers work unarmed. They are equipped with communications devices so that they can summon help if necessary. These officers often work in a cellblock alone, or with another officer, among the 50 to 100 inmates who reside there. The officers enforce regula tions primarily through their interpersonal communications skills and through the use of progressive sanctions, such as the removal of some privileges. In the highest security facilities, where the most dangerous in mates are housed, correctional officers often monitor the activities of prisoners from a centralized control center with closed-circuit television cameras and a computer tracking system. In such an en vironment, the inmates may not see anyone but officers for days or weeks at a time and may leave their cells only for showers, solitary exercise time, or visitors. Depending on the offenders’ security classification within the institution, correctional officers may have to restrain inmates in handcuffs and leg irons to safely escort them to and from cells and other areas and to see authorized visitors. Of ficers also escort prisoners between the institution and courtrooms, medical facilities, and other destinations outside the institution. Bailiffs, also known as marshals or court officers, are law enforce ment officers who maintain safety and order in courtrooms. Their duties, which vary by location, include enforcing courtroom rules, assisting judges, guarding juries from outside contact, delivering court documents, and providing general security for courthouses. Working Conditions Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazard ous. Every year, correctional officers are injured in confrontations with inmates. Correctional officers may work indoors or outdoors. Some correctional institutions are well lighted, temperature con trolled, and ventilated, but others are old, overcrowded, hot, and noisy. Correctional officers usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, on rotating shifts. Because prison and jail security must be provided around the clock, officers work all hours of the day and night, weekends, and holidays. In addition, officers may be required to work paid overtime. Will Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require correctional officers to be at least 18 to 21 years of age and a U.S. citizen; have a high school education or its equivalent; demonstrate job stability, usually by accumulating 2 years of work experience; and have no felony convictions. Pro motion prospects may be enhanced by obtaining a postsecondary education. The Federal Bureau of Prisons requires entry-level correctional officers to have at least a bachelor’s degree; or 3 years of full-time experience in a field providing counseling, assistance, or supervision to individuals; or a combination of these two requirements. Correctional officers must be in good health. Candidates for employment are generally required to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. In addition, many jurisdic tions use standard tests to determine applicant suitability to work in a correctional environment. Good judgment and the ability to think and act quickly are indispensable. Applicants are typically screened for drug abuse, subject to background checks, and required to pass a written examination. Federal, State, and some local departments of corrections provide training for correctional officers based on guidelines established by the American Correctional Association and the American Jail Association. Some States have regional training academies that are available to local agencies. At the conclusion of formal instruction, all State and local correctional agencies provide on-the-job training, including training on legal restric tions and interpersonal relations. Many systems require firearms proficiency and self-defense skills. Officer trainees typically receive several weeks or months of training in an actual job set ting under the supervision of an experienced officer. However, specific entry requirements and on-the-job training vary widely from agency to agency. Academy trainees generally receive instruction in a number of subjects, including institutional policies, regulations, and opera tions, as well as custody and security procedures. New Federal correctional officers must undergo 200 hours of formal training within the first year of employment. They also must complete 120 hours of specialized training at the U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons residential training center at Glynco, GA, within 60 days of their appointment. Experienced officers receive annual in-service training to keep abreast of new developments and procedures. Some correctional officers are members of prison tactical re sponse teams, which are trained to respond to disturbances, riots, hostage situations, forced cell moves, and other potentially danger ous confrontations. Team members practice disarming prisoners wielding weapons, protecting themselves and inmates against the effects of chemical agents, and other tactics. With education, experience, and training, qualified officers may advance to the position of correctional sergeant. Correctional ser geants supervise correctional officers and usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of other officers during an assigned shift or in an assigned area. Ambitious and qualified correctional officers can be promoted to supervisory or administrative positions all the way up to warden. Officers some times transfer to related jobs, such as probation officers, parole officers, and correctional treatment specialists. Employment ■■ In high security facilities, correctional officers often monitor prisoners from a centralized control center. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bailiffs, correctional officers, and jailers held about 484,000 jobs in 2004. About 3 of every 5 jobs were in State correctional institu tions such as prisons, prison camps, and youth correctional facili ties. About 16,000 jobs for correctional officers were in Federal correctional institutions, and about 15,000 jobs were in privately owned and managed prisons. Service Occupations Most of the remaining jobs were in city and county jails or in other institutions run by local governments. Some 300 of these jails, all of them in urban areas, are large: they house over 1,000 inmates. Most correctional officers who work in jails, however, work in institutions located in rural areas with smaller inmate populations. 359 merit boards cover officers employed by the Federal Government and most State governments. Their retirement coverage entitles correctional officers to retire at age 50 after 20 years of service or at any age with 25 years of service. Related Occupations Job Outlook Job opportunities for correctional officers are expected to be excellent. The need to replace correctional officers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force, coupled with rising employment demand, will generate thousands of job openings each year. In the past, some local and State corrections agencies have experienced difficulty in attracting and keeping qualified applicants, largely because of low salaries, shift work, and the concentration of jobs in rural locations. This situation is expected to continue. Employment of correctional officers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Increasing demand for correctional officers will stem from mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sentences and reduced parole for inmates, and from expansion and new construction of corrections facilities. However, mandatory sentencing guidelines are being reconsidered in many States because of a combination of budgetary constraints, court deci sions, and doubts about their effectiveness. Instead, there may be more emphasis on reducing sentences or putting offenders on probation or in rehabilitation programs in many States. As a result, the prison population, and employment of correctional officers, will probably grow at a slower rate than in the past. Some employment opportunities also will arise in the private sector, as public authorities contract with private companies to provide and staff corrections facilities. Layoffs of correctional officers are rare because of increasing offender populations. While officers are allowed to join bargaining units, they are not allowed to strike. Earnings Median annual earnings of correctional officers and jailers were $33,600 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,560 and $44,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,630, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,820. Median annual earnings in the public sector were $44,700 in the Federal Government, $33,750 in State government, and $33,080 in local government. In the facilities support services industry, where the relatively small number of officers employed by privately op erated prisons is classified, median annual earnings were $21,490. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the starting salary for Federal correctional officers was about $26,747 a year in 2005. Start ing Federal salaries were slightly higher in areas where prevailing local pay levels were higher. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers were $44,720 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,070 and $60,550. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $27,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,990. Median annual earnings were $41,080 in State government and $49,470 in local government. Median annual earnings of bailiffs were $33,870 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,710 and $44,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,930, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,770. Median annual earnings were $30,410 in local government. In addition to typical benefits, correctional officers employed in the public sector usually are provided with uniforms or a clothing allowance to purchase their own uniforms. Civil service systems or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A number of options are available to those interested in careers in protective services and security. Security guards and gaming surveillance officers protect people and property against theft, vandalism, illegal entry, and fire. Police and detectives maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Probation of ficers and correctional treatment specialists monitor and counsel offenders and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. Sources of Additional Information Further information about correctional officers is available from: >• American Correctional Association, 4380 Forbes Boulevard, Lanham, MD 20706. Internet: http://www.aca.org >- American Jail Association, 1135 Professional Ct., Hagerstown, MD 21740. Internet: http://www.corrections.com/aja Information on entrance requirements, training, and career oppor tunities for correctional officers at the Federal level may be obtained from the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Internet: http://www.bop.gov Information on obtaining a position as a correctional officer with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Fire Fighting Occupations (0*NET 33-1021.01, 33-1021.02, 33-2011.01, 33-2011.02, 33-2021.01, 33-2021.02, 33-2022.00) Significant Points • • • • Fire fighting involves hazardous conditions and long, irregular hours. About 9 out of 10 fire fighting workers were employed by municipal or county fire departments. Applicants for municipal fire fighting jobs generally must pass written, physical, and medical examinations. Although employment is expected to grow faster than the average, keen competition for jobs is expected because this occupation attracts many qualified candi dates. Nature of the Work Every year, fires and other emergencies take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Fire fighters help protect the public against these dangers by rapidly responding to a variety of emergencies. They are frequently the first emergency personnel at the scene of a traffic accident or medical emergency and may be called upon to put out a fire, treat injuries, or perform other vital functions. During duty hours, fire fighters must be prepared to respond immediately to a fire or any other emergency that arises. Because fighting fires is dangerous and complex, it requires organization and 360 Occupational Outlook Handbook teamwork. At every emergency scene, fire fighters perform specific duties assigned by a superior officer. At fires, they connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump to send water to high-pressure hoses, and position ladders to enable them to deliver water to the fire. They also rescue victims, provide emergency medical attention as needed, ventilate smoke-filled areas, and attempt to salvage the contents of buildings. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. Sometimes they remain at the site of a disaster for days at a time, rescuing trapped survivors and assisting with medical treatment. Fire fighters work in a variety of settings, including urban and suburban areas, airports, chemical plants, other industrial sites, and rural areas like grasslands and forests. They have also as sumed a range of responsibilities, including emergency medical services. In fact, most calls to which fire fighters respond involve medical emergencies, and 65 percent of all fire departments provide emergency medical service. In addition, some fire fighters work in hazardous materials units that are trained for the control, prevention, and cleanup of materials; for example, these fire fighters respond to oil spills. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on hazardous material removal workers.)Workers in urban and subur ban areas, airports, and industrial sites typically use conventional fire fighting equipment and tactics, while forest fires and major hazardous materials spills call for different methods. In national forests and parks, forestfire inspectors and preven tion specialists spot fires from watchtowers and report their find ings to headquarters by telephone or radio. Forest rangers patrol to ensure that travelers and campers comply with fire regulations. When fires break out, crews of fire fighters are brought in to sup press the blaze with heavy equipment, hand tools, and water hoses. Fighting forest fires, like fighting urban fires, is rigorous work. One of the most effective means of battling a blaze is creating fire lines—cutting down trees and digging out grass and all other combustible vegetation in the path of the fire— to deprive it of fuel. Elite fire fighters called smoke jumpers parachute from airplanes to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. This tactic, however, can be extremely hazardous because the crews have no way to escape if the wind shifts and causes the fire to burn toward them. Between alarms, fire fighters clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. They also prepare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to keep abreast of technological developments and changing administrative practices and policies. Firefighters help protect the public in the case offires and other emergencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most fire departments have a fire prevention division, usually headed by a fire marshal and staffed by fire inspectors. Workers in this division conduct inspections of structures to prevent fires and ensure compliance with fire codes. These fire fighters also work with developers and planners to check and approve plans for new buildings. Fire prevention personnel often speak on these subjects in schools and before public assemblies and civic organizations. Some fire fighters become fire investigators, who determine the origin and causes of fires. They collect evidence, interview witnesses, and prepare reports on fires in cases where the cause may be arson or criminal negligence. They often are called upon to testify in court. Working Conditions Fire fighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have features in common with a residential facility like a dormitory. When an alarm sounds, fire fighters respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. Fire fighting involves the risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors, toppling walls, traffic acci dents when responding to calls, and exposure to flames and smoke. Fire fighters also may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and chemicals, as well as radioactive or other hazardous materials that may have immediate or long-term effects on their health. For these reasons, they must wear protective gear that can be very heavy and hot. Work hours of fire fighters are longer and vary more widely than hours of most other workers. Many work more than 50 hours a week, and sometimes they may work even longer. In some agen cies, fire fighters are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In others, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, fire fighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies and are regularly assigned to work on holidays. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same hours as the fire fighters they supervise. Duty hours include time when fire fighters study, train, and perform fire prevention duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal fire fighting jobs generally must pass a written exam; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examination that includes drug screen ing. Workers may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after accepting employment. Examinations are generally open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores in all phases of testing have the best chances for appointment. The completion of community college courses in fire science may improve an applicant’s chances for appointment. In recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupation have had some postsecondary education. As a rule, entry-level workers in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center or academy. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study fire fighting techniques, fire prevention, haz ardous materials control, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures, including first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. They also learn how to use axes, chain saws, fire extinguishers, ladders, and other fire fighting and rescue equipment. After suc cessfully completing this training, the recruits are assigned to a fire company, where they undergo a period of probation. Almost all departments require fire fighters to be certified as emer gency medical technicians. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on emergency medical technicians and paramedics.) Service Occupations While most fire departments require the lowest level of certification, EMT-Basic, larger departments in major metropolitan areas are increasingly requiring paramedic certification. Some departments include this training in the fire academy, while others prefer that recruits have EMT certification beforehand, but will give them up to 1 year to become certified on their own. A number of fire departments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting up to 4 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced fire fighters. Technical instruction covers subjects such as fire fighting techniques and equipment, chemical hazards associated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical procedures, and fire prevention and safety. In addition to participating in advanced training programs con ducted by local fire departments, some fire fighters attend training sessions sponsored by the U.S. National Fire Academy. These training sessions cover topics such as executive development, anti-arson techniques, disaster preparedness, hazardous materials control, and public fire safety and education. Some States also have either voluntary or mandatory fire fighter training and certification programs. In addition, a number of colleges and universities offer courses leading to 2- or 4-year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. Many fire departments offer fire fighters incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay for completing advanced training. Among the personal qualities fire fighters need are mental alertness, self-discipline, courage, mechanical aptitude, endur ance, strength, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment also are extremely important, because fire fighters make quick decisions in emergencies. Members of a crew live and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger for extended periods, so they must be dependable and able to get along well with others. Leadership qualities are necessary for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency, as well as direct the activities of fire fighters in their companies. Most experienced fire fighters continue studying to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, they acquire expertise in advanced fire fighting equipment and techniques, building construction, emergency medical technology, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and public relations. Opportunities for promotion depend upon the results of written examinations, as well asjob performance, interviews, and seniority. Increasingly, fire departments are using assessment centers, which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks, to screen for the best candidates for promotion. The line of promotion usually is to engineer, lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and, finally, chief. For promotion to positions higher than battalion chief, many fire departments now require a bachelor’s degree, preferably in fire science, public administration, or a related field. An associate’s degree is required for executive fire officer certification from the National Fire Academy. Employment Employment figures in this Handbook statement include only paid career fire fighters—they do not cover volunteer fire fighters, who perform the same duties and may constitute the majority of fire fight ers in a residential area. According to the U.S. Fire Administration, 70 percent of fire companies are staffed by volunteer fire fighters. In 2004, total employment in firefighting occupations was about 353.000. Fire fighters held about 282,000 jobs, first-line supervi sors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers held about 56.000, and fire inspectors held about 15,000. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 361 About 9 out of 10 fire fighting workers were employed by municipal or county fire departments. Some large cities have thousands of career fire fighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the remainder worked in fire departments on Federal and State installations, including airports. Private fire fighting companies employ a small number of fire fighters and usually operate on a subscription basis. In response to the expanding role of fire fighters, some mu nicipalities have combined fire prevention, public fire education, safety, and emergency medical services into a single organiza tion commonly referred to as a public safety organization. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into countywide establishments in order to reduce administrative staffs, cut costs, and establish consistent training standards and work procedures. Job Outlook Prospective fire fighters are expected to face keen competition for available job openings. Many people are attracted to fire fighting because (1) it is challenging and provides the opportunity to perform an essential public service, (2) a high school education is usually sufficient for entry, and (3) a pension is guaranteed upon retirement after 25 years. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist in coming years. Applicants with the best opportunities are those who are physically fit and score the highest on physical conditioning and mechanical aptitude exams. Those who have completed some fire fighter educa tion at a community college and have EMT certification will have an additional advantage. Employment of fire fighters is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Most job growth will oc cur as volunteer fire fighting positions are converted to paid positions in growing suburban areas. In addition to job growth, openings are expected to result from the need to replace fire fighters who retire, stop working for other reasons, or transfer to other occupations. Layoffs of fire fighters are uncommon. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pres sure on local officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire protection. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually trim expenses by postponing purchases of equipment or by not hiring new fire fighters, rather than through staff reductions. Earnings Median hourly earnings of fire fighters were $18.43 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.65 and $24.14. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.71, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.21. Median hourly earnings were $18.78 in local government, $17.34 in the Federal Government, and $14.94 in State government. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers were $58,920 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,880 and $72,600. The low est 10 percent earned less than $36,800, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,860. First-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention workers employed in local government earned about $60,800 a year. Median annual earnings of fire inspectors and investigators were $46,340 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,030 and $58,260 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,420, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,490. Fire inspectors and investigators employed in local government earned about $48,020 a year. 362 Occupational Outlook Handbook According to the International City-County Management Association, average salaries in 2004 for sworn full-time positions were as follows: Minimum annual base salary Fire chief.................................................. $68,701 Deputy chief............................................. 63,899 Assistant fire chief...................................... 57,860 Battalion chief.......................................... 58,338 Fire captain............................................... 49,108 Fire lieutenant............................................. 44,963 Fire prevention/code inspector.................... 43,297 Engineer...................................................... 41,294 Maximum annual base salary $89,928 79,803 73,713 73A87 59,374 53 179 54,712 52,461 Fire fighters who average more than a certain number of hours a week are required to be paid overtime. The hours threshold is determined by the department during the fire fighter’s work period, which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Fire fighters often earn overtime for working extra shifts to maintain minimum staffing levels or for special emergencies. Fire fighters receive benefits that usually include medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Almost all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also provide dress uniforms. Fire fighters generally are covered by pension plans, often providing retirement at half pay after 25 years of service or if the individual is disabled in the line of duty. Related Occupations Like fire fighters, emergency medical technicians and paramedics and police and detectives respond to emergencies and save lives. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a fire fighter may be obtained from local fire departments and from either of the following organizations: > International Association of Fire Fighters, 1750 New York Ave. N.W., Washington, DC 20006.1ntemet: http://www.iaff.org > U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.fema.gov Information about professional qualifications and a list of col leges and universities offering 2- or 4-year degree programs in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: > National Fire Academy, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.fema.gov/nfa/index.htm Police and Detectives (0*NET 33-1012.00, 33-3021.01, 33-3021.02, 33-3021.03, 33-3021.04, 33-3021.05, 33-3031.00, 33-3051.01, 33-3051.02, 33-3051.03, 33 3052.00) Significant Points • Police and detective work can be dangerous and stressful. • Competition should remain keen for higher paying jobs with State and Federal agencies and police departments in affluent areas; opportunities will be better in local and special police departments that offer relatively low salaries or in urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high. • Applicants with college training in police science or military police experience should have the best oppor tunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work People depend on police officers and detectives to protect their lives and property. Law enforcement officers, some of whom are State or Federal special agents or inspectors, perform these duties in a variety of ways, depending on the size and type of their organiza tion. In most jurisdictions, they are expected to exercise authority when necessary, whether on or off duty. Uniformed police officers have general law enforcement duties, including maintaining regular patrols and responding to calls for service. They may direct traffic at the scene of an accident, investi gate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are involved in community policing—a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neighborhoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime. Police agencies are usually organized into geographic districts, with uniformed officers assigned to patrol a specific area, such as part of the business district or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers may work alone, but, in large agencies, they often patrol with a partner. While on patrol, officers attempt to become thor oughly familiar with their patrol area and remain alert for anything unusual. Suspicious circumstances and hazards to public safety are investigated or noted, and officers are dispatched to individual calls for assistance within their district. During their shift, they may identify, pursue, and arrest suspected criminals; resolve problems within the community; and enforce traffic laws. Public college and university police forces, public school district police, and agencies serving transportation systems and facili ties are examples of special police agencies. These agencies have special geographic jurisdictions and enforcement responsibilities in the United States. Most sworn personnel in special agencies are uniformed officers; a smaller number are investigators. Some police officers specialize in such diverse fields as chemical and microscopic analysis, training and firearms instruction, or handwriting and fingerprint identification. Others work with special units, such as horseback, bicycle, motorcycle or harbor patrol; canine corps; special weapons and tactics (SWAT); or emergency response teams. A few lo cal and special law enforcement officers primarily perform jail-related duties or work in courts. Regardless of job duties or location, police officers and detectives at all levels must write reports and maintain meticulous records that will be needed if they testify in court. Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs enforce the law on the county level. Sheriffs are usually elected to their posts and perform duties similar to those of a local or county police chief. Sheriffs’ departments tend to be relatively small, most having fewer than 50 sworn officers. Deputy sheriffs have law enforcement duties similar to those of officers in urban police departments. Police and sheriffs’ deputies who provide security in city and county courts are sometimes called bailiffs. (For information on other officers who work in jails and prisons, see correctional officers elsewhere in the Handbook.) State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or highway patrol officers) arrest criminals Statewide and patrol highways to enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. State police officers are best known for issuing traffic citations to motorists. At the scene of accidents, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports used to determine the cause of the accident. State police officers are frequently called upon to render assistance to other law enforcement agencies, especially those in rural areas or small towns. State law enforcement agencies operate in every State except Hawaii. Most full-time sworn personnel are uniformed officers who regularly patrol and respond to calls for service. Others work as investigators, perform court-related duties, or carry out administrative or other assignments. Service Occupations Detectives are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. Some are assigned to inter agency task forces to combat specific types of crime. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Detectives and State and Federal agents and inspectors usually specialize in investigating one of a wide variety of violations, such as homicide or fraud. They are assigned cases on a rotating basis and work on them until an arrest and conviction occurs or until the case is dropped. Fish and game wardens enforce fishing, hunting, and boating laws. They patrol hunting and fishing areas, conduct search and rescue operations, investigate complaints and accidents, and aid in prosecuting court cases. The Federal Government maintains a high profile in many areas of law enforcement. Federal Bureau of Investigation <FBI) agents are the Government’s principal investigators, responsible for inves tigating violations of more than 200 categories of Federal law and conducting sensitive national security investigations. Agents may conduct surveillance, monitor court-authorized wiretaps, examine business records, investigate white-collar crime, or participate in sensitive undercover assignments. The FBI investigates organized crime, public corruption, financial crime, fraud against the Govern ment, bribery, copyright infringement, civil rights violations, bank robbery, extortion, kidnapping, air piracy, terrorism, espionage, interstate criminal activity, drug trafficking, and other violations of Federal statutes. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents enforce laws and regulations relating to illegal drugs. Not only is the DEA the lead agency for domestic enforcement of Federal drug laws, it also has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing U.S. drug investigations abroad. Agents may conduct complex criminal investigations, carry out surveillance of criminals, and infiltrate illicit drug organizations using undercover techniques. U.S. marshals and deputy marshals protect the Federal courts and ensure the effective operation of the judicial system. They provide protection for the Federal judiciary, transport Federal prisoners, protect Federal witnesses, and manage assets seized from criminal enterprises. They enjoy the widest jurisdiction of any Federal law enforcement agency and are involved to some degree in nearly all Federal law enforcement efforts. In addition, U.S. marshals pursue and arrest Federal fugitives. 363 ports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter the United States. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States. Customs inspectors enforce laws governing imports and exports by inspecting cargo, baggage, and articles worn or carried by people, vessels, vehicles, trains, and aircraft entering or leaving the United States. These inspectors examine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial and noncommercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States. Customs inspectors seize prohibited or smuggled articles; intercept contraband; and apprehend, search, detain, and arrest violators of U.S. laws. Customs agents investigate violations, such as narcotics smuggling, money laundering, child pornography, and customs fraud, and they enforce the Arms Export Control Act. During domestic and foreign investigations, they develop and use informants; conduct physical and electronic surveillance; and ex amine records from importers and exporters, banks, couriers, and manufacturers. They conduct interviews, serve on joint task forces with other agencies, and get and execute search warrants. Federal Air Marshals provide air security by fighting attacks targeting U.S. airports, passengers, and crews. They disguise themselves as ordinary passengers and board flights of U.S. air carriers to locations worldwide. U.S. Secret Service special agents protect the President, Vice President, and their immediate families; Presidential candidates; former Presidents; and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, forgery of Government checks or bonds, and fraudulent use of credit cards. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives agents regulate and investigate violations of Federal firearms and explosives laws, as well as Federal alcohol and tobacco tax regulations. The U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents are engaged in the battle against terrorism. Over seas, they advise ambassadors on all security matters and manage a complex range of security programs designed to protect personnel, facilities, and information. In the United States, they investigate passport and visa fraud, conduct personnel security investigations, issue security clearances, and protect the Secretary of State and a number of foreign dignitaries. They also train foreign civilian police and administer a counter-terrorism reward program. The Department of Homeland Security employs numerous law enforcement officers under several different agencies, including Cus toms and Border Protection, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and the U.S. Secret Service. U.S. Border Patrol agents protect more than 8,000 miles of international land and water boundaries. Their missions are to detect and prevent the smuggling and unlawful entry of undocumented foreign nationals into the United States; to appre hend those persons violating the immigration laws; and to interdict contraband, such as narcotics. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking entrance to the United States and its territories. They inspect pass https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In most jurisdictions, police officers are expected to exercise arrest authority, whether they are on or off duty. 364 Occupational Outlook Handbook Other Federal agencies employ police and special agents with sworn arrest powers and the authority to carry firearms. These agencies include the Postal Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement, the Forest Service, and the National Park Service. Working Conditions Police and detective work can be very dangerous and stressful. In addition to the obvious dangers of confrontations with criminals, police officers and detectives need to be constantly alert and ready to deal appropriately with a number of other threatening situations. Many law enforcement officers witness death and suffering resulting from accidents and criminal behavior. A career in law enforcement may take a toll on their private lives. Uniformed officers, detectives, agents, and inspectors are usually scheduled to work 40-hour weeks, but paid overtime is common. Shift work is necessary because protection must be provided around the clock. Junior officers frequently work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and detectives are required to work at any time their services are needed and may work long hours during in vestigations. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, officers are expected to be armed and to exercise their authority whenever necessary. The jobs of some Federal agents such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents require extensive travel, often on very short notice. They may relocate a number of times over the course of their careers. Some special agents in agencies such as the U.S. Border Patrol work outdoors in rugged terrain for long periods and in all kinds of weather. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in most States, large municipalities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller jurisdictions. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually must be at least 20 years of age, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. Physical examinations for entrance into law enforcement often include tests of vision, hearing, strength, and agility. Eligibility for appointment usually depends on performance in competitive written examinations and previous education and experience. In larger departments, where the majority of law enforcement jobs are found, applicants usually must have at least a high school education, and some departments require a year or two of college coursework. Federal and State agencies typically require a col lege degree. Candidates should enjoy working with people and meeting the public. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, sound judg ment, integrity, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in law enforcement, candidates are interviewed by senior officers, and their character traits and backgrounds are investigated. In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psycholo gist or given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations or drug testing. Some agencies subject sworn personnel to random drug testing as a condition of continuing employment. Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In State and large local departments, recruits get training in their agency’s police academy, often for 12 to 14 weeks. In small agencies, recruits often attend a regional or State academy. Train ing includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis response. Police departments in some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, usually for 1 to 2 years, at which point they reach the minimum age requirement and may be appointed to the regular force. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large department, promotion may enable an officer to become a detec tive or to specialize in one type of police work, such as working with juveniles. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance. Most States require at least two years of college study to qualify as a fish and game warden. Applicants must pass written and physi cal examinations and vision, hearing, psychological, and drug tests similar to those taken by other law enforcement officers. Once hired, officers attend a training academy lasting from 3 to 12 months, sometimes followed by further training in the field. To be considered for appointment as an FBI agent, an applicant must be a graduate of an accredited law school or a college graduate with one of the followingta major in accounting, electrical engineer ing, or information technology; fluency in a foreign language; or three years of related full-time work experience. All new agents undergo 18 weeks of training at the FBI Academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Secret Service and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms must have a bachelor’s degree, a minimum of three years’ related work experi ence, or a combination of education and experience. Prospective special agents undergo 11 weeks of initial criminal investigation training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia, and another 17 weeks of specialized training with their particular agencies. Applicants for special agent jobs with the DEA must have a col lege degree with at least a 2.95 grade point average or specialized skills or work experience, such as foreign language fluency, technical skills, law enforcement experience, or accounting experience. DEA special agents undergo 14 weeks of specialized training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. U.S. Border Patrol agents must be U.S. citizens, be younger than 37 years of age at the time of appointment, possess a valid driver’s license, and pass a three-part examination on reasoning and language skills. A bachelor’s degree or previous work experience that dem onstrates the ability to handle stressful situations, make decisions, and take charge is required for a position as a Border Patrol agent. Applicants may qualify through a combination of education and work experience. Postal inspectors must have a bachelor’s degree and 1 year of related work experience. It is desirable that they have one of several professional certifications, such as that of certified public accountant. They also must pass a background investigation, meet certain health requirements, undergo a drug screening test, possess a valid State driver’s license, and be a U.S. citizen between 21 and 36 years of age when hired. Law enforcement agencies are encouraging applicants to take postsecondary school training in law enforcement-related subjects. Many entry-level applicants for police jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education, and a significant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a career in law enforcement include accounting, finance, electrical engineering, computer science, and Service Occupations foreign languages. Physical education and sports are helpful in developing the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for many law enforcement positions. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many Federal agencies and urban departments. Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and special agents improve their job performance. Through police department academies, regional centers for public safety employees established by the States, and Federal agency training centers, instructors provide annual training in self-defense tactics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and communications skills, crowd-control techniques, relevant legal developments, and advances in law enforcement equip ment. Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward degrees in criminal justice, police science, administration of justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn such a degree. Employment Police and detectives held about 842,000 jobs in 2004. About 80 percent were employed by local governments. State police agencies employed about 12 percent, and various Federal agencies employed about 6 percent. A small proportion worked for educational services, rail transportation, and contract investigation and security services. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detectives employed by local governments primarily worked in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while thousands of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. Job Outlook The opportunity for public service through law enforcement work is attractive to many because the job is challenging and involves much personal responsibility. Furthermore, law enforcement officers in many agencies may retire with a pension after 25 or 30 years of service, allowing them to pursue a second career while still in their 40s or 50s. Because of relatively attractive salaries and benefits, the number of qualified candidates exceeds the number of job openings in Federal law enforcement agencies and in most State police departments—resulting in increased hir ing standards and selectivity by employers. Competition should remain keen for higher paying jobs with State and Federal agen cies and police departments in more affluent areas. Opportunities will be better in local and special police departments, especially in departments that offer relatively low salaries, or in urban com munities where the crime rate is relatively high. Applicants with college training in police science, military police experience, or both should have the best opportunities. Employment of police and detectives is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. A more security-conscious society and concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the increasing demand for police services. However, employment growth will be hindered by reductions in Federal hiring grants to local police departments and by expectations of low crime rates by the general public. The level of government spending determines the level of em ployment for police and detectives. The number of job opportuni ties, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforce ment officers who lose their jobs because of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. The need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of many job openings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 365 Earnings Police and sheriff’s patrol officers had median annual earnings of $45,210 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,410 and $56,360. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,880. Median annual earnings were $44,750 in Federal Government, $48,980 in State government, and $45,010 in local government. In May 2004, median annual earnings of police and detective supervisors were $64,430. The middle 50 percent earned between $49,370 and $80,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $96,950. Me dian annual earnings were $86,030 in Federal Government, $62,300 in State government, and $63,590 in local government. In May 2004, median annual earnings of detectives and criminal investigators were $53,990. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,690 and $72,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,010. Me dian annual earnings were $75,700 in Federal Government, $46,670 in State government, and $49,650 in local government. Federal law provides special salary rates to Federal employees who serve in law enforcement. Additionally, Federal special agents and inspectors receive law enforcement availability pay (LEAP)—equal to 25 percent of the agent’s grade and step—awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these agents are expected to work. For example, in 2005, FBI agents entered Federal service as GS-10 em ployees on the pay scale at a base salary of $42,548, yet they earned about $53,185 a year with availability pay. They could advance to the GS-13 grade level in field nonsupervisory assignments at a base salary of $64,478, which was worth $80,597 with availability pay. FBI supervisory, management, and executive positions in grades GS-14 and GS-15 paid a base salary of about $76,193 and $89,625 a year, respectively, which amounted to $95,241 or $112,031 per year including availability pay. Salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Because Federal agents may be eligible for a special law enforcement benefits package, applicants should ask their recruiter for more information. According to the International City-County Management Association’s annual Police and Fire Personnel, Salaries, and Ex penditures Survey, average salaries for sworn full-time positions in 2004 were as follows: Minimum annual base salary Maximum annual base salary Police chief............................................. $72,924...................... $92,983 Deputy chief........................................... 61,110...................... 76,994 Police captain.......................................... 60,908..................... 75,497 Police lieutenant....................................... 56,115 67,580 Police sergeant......................................... 49,895 59,454 Police corporal......................................... 41,793 51,661 Total earnings for local, State, and special police and detectives frequently exceed the stated salary because of payments for overtime, which can be significant. In addition to the common benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sheriffs’ departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms. Because police officers usually are covered by liberal pen sion plans, many retire at half-pay after 25 or 30 years of service. Related Occupations Police and detectives maintain law and order, collect evidence and information, and conduct investigations and surveillance. Workers in related occupations include correctional officers, pri vate detectives and investigators, and security guards and gaming surveillance officers. 366 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies. For general information about sheriffs and to learn more about the National Sheriffs’ Association scholarship, contact: >- National Sheriffs’ Association, 1450 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.sheritTs.ory Information about qualifications for employment as a FBI Special Agent is available from the nearest State FBI office. The address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory. Internet: http://www.fbi.gov Information on career opportunities, qualifications, and training for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents is available from the Secret Service Personnel Division at (202) 406-5800, (888) 813-8777, or (888) 813-USSS. Internet: http://www.treas.gov/usss Information about qualifications for employment as a DEA Spe cial Agent is available from the nearest DEA office, or call (800) DEA-4288. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea Information about career opportunities, qualifications, and train ing to become a deputy marshal is available from: >• U.S. Marshals Sendee, Human Resources Division—Lav.' Enforcement Re cruiting, Washington, DC 20530-1000. Internet: http://www.usmarshals.gov For information on operations and career opportunities in the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives opera tions, contact: >• U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives Personnel Division, 650 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Room 4100, Washington, DC 20226. Internet: http://www.atf.treas.gov Information about careers in U.S. Customs and Border Protec tion is available from: >• U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Washington, DC 20229. Internet: http://www.cbp.gov Information about law enforcement agencies within the Depart ment of Homeland Security is available from: ► U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC20528. Internet: http://www.dhs.gov Private Detectives and Investigators (0*Net 33-9021.00) Significant Points • Work hours are often irregular, and the work can be dangerous. • About 1 in 4 are self-employed. • Applicants typically have related experience in areas such as law enforcement, insurance, the military, or government investigative or intelligence jobs. • Despite faster-than-average employment growth, keen competition is expected because of the large number of qualified people who are attracted to this occupation; the most opportunities will be found in entry-level jobs with detective agencies or in stores that hire detectives on a part-time basis. Nature of the Work Private detectives and investigators use many methods to deter mine the facts in a variety of matters. To carry out investigations, they may use various types of surveillance or searches. To verify facts, such as an individual’s place of employment or income, they may make phone calls or visit a subject’s workplace. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In other cases, especially those involving missing persons and background checks, investigators often interview people to gather as much information as possible about an individual. In all cases, private detectives and investigators assist attorneys, businesses, and the public with legal, financial, and personal problems. Private detectives and investigators offer many services, includ ing executive, corporate, and celebrity protection; pre-employment verification; and individual background profiles. They investigate computer crimes, such as identity theft, harassing e-mails, and illegal downloading of copyrighted material. They also provide assistance in civil liability and personal injury cases, insurance claims and fraud, child custody and protection cases, missing persons cases, and pre marital screening. They are sometimes hired to investigate individuals to prove or disprove infidelity. Most detectives and investigators are trained to perform physical surveillance. They may observe a site, such as the home of a subject, from an inconspicuous location or a vehicle. They continue the surveillance, which is often carried out using still and video cameras, binoculars, and a cell phone, until the desired evidence is obtained. This watching and waiting often continues for a long time. Detectives also may perform computer database searches or work with someone who does. Computers allow investigators to quickly obtain massive amounts of information on individuals’ prior arrests, convictions, and civil legal judgments; telephone numbers; motor vehicle registrations; association and club memberships; and other matters. The duties of private detectives and investigators depend on the needs of their clients. In cases for employers that involve fraudulent workers’ compensation claims, for example, investi gators may carry out long-term covert observation of subjects. If an investigator observes a subject performing an activity that contradicts injuries stated in a worker’s compensation claim, the investigator would take video or still photographs to document the activity and report it to the client. Private detectives and investigators often specialize. Those who focus on intellectual property theft, for example, investigate and document acts of piracy, help clients stop illegal activity, and provide intelligence for prosecution and civil action. Other investi gators specialize in developing financial profiles and asset searches. Their reports reflect information gathered through interviews, investigation and surveillance, and research, including review of public documents. Legal investigators specialize in cases involving the courts and are normally employed by law firms or lawyers. They frequently assist in preparing criminal defenses, locating witnesses, serving legal documents, interviewing police and prospective witnesses, and gathering and reviewing evidence. Legal investigators also may collect information on the parties to the litigation, take pho tographs, testify in court, and assemble evidence and reports for trials. Corporate investigators conduct internal and external investiga tions for corporations. In internal investigations, they may investi gate drug use in the workplace, ensure that expense accounts are not abused, or determine whether employees are stealing merchandise or information. External investigations are typically done to un cover criminal schemes originating outside the corporation, such as theft of company assets through fraudulent billing of products by suppliers. Financial investigators may be hired to develop confidential financial profiles of individuals or companies that are prospective parties to large financial transactions. These investigators often are certified public accountants (CPAs) who work closely with invest- Service Occupations 367 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement it sm h, Some private detectives and investigators work in their offices most of the day, conducting computer searches and making phone calls. ment bankers and other accountants. They search for assets in order to recover damages awarded by a court in fraud or theft cases. Detectives who work for retail stores or hotels are responsible for controlling losses and protecting assets. Store detectives, also known as loss prevention agents, safeguard the assets of retail stores by apprehending anyone attempting to steal merchandise or destroy store property. They prevent theft by shoplifters, ven dor representatives, delivery personnel and even store employ ees. Store detectives also conduct periodic inspections of stock areas, dressing rooms, and restrooms, and sometimes assist in opening and closing the store. They may prepare loss prevention and security reports for management and testify in court against persons they apprehend. Hotel detectives protect guests of the establishment from theft of their belongings and preserve order in hotel restaurants and bars. They also may keep undesirable individuals, such as known thieves, off the premises. Working Conditions Private detectives and investigators often work irregular hours be cause of the need to conduct surveillance and contact people who are not available during normal working hours. Early morning, evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Many detectives and investigators spend time away from their offices conducting interviews or doing surveillance, but some work in their office most of the day conducting computer searches and making phone calls. Those who have their own agencies and em ploy other investigators may work primarily in an office and have normal business hours. When the investigator is working on a case away from the office, the environment might range from plush boardrooms to seedy bars. Store and hotel detectives work in the businesses that they protect. Investigators generally work alone, but they sometimes work with others during surveillance or when following a subject in order to avoid detection by the subject. Some of the work involves confrontation, so the job can be stressful and dangerous. Some situations call for the investigator to be armed, such as certain bodyguard assignments for corpo rate or celebrity clients. Detectives and investigators who carry handguns must be licensed by the appropriate authority. In most cases, however, a weapon is not necessary, because the purpose of the work is gathering information and not law enforcement or criminal apprehension. Owners of investigative agencies have the added stress of having to deal with demanding and sometimes Digitized fordistraught FRASER clients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis There are no formal education requirements for most private detec tive and investigator jobs, although many private detectives have college degrees. Private detectives and investigators typically have previous experience in other occupations. Some work initially for insurance or collections companies, in the private security industry, or as paralegals. Many investigators enter the field after serving in law enforcement, the military, government auditing and investigative positions, or Federal intelligence jobs. Former law enforcement officers, military investigators, and government agents, who are frequently able to retire after 25 years of service, often become private detectives or investigators in a second career. Others enter from such diverse fields as finance, accounting, commercial credit, investigative reporting, insurance, and law. These individuals often can apply their prior work experience in a related investigative specialty. A few enter the occupation directly after graduation from college, generally with associate’s or bachelor’s degrees in criminal justice or police science. The majority of States and the District of Colombia require private detectives and investigators to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary, however. Seven States—Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, Missouri, and South Dakota—have no statewide licensing requirements, some States have few re quirements, and many other States have stringent regulations. A growing number of States are enacting mandatory training programs for private detectives and investigators. For example, the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services of the California Department of Consumer Affairs requires private investigators to be 18 years of age or older; have a combination of education in police science, criminal law, or justice and experience equaling 3 years (6,000 hours) of investigative experience; pass a criminal history background check by the California Department of Justice and the FBI (in most States, convicted felons cannot be issued a license); and receive a qualifying score on a 2-hour written examination covering laws and regulations. There are additional requirements for a firearms permit. For private detective and investigator jobs, most employers look for individuals with ingenuity, persistence, and assertiveness. A can didate must not be afraid of confrontation, should communicate well, and should be able to think on his or her feet. Good interviewing and interrogation skills also are important and usually are acquired in earlier careers in law enforcement or other fields. Because the courts often are the ultimate judge of a properly conducted investiga tion, the investigator must be able to present the facts in a manner that a jury will believe. Training in subjects such as criminal justice and police science is helpful to aspiring private detectives and investigators. Most corporate investigators must have a bachelor’s degree, preferably in a business-related field. Some corporate investigators have a master’s degree in business administration or a law degree, while others are CPAs. Corporate investigators hired by large companies may receive formal training from their employers on business practices, management structure, and various finance-related topics. The screening process for potential employees typically includes a background check for a criminal history. Some investigators receive certification from a professional organization to demonstrate competency in a field. For example, the National Association of Legal Investigators (NALI) confers the Certified Legal Investigator designation to licensed investigators who devote a majority of their practice to negligence or criminal defense investigations. To receive the designation, applicants must satisfy experience, educational, and continuing-training requirements and must pass written and oral exams administered by the NALL 368 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most private-detective agencies are small, with little room for advancement. Usually, there are no defined ranks or steps, so advancement takes the form of increases in salary and assign ment status. Many detectives and investigators work for detective agencies at the beginning of their careers and, after a few years, start their own firms. Corporate and legal investigators may rise to supervisor or manager of the security or investigations department. Sources of Additional Information For information on local licensing requirements, contact your State Department of Public Safety, State Division of Licensing, or local or State police headquarters. For information on a career as a legal investigator and about the Certified Legal Investigator credential, contact: ► National Association of Legal Investigators, 908 21st St., Sacramento, CA 95814-3118. Internet: http://www.nalionline.org Employment Private detectives and investigators held about 43,000jobs in 2004. About 26 percent were self-employed, including many who held a secondary job as a self-employed private detective. Around 27 percent of jobs were in investigation and security services, including private detective agencies, while another 15 percent were in department or other general merchandise stores. The rest worked mostly in State and local government, legal services firms, employment services companies, insurance agencies, and credit mediation establishments, including banks and other depository institutions. Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Officers (0*NET 33-9031.00, 33-9032.00) Significant Points • Opportunities for most jobs should be favorable, but competition is expected for higher paying positions at facilities requiring longer periods of training and a high level of security, such as nuclear power plants and weapons installations. • Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts many individu als seeking a second or part-time job. • Some positions, such as those of armored car guards, are hazardous. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected because private detective and inves tigator careers attract many qualified people, including relatively young retirees from law enforcement and military careers. The best opportunities will be in entry-level jobs with detective agen cies or in stores that hire detectives on a part-time basis. The best prospects for those seeking store detective jobs will be with large chains and discount stores. Employment of private detectives and investigators is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to growth, replacement of those who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons should create many job openings. Increased demand for private detectives and in vestigators will result from fear of crime, increased litigation, and the need to protect confidential information and property of all kinds. The proliferation of criminal activity on the Inter net, such as identity theft, spamming, e-mail harassment, and illegal downloading of copyrighted materials, will increase the demand for private investigators. Employee background checks, conducted by private investigators, will become standard for an increasing number of jobs. Growing financial activity worldwide will increase the demand for investigators to control internal and external financial losses and to monitor competitors and prevent industrial spying. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried private detectives and investi gators were $32,110 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,080 and $43,260. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,470. Earnings of private detectives and investigators vary greatly by employer, specialty, and geographic area. Related Occupations Private detectives and investigators often collect information and protect the property and other assets of companies and individu als. Others with related duties include bill and account collectors; claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators; police and detectives; and security guards and gaming surveillance officers. Investigators who specialize in conducting financial profiles and asset searches perform work closely related to that of accountants, auditors, financial analysts, and personal financial advisors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Guards, who are also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, terrorism, and illegal activity. These workers protect their employer’s investment, enforce laws on the property, and deter criminal activity and other problems. They use radio and telephone communications to call for assistance from police, fire, or emergency medical services as the situation dictates. Security guards write comprehensive reports outlining their observations and activities during their assigned shift. They also may interview witnesses or victims, prepare case reports, and testify in court. Although all security guards perform many of the same duties, their specific duties vary with whether the guard works in a “static” security position or on a mobile patrol. Guards assigned to static security positions usually serve the client at one location for a speci fied length of time. These guards must become closely acquainted with the property and people associated with it and must often monitor alarms and closed-circuit TV cameras. In contrast, guards assigned to mobile patrol duty drive or walk from location to loca tion and conduct security checks within an assigned geographical zone. They may detain or arrest criminal violators, answer service calls concerning criminal activity or problems, and issue traffic violation warnings. The security guard’s job responsibilities also vary with the size, type, and location of the employer. In department stores, guards pro tect people, records, merchandise, money, and equipment. They often work with undercover store detectives to prevent theft by customers or employees, and they help apprehend shoplifting suspects prior to the arrival of the police. Some shopping centers and theaters have officers who patrol their parking lots to deter car thefts and robberies. In office buildings, banks, and hospitals, guards maintain order and protect the institutions’ property, staff, and customers. At air, sea, and rail terminals and other transportation facilities, guards protect Service Occupations people, freight, property, and equipment. Using metal detectors and high-tech equipment, they may screen passengers and visitors for weapons and explosives, ensure that nothing is stolen while a vehicle is being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires and criminals. Guards who work in public buildings such as museums or art galleries protect paintings and exhibits by inspecting people and packages entering and leaving the building. In factories, labora tories, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases, security officers protect information, products, computer codes, and defense secrets and check the credentials of people and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. Guards working at universities, parks, and sports stadiums perform crowd control, supervise parking and seating, and direct traffic. Security guards stationed at the entrance to bars and places of adult entertain ment, such as nightclubs, prevent access by minors, collect cover charges at the door, maintain order among customers, and protect property and patrons. Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. In addition, they protect individuals responsible for making com mercial bank deposits from theft or bodily injury. When the armored car arrives at the door of a business, an armed guard enters, signs for the money, and returns to the truck with the valuables in hand. Carrying money between the track and the business can be extremely hazardous; because of this risk, armored car guards usually wear bulletproof vests. All security officers must show good judgment and common sense, follow directions and directives from supervisors, testify accurately in court, and follow company policy and guidelines. Guards should have a professional appearance and attitude and be able to interact with the public. They also must be able to take charge and direct others in emergencies or other dangerous incidents. In a large orga nization, the security manager often is in charge of a trained guard force divided into shifts; in a small organization, a single worker may be responsible for all security. Gaming surveillance officers, also known as surveillance agents, and gaming investigators act as security agents for casino managers and patrons. Using primarily audio and video equipment in an observation room, they observe casino operations for irregular activities, such as cheating or theft, by either employees or patrons. They keep record ings that are sometimes used as evidence against alleged criminals in police investigations. Some casinos use a catwalk over one-way mir rors located above the casino floor to augment electronic surveillance equipment. Surveillance agents occasionally leave the surveillance room and walk the casino floor. ,s....ISagfei Security guards patrol and inspect property to deter crime. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 369 Working Conditions Most security guards and gaming surveillance officers spend con siderable time on their feet, either assigned to a specific post or patrolling buildings and grounds. Guards may be stationed at a guard desk inside a building to monitor electronic security and surveillance devices or to check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at a guardhouse outside the entrance to a gated facility or community and may use a portable radio or cellular telephone that allows them to be in constant contact with a central station. The work usually is routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and the property they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the public. Gaming surveillance often takes place behind a bank of monitors controlling several cameras in a casino and thus can cause eyestrain. Guards usually work at least 8-hour shifts for 40 hours per week and often are on call in case an emergency arises. Some employers have three shifts, and guards rotate to divide daytime, weekend, and holiday work equally. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break away from the site. In 2004, 16% of guards worked part time, and many individuals held a second job as a guard to supplement their primary earnings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States require that guards be licensed. To be licensed as a guard, individuals must usually be at least 18 years old, pass a background check, and complete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency procedures, and detention of suspected criminals. Drug testing often is required and may be random and ongoing. Many employers of unarmed guards do not have any specific educational requirements. For armed guards, employers usually prefer individuals who are high school graduates or who hold an equivalent certification. Many jobs require a driver’s license. For positions as armed guards, employers often seek people who have had responsible experience in other occupations. Guards who carry weapons must be licensed by the appropri ate government authority, and some receive further certification as special police officers, allowing them to make limited types of arrests while on duty. Armed guard positions have more stringent background checks and entry requirements than those of unarmed guards because of greater insurance liability risks. Compared with unarmed security guards, armed guards and special police typically enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, and more potential for advancement. Usually, they also are given more train ing and responsibility. Rigorous hiring and screening programs consisting of back ground, criminal record, and fingerprint checks arc becoming the norm in the occupation. Applicants are expected to have good character references, no serious police record, and good health. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit to cope with emergencies. Guards who have frequent contact with the public should communicate well. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training require ments are higher for armed guards because their employers are legally responsible for any use of force. Armed guards receive formal training in areas such as weapons retention and laws cover ing the use of force. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and provide on-the-job training. An increasing number of States are making ongoing training a legal requirement for retention of certification. Guards may receive training in protection, public relations, report writing, crisis deterrence, and first aid, as well as specialized training relevant to their particular assignment. 370 Occupational Outlook Handbook The American Society for Industrial Security International has written voluntary training guidelines that are intended to provide regulating bodies consistent minimum standards for the quality of security services. These guidelines recommend that security guards receive at least 48 hours of training within the first 100 days of employment. The guidelines also suggest that security guards be required to pass a written or performance examination covering topics such as sharing information with law enforcement, crime prevention, handling evidence, the use of force, court testimony, report writing, interpersonal and communication skills, and emer gency response procedures. In addition, they recommend annual training and additional firearms training for armed officers. Guards who are employed at establishments placing a heavy empha sis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants undergo several months of training before being placed on duty—and even then, they perform their tasks only under close supervision. They are taught to use firearms, admin ister first aid, operate alarm systems and electronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security problems. Guards who are authorized to carry firearms may be periodically tested in their use. Because many people do not stay long in this occupation, oppor tunities for advancement are good for those who are career security officers. Most large organizations use a military type of ranking that offers the possibility of advancement in both position and salary. Some guards may advance to supervisor or security manager posi tions. Guards with management skills may open their own contract security guard agencies. Pay rates vary substantially with the security level of the establishment, so there is also the opportunity to move to higher paying jobs with increased experience and training. In addition to possessing the keen observation skills required to perform their jobs, gaming surveillance officers and gaming investi gators must have excellent verbal and writing abilities to document violations or suspicious behavior. They also need to be physically fit and have quick reflexes, because they sometimes must detain individuals until local law enforcement officials arrive. Gaming surveillance officers and investigators usually need some training beyond high school, but not a bachelor’s degree; previous security experience is a plus. Several educational institutes offer certification programs. Training classes usually are conducted in a casino-like atmosphere and use surveillance camera equipment. Employers prefer either individuals with significant knowledge of casino operations through work experience or those with experience conducting investigations, such as former law enforcement officers. Employment Security guards and gaming surveillance officers held over 1.0 million jobs in 2004. Over half of all jobs for security guards were in investigation and security services, including guard and armored car services. These organizations provide security on a contract basis, assigning their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. Most other security officers were employed directly by educational services, hospitals, food services and drinking places, traveler accommodation (hotels), department stores, manufactur ing firms, lessors of real estate (residential and nonresidential buildings), and governments. Guard jobs are found throughout the country, most commonly in metropolitan areas. Gaming surveillance officers worked primarily in gambling industries; traveler accommodation, which includes casino hotels; and local government. Gaming surveillance officers were employed only in those States and on those Indian reservations where gambling has been legalized. A significant number of law enforcement officers work as security guards when they are off duty, in order to supplement their incomes. Often working in uniform and with the official cars assigned to them, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis they add a high-profile security presence to the establishment with which they have contracted. At construction sites and apartment complexes, for example, their presence often deters crime. (Police and detectives are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Opportunities for security guards and gaming surveillance officers should be favorable. Numerous job openings will stem from em ployment growth attributable to the demand for increased security and from the need to replace those who leave this large occupation each year. In addition to full-time job opportunities, the limited training requirements and flexible hours attract many persons seek ing part-time or second jobs. However, competition is expected for higher paying positions that require longer periods of training; these positions usually are found at facilities that require a high level of security, such as nuclear power plants or weapons installations. Employment of security guards and gaming surveillance officers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014 as concern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism continues to increase the need for security. Demand for guards also will grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties—such as provid ing security at public events and in residential neighborhoods—that were formerly handled by police officers. Casinos will continue to hire more surveillance officers as more States legalize gambling and as the number of casinos increases in States where gambling is already legal. In addition, casino security forces will employ more technically trained personnel as technology becomes increasingly important in thwarting casino cheating and theft. Earnings Median annual earnings of security guards were $20,320 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,640 and $25,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,270. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of security guards in May 2004 were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools............................................... $25,030 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 24,750 Local government ........................................................................ 23,690 Traveler accommodation............................................................... 21,710 Investigation and security services............................................... 19,030 Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators had median annual earnings of $25,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,430 and $33,790. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,420. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regulations and standards of conduct in the establishments at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations include cor rectional officers, police and detectives, and private detectives and investigators. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is available from local security and guard firms and State employment service offices. Information about licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local jurisdictions establish licensing requirements, contact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager. Service Occupations 371 Food Preparation and Service Related Occupations Chefs, Cooks, and Food Preparation Workers_______________________ (0*NET 35-1011.00, 35-2011.00, 35-2012.00, 35-2013.00, 35-2014.00, 35-2015.00, 35-2021.00) Significant Points • Many young people worked as cooks and food prepara tion workers—almost 19 percent were between 16 and 19 years old. • More than 2 out of 5 food preparation workers were employed part time. • Job openings are expected to be plentiful, because many of these workers transfer to other occupations with higher earnings or bum out from the fast work pace and pressure to fill orders quickly. Nature of the Work Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers prepare, season, and cook a wide range of foods—from soups, snacks, and salads to entrees, side dishes, and desserts—in a variety of restaurants and other food services establishments. Chefs and cooks create recipes and prepare meals, while food preparation workers peel and cut vegetables, trim meat, prepare poultry, and perform other duties such as keeping work areas clean and monitoring temperatures of ovens and stovetops. In general, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes, using a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and other equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. Chefs and head cooks also are responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Larger restaurants and food services establishments tend to have varied menus and larger kitchen staffs. They often include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or line cooks, along with other lesser skilled kitchen workers, such as foodpreparation work ers. Each chef or cook works an assigned station that is equipped with the types of stoves, grills, pans, and ingredients needed for the foods prepared at that station. Job titles often reflect the principal ingredient prepared or the type of cooking performed—vegetable cook, fry cook, or grill cook. Executive chefs and head cooks coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and direct the preparation of meals. They determine serving sizes, plan menus, order food supplies, and oversee kitchen operations to ensure uniform quality and presentation of meals. The terms chef and cook often are used interchangeably, but gen erally reflect the different types of chefs and the organizational structure of the kitchen staff. For example, an executive chef is in charge of all food service operations and also may supervise the many kitchens of a hotel, restaurant group, or corporate dining operation. A chef de cuisine reports to an executive chef and is responsible for the daily operations of a single kitchen. A sous chef or sub chef, is the second-in-command and runs the kitchen in the absence of the chef. Chefs tend to be more highly skilled and bet ter trained than cooks. Many chefs earn fame both for themselves and for their kitchens because of the quality and distinctive nature of FRASER the food they serve. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The specific responsibilities of most cooks are determined by a number of factors, including the type of restaurant in which they work. Institution and cafeteria cooks, for example, work in the kitchens of schools, cafeterias, businesses, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a large quantity of a limited number of entrees, vegetables, and desserts. Restaurant cooks usually prepare a wider selection of dishes, cooking most orders individually. Short-order cooks prepare foods in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service and quick food preparation. They grill and garnish ham burgers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook French fries, often working on several orders at the same time. Fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food, such as hamburgers and fried chicken, to be kept warm until served. (Combinedfood preparation and service workers, who both prepare and serve items in fast-food restaurants, are included with the material on food and beverage serving and related workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some cooks do not work in restaurant or food service kitchens. Private household cooks (or personal chefs) plan and prepare meals in private homes according to the client’s tastes or dietary needs. They order groceries and supplies, clean the kitchen and wash dishes and utensils. They also may serve meals. Research chefs combine culinary skills with knowledge of food science to develop recipes and test new formulas, experiment with flavors and eye appeal of prepared foods, and test new products and equipment for chain restaurants, food growers and processors, and manufacturers and marketers. Food preparation workers perform routine, repetitive tasks such as readying ingredients for complex dishes, slicing and dicing vegetables, and composing salads and cold items, under the direction of chefs and cooks. They weigh and measure ingredients, go after pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. Food preparation workers may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment, utensils, dishes, and silverware. The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depends on the type of establishment. For example, fast-food establishments offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. Small, full-service restaurants offering casual dining often feature a limited number of easy-to-prepare items supplemented by shortorder specialties and ready-made desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers. Grocery and specialty food stores employ chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers to develop recipes and prepare meals for cus tomers to carry out. Typically, entrees, side dishes, salads, or other items are prepared in large quantities and stored at an appropriate temperature. Servers portion and package items according to customer orders for serving at home. Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modem equip ment, convenient work areas, and air conditioning, but kitchens in older and smaller eating places are often not as well designed. Kitchens must be well ventilated, appropriately lit, and properly equipped with sprinkler systems to protect against fires. Kitchen staffs invariably work in small quarters against hot stoves and ovens. They are under constant pressure to prepare meals quickly, while ensuring quality is maintained and safety and sanitation guidelines are observed. 372 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers must observe local health and sanitation standards. Working conditions vary with the type and quantity of food prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers usually must withstand the pressure and strain of standing for hours at a time, lifting heavy pots and kettles, and working near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and burns, but injuries are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include early mornings, late eve nings, holidays, and weekends. Work schedules of chefs, cooks and other kitchen workers in factory and school cafeterias may be more regular. In 2004, about 40 percent of cooks and 46 percent of food preparation workers had part-time schedules, compared to 16 percent of workers throughout the economy. Work schedules in fine-dining restaurants, however, tend to be longer, because of the time required to prepare ingredients in advance. Many executive chefs regularly work 12-hour days because they oversee the delivery of foodstuffs early in the day, plan the menu, and start preparing those menu items that take the greatest amount of preparation time or skill. The wide range in dining hours and the need for fully-staffed kitch ens during all open hours creates work opportunities for individuals seeking supplemental income, flexible work hours, or variable sched ules. For example, almost 19 percent of cooks and food preparation workers were 16-19 years old in 2004, and almost 11 percent had variable schedules. Kitchen workers employed by schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Similarly, resort establishments usually only offer seasonal employment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most fast-food or short-order cooks and food preparation workers require little education or training; most skills are learned on the job. Training generally starts with basic sanitation and workplace safety subjects and continues with instruction on food handling, preparation, and cooking procedures. A high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, but it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school programs may offer courses in basic food safety and handling procedures and general business and computer classes for those who want to manage or open their own place. Many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of education, provide on-the-job training and summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who aspire to become cooks. Large corporations in the food services and hospitality industries also offer paid internships and summer jobs to those just starting out in the field. Internships provide valuable experience and can lead to placement in more formal chef training programs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Executive chefs and head cooks who work in fine-dining restau rants require many years of training and experience and an intense desire to cook. Some chefs and cooks may start their training in high school or post-high school vocational programs. Others may receive formal training through independent cooking schools, profes sional culinary institutes, or 2- or 4-year college degree programs in hospitality or culinary arts. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training and job-placement programs for chefs and cooks. Most formal training programs require some form of apprenticeship, internship, or out-placement program jointly offered by the school and affiliated restaurants. Professional culinary institutes, industry associations, and trade unions also may sponsor formal apprenticeship programs in coordination with the U.S. De partment of Labor. Many chefs are trained on the job, receiving real work experience and training from chef mentors in the restaurants where they work. People who have had courses in commercial food preparation may start in a cook or chef job without spending a lot of time in lower-skilled kitchen jobs. Their education may give them an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants. Some voca tional programs in high schools may offer training, but employers usually prefer training given by trade schools, vocational centers, colleges, professional associations, or trade unions. Postsecondary courses range from a few months to 2 years or more. Degree-grant ing programs are open only to high school graduates. Chefs also may compete and test for certification as master chefs. Although certification is not required to enter the field, it can be a measure of accomplishment and lead to further advancement and higher-pay ing positions. The U.S. Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students in formal culinary train ing programs spend most of their time in kitchens learning to use the appropriate equipment and to prepare meals through actual practice. They learn good knife techniques, safe food-handling procedures, and proper use and care of kitchen equipment. Train ing programs often include courses in nutrition, menu planning, portion control, purchasing and inventory methods, proper food storage procedures, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in food service management, computer accounting and inventory software, and banquet service are featured in some training programs. The number of formal and informal culinary training programs continues to increase to meet demand. Formal programs, which may offer training leading to a certificate or a 2- or 4-year degree, are geared more for training chefs for fine-dining or upscale restaurants. They offer a wider array of training options and specialties, such as advanced cooking techniques; cooking for banquets, buffets, or parties; and cuisines and cooking styles from around the world. The American Culinary Federation accredits more than 100 formal training programs and sponsors apprenticeship programs around the country. Typical apprenticeships last three years and combine classroom training and work experience. Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. The American Culinary Federation also certifies pastry professionals, personal chefs, and culinary educators in addition to various levels of chefs. Certification standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. Vocational or trade-school programs typically offer more basic training in preparing food, such as food handling and sanitation procedures, nutrition, slicing and dicing methods for various kinds of meats and vegetables, and basic cooking methods, such as baking, broiling, and grilling. Service Occupations Important characteristics for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include working well as part of a team, having a keen sense of taste and smell, and working efficiently to turn out meals rapidly. Personal cleanliness is essential because most States require health certificates indicating that workers are free from communicable diseases. Knowledge of a foreign language can be an asset because it may improve communication with other restaurant staff, vendors, and the restaurant’s clientele. Advancement opportunities for chefs, cooks, and food prepara tion workers depend on their training, work experience, and ability to perform more responsible and sophisticated tasks. Many food preparation workers, for example, may move into assistant or line cook positions. Chefs and cooks who demonstrate an eagerness to learn new cooking skills and to accept greater responsibility may move up within the kitchen and take on responsibility for training or supervising newer or lesser skilled kitchen staff. Others may move from one kitchen or restaurant to another. Some chefs and cooks go into business as caterers or personal chefs or they open their own restaurant. Others become instructors in culinary training programs. A number of cooks and chefs advance to executive chef positions or food service management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants where they may oversee operations in a number of kitchens or res taurants. (See the statement on food service managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Chefs, cooks and food preparation workers held nearly 3.1 million jobs in 2004. The distribution of jobs among the various types of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers was as follows: Food preparation workers ......................................................... $889,000 Cooks, restaurant........................................................................ 783,000 Cooks, fast food ......................................................................... 662,000 Cooks, institution and cafeteria.................................................. 424,000 Cooks, short order...................................................................... 230,000 Chefs and head cooks................................................................. 125,000 Cooks, private household........................................................... 9,200 Nearly two-thirds of all chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers were employed in restaurants and other food services and drinking places. Almost one-fifth worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing care facilities. Grocery stores, hotels, gasoline stations with convenience stores, and other organizations employed the remainder. Job Outlook Job openings for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to be plentiful through 2014; however, competition should be keen for jobs in the top kitchens of higher end restaurants. While job growth will create new positions, primarily due to the expansion of family-casual dining, the overwhelming majority ofjob openings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave this large occu pational group. Many chef, cook, and food preparation worker jobs are attractive to people seeking first-time or short-term employment, additional income, or a flexible schedule. Employers typically hire a large number of part-time workers and require minimal education and training for these lesser skilled entry-level positions. Many of these workers transfer to other occupations or stop working, creating numerous openings for those entering the field. Overall employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period. Employment growth will be spurred by increases in population, household income, and leisure https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 373 time that will allow people to more often dine out and take vacations. In addition, the large number of two-income households will lead more families to opt for the convenience of dining out. Projected employment growth, however, varies by specialty. The number of higher-skilled chefs and cooks working in full-service restaurants—those that offer table service and more varied menus—is expected to increase about as fast as the average. Much of the increase in this segment, however, will come from job growth in more casual dining, rather than up-scale full-service restaurants. Dining trends sug gest increasing numbers of meals eaten away from home and growth in family dining restaurants, but greater limits on expense-account meals. Similarly, employment of food preparation workers will grow faster than the average reflecting diners desires for convenience as they shop for carryout meals in a greater variety of places—full-service restaurants, limited-service eating places, or grocery stores. Employment of fast-food cooks is expected to grow about as fast as the average. Duties of cooks in fast-food restaurants are limited; most workers are likely to be combined food preparation and serving workers, rather than fast-food cooks. Employment of short-order cooks is expected to increase about as fast as the average. Short-order cooks may work a grill or sandwich station in a full-line restaurant, but also may work in lunch counters or coffee shops that specialize in meals served quickly. Employment of institution and cafeteria chefs and cooks will show little or no growth. Their employment will not keep pace with the rapid growth in the educational and health services industries—where their employment is concentrated. In an effort to make “institutional food” more attractive to office workers, students, staff, visitors, and patients, offices, schools and hospitals increasingly contract out their food services. Employment of cooks, private household, however, is projected to decline, reflecting the general decline in private household service employment. Employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers who prepare meals-to-go, such as those who work in the prepared foods sections of grocery or specialty food stores, should increase much faster than the average as people continue to demand quality meals and con venience. Similarly, much faster than average growth also is expected among those who work in contract food service establishments, such as those that provide catering services, and those who support employee dining rooms or staff hotel restaurants on a contract basis. These changes reflect a continuing trend among large establishments to contract out food services so they may better focus on their core business of running a hospital, hotel, factory or school. Also, there is a growing consumer desire for healthier, made-from-scratch meals without sacrificing the convenience of pre-packaged prepared foods or fast-food dining. Earnings Wages of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers vary greatly according to region of the country and the type of food services establishment in which they work. Wages usually are highest in elegant restaurants and hotels, where many executive chefs are employed, and in major metropolitan areas. Median hourly earnings of chefs and head cooks were $14.75 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.71 and $20.28. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.28, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.75 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries em ploying the largest number of chefs and head cooks in May 2004 were: Other amusement and recreation industries.................................. $19.27 Traveler accommodations.............................................................. 18.25 Special food services...................................................................... 15.06 Full-service restaurants .................................................................. 13.57 Limited-service eating places ....................................................... 12.00 Median hourly earnings of cooks, private household were $9.42 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.08 and $12.79. 374 Occupational Outlook Handbook The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.01, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.55 per hour. Median hourly earnings of restaurant cooks were $9.39 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.79 and $11.13. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.76, and the highest 10 percent earned more than$13.37 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of restaurant cooks in May 2004 were: Traveler accommodations.............................................................. $10.69 Other amusement and recreation industries................................... 10.55 Special food services...................................................................... 10.00 Full-service restaurants .................................................................. 9.34 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages)........................................... 9.27 Limited-service eating places ........................................................ 8.25 Median hourly earnings of institution and cafeteria cooks were $9.10 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.20 and $11.22. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.08, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.72 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of institution and cafeteria cooks in May 2004 were: General medical and surgical hospitals........................................... $10.38 Special food services....................................................................... 10.11 Community care facilities for the elderly....................................... 9.60 Nursing care facilities..................................................................... 9.33 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 8.06 Median hourly earnings of short-order cooks were $8.11 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.90 and $9.92. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.97, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.50 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of short-order cooks in May 2004 were: Full-service restaurants..................................................................... $8.53 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages).............................................. 8.08 Other amusement and recreation industries...................................... 7.79 Limited-service eating places........................................................... 7.21 Gasoline stations............................................................................... 6.99 Median hourly earnings of food preparation workers were $8.03 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.89 and $9.78. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.97, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $ 11.90 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of food preparation workers in May 2004 were: Elementary and secondary schools................................................... $9.04 Grocery stores................................................................................... 8.54 Nursing care facilities....................................................................... 8.10 Full-service restaurants....................................................................... 7.94 Limited-service eating places............................................................. 7.27 Median hourly earnings of fast-food cooks were $7.07 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.20 and $8.22. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.63 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of fast-food cooks in May 2004 were: Grocery stores................................................................................... Special food services........................................ Gasoline stations............................................................................... Full-service restaurants..................................................................... Limited-service eating places............................................................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $8.26 7.97 7.18 7.16 7.02 Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from their employees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers do so. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation work ers who work full time often receive typical benefits, but part-time workers usually do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Res taurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include food processing occupations, such as butch ers and meat cutters, and bakers. Others who work closely with these workers include food service managers and food and beverage serving and related workers Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is available from: >- National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org For information on the American Culinary Federation’s ap prenticeship and certification programs for cooks, as well as a list of accredited culinary programs, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: ► American Culinary Federation, 180 Center Place Way, St. Augustine, FL 32095. Internet: http://www.acfchefs.org For information about becoming a personal chef, contact: >- American Personal Chef Association, 4572 Delaware St., San Diego, CA 92116. For general information on hospitality careers, contact: >■ International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Educa tion, 2613 North Parham Rd., 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA23294. Internet: http://www.chrie.org Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers (0*NET 35-3011.00, 35-3021.00, 35-3022.00, 35-3031.00, 35-3041.00, 35-9011.00, 35-9021.00, 35-9031.00, 35-9099.99) Significant Points • Most jobs are part time so many opportunities exist for young people—about one-fourth of these workers were 16 to 19 years old, almost six times the proportion for all workers. • Job openings are expected to be abundant through 2014 because many of these workers transfer to other occupations or stop working, creating numerous openings. • Tips comprise a major portion of earnings, so keen competition is expected for jobs where potential earnings from tips are greatest—bartenders, waiters and waitress es, and other jobs in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments. Service Occupations Nature of the Work Food and beverage serving and related workers are the front line of customer service in restaurants, coffee shops, and other food service establishments. These workers greet customers, escort them to seats and hand them menus, take food and drink orders, and serve food and beverages. They also answer questions, explain menu items and specials, and keep tables and dining areas clean and set for new diners. Most work as part of a team, helping coworkers to improve workflow and customer service. Waiters and waitresses, the largest group of these workers, take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare item ized checks, and sometimes accept payment. Their specific duties vary considerably, depending on the establishment. In coffee shops serving routine, straightforward fare, such as salads, soups, and sandwiches, servers are expected to provide fast, efficient, and courteous service. In fine dining restaurants, where more complicated meals are prepared and often served over several courses, waiters and waitresses provide more formal service emphasizing personal, attentive treatment and a more leisurely pace. They may recommend certain dishes and identify ingredients or explain how various items on the menu are prepared. Some prepare salads, desserts, or other menu items tableside. Additionally, they may check the identification of patrons to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. Waiters and waitresses sometimes perform the duties of other food and beverage service workers. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, clearing and setting up tables, or operating a cash register. How ever, full-service restaurants frequently hire other staff, such as hosts and hostesses, cashiers, or dining room attendants, to perform these duties. Bartenders fill drink orders either taken directly from patrons at the bar or through waiters and waitresses who place drink orders for dining room customers. Bartenders check identification of customers seated at the bar, to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. They prepare mixed drinks, serve bottled or draught beer, and pour wine or other beverages. Bartenders must know a wide range of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders stock and prepare garnishes for drinks; maintain an adequate supply of ice, glasses, and other bar supplies; and keep the bar area clean for cus tomers. They also may collect payment, operate the cash register, wash glassware and utensils, and serve food to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and main taining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. The majority of bartenders directly serve and interact with patrons. Bartenders should be friendly and enjoy talking with customers. Bartenders at service bars, on the other hand, have less contact with customers. They work in small bars often located off the kitchen in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where only waiters and waitresses place drink orders. Some establishments, especially larger, higher volume ones, use equipment that automatically mea sures, pours and mixes drinks at the push of a button. Bartenders who use this equipment, however, still must work quickly to handle a large volume of drink orders and be familiar with the ingredients for special drink requests. Much of a bartender’s work still must be done by hand to fill each individual order. Hosts and hostesses welcome guests and maintain reservation or waiting lists. They may direct patrons to coatrooms, restrooms, or to a place to wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort patrons to their seats, and provide menus. They also schedule dining https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 375 reservations, arrange parties, and organize any special services that are required. In some restaurants, they act as cashiers. Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by cleaning tables, removing dirty dishes, and keeping serving areas stocked with supplies. Sometimes called backwaiters or runners, they bring meals out of the kitchen and assist waiters and waitresses by distributing dishes to individual diners. They also replenish the supply of clean linens, dishes, silver ware, and glasses in the dining room and keep the bar stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink garnishes. Dining room attendants set tables with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and serve ice water, rolls, and butter. At the conclusion of meals, they remove dirty dishes and soiled linens from tables. Cafeteria at tendants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to dining tables for patrons. Bartender helpers keep bar equipment clean and wash glasses. Dishwashers clean dishes, cutlery, and kitchen utensils and equipment. Counter attendants take orders and serve food in cafeterias, coffee shops, and carryout eateries. In cafeterias, they serve food displayed on steam tables, carve meat, dish out vegetables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill beverage glasses. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, counter attendants take orders from customers seated at the counter, transmit orders to the kitchen, and pick up and serve food. They also fill cups with coffee, soda, and other beverages and prepare fountain specialties, such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. Counter attendants also take carryout orders from diners and wrap or place items in containers. They clean counters, write itemized checks, and sometimes accept payment. Some counter attendants may prepare short-order items, such as sandwiches and salads. Some food and beverage serving workers take orders from cus tomers at counters or drive-through windows at fast-food restaurants. They assemble orders, hand them to customers, and accept payment. Many of these are combined food preparation and serving workers who also cook and package food, make coffee, and fill beverage cups using drink-dispensing machines. Other workers serve food to patrons outside of a restaurant en vironment, such as in hotels, hospital rooms, or cars. Working Conditions Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are under pressure to serve customers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips, falls, and bums. *li®& Waiters and waitresses are under pressure to serve customers quickly, courteously, and efficiently during busy dining periods. 376 Occupational Outlook Handbook Part-time work is more common among food and beverage serving and related workers than among workers in almost any other occupation. In 2004, those on part-time schedules included half of all waiters and waitresses, and 40 percent of all bartenders. Food service and drinking establishments typically maintain long dining hours and offer flexible and varied work opportunities. Many food and beverage serving and related workers work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Many students and teenagers seek part time or seasonal work as food and beverage serving and related workers as a first job to gain work experience or to earn spending money while in school. Around one-fourth of food and beverage serving and related workers were 16 to 19 years old—about six times the proportion for all workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no specific educational requirements for food and beverage service jobs. Many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, but completion of high school usually is not required for fast-food work ers, counter attendants, dishwashers, and dining room attendants and bartender helpers. For many people a job as a food and beverage service worker serves as a source of immediate income, rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and beverage service jobs are a major source of part-time employment for high school and college students. Restaurants rely on good food and quality customer service to retain loyal customers and succeed in a competitive industry. Food and beverage serving and related workers who exhibit excellent personal qualities—such as a neat clean appearance, a well-spoken manner, an ability to work as a member of team, and a pleasant way with patrons—will be highly sought after. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confusing customers’ orders and to recall faces, names, and preferences of frequent patrons. These workers also should be comfortable using computers to place orders and generate customers’ bills. Some may need to be quick at arithmetic so they can total bills manually. Knowledge of a foreign language is helpful to communicate with a diverse clientele and staff. Prior experience waiting on tables is preferred by restaurants and hotels that have rigid table service standards. Jobs at these establishments often offer higher wages and have greater income potential from tips, but they may also have stiffer employment requirements than other establishments, such as prior table service experience or higher education. Usually, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, but employ ers prefer to hire people who are 25 or older. Bartenders should be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Most food and beverage serving and related workers pick up their skills on the job by observing and working with more experienced workers. Some full-service restaurants also provide new dining room employees with some form of classroom-type training that alternates with periods of actual on-the-job work experience. These training programs communicate the operating philosophy of the restaurant, help establish a personal rapport with other staff and instill a desire to work as a team. They also provide an opportunity to discuss cus tomer service situations and the proper ways of handling unpleasant circumstances or unruly patrons with new employees. Additionally, managers, chefs and servers may meet before each shift to discuss the menu and any new items or specials, review ingredients for any potential food allergies, or talk about any food safety concerns, coordination between the kitchen and the dining room, and any customer service issues from the previous day or shift. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some employers, particularly those in fast-food restaurants, use self-instruction or on-line programs with audiovisual presentations and instructional booklets to teach new employees food preparation and service skills. Some public and private vocational schools, res taurant associations, and large restaurant chains provide classroom training in a generalized food service curriculum. All employees receive training on safe food handling procedures and sanitation practices. Some bartenders acquire their skills by attending a bartending or vocational and technical school. These programs often include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, proper attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Although few employers require any minimum level of educational attainment, some specialized train ing is usually needed in food handling and legal issues surrounding serving alcoholic beverages and tobacco. Employers are more likely to hire and promote based on people skills and personal qualities rather than education. Due to the relatively small size of most food-serving establish ments, opportunities for promotion are limited. After gaining experience, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, advancement usually is limited to finding a job in a busier or more expensive restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are better. Some bartenders, hosts and hostesses and waiters and waitresses advance to supervisory jobs, such as dining room supervisor, maitre d’hotel, assistant manager, or restaurant general manager. A few bartenders open their own businesses. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excel at their work often are invited to enter the company’s formal management training program. (For more information, see the Handbook report on food service managers.) Employment Food and beverage serving and related workers held 6.8 million jobs in 2004. The distribution of jobs among the various food and beverage serving workers was as follows: Waiters and waitresses ...................................................................... 2,252,000 Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food......................................................................... 2,150,000 Dishwashers .......................................................................................... 507,000 Bartenders .............................................................................................. 474,000 Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop ....................................................................................... 465,000 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers..... 401,000 Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop .......... 328,000 Food servers, nonrestaurant ............................................................... 189,000 All other food preparation and serving related workers ............. 64,000 The overwhelming majority of jobs for food and beverage serv ing and related workers were found in food services and drinking places, such as restaurants, coffee shops, and bars. Other jobs were found primarily in traveler accommodation (hotels); amusement, gambling, and recreation industries; educational services; grocery stores; nursing care facilities; civic and social organizations; and hospitals. Jobs are located throughout the country but are typically plentiful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal em ployment, and some workers alternate between summer and winter resorts, instead of remaining in one area the entire year. Job Outlook Job openings are expected to be abundant for food and beverage serving and related workers. Overall employment of these workers Service Occupations is expected to increase as fast as the average over the 2004-14 period as population, personal incomes, and employment expand. While employment growth will create many new jobs, the overwhelming majority of openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of workers who leave the occupations each year. There is substantial movement into and out of these occupations because education and training requirements are minimal and the predomi nance of part-time jobs are attractive to people seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. However, keen competition is expected for bartender, waiter and waitress, and other food and beverage service jobs in popular restaurants and fine dining establish ments, where potential earnings from tips are greatest. Projected employment growth between 2004 and 2014 varies somewhat by type of job; however, average employment growth is expected for almost all food and beverage serving and related oc cupations. Employment of combined food preparation and serving workers, which includes fast-food workers, is expected to increase as fast as the average in response to the continuing fast-paced life style of many Americans and the addition of healthier foods at many fast-food restaurants. Average employment growth is expected for waiters and waitresses and hosts and hostesses because increases in the number of families and the more affluent, 55-and-older popula tion will result in more restaurants that offer table service and more varied menus. Employment of bartenders, dining room attendants, and dishwashers will grow more slowly than other food and beverage serving and related workers because diners increasingly are eating at more casual dining spots, such as coffee bars and sandwich shops, rather than at the full-service restaurants and drinking places that employ more of these workers. Earnings Food and beverage serving and related workers derive their earnings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Earnings vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses usually do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses and bartenders in full-service restaurants, who typi cally earn more from tips than from wages. In some restaurants, workers contribute all or a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among qualifying workers. Tip pools allow workers who don’t usually receive tips directly from customers, such as dining room attendants, to feel a part of a team and to share in the rewards of good service. In May 2004, median hourly earnings (including tips) of waiters and waitresses were $6.75. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.04 and $8.34. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.60, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.27 an hour. For most waiters and waitresses, higher earnings are primarily the result of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips usually average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks; waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restaurants earn the most. Bartenders had median hourly earnings (including tips) of $7.42 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.34 and $9.26. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.72, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $12.47 an hour. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their earnings as tips. Service bartenders often are paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip earnings. Median hourly earnings (including tips) of dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers were $7.10 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.24 and $8.25. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.88 an hour. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest of their income was a share of the proceeds from tip pools. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 377 Median hourly earnings of hosts and hostesses were $7.52 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.48 and $8.63. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.77, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.49 an hour. Wages comprised the majority of their earnings. In some cases, wages were supplemented hy proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly earnings of combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food, were $7.06 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.18 and $8.25. The low est 10 percent earned less than $5.65, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.85 an hour. Although some combined food preparation and serving workers receive a part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers usually do not. Median hourly earnings of counter attendants in cafeterias, food concessions, and coffee shops (including tips) were $7.53 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.50 and $8.59 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.80, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.38 an hour. Median hourly earnings of dishwashers were $7.35 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.41 and $8.37. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.76, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.81 an hour. Median hourly earnings of nonrestaurant food servers were $7.95 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.64 and $9.98. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.86, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.53 an hour. Many beginning or inexperienced workers start earning the Federal minimum wage of $5.15 an hour. However, a few States set minimum wages higher than the Federal minimum. Also, various minimum wage exceptions apply under specific circum stances to disabled workers, full-time students, youth under age 20 in their first 90 days of employment, tipped employees, and student-learners. Tipped employees are those who customarily and regularly receive more than $30 a month in tips. The employer may consider tips as part of wages, but the employer must pay at least $2.13 an hour in direct wages. Employers also are permit ted to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. Many employers, however, provide free meals and furnish uniforms. Food and beverage service workers who work full time often receive typical benefits, while part-time workers usually do not. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage serv ing and related workers belong to unions—principally the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose job involves serving customers and handling money include flight attendants, gaming services workers, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from lo cal employers and local offices of State employment services agencies. A guide to careers in restaurants plus a list of 2- and 4-year colleges offering food service programs and related scholarship information is available from: >- National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org For general information on hospitality careers, contact: >- International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Educa tion, 2613 North Parham Rd., 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA 23294. Internet: http ://w ww.chrie.org 378 Occupational Outlook Handbook Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations Building Cleaning Workers (0*NET 37-1011.01, 37-1011.02, 37-2011.00, 37-2012.00) Significant Points • This very large occupation requires few skills to enter and has one of the largest numbers of job openings of any occupation each year. • Most job openings result from the need to replace the many workers who leave these jobs because of their limited opportunities for training or advancement, low pay, and high incidence of only part-time or temporary work. • Most new jobs will occur in businesses providing jani torial and cleaning services on a contract basis. Nature of the Work Building cleaning workers—including janitors, maids, housekeep ing cleaners, window washers, and rug shampooers—keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and residences clean, sanitary, and in good condition. Some do only cleaning, while others have a wide range of duties. Janitors and cleaners perform a variety of heavy cleaning duties, such as cleaning floors, shampooing rags, washing walls and glass, and removing rubbish. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trash cans, do painting and carpentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heating and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, clean bathrooms, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. They also clean snow or debris from sidewalks in front of buildings and notify management of the need for major repairs. While janitors typically perform most of the duties mentioned, cleaners tend to work for companies that specialize in one type of cleaning activity, such as washing windows. Maids and housekeeping cleaners perform any combination of light cleaning duties to keep private households or commercial establishments such as hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and nursing homes clean and orderly. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the lilf premises, maids and housekeeping cleaners may deliver ironing boards, cribs, and rollaway beds to guests’ rooms. In hospitals, they also may wash bed frames, brush mattresses, make beds, and disinfect and sterilize equipment and supplies with germicides and sterilizing equipment. Janitors, maids, and cleaners use many kinds of equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job they may need standard cleaning implements; another may require an electric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Improved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time consuming, but cleaning workers must learn the proper use of equipment and cleaners to avoid harming floors, fixtures, and themselves. Cleaning supervisors coordinate, schedule, and supervise the activities of janitors and cleaners. They assign tasks and inspect building areas to see that work has been done properly; they also issue supplies and equipment and inventory stocks to ensure that sup plies on hand are adequate. They also screen and hire job applicants; train new and experienced employees; and recommend promotions, transfers, or dismissals. Supervisors may prepare reports concerning the occupancy of rooms, hours worked, and department expenses. Some also perform cleaning duties. Cleaners and servants in private households dust and polish furniture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrigerators, and bathrooms. They also may wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes; a few wash windows. General houseworkers also may take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy groceries, and perform many other errands. Building cleaning workers in large office and residential build ings, and more recently in large hotels, often work in teams con sisting of workers who specialize in vacuuming, picking up trash, and cleaning restrooms, among other things. Supervisors conduct inspections to ensure that the building is cleaned properly and the team is functioning efficiently. In hotels, one member of the team is responsible for reporting electronically to the supervisor when rooms are cleaned. Working Conditions Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaning workers work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Most full-time building cleaners work about 40 hours a week. Part time cleaners usually work in the evenings and on weekends. Building cleaning workers usually work inside heated, welllighted buildings. However, they sometimes work outdoors, sweep ing walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trashrooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer cuts, braises, and burns from machines, handtools, and chemicals. They spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. As a result, janitors also may suffer back injuries and sprains. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A building cleaning worker operates a compacting machine. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis No special education is required for most janitorial or cleaning jobs, but beginners should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow Service Occupations instructions. High school shop courses are helpful for jobs involving repair work. Most building cleaners learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine cleaning. As they gain more experience, they are assigned more complicated tasks. In some cities, programs run by unions, government agencies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently; how to select and safely use various cleansing agents; and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Students learn to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to interact positively with people in the buildings they clean, and to work with out supervision. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs also may be given. Those who come in contact with the public should have good communication skills. Employers usually look for dependable, hard-working individuals who are in good health, follow directions well, and get along with other people. Building cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements, applying directly to organizations where they would like to work, contacting local labor unions, or contacting State employment service offices. Advancement opportunities for workers usually are limited in organizations where they are the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, cleaning workers can be promoted to supervisor or to area supervisor or manager. A high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some janitors set up their own maintenance or cleaning businesses. Supervisors usually move up through the ranks. In many establish ments, they are required to take some inservice training to improve their housekeeping techniques and procedures and to enhance their supervisory skills. A small number of cleaning supervisors and managers are members of the International Executive Housekeepers Association, which offers two kinds of certification programs for cleaning super visors and managers: Certified Executive Housekeeper (CEH) and Registered Executive Housekeeper (REH). The CEH designation is offered to those with a high school education, while the REH des ignation is offered to those who have a 4-year college degree. Both designations are earned by attending courses and passing exams, and both must be renewed every 2 years to ensure that workers keep abreast of new cleaning methods. Those with the REH designation usually oversee the cleaning services of hotels, hospitals, casinos, and other large institutions that rely on well-trained experts for their cleaning needs. Employment Building cleaning workers held more than 4 million jobs in 2004. More than 6 percent were self-employed. Janitors and cleaners work in nearly every type of establishment and held about 2.4 million jobs. They accounted for more than 58 per cent of all building cleaning workers. More than 29 percent worked for firms supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis, more than 20 percent were employed in public or private educational services, and 2 percent worked in hotels or motels. Other employers included hospitals; restaurants; religious institutions; manufacturing firms; government agencies; and operators of apartment buildings, office buildings, and other types of real estate. First-line supervisors of housekeeping and janitorial workers held about 236,000jobs. Approximately 23 percent worked in firms supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis, while approximately 13 percent were employed in hotels or motels. More than 20 percent worked for State and local governments, primarily at schools and colleges. Others worked for hospitals, nursing homes and other residential care facilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 379 Maids and housekeepers held about 1.4 million jobs. Private households employed the most maids and housekeepers—almost 28 percent—while hotels, motels, and other traveler accommoda tions employed the second most—almost 27 percent. Hospitals, nursing homes, and other residential care facilities employed large numbers, also. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, schools, apartment houses, nursing homes, and hospitals. Job Outlook Overall employment of building cleaning workers is expected to grow as fast as average for all occupations through 2014, as more office complexes, apartment houses, schools, factories, hospitals, and other buildings requiring cleaning are built to accommodate a growing population and economy. As many firms reduce costs by contracting out the cleaning and maintenance of buildings, busi nesses providing j anitorial and cleaning services on a contract basis are expected to have the greatest number of new jobs in this field. Although there have been some improvements in productivity in the way buildings are cleaned and maintained—using teams of cleaners, for example, and better cleaning supplies—cleaning still is very much a labor-intensive job. Faster than average growth is expected among janitors and cleaners and among cleaning supervisors, but as fast as average growth is projected for maids and housekeeping cleaners. In addition to job openings arising due to growth, numerous openings should result from the need to replace those who leave this very large occupation each year. Limited promotion potential, low pay, and the fact that many jobs are part-time and temporary, induce many to leave the occupation, thereby contributing to the number of job openings and the need to replace these workers. Much of the growth in these occupations will come from clean ing residential properties. As families become more pressed for time, they increasingly are hiring cleaning and handyman services to perform a variety of tasks in their homes. Also, as the population ages, older people will need to hire cleaners to help maintain their houses. In addition, housekeeping cleaners will be needed to clean the growing number of residential care facilities for the elderly. These facilities, including assisted-living residences, generally provide housekeeping services as part of the rent. Earnings Median annual earnings of janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were $18,790 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,320 and $24,420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,010 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31,780. Median annual earnings in 2004 in the industries employing the largest numbers of jani tors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools.............................................. $22,910 Local government ........................................................................ 22,860 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... 21,860 Lessors of real estate..................................................................... 21,050 Services to buildings and dwellings............................................. 16,820 Median annual earnings of maids and housekeepers were $16,900 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,570 and $20,570. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25,220. Median annual earnings in 2004 in the industries employing the largest numbers of maids and housekeepers were as follows: 380 Occupational Outlook Handbook General medical and surgical hospitals.............................................. $18,770 Services to buildings and dwellings.................................................... 17,130 Community care facilities for the elderly.......................................... 17,010 Nursing care facilities............................................................................ 16,960 Traveler accommodation........................................................................ 16,250 Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors and manag ers of housekeeping and janitorial workers were $29,510 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,720 and $38,790. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,230. Median annual earnings in May 2004 in the industries employing the largest numbers of first-line supervisors and managers of housekeeping and janitorial workers were as follows: Local government .................................................................................. $34,780 Elementary and secondary schools..................................................... 33,760 Nursing care facilities............................................................................ 28,370 Services to buildings and dwellings.................................................... 27,760 Traveler accommodation........................................................................ 24,310 Related Occupations Workers who specialize in one of the many job functions of janitors and cleaners include pest control workers; general maintenance and repair workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from State em ployment service offices. For information on certification in executive housekeeping, contact: >- International Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 EastwindDr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081-3361. Internet: http://www.ieha.org Grounds Maintenance Workers (0*NET 37-1012.01, 37-1012.02, 37-3011.00, 37-3012.00, 37-3013.00, 37-3019.99) Significant Points • Opportunities should be very good, especially for workers willing to work seasonal or variable sched ules, because of significant job turnover and increasing demand by landscaping services companies. • Many beginning jobs have low earnings and are physically demanding. • Most workers learn through short-term on-the-job training. Nature of the Work Attractively designed, healthy, and well-maintained lawns, gardens, and grounds create a positive first impression, establish a peaceful mood, and increase property values. Grounds maintenance work ers perform the variety of tasks necessary to achieve a pleasant and functional outdoor environment. They also care for indoor gardens and plantings in commercial and public facilities, such as malls, hotels, and botanical gardens. The duties of landscaping workers and groundskeeping work ers are similar and often overlap. Landscaping workers physically install and maintain landscaped areas. They grade property, install lighting or sprinkler systems, and build walkways, terraces, patios, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis decks, and fountains. In addition to initially transporting and planting new vegetation, they transplant, mulch, fertilize, and water flower ing plants, trees, and shrubs and mow and water lawns. A growing number of residential and commercial clients, such as managers of office buildings, shopping malls, multiunit residential buildings, and hotels and motels, favor full-service landscape maintenance. Landscaping workers perform a range of duties, including mowing, edging, trimming, fertilizing, dethatching, and mulching for such clients on a regular basis during the growing season. Groundskeeping workers, also called groundskeepers, maintain a variety of facilities, including athletic fields, golf courses, cem eteries, university campuses, and parks. In addition to caring for sod, plants, and trees, they rake and mulch leaves, clear snow from walkways and parking lots, and use irrigation methods to adjust the amount of water consumption and prevent waste. They see to the proper upkeep and repair of sidewalks, parking lots, groundskeeping equipment, pools, fountains, fences, planters, and benches. Groundskeeping workers who care for athletic fields keep natural and artificial turf in top condition, mark out boundaries, and before events paint turf with team logos and names. They must make sure that the underlying soil on fields with natural turf has the required composition to allow proper drainage and to support the grasses used on the field. Groundskeeping workers mow, water, fertilize, and aerate the fields regularly. They also vacuum and disinfect synthetic turf after its use, in order to prevent the growth of harm ful bacteria, and they remove the turf and replace the cushioning pad periodically. Workers who maintain golf courses are called greenskeepers. Greenskecpers do many of the same things as other groundskee pers. In addition, greenskeepers periodically relocate the holes on putting greens to eliminate uneven wear of the turf and to add interest and challenge to the game. Greenskeepers also keep canopies, benches, ball washers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted. Some groundskeeping workers specialize in caring for cemeteries and memorial gardens. They dig graves to specified depths, generally using a backhoe. They mow grass regularly, apply fertilizers and other chemicals, prune shrubs and trees, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. Groundskeeping workers in parks and recreation facilities care for lawns, trees, and shrubs, maintain athletic fields and playgrounds, clean buildings, and keep parking lots, picnic areas, and other public spaces free of litter. They also may remove snow and ice from roads and walkways, erect and dismantle snow fences, and maintain swim ming pools. These workers inspect buildings and equipment, make needed repairs, and keep everything freshly painted. Landscaping and groundskeeping workers use handtools such as shovels, rakes, pruning and regular saws, hedge and brush trimmers, and axes, as well as power lawnmowers, chain saws, snowblowers, and electric clippers. Some use equipment such as tractors and twin-axle vehicles. Landscaping and groundskeeping workers at parks, schools, cemeteries, and golf courses may use sod cutters to harvest sod that will be replanted elsewhere. Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation, mix pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, or insecticides and apply them through sprays, dusts, vapors into the soil, or onto trees, shrubs, lawns, or botanical crops. Those working for chemical lawn service firms are more specialized, inspecting lawns for problems and applying fertilizers , herbicides, pesticides, and other chemi cals to stimulate growth and prevent or control weeds, diseases, or insect infestation. Many practice integrated pest-management techniques. Tree trimmers and pruners cut away dead or excess branches from trees or shrubs either to maintain rights-of-way for roads, Service Occupations sidewalks, or utilities or to improve the appearance, health, and value of trees. Some of these workers also specialize in pruning, trimming and shaping ornamental trees and shrubs for private resi dences, golf courses, or other institutional grounds. Tree trimmers and pruners use handsaws, pruning hooks, shears, and clippers. When trimming near power lines, they usually use truck-mounted lifts and power pruners. Supervisors of landscaping and groundskeeping workers perform various functions. They prepare cost estimates, schedule work for crews on the basis of weather conditions or the avail ability of equipment, perform spot checks to ensure the quality of the service, and suggest changes in work procedures. In ad dition, supervisors train workers in their tasks; keep employees’ time records and record work performed; and even assist workers when deadlines are near. Supervisors who own their own busi ness are also known as landscape contractors. They may also call themselves landscape designers if they create landscape design plans. Supervisors of tree trimmers and pruners are often referred to as arborists. Arborists specialize in the care of individual trees and are trained and equipped to provide proper care. Some arborists plant trees, and most can recommend types of trees that are appropri ate for a specific location, as the wrong tree in the wrong location could lead to future problems as a result of limited growing space, insects, diseases, or poor growth. Arborists are employed by cities to improve urban green space, utilities to maintain power distribu tion networks, companies to care for residential and commercial properties, as well as many other settings. Working Conditions Many of the jobs for grounds maintenance workers are seasonal, meaning that they are in demand mainly in the spring, summer, and fall, when most planting, mowing, trimming, and cleanup are necessary. Most of the work is performed outdoors in all kinds of weather. It can be physically demanding and repetitive, involving much bending, lifting, and shoveling. Workers in landscaping and groundskeeping may be under pressure to get the job completed, especially when they are preparing for scheduled events such as athletic competitions. Those who work with pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals, as well as dangerous equipment and tools such as power lawnmowers, chain saws, and power clippers, must exercise safety precautions. Workers who use motorized equipment must take care to protect themselves against hearing damage. * • ‘3 , -i 381 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no minimum educational requirements for en try-level positions in grounds maintenance, although a diploma is necessary for some jobs. In 2004, most workers had a high school education or less. Short-term on-the-job training generally is sufficient to teach new hires how to operate equipment such as mowers, trimmers, leaf blowers, and small tractors and to follow correct safety procedures. Entry-level workers must be able to follow directions and learn proper planting and maintenance pro cedures for their localities. They also must learn how to repair the equipment they’re using. If driving is an essential part of a job, employers look for applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals because grounds maintenance workers often work with little supervision. Workers who deal directly with customers must get along well with people. Laborers who demonstrate a willingness to work hard and quickly, have good communication skills, and take an interest in the busi ness may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. Advancement or entry into positions such as grounds manager and landscape contractor usually requires some formal education beyond high school and several years of progressively more responsible experience. Most States require certification for workers who apply pesticides. Certification requirements vary, but usually include passing a test on the proper and safe use and disposal of insecticides, herbicides, and fungi cides. Some States require that landscape contractors be licensed. The Professional Grounds Management Society (PGMS) of fers certification to grounds managers who have a combination of 8 years of experience and formal education beyond high school and who pass an examination covering subjects such as equipment management, personnel management, environmental issues, turf care, ornamentals, and circulatory systems. The PGMS also offers certification to groundskeepers who have a high school diploma or equivalent, plus 2 years of experience in the grounds maintenance field. The Professional Landcare Network (PLANET) offers the des ignations “Certified Landscape Professional” (Exterior and Interior) and “Certified Landscape Technician” (Exterior or Interior) to those who meet established education and experience standards and who pass a specific examination. The hands-on test for technicians cov ers areas such as the operation of maintenance equipment and the installation of plants by reading a plan. A written safety test also is administered. PLANET also offers the designations “Certified Turfgrass Professional” (CTP) and “Certified Ornamental Landscape Professional” (COLP), which require written exams. Some workers with groundskeeping backgrounds may start their own businesses after several years of experience. Employment Grounds maintenance workers held about 1.5 million jobs in 2004. Employment was distributed as follows: Landscaping and groundskeeping workers................................... First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers...................................................... Tree trimmers and pruners............................................................... Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation......... Grounds maintenance workers, all other...................................... ■Many grounds maintenance jobs are seasonal. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1,177,000 184,000 55,000 30,000 21,000 About one-third of the workers in grounds maintenance were employed in companies providing landscaping services to buildings and dwellings. Others worked for property management and realestate development firms, lawn and garden equipment and supply 382 Occupational Outlook Handbook stores, and amusement and recreation facilities, such as golf courses and racetracks. Some were employed by local governments, install ing and maintaining landscaping for parks, schools, hospitals, and other public facilities. Almost 1 out of every 4 grounds maintenance workers was selfemployed, providing landscape maintenance directly to customers on a contract basis. About 1 of every 7 worked part time; about 8% were of school age. Job Outlook Those interested in grounds maintenance occupations should find plentiful job opportunities in the future. Demand for their services is growing, and because wages for beginners are low and the work is physically demanding, many employers have difficulty attracting enough workers to fill all openings, creating very good job opportuni ties. In addition, high turnover will generate a large number of job openings, including at the supervisory and managerial level. More workers also will be needed to keep up with increasing demand by lawn care and landscaping companies. Employment of grounds maintenance workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Expected growth in the construction of all types of buildings, from office buildings to shopping malls and residential housing, plus more highways and parks, will increase demand for grounds maintenance workers. In addition, the upkeep and renovation of existing landscaping and grounds are continuing sources of demand for grounds maintenance workers. Owners of many buildings and facilities recognize the im portance of “curb appeal” in attracting business and maintaining the value of the property and are expected to use grounds maintenance services more extensively to maintain and upgrade their properties. Grounds maintenance workers working for State and local govern ments, however, may face budget cuts, which may affect hiring. Homeowners are a growing source of demand for grounds maintenance workers. Many two-income households lack the time to take care of their lawn so they are increasingly hiring people to maintain it for them. They also know that a nice yard will increase the property’s value. In addition, there is a growing interest by homeowners in their backyards, as well as a desire to make the yards more attractive for outdoor entertaining. With many newer homes having more and bigger windows overlooking the yard, it becomes more important to maintain and beautify the grounds. Also, as the population ages, more elderly homeowners will require lawn care services to help maintain their yards. Job opportunities for tree trimmers and pruners should also in crease as utility companies step up pruning of trees around electric lines to prevent power outages. Additionally, tree trimmers and pruners will be needed to help combat infestations caused by new species of insects from other countries. Ash trees in Michigan, for example, have been especially hurt by a pest from China. Job opportunities for nonseasonal work are more numerous in regions with temperate climates, where landscaping and lawn ser vices are required all year. However, opportunities may vary with local economic conditions. Earnings Median hourly earnings in May 2004 of grounds maintenance work ers were as follows: First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers............................................................. $16.99 Tree trimmers and pruners...................................................................... 12.57 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation................ 12.30 Landscaping and groundskeeping workers.......................................... 9.82 Grounds maintenance workers, all other............................................. 9.57 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of landscaping and groundskeeping workers in May 2004 were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools....................................................... $13.25 Local government .................................................................................... 11.25 Services to buildings and dwellings...................................................... 9.78 Other amusement and recreation industries........................................ 9.14 Employment services................................................................................ 8.64 Related Occupations Grounds maintenance workers perform most of their work outdoors and have some knowledge of plants and soils. Others whose jobs may require that they work outdoors are agricultural workers; farm ers, ranchers, and agricultural managers; forest, conservation, and logging workers; landscape architects; and biological scientists. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information on tree trimmers and prun ers, contact: >- Tree Care Industry Association, 3 Perimeter Rd., Unit I, Manchester, NH 03103-3341. Internet: http://www.TreeCareIndustry.org >- International Society of Arboriculture, P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826-3129. Internet: http://www.isa-arbor.com/careersInArboriculture/careers.aspx For information on work as a landscaping and groundskeeping worker, contact either of the following organizations: >■ Professional Landcare Network, 950 Herndon Parkway, Suite 450, Herndon, VA 20170-5528. Internet: http://www.landcarenetwork.org/ >- Professional Grounds Management Association, 720 Light Street, Bal timore, MD 21230-3850 Internet: http://www.pgms.org For information on becoming a licensed pesticide applicator, contact your State’s Department of Agriculture or Department of Environmental Protection or Conservation. Pest Control Workers (0*NET 37-2021.00) Significant Points • Federal and State laws require that pest control workers be licensed. • Training on the safe use of pest control products and a passing score on an examination are required for licen • sure, Job prospects should be favorable for qualified appli cants because many people leave the occupation. Nature of the Work Roaches, rats, mice, spiders, termites, fleas, ants, and bees—few people welcome them into their homes or offices. Unwanted crea tures that infest households, buildings, or surrounding areas are pests that can pose serious risks to human health and safety. It is a pest control worker’s job to eliminate them. Pest control workers locate, identify, destroy, control, and re pel pests. They use their knowledge of pests’ biology and habits, along with an arsenal of pest management techniques—applying chemicals, setting traps, operating equipment, and even modifying structures—to alleviate pest problems. Part of pest control may require pesticide application. Pest control workers use two different types of pesticides—general use and restricted use. General use pesticides are the most widely used and are readily available; in diluted concentrations they are available Service Occupations i ■Ml ... -v! MM ■p- 383 Fumigators are applicators who control pests using poisonous gases called fumigants. Fumigators pretreat infested buildings by examining, measuring, and sealing the buildings. Then, using cyl inders, hoses, and valves, they fill structures with the proper amount and concentration of fumigant. They also monitor the premises during treatment for leaking gas. To prevent accidental fumigant exposure, fumigators padlock doors and post warning signs. Pest control supervisors, also known as operators, direct service technicians and certified applicators. Supervisors are licensed to apply pesticides, but they usually are more involved in running the business. Supervisors are responsible for ensuring that employees obey rules regarding pesticide use, and they must resolve any problems that arise with regulatory officials or customers. Most States require each pest control establishment to have a supervisor; self-employed business owners usually are supervisors. Working Conditions Pest control workers need extensive training to work with pest control chemicals. to the public. Restricted use pesticides are available only to certified professionals for controlling the most severe infestations. Their registration, labeling, and application are regulated by Federal law, interpreted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), because of their potential harm to pest control workers, customers, and the environment. Pesticides are not pest control workers’ only tool, however. Pest control workers increasingly use a combination of pest man agement techniques, known as integrated pest management. One method involves using proper sanitation and creating physical barriers, for pests cannot survive without food and will not infest a building if they cannot enter it. Another method involves using baits, some of which destroy the pests, and others that prevent them from reproducing. Yet another method involves using mechani cal devices, such as traps, that remove pests from the immediate environment. Integrated pest management is becoming popular for several reasons. First, pesticides can pose environmental and health risks. Second, some pests are becoming more resistant to pesticides in certain situations. Finally, an integrated pest management plan is more effective in the long term than use of a pesticide alone. New technology has been introduced that allows pest control workers to conduct home inspections, mainly of termites, in much less time. The technology works by implanting microchips in baiting stations, which emit signals that can tell pest control workers if there is termite activity at one of the baiting stations. Workers pick up the signals using a device similar to a metal detector and it allows them to assess much more quickly whether termites are present. Most pest control workers are employed as pest control techni cians, applicators, or supervisors. Position titles vary by State, but the hierarchy—based on training and responsibility required— remains consistent. Pest control technicians identify potential pest problems, conduct inspections, and design control strategies. They work directly with the customer. Some technicians require a higher level of training depending on their task. If certain products are used, the technician may be required to become a certified applicator. Applicators that specialize in controlling termites are called termite control technicians. They use chemicals and modify structures to eliminate termites and prevent reinfestation. To treat infested areas, termite control technicians drill holes and cut openings into buildings to access infestations, install physical barriers, or bait systems around the structure. Some termite control technicians even repair structural damage caused by termites. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pest control workers must kneel, bend, reach, and crawl to inspect, modify, and treat structures. They work both indoors and out, in all weather conditions. During warm weather, applicators may be un comfortable wearing the heavy protective gear—such as respirators, gloves, and goggles—required for working with pesticides. Almost half of all pest control workers work a 40-hour week, but 25% work more hours. Pest control workers often work evenings and weekends, but many work consistent shifts. There are health risks associated with pesticide use. Various pest control chemicals are toxic and could be harmful if not used prop erly. Health risks are minimized, however, by the extensive training required for certification and the use of recommended protective equipment, resulting in fewer reported cases of lost work. Because pest control workers travel to visit clients, the potential risk of motor vehicle accidents is another occupational hazard. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma or equivalent is the minimum qualification for most pest control jobs. Although a college degree is not required, more than 4 in 10 pest control workers have either attended college or earned a degree. Pest control workers must have basic skills in math, chemistry, and writing, either learned at school or through an employer. Because of the extensive interaction that pest control workers have with their customers, employers prefer to hire people who have good com munication and interpersonal skills. In addition, most pest control companies require their employees to have a good driving record. Pest control workers must be in good health because of the physical demands of the job, and they also must be able to withstand extreme conditions—such as the heat of climbing into an attic in the sum mertime or the chill of sliding into a crawlspace during winter. Both Federal and State laws regulate pest control workers. These laws require them to be certified through training and examination, for which most pest control firms help their employees prepare. Workers may receive both formal classroom and on-the-job train ing, but they also must study on their own. Because the pest control industry is constantly changing, workers must attend continuing education classes to maintain their certification. Requirements for pest control workers vary by State. Pest con trol workers usually begin their careers as apprentice technicians. Before performing any pest control services, apprentices must attend general training in pesticide safety and use. In addition, they must train in each pest control category in which they wish to practice. Categories may include general pest control, rodent control, termite control, fumigation, and ornamental and turf control. In many States, training usually involves spending 10 hours in the classroom and 60 hours on the job for each category. After 384 Occupational Outlook Handbook completing the required training, apprentices can provide supervised pest control services. To be eligible to become applicators, technicians must have a combination of experience and education and pass a test. This requirement is sometimes waived for individuals who have either a college degree in biological sciences or extensive related work expe rience. To become certified as applicators, technicians must pass an additional set of category exams. Depending on the State, applicators must attend additional classes eveiy 1 to 6 years to be recertified. Applicators with several years of experience often become supervi sors. To qualify as a pest control supervisor, applicators may have to pass State-administered exams and have experience in the industry, usually a minimum of 2 years. Employment Pest control workers held about 68,000 jobs in 2004; about 83 percent of workers were employed in the services to buildings and dwellings industry, which includes pest control firms. Jobs are con centrated in States with warmer climates, due to the greater number of pests in these areas that thrive year round. About 12 percent of workers were self-employed. tions limiting pesticide use will demand more complex integrated pest management strategies. Concerns about the effects of pesticide use in schools have increasingly prompted more school districts to investigate alterna tive means of pest control, such as integrated pest management. Furthermore, use of some newer materials for insulation around foundations has made many homes more susceptible to pest infesta tion. Finally, continuing population shifts to the more pest-prone sunbelt States should increase the number of households in need of pest control. Earnings Median hourly earnings of full-time wage and salary pest control workers were $12.61 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.06 and $15.97. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.13, and the top 10 percent earned over $20.19. Pest control supervisors usually earn the most and technicians the least, with earnings of certified applicators falling somewhere in between. Some pest control workers earn commissions based on the number of contracts for pest control services they sell. Others may earn bonuses for exceeding performance goals. Job Outlook Job prospects should be favorable for qualified applicants because the nature of pest control work is not universally appealing and turnover in this occupation is relatively high. Thus, in addition to job open ings arising from employment growth, opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Employment growth of pest control workers is expected to be faster than the aver age for all occupations through 2014. One factor limiting growth in this occupation, however, is the lack of sufficient numbers of workers willing to go into this field. Demand for pest control workers is projected to increase for a number of reasons. Growth in the population will generate new residential and commercial buildings that will require inspections by pest control workers. Also, more people are expected to use pest control services as environmental and health concerns, greater num bers of dual-income households, and improvements in the standard of living convince more people to hire professionals rather than attempt pest control work themselves. In addition, tougher regula Related Occupations Pesticide handlers also apply pesticides in a safe manner to lawns, trees, and other plants. Pest control workers visit homes and places of business to provide building services. Other workers who provide services to buildings include building cleaning workers; grounds maintenance workers; various construction trades workers, such as carpenters; and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechan ics and installers. Sources of Additional Information Private employment agencies and State employment services offices have information about available job opportunities for pest control workers. For information about the training and certification required in your State, contact your local office of the U.S. Department of Agriculture or your State’s Environmental Protection (or Conserva tion) Agency. Personal Care and Service Occupations Nature of the Work Animal Care and Service Workers (0*NET 39-2011.00, 39-2021.00) Significant Points • Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. • Most workers are trained on the job, but employers generally prefer to hire people who have some expe rience with animals; some jobs require a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. • Good employment opportunities are expected for most positions; however, keen competition is expected for jobs as zookeepers. • Earnings are relatively low. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, taking care of them is hard work. Animal care and service workers—which include animal caretakers and animal trainers—train, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals, and clean, disinfect, and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide companion ship, and observe behavioral changes that could indicate illness or injury. Boarding kennels, animal shelters, veterinary hospitals and clinics, stables, laboratories, aquariums, and zoological parks all house animals and employ animal care and service workers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting. Kennel attendants care for pets while their owners are working or traveling out of town. Beginning attendants perform basic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs, filling food and water dishes, and exercising animals. Experienced attendants may provide basic animal healthcare, as well as bathe animals, trim nails, and attend to other grooming needs. Attendants who work in kennels also may sell pet food and supplies, assist in obedience training, help with breeding, or prepare animals for shipping. Service Occupations Animal caretakers who specialize in grooming or maintaining a pet’s—usually a dog’s or cat’s—appearance are called groomers. Some groomers work in kennels, veterinary clinics, animal shelters, or pet-supply stores. Others operate their own grooming business, typically at a salon, or increasingly, by making house calls. Such mo bile services are growing rapidly as it offers convenience for pet own ers and flexible hours for groomers. Groomers answer telephones, schedule appointments, discuss pets’ grooming needs with clients, and collect information on the pet’s disposition and its veterinarian. Groomers often are the first to notice a medical problem, such as an ear or skin infection, that requires veterinary care. Grooming the pet involves several steps: an initial brash-out is followed by an initial clipping of hair or fur using electric clippers, combs, and grooming shears; the groomer then cuts the nails, cleans the ears, bathes, and blow-dries the animal, and ends with a final clip ping and styling. Animal caretakers in animal shelters perform a variety of duties and work with a wide variety of animals. In addition to attending to the basic needs of the animals, caretakers also must keep records of the animals received and discharged and any tests or treatments done. Some vaccinate newly admitted animals under the direction of a veterinarian or veterinary technician, and euthanize (painlessly put to death) seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Animal caretakers in animal shelters also interact with the public, answering telephone inquiries, screening applicants for animal adoption, or educating visitors on neutering and other animal health issues. litis 385 Caretakers in stables are called grooms. They saddle and unsaddle horses, give them rabdowns, and walk them to cool them off after a ride. They also feed, groom, and exercise the horses; clean out stalls and replenish bedding; polish saddles; clean and organize the tack (harness, saddle, and bridle) room; and store supplies and feed. Experienced grooms may help train horses. In zoos, animal care and service workers, called keepers, prepare the diets and clean the enclosures of animals, and sometimes assist in raising them when they are very young. They watch for any signs of illness or injury, monitor eating patterns or any changes in behavior, and record their observations. Keepers also may answer questions and ensure that the visiting public behaves responsibly toward the exhibited animals. Depending on the zoo, keepers may be assigned to work with a broad group of animals such as mammals, birds, or reptiles, or they may work with a limited collection of animals such as primates, large cats, or small mammals. Animal trainers train animals for riding, security, performance, obedience, or assisting persons with disabilities. Animal trainers do this by accustoming the animal to human voice and contact, and conditioning the animal to respond to commands. Trainers use several techniques to help them train animals. One technique, known as a bridge, is a stimulus that a trainer uses to communicate the precise moment an animal does something correctly. When the animal responds correctly, the trainer gives positive reinforcement in a variety of ways: food, toys, play, rubdowns, or speaking the word “good.” Animal training takes place in small steps, and often takes months and even years of repetition. During the condition ing process, trainers provide animals mental stimulation, physical exercise, and husbandry care. In addition to their hands-on work with the animals, trainers often oversee other aspects of the animal’s care, such as diet preparation. Trainers often work in competitions or shows, such as the circus or marine parks. Trainers who work in shows also may participate in educational programs for visitors and guests. Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physi cally and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. Most animal care and service workers have to clean animal cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. Their work often involves kneeling, crawling, repeated bending, and lifting heavy supplies like bales of hay or bags of feed. Animal caretakers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. The work setting can be noisy. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to competitions. Animal care and service workers who witness abused animals or who assist in the euthanizing of unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional distress. Those working for private humane societies and municipal animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regarding animal care. Animal care and service workers may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Hours are irregular. Animals must be fed every day, so caretakers often work weekend and holiday shifts. In some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shelters, an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Animal caretakers who specialize in grooming or maintaining a pet’s appearance are called groomers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most animal care and service workers are trained on the job; how ever, employers generally prefer to hire people who have some experience with animals. Some training programs are available 386 Occupational Outlook Handbook for specific types of animal caretakers, such as groomers, but formal training is usually not necessary for entry-level positions. Animal trainers often need to possess a high school diploma or GED equivalent. However, some animal training jobs may require a bachelor’s degree and additional skills. For example, a marine mammal trainer usually needs a bachelor’s degree in biology, ma rine biology, animal science, psychology, zoology, or related field, plus strong swimming skills and SCUBA certification. All animal trainers need patience, sensitivity, and experience with problem solving and animal obedience. Certification is not mandatory for animal trainers, but several organizations offer training programs and certification for prospective animal trainers. Most pet groomers learn their trade by completing an informal apprenticeship, usually lasting 6 to 10 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced groomer. Prospective groomers also may attend one of the 50 State-licensed grooming schools throughout the country, with programs varying in length from 2 to 18 weeks. The National Dog Groomers Association of America offers certification for master status as a groomer with a focus on four principle areas—non-sport ing, sporting, terrier, and masters. The examination consists of 400 questions with a separate part testing practical skills. Beginning groomers often start by taking on one duty, such as bathing and drying the pet. They eventually assume responsibility for the entire grooming process, from the initial brush-out to the final clipping. Groomers who work in large retail establishments or kennels may, with experience, move into supervisory or managerial positions. Experienced groomers often choose to open their own salons. Beginning animal caretakers in kennels learn on the job, and usually start by cleaning cages and feeding and watering ani mals. Kennel caretakers may be promoted to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and manager, and those with enough capital and experience may open up their own kennels. The American Boarding Kennels Association (ABKA) offers a three-stage, home-study program for individuals interested in pet care. The first two stages address basic and advanced principles of animal care, while the third stage focuses on indepth animal care and good business procedures. Those who complete the third stage and pass oral and written examinations administered by the ABKA become Certified Kennel Operators (CKO). Some zoological parks may require their caretakers to have a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. Most require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer or paid keeper in a zoo. Zookeepers may advance to senior keeper, assistant head keeper, head keeper, and assistant curator, but very few openings occur, especially for the higher level positions. Animal caretakers in animal shelters are not required to have any specialized training, but training programs and workshops are increasingly available through the Humane Society of the United States, the American Humane Association, and the National Animal Control Association. Workshop topics include cruelty investiga tions, appropriate methods of euthanasia for shelter animals, proper guidelines for capturing animals techniques for preventing problems with wildlife, and dealing with the general public. Because shelter workers often deal with individuals who abandon their pets, excel lent communication skills, including the ability to handle emotional people, is vital. With experience and additional training, caretakers in animal shelters may become adoption coordinators, animal control officers, emergency rescue drivers, assistant shelter managers, or shelter directors. Employment Animal care and service workers held 172,000 jobs in 2004. Almost 3 out of 4 worked as nonfarm animal caretakers; the remainder worked as animal trainers. Nonfarm animal caretakers worked https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis primarily in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming shops, animal hospitals, and veterinary offices. A significant number also worked for animal humane societies, racing stables, dog and horse racetrack operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amusement and recreations services. In 2004, nearly 1 out of every 3 nonfarm animal caretakers was self-employed. Employment of animal trainers was concentrated in animal services that specialize in training horses, pets, and other animal specialties; and in commercial sports, training racehorses and dogs. About 3 in 5 animal trainers were self-employed. Job Outlook Good job opportunities are expected for most positions because many workers leave this occupation each year. The need to replace workers leaving the field will create the overwhelming majority of job openings. Many animal caretaker jobs require little or no training and have flexible work schedules, attract ing people seeking their first job, students, and others looking for temporary or part-time work, including retired people. The outlook for caretakers in zoos, however, is not favorable due to slow growth in zoo capacity and keen competition for the few positions. Job opportunities for animal care and service workers may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy affects demand for these workers. Pet owners tend to spend more on animal services when the economy is strong. In addition to replacement needs, employment of animal care and service workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. The companion pet popula tion—which drives employment of animal caretakers in kennels, grooming shops, animal shelters, and veterinary clinics and hos pitals—is expected to increase. Pet owners—including a large number of baby boomers, whose disposable income is expected to increase as they age—are expected to increasingly take advan tage of grooming services, daily and overnight boarding services, training services, and veterinary services, resulting in more jobs for animal care and service workers. As many pet owners increas ingly consider their pet as part of the family, their demand for luxury animal services and willingness to spend greater amounts of money on their pet will continue to grow. Demand for animal care and service workers in animal shelters is expected to remain steady. Communities are increasingly recognizing the connection between animal abuse and abuse toward humans, and will probably continue to commit private funds to animal shelters, many of which are working hand-in-hand with social service agencies and law enforcement teams. Employment growth of personal and group animal trainers will stem from an increased number of animal owners seeking training services for their pets, including behavior modifica tion and feline behavior training. Job openings as shelter workers will continue to be driven by high turnover as the job is extremely demanding and stressful. Earnings Earnings are relatively low. Median hourly earnings of nonfarm animal caretakers were $8.39 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.16 and $10.50. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $6.17, and the top 10 percent earned more than $13.66. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of nonfarm animal caretakers in May 2004 were: Spectator sports................................................................................. $8.48 Other personal services........................................................................ 8.47 Social advocacy organizations............................................................. 8.15 Other miscellaneous store retailers..................................................... 7.95 Other professional, scientific, and technical services......................... 7.86 Service Occupations Median hourly earnings of animal trainers were $10.60 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.10 and $15.23. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $7.07, and the top lOpercent earned more than $20.62. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include farmers, ranch ers, and agricultural managers; agricultural workers; veterinarians; veterinary technologists and technicians; veterinary assistants; biological scientists; and medical scientists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on jobs in animal caretaking and control, and the animal shelter and control personnel training program, write to: >- Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20037-1598. Internet: http://www.hsus.org For career information and information on training, certification, and earnings of animal control officers at Federal, State, and local levels, contact: ► National Animal Control Association, P.O. Box 1480851, Kansas City, MO 64148-0851. Internet: www.nacanet.org For information on becoming an advanced pet care technician at a kennel, contact: >• American Boarding Kennels Association, 1702 East Pikes Peak Ave„ Colorado Springs, CO 80909. 387 A number of workers offer specialized services. Manicurists and pedicurists, called nail technicians in some States, work exclusively on nails and provide manicures, pedicures, coloring, and nail exten sions to clients. Another group of specialists is skin care specialists, or estheticians, who cleanse and beautify the skin by giving facials, full-body treatments, and head and neck massages and by removing hair through waxing. Electro log ists use an electrolysis machine to remove hair. Finally, in some larger salons, shampooers specialize in shampooing and conditioning hair. In addition to working with clients, personal appearance workers are expected to maintain clean work areas and sanitize all their work instruments. They may make appointments and keep records of hair color and permanent-wave formulas used by their regular clients. A growing number actively sell hair care products and other cosmetic sup plies. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers who operate their own salons have managerial duties that may include hiring, supervising, and firing workers, as well as keeping business and inventory records, ordering supplies, and arranging for advertising. Working Conditions Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important, because these workers are on their feet for most of their shift. Prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemicals may cause irritation, so protective clothing, such as plastic gloves or aprons, may be worn. Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers (0*NET 39-5011.00, 39-5012.00, 39-5091.00, 39-5092.00, 39-5093.00, 39-5094.00) __________________________________________________ Significant Points • Job opportunities generally should be good, but compe tition is expected for jobs and clients at higher paying salons; opportunities will be best for those licensed to provide a broad range of services. • A State license is required for barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers, with the exception of shampooers; qualifications vary by State. • About 48 percent of workers are self-employed; many also work flexible schedules. Nature of the Work Barbers and cosmetologists, also called hairdressers and hairstylists, provide hair care services to enhance the appearance of consumers. Other personal appearance workers, such as manicurists and pedi curists, shampooers, and skin care specialists provide specialized services that help clients look and feel their best. Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. They also fit hairpieces and offer scalp treatments and facial shaving. In many States, barbers are licensed to color, bleach, or highlight hair and to offer permanent-wave services. Many barbers also provide skin care and nail treatments. Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists offer beauty ser vices, such as shampooing, cutting, coloring, and styling hair. They may advise clients on how to care for their hair, how to straighten their hair or give it a permanent wave, or how to lighten or darken their hair color. In addition, cosmetologists may be trained to give manicures, pedicures, and scalp and facial treatments; provide analysis; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. Digitized formakeup FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nearly half of workers are self-employed, and many work flexible schedules. 388 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most full-time barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal ap pearance workers put in a 40-hour week, but longer hours are com mon, especially among self-employed workers. Work schedules may include evenings and weekends, the times when beauty salons and barbershops are busiest. Barbers and cosmetologists generally work on weekends and during lunch and evening hours; as a result, they may arrange to take breaks during less busy times. About 32 percent of cosmetologists and 17 percent of barbers work part time, and 14 percent of cosmetologists and 17 percent of barbers have variable schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers, with the exception of shampooers, to be li censed; however, qualifications for a license vary by State. Gener ally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school and be at least 16 years old. A few States require applicants to pass a physical examination. Some States require graduation from high school, while others require as little as an eighth-grade education. In a few States, the completion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetol ogy services. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers and cosmetologists to obtain a license in a different State without additional formal training. Such agreements are uncom mon, however, and most States do not recognize training or licenses obtained from a different State. Consequently, persons who wish to work in a particular State should review the laws of that State before entering a training program. Public and private vocational schools offer daytime or evening classes in barbering and cosmetology. Full-time programs in barber ing and cosmetology usually last 9 to 24 months, but training for manicurists and pedicurists, skin care specialists, and electrologists requires significantly less time. An apprenticeship program can last from 1 to 3 years. Shampooers generally do not need formal training or a license. Formal training programs include classroom study, demonstrations, and practical work. Students study the basic services—cutting and styling hair, chemically treating hair, shaving customers, and giving hair and scalp treatments—and, under super vision, practice on customers in school “clinics.” Students attend lectures on the use and care of instruments, sanitation and hygiene, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, and the recognition of simple skin ailments. Instruction also is provided in communication, sales, and general business practices. Experienced barbers and cosmetologists may take advanced courses in hairstyling, coloring, the sale and service of wigs and hairpieces, and sales and marketing. After graduating from a training program, students can take a State licensing examination, which consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of styling skills based on established performance criteria. A few States include an oral examination in which applicants are asked to explain the procedures they are following while taking the practical test. In many States, cosmetol ogy training may be credited toward a barbering license, and vice versa. A few States combine the two licenses into one hairstyling license. Many States require separate licensing examinations for manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. For many barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appear ance workers, formal training and a license are only the first steps in a career that requires years of continuing education. Personal appearance workers must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques as hairstyles change, new products are developed, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and services expand to meet clients’ needs. They attend training at salons, cosmetology schools, or industry trade shows. Through workshops and demonstrations of the latest techniques, industry representatives introduce cosmetologists to a wide range of products and services. As retail sales become an increasingly important part of salons’ revenue, the ability to be an effective salesperson becomes ever more vital for salon workers. Successful personal appearance workers should have an under standing of fashion, art, and technical design. They should enjoy working with the public and be willing and able to follow clients’ instructions. Communication, image, and attitude play an important role in career success. Some cosmetology schools consider “people skills” to be such an integral part of the job that they require coursework in that area. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. During their first months on the job, new workers are given relatively simple tasks or are assigned the simplest procedures. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradually permitted to perform more complicated tasks, such as coloring hair or applying permanent waves. As they continue to work in the field, more training usually is required to learn the techniques particular to each salon and to build on the basics learned in cosmetology school. Advancement usually takes the form of higher earnings as barbers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage large salons, lease booth space in salons, or open their own salons after several years of experience. Others teach in barber or cosmetology schools or provide training through vocational schools. Still others advance to become sales representatives, image or fashion consultants, or examiners for State licensing boards. Employment Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers held about 790,000 jobs in 2004. Of these, barbers, hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists held 670,000 jobs, manicurists and pedicurists 60,000, skin care specialists 30,000, and shampooers 27,000. Most of these workers are employed in beauty salons or barber shops, but they also are found in nail salons, day and resort spas, department stores, nursing and other residential care homes, and drug and cosmetics stores. Nearly every town has a barbershop or beauty salon, but employment in this occupation is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. About 48 percent of all barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers are self-employed. Many own their own salon, but a growing number lease booth space or a chair from the salon’s owner. Job Outlook Job opportunities generally should be good. However, competition is expected for jobs and clients at higher paying salons as applicants compete with a large pool of licensed and experienced cosmetolo gists for these positions. Opportunities will be best for those with previous experience and for those licensed to provide a broad range of services. Overall employment of barbers, cosmetologists, and other per sonal appearance workers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, because of an increasing population, rising incomes, and growing demand for personal ap pearance services. In addition to those arising from job growth, numerous job openings will come about from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Service Occupations Employment trends are expected to vary among the different occupational specialties. On the one hand, slower-than-average growth is expected in employment of barbers because of the large number of retirements expected over the 2004-14 projection period and because of the relatively small number of cosmetology school graduates opting to obtain barbering licenses. On the other hand, employment of hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists should grow about as fast as the average for all workers because many now cut and style both men’s and women’s hair and because the demand for hair treatment by teens and aging baby boomers is expected to remain steady or even grow. Continued growth in the number of nail salons and full-service day spas will generate numerous job openings for manicurists, pedicurists, skin care specialists, and shampooers. Employment of manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists will grow faster than the average, while employment of shampooers will grow about as fast as the average. Nail salons specialize in providing manicures and pedicures. Day spas typically provide a full range of services, including beauty wraps, manicures and pedicures, facials, and massages. Earnings A number of factors, including the size and location of the salon, clients’ tipping habits, and competition from other barber shops and salons, determine the total income of barbers, cosmetolo gists, and other personal appearance workers. They may receive commissions based on the price of the service, or a salary based on the number of hours worked, and many receive commissions on the products they sell. In addition, some salons pay bonuses to employees who bring in new business. A cosmetologist’s or barber’s initiative and ability to attract and hold regular clients also are key factors in determining his or her earnings. Earnings for entry-level workers are usually low; however, for those who stay in the profession, earnings can be considerably higher. Although some salons offer paid vacations and medical benefits, many self-employed and part-time workers in this occupation do not enjoy such benefits. Median annual earnings in May 2004 for salaried hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists, including tips and commission, were $19,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 15,480 and $26,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,920, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,990. Median annual earnings in May 2004 for salaried barbers, in cluding tips, were $21,200. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,380 and $30,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,950, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,170. Among skin care specialists, median annual earnings, including tips, were $ 24,010, for manicurists and pedicurists $18,500, and for shampooers $14,610. Related Occupations Other workers who provide a personal service to clients and usu ally must be professionally licensed or certified include massage therapists and fitness workers. Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements for cosmetologists may be obtained from: >- National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sci ences, 4401 Ford Ave., Suite 1300, Alexandria, VA 22302. Internet: http ://www.naccas.org Information about a career in cosmetology is available from: ► National Cosmetology Association, 401 N. Michigan Ave., 22nd floor, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncacares.org Digitized forChicago, FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 389 For details on State licensing requirements and approved barber or cosmetology schools, contact the State boards of barber or cos metology examiners in your State. Child Care Workers (0*NET 39-9011.00) Significant Points • About 1 out of 3 child care workers are self-employed; most of these are family child care providers. • Training requirements vary from a high school diploma to a college degree, although a high school diploma and little or no experience are adequate for many jobs. • Many workers leave these jobs every year, creating good job opportunities. Nature of the Work Child care workers nurture and care for children who have not yet entered formal schooling and also work with older children in be fore- and after-school situations. These workers play an important role in a child’s development by caring for the child when parents are at work or away for other reasons. In addition to attending to children’s basic needs, child care workers organize activities that stimulate children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children explore individual interests, develop talents and independence, build self-esteem, and learn how to get along with others. Child care workers generally are classified in three different groups, depending on the setting in which they work: Workers who care for children at the children’s home, called private household workers; those who care for children in their own home, called family child care providers; and those that work at separate child care centers and centers that provide preschool services to 3- and 4-year-old children. Private household workers who are employed on an hourly basis usually are called babysitters. These child care workers bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play; wash their clothes; and clean their rooms. Babysitters also may put children to bed and wake them, read to them, involve them in educational games, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Nannies work full or part lime for a single family. They generally take care of children from birth to age 10 or 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs, and also may perform the duties of a housekeeper, including cleaning and laundry. Family child care providers often work alone with a small group of children, though some work in larger settings with multiple adults. Child care centers generally have more than one adult per group of children; in groups of older children, a child care worker may assist a more experienced preschool teacher. Most child care workers perform a combination of basic care and teaching duties, but the majority of their time is spent on caregiving activities. Workers whose primary responsibility is teaching are clas sified as preschool teachers, covered in the separate Handbook state ment on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary. However, many basic care activities also are opportunities for children to learn. For example, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoelace teaches the child while also providing for that child’s basic care needs. Child care programs help children leam about trust and gain a sense of security. 390 Occupational Outlook Handbook Child care workers spend most of their day working with children. However, they do maintain contact with parents or guardians through informal meetings or scheduled conferences to discuss each child’s progress and needs. Many child care workers keep records of each child’s progress and suggest ways in which parents can stimulate their child’s learning and development at home. Some child care centers and before- and after-school programs actively recruit parent volunteers to work with the children and participate in administrative decisions and program planning. Young children learn mainly through play. Child care workers recognize this and capitalize on children’s play to further language development (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills (working together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and intro duce scientific and mathematical concepts (balancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). Often a less structured approach is used to teach young children, including small-group lessons; one-on-one instruction; and creative activities such as art, dance, and music. Child care workers play a vital role in preparing children to build the skills they will need in school. Child care workers in child care centers or family child care homes greet young children as they arrive, help them to remove outer garments, and select an activity of interest. When caring for infants, they feed and change them. To ensure a well-balanced pro gram, child care workers prepare daily and long-term schedules of activities. Each day’s activities balance individual and group play, as well as quiet and active time. Children are given some freedom to participate in activities in which they are interested. Concern over school-aged children being home alone before and after school has spurred many parents to seek alternative ways for their children to constructively spend their time. The purpose of before- and afterschool programs is to watch over school-aged children during the gap between school hours and their parents’ work hours. These programs also may operate during the summer and on weekends. Workers in before- and after-school programs may help students with their homework or engage them in other extracurricular activities. These activities may include field trips, learning about computers, painting, photography, and participating in sports. Some child care workers may be responsible for taking children to school in the morning and picking them up from school in the afternoon. Before- and afterschool programs may be operated by public school systems, local community centers, or other private organizations. Helping keep young children healthy is an important part of the job. Child care workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They ensure that children have proper rest periods. They identify children who may not feel well and, in some cases, may help parents locate programs that will provide basic health services. Child care workers also watch for children who show signs of emotional or developmental problems and discuss these matters with their supervisor and the child’s parents. Early identification of children with special needs—such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabili ties—is important to improve their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with these preschool children to provide the individual attention they need. (Special education teachers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Helping children grow, learn, and gain new skills can be very reward ing. Child care workers help to improve children’s communication, learning, and other personal skills. The work is sometimes routine; however, new activities and challenges mark each day. Child care can be physically and emotionally taxing, as workers constantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child’s interests and problems. To ensure that children in child care centers receive proper supervi sion, State or local regulations may require a certain ratio of workers to children. The ratio varies with the age of the children. Child development experts generally recommend that a single caregiver be responsible for no more than 3 or 4 infants (less than 1 year old), 5 or 6 toddlers (1 to 2 years old), or 10 preschool-aged children (between 2 and 5 years old). In before- and afterschool programs, workers may be responsible for many school-aged children at a time. Family child care providers work out of their own homes. While this arrangement provides convenience, it also requires that their homes be accommodating to young children. Private household workers usually work in the pleasant and comfortable homes or apartments of their employers. Most are day workers who live in their own homes and travel to work, though some live in the home of their employer, generally with their own room and bath. They often become part of their employer’s family and may derive satisfaction from caring for the family. The work hours of child care workers vary widely. Child care centers usually are open year round, with long hours so that parents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Some centers employ full-time and part-time staff with staggered shifts to cover the entire day. Some workers are unable to take regular breaks during the day due to limited staffing. Public and many pri vate preschool programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Fam ily child care providers have flexible hours and daily routines, but they may work long or unusual hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Live-in nannies usually work longer hours than do those who have their own homes. However, although nannies may work evenings or weekends, they usually get other time off. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Child care workers help young children learn and develop through play. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The training and qualifications required of child care workers vary widely. Each State has its own licensing requirements that regu Service Occupations late caregiver training; these range from a high school diploma to community college courses to a college degree in child development or early childhood education. State requirements are generally higher for workers at child care centers than for family child care providers; child care workers in private settings who care for only a few children often are not regulated by States at all. Child care workers generally can obtain some form of employment with a high school diploma and little or no experience, but certain private firms and publicly funded programs have more demanding training and education requirements. Some employers prefer to hire child care workers who have earned a nationally recognized Child Development Associate (CDA) credential or the Certified Childcare Professional designation, have taken secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early childhood education, or have work experience in a child care setting. Other employers require their own specialized training. An increasing number of employers require an associate degree in early childhood education. Child care workers must anticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, provide fair but firm discipline, and be enthusiastic and constantly alert. They must communicate ef fectively with the children and their parents, as well as with other teachers and child care workers. Workers should be mature, patient, understanding, and articulate and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling also are important. Self-employed child care workers must have business sense and 391 temporarily to fulfill family responsibilities, to study, or for other reasons. Others leave permanently because they are interested in pursuing other occupations or because of dissatisfaction with hours, low pay and benefits, and stressful conditions. Employment of child care workers is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The number of women in the labor force of childbearing age (widely considered to be ages 15 to 44) and the number of children under 5 years of age are both expected to rise over the next 10 years. Also, the proportion of children being cared for exclusively by parents or other relatives is likely to continue to decline, spurring demand for additional child care workers. Concern about the behavior of school-aged children during nonschool hours also should increase demand for before- and afterschool programs and child care work ers to staff them. The growth in demand for child care workers will be moder ated, however, by an increasing emphasis on early childhood education programs. While only a few States currently pro vide targeted or universal preschool programs, many more are considering or currently implementing such programs. There also is likely to be a rise in enrollment in private preschools as the value of formal education before kindergarten becomes more widely accepted. Since the majority of workers in these programs are classified as preschool teachers, this growth in preschool enrollment will mean that relatively fewer child care workers will be needed for children old enough to participate management abilities. Opportunities for advancement are limited. However, as child care workers gain experience, some may advance to su pervisory or administrative positions in large child care centers or preschools. Often, these positions require additional training, such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Other workers move on to work in resource and referral agencies, consulting with parents on available child services. A few workers become involved in policy or advocacy work related to child care and early childhood education. With a bachelor’s degree, workers may become preschool teachers or become certified to teach in public or private schools. Some workers set up their own child in preschool. care businesses. Other residential care facilities........................................................ $9.66 Elementary and secondary schools.................................................. 9.22 Civic and social organizations.......................................................... 7.62 Other amusement and recreation industries..................................... 7.58 Child day care services..................................................................... 7.34 Employment Child care workers held about 1.3 million jobs in 2004. Many worked part time. About 1 out of 3 child care workers were selfemployed; most of these were family child care providers. Seventeen percent of all child care workers are found in child day care services, and about 21 percent work for private households. The remainder worked primarily in local government educational ser vices; nursing and residential care facilities; religious organizations; amusement and recreation industries; private educational services; civic and social organizations; individual and family services; and local government, excluding education and hospitals. Some child care programs are for-profit centers; some of these are affiliated with a local or national chain. Religious institutions, community agencies, school systems, and State and local governments operate nonprofit programs. A very small percentage of private industry establishments operate onsite child care centers for the children of their employees. Job Outlook High replacement needs should create good job opportunities for child care workers. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Many child care workers must be replaced each year as they leave the occupation https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Pay depends on the educational attainment of the worker and the type of establishment. Although the pay generally is very low, more education usually means higher earnings. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary child care workers were $8.06 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.75 and $10.01. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.90, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.34. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of child care workers in 2004 were as follows: Earnings of self-employed child care workers vary depending on the hours worked, the number and ages of the children, and the location. Benefits vary, but are minimal for most child care workers. Many employers offer free or discounted child care to employees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insurance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Live-in nannies receive free room and board. Related Occupations Child care work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, organiza tional, and administrative skills. Others who work with children and need these qualities and skills include teacher assistants; teachers —preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and teachers—special education. 392 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For an electronic question-and-answer service on child care, in formation on becoming a child care provider, and other resources, contact: >- National Child Care Information Center, 243 Church St. NW„ 2nd floor, Vienna, VA 22180. Internet: http://www.nccic.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Development Associate credential, contact: > Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20009-3575. Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Certified Childcare Professional designation, contact: ► National Child Care Association, 1016 Rosser St., Conyers, GA 30012. Internet: http://www.nccanet.org For information about a career as a nanny, contact: >- International Nanny Association, 191 Clarksville Rd., Princeton Junction, NJ 08550-3111. Telephone (tollfree): 888-878-1477. Internet: http://www.nanny.org State departments of human services or social services can supply State regulations and training requirements for child care workers. Fitness Workers exercise instructors are responsible for ensuring that their classes are motivating, safe, and challenging, yet not too difficult for the participants. Fitness directors oversee the fitness-related aspects of a health club or fitness center. Their work involves creating and maintain ing programs that meet the needs of the club’s members, including new member orientations, fitness assessments, and workout in centive programs. They also select fitness equipment; coordinate personal training and group exercise programs; hire, train, and supervise fitness staff; and carry out administrative duties. Fitness workers in smaller facilities with few employees may perform a variety of functions in addition to their fitness duties, such as tending the front desk, signing up new members, giving tours of the fitness center, writing newsletter articles, creating posters and flyers, and supervising the weight training and cardiovascular equipment areas. In larger commercial facilities, personal trainers are often required to sell their services to members and to make a specified number of sales. Some fitness workers may combine the duties of group exercise instructors and personal trainers, and in smaller facilities, the fitness director may teach classes and do personal training. (Workers in a related occupation—athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers—participate in organized sports; this occupation is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) (Q*NET 39-9031.00) Working Conditions Significant Points • Many group fitness and personal training jobs are part time, but many workers increase their hours by work ing at several different facilities or at clients’ homes. • Night and weekend working hours are common. • Most fitness workers need to be certified. • Employment prospects are expected to be good be cause of rapid growth in the fitness industry. Nature of the Work Fitness workers lead, instruct, and motivate individuals or groups in exercise activities, including cardiovascular exercise, strength training, and stretching. They work in commercial and nonprofit health clubs, country clubs, hospitals, universities, yoga and Pilates studios, resorts, and clients’ homes. Increasingly, fitness workers also are found in workplaces, where they organize and direct health and fitness programs for employees of all ages. Although gyms and health clubs offer a variety of exercise activi ties such as weightlifting, yoga, cardiovascular training, and karate, fitness workers typically specialize in only a few areas. Personal trainers work one-on-one with clients either in a gym or in the client’s home. Trainers help clients assess their level of physical fitness and set and reach fitness goals. Train ers also demonstrate various exercises and help clients improve their exercise techniques. Trainers may keep records of their clients’ exercise sessions to assess clients’ progress toward physical fitness. Group exercise instructors conduct group exercise sessions that involve aerobic exercise, stretching, and muscle conditioning. Because cardiovascular conditioning classes often involve move ment to music, outside of class instructors must choose and mix the music and choreograph a corresponding exercise sequence. Pilates and yoga are two increasingly popular conditioning methods taught in exercise classes. Instructors demonstrate the different moves and positions of the particular method; they also observe students and correct those who are doing the exercises improperly. Group https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most fitness workers spend their time indoors at fitness centers and health clubs. Fitness directors and supervisors, however, typically spend most of their time in an office, planning programs and special events and tending to administrative issues. Those in smaller fitness centers may split their time among the office, personal training, and teaching classes. Directors and supervisors generally engage in less physical activity than do lower-level fit ness workers. Nevertheless, workers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activities. Since most fitness centers are open long hours, fitness workers often work nights and weekends and even occasional holidays. Some may have to travel from place to place throughout the day, to different gyms or to clients’ homes, to maintain a full work schedule. Fitness workers generally enjoy a lot of autonomy. Group exer cise instructors choreograph or plan their own classes, and personal trainers have the freedom to design and implement their clients’ workout routines. IPS Personal trainers work one-on-one with their clients to help them achieve their fitness goals. Service Occupations Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Personal trainers must obtain certification in the fitness field to gain employment, while group fitness instructors do not necessarily need certification to begin working. The most important characteristic that an employer looks for in a new group fitness instructor is the ability to plan and lead a class that is motivating and safe. Group fitness instructors often get started by participating in exercise classes, and some become familiar enough to successfully audi tion and begin teaching class. They also may improve their skills by taking training courses or attending fitness conventions. Most organizations encourage their group instructors to become certified, and many require it. In the fitness field, there are many organizations—some of which are listed in the last section of this statement—that offer certification. Becoming certified by one of the top certification organizations is increasingly important, especially for personal trainers. One way to ensure that a certifying organization is reputable is to see whether it is accredited or seeking accreditation by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. Most certifying organizations require candidates to have a high school diploma, be certified in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and pass an exam. All certification exams have a writ ten component, and some also have a practical component. The exams measure knowledge of human physiology, proper exercise techniques, assessment of client fitness levels, and development of appropriate exercise programs. There is no particular train ing program required for certifications; candidates may prepare however they prefer. Certifying organizations do offer study materials, including books, CD-ROMs, other audio and visual materials, and exam preparation workshops and seminars, but exam candidates are not required to purchase materials to sit for the exams. Certification generally is good for 2 years, after which workers must become recertified by attending continuing education classes. Some organizations offer more advanced certification, requiring an associate or bachelor’s degree in an exercise-related subject for individuals interested in training athletes, working with people who are injured or ill, or advising clients on whole-life health. Training for Pilates and yoga teachers is changing. Because interest in these forms of exercise has exploded in recent years, the demand for teachers has grown faster than the ability to train them properly. However, because inexperienced teachers have contributed to student injuries, there has been a push toward more standardized, rigorous requirements for teacher training. Pilates and yoga teachers usually do not need group exercise certifications like the ones described above. It is more important that they have specialized training in their particular method of exercise. For Pilates, training options range from weekendlong workshops to year-long programs, but the trend is toward requiring more training. The Pilates Method Alliance has estab lished training standards that recommend at least 200 hours of training; the group also has standards for training schools and maintains a list of training schools that meet the requirements. However, some Pilates teachers are certified group exercise instructors who go through short Pilates workshops; currently, many fitness centers hire people with minimal Pilates training if the applicants have a fitness certification and group fitness experience. Training requirements for yoga teachers are similar to those for Pilates teachers. Training programs range from a few days to more than 2 years. Many people get their start by taking yoga; eventually, their teachers may consider them suited to assist or to substitute teach. Some students may begin teaching their classes when their yoga teachers think they are ready; the Digitized forown FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 393 teachers may even provide letters of recommendation. Those who wish to pursue teaching more seriously usually then pursue formal teacher training. Currently, there are many training pro grams through the yoga community as well as programs through the fitness industry. The Yoga Alliance has established training standards of at least 200 training hours, with a specified number of hours in areas including techniques, teaching methodology, anatomy, physiology, and philosophy. The Yoga Alliance also registers schools that train students to the standards. Because some schools may meet the standards but not be registered, prospective students should check the requirements and decide if particular schools meet them. An increasing number of employers require fitness workers to have a bachelor’s degree in a field related to health or fitness, such as exercise science or physical education. Some employers allow workers to substitute a college degree for certification, but most employers who require a bachelor’s degree require both a degree and certification. People planning fitness careers should be outgoing, good at moti vating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Excellent health and physical fitness are important due to the physical nature of the job. Those who wish to be personal trainers in a large commercial fitness center should have strong sales skills. Fitness workers usually do not receive much on-the-job training; they are expected to know how to do their jobs when they are hired. The exception is newly certified personal trainers with no work expe rience, who sometimes begin by working alongside an experienced trainer before being allowed to train clients alone. Workers may receive some organizational training to learn about the operations of their new employer. They occasionally receive specialized training if they are expected to teach or lead a specific method of exercise or focus on a particular age or ability group. A bachelor’s degree, and in some cases a master’s degree, in exercise science, physical education, kinesiology, or a related area, along with experience, usually is required to advance to manage ment positions in a health club or fitness center. As in many fields, managerial skills are needed to advance to supervisory or managerial positions. College courses in management, business administra tion, accounting, and personnel management may be helpful for advancement to supervisory or managerial jobs, but many fitness companies have corporate universities in which they train employees for management positions. Personal trainers may advance to head trainer, with responsi bility for hiring and overseeing the personal training staff and for bringing in new personal training clients. Group fitness instructors may be promoted to group exercise director, responsible for hiring instructors and coordinating exercise classes. A next possible step is the fitness director, who manages the fitness budget and staff. The general manager’s main focus is on the financial aspect of the organization, particularly setting and achieving sales goals; in a small fitness center, however, the general manager usually is involved with all aspects of running the facility. Some workers go into business for themselves and open their own fitness centers. Employment Fitness workers held about 205,000jobs in 2004. Almost all personal trainers and group exercise instructors worked in physical fitness facilities, health clubs, and fitness centers, mainly in the amusement and recreation industry or in civic and social organizations. About 7 percent of fitness workers were self-employed; many of these were personal trainers, while others were group fitness instructors working on a contract basis with fitness centers. Many fitness jobs are part time, and many workers hold multiple jobs, teaching and/or 394 Occupational Outlook Handbook doing personal training at several different fitness centers and at clients’ homes. Job Outlook Opportunities are expected to be good for fitness workers because of rapid growth in the fitness industry. Many job openings also will stem from the need to replace the large numbers of workers who leave these occupations each year. Employment of fitness workers—who are concentrated in the rap idly growing arts, entertainment, and recreation industry—is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. An increasing number of people spend more time and money on fitness, and more businesses are recognizing the benefits of health and fitness programs and other services such as wellness programs for their employees. Aging baby boomers are concerned with staying healthy, physi cally fit, and independent. They have become the largest demographic group of health club members. The reduction of physical education programs in schools, combined with parents’ growing concern about childhood obesity, has resulted in rapid increases in children’s health club membership. Increasingly, athletic youth also are hiring personal trainers, and weight-training gyms for children younger than 18 are expected to continue to grow. Health club membership among young adults also has grown steadily, driven by concern with physical fitness and by rising incomes. As health clubs strive to provide more personalized service to keep their members motivated, they will continue to offer personal training and a wide variety of group exercise classes. Participation in yoga and Pilates is expected to continue to grow, driven partly by the aging population demanding low-impact forms of exercise and relief from ailments such as arthritis. Earnings Median annual earnings of personal trainers and group exercise in structors in May 2004 were $25,470. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,380 and $40,030. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $14,530 while the top 10 percent earned $55,560 or more. Earnings of successful self-employed personal trainers can be much higher. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of fitness workers in May 2004 were as follows: Other amusement and recreation industries...................................... $28,670 Other schools and instruction............................................................... 22,320 Civic and social organizations............................................................. 20,530 Because many fitness workers work part time, they often do not receive benefits such as health insurance or retirement plans from their employers. They do get the unusual benefit of the use of fitness facilities at no cost. Related Occupations Occupations that focus on physical fitness, as do fitness workers, include athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about fitness careers, and to find universi ties and other institutions offering programs in health and fitness, contact: ► IDEA Health and Fitness Association, 10455 Pacific Center Crt San Diego, CA 92121-4339. For information about personal trainer and group fitness instmctor certifications, contact: >- American Council on Exercise, 4851 Paramount Dr., San Diego, CA 92123. Internet: http://www.acefitness.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis > American College of Sports Medicine, P.O. Box 1440, Indianapolis, IN 46206-1440. Internet: http://www.acsm.org >- National Academy of Sports Medicine, 26632 Agoura Rd., Calabasas, CA91302. Internet: http://www.nasm.org >- National Strength and Conditioning Association Certification Commission, 3333 Landmark Circle, Lincoln, NE 68504. Internet: http://www.nsca-cc.org For information about Pilates certification, and to find training programs, contact: >- Pilates Method Alliance, P.O. Box 370906, Miami, FL 33137-0906. Internet: http://www.pilatesmethodalliance.org For information on yoga teacher training, and to find training programs, contact: > Yoga Alliance, 7801 Old Branch Ave., Suite 400, Clinton, MD 20735. Internet: http://www.yogaalliance.org To find accredited fitness certification programs, contact: > National Commission for Certifying Agencies, 2025 M St., NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.noca.org/ncca/accredorg.htm Flight Attendants (0*NET 39-6031.00) Significant Points • Job duties are learned through formal on-the-job training. • Competition for positions will remain strong because the opportunity for travel attracts more applicants than there are jobs, with only the most qualified being hired. • A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement; however, applicants with a college degree and with experience in dealing with the public are likely to have the best employment opportunities. Nature of the Work Major airlines are required by law to provide flight attendants for the safety of the traveling public. Although the primary job of the flight attendants is to ensure that safety regulations are followed, attendants also try to make flights comfortable and enjoyable for passengers. At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain—the pilot in command—on such things as emergency evacuation procedures, coordination of the crew, the length of the flight, expected weather conditions, and special issues having to do with passengers. Flight attendants make sure that first-aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order and that the passenger cabin is in order, with adequate supplies of food, beverages, and any other provided amenities. As passengers board the plane, flight attendants greet them, check their tickets, and tell them where to store carry-on items. Before the plane takes off, flight attendants instruct all pas sengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that seatbelts are fastened, seat backs are in upright positions, and all carry-on items are properly stowed. In the air, helping passengers in the event of an emergency is the most important responsibility of a flight attendant. Safety-related actions may range from reassuring passengers during rough weather to directing passengers who must evacuate a plane following an emergency landing. Flight attendants also answer questions about the flight; distribute reading material, pillows, and blankets; and help small children, elderly or disabled persons, and any others needing assistance. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Flight attendants gener Service Occupations ally serve beverages and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals or snacks. Prior to landing, flight attendants take inventory of headsets, alcoholic beverages, and moneys collected. They also report any medical problems passengers may have had, the condition of cabin equipment, and lost and found articles. Lead, or first, flight attendants, sometimes known as pursers, oversee the work of the other attendants aboard the aircraft, while performing most of the same duties. Working Conditions Because airlines operate around the clock and year round, flight attendants may work nights, holidays, and weekends. In most cases, agreements between the airline and the employees’ union determine the total daily and monthly working time. Scheduled on-duty time usually is limited to 12 hours per day although some contracts provide daily actual maximums of 14 hours, with somewhat greater maximums for international flying. At tendants usually fly 65 to 90 hours a month and, in addition, generally spend about 50 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes to arrive. They may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses. 1 ST! »m ,... ■:..... ■ V ' • J . gpsagH alii Flight attendants are required, by law, on major airlines in order to the safety of the traveling public. Digitized forensure FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 395 Flight attendants must be flexible, reliable, and willing to relocate. However, many flight attendants elect to live in one place and com mute to their assigned home base. Home bases and routes worked are bid for on a seniority basis. The longer the flight attendant has been employed, the more likely he or she is to work on chosen flights. Almost all flight attendants start out working on reserve status or on call. On small corporate airlines, flight attendants often work on an as-needed basis and must adapt to varying environments and passengers. The combination of free time and discount airfares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Flight attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient, regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Oc casionally, flight attendants must deal with disruptive passengers. Also, turbulent flights can add to possible difficulties regarding service, including potential injuries to passengers. Working in a moving aircraft leaves flight attendants susceptible to injuries. For example, back injuries and mishaps can occur when opening overhead compartments or while pushing heavy service carts. In addition, medical problems can arise from irregular sleeping and eating patterns, dealing with stressful passengers, working in a pressurized environment, and breathing recycled air. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Airlines prefer to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can interact comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Applicants usually must be at least 18 to 21 years old, although some carriers may have higher minimum-age requirements. Flight attendants must have excellent health and the ability to speak clearly. All U.S. airlines require that applicants be citizens of the United States or registered aliens with legal rights to obtain employment in the United States. Airlines usually have physical and appearance requirements. There are height requirements for reaching overhead bins, which often contain emergency equipment, and most airlines want can didates with weight proportionate to height. Vision is required to be correctable to 20/30 or better with glasses or contact lenses (uncorrected no worse than 20/200). Men must have their hair cut above the collar and be clean shaven. Airlines prefer applicants with no visible tattoos, body piercing, or unusual hairstyles or makeup. A high school diploma is the minimum educational requirement. However, airlines increasingly prefer applicants with a college degree and with experience in dealing with the public. Applicants who attend schools and colleges that offer flight attendant training may have an advantage over other applicants. Highly desirable areas of concentration include people-oriented disciplines such as psychology and education. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak a foreign language fluently. For their international flights, some of the major airlines prefer candidates who can speak two major foreign languages. In addition to education and training, airlines conduct a thorough background check as required by the FAA, which goes back as many as 10 years. Everything about an applicant is investigated, including date of birth, employment history, criminal record, school records, and gaps in employment. Employment is contingent on a successful background check. An applicant will not be offered a job or will be immediately dismissed if his or her background check shows any discrepancies. Once hired, all candidates must undergo a period of formal training. The length of training, ranging from 3 to 8 weeks, depends on the size and type of carrier and takes place at the airline’s flight training center. Airlines that do not operate training 396 Occupational Outlook Handbook centers generally send new employees to the center of another airline. Some airlines may provide transportation to the training centers and an allowance for room, board, and school supplies, while other airlines charge individuals for training. New trainees are not considered employees of the airline until they success fully complete the training program. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, operating emergency systems and equipment, administering first aid, and surviving in the water. In addition, trainees are taught how to deal with disruptive passengers and with hijacking and terrorist situations. New hires learn flight regulations and duties, gain knowledge of company operations and policies, and receive instruction on per sonal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regula tions. Trainees must perform many drills and duties unaided, in front of the training staff. Throughout training, they also take tests designed to eliminate unsuccessful trainees. Toward the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Upon suc cessful completion of training, flight attendants receive the FAA’s Certificate of Demonstrated Proficiency. Flight attendants also are required to go through periodic retraining and pass an FAA safety examination to continue flying. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New flight attendants are placed on reserve status and are called either to staff extra flights or to fill in for crewmembers who are sick, on vacation, or rerouted. When they are not on duty, reserve flight attendants must be available to report for flights on short notice. They usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year, but, in some cities, it may take 5 to 10 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Flight attendants who no longer are on reserve bid monthly for regular assignments. Because assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of assignments. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced flight attendants are remaining in this career longer than they used to. Some flight attendants become supervisors or take on additional duties such as recruiting and instmeting. Their experience also may qualify them for numerous airline-related jobs involving contact with the public, such as reservation ticket agent or public-relations specialist. Employment Flight attendants held about 102,000 jobs in 2004. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of flight attendants, most of whom lived in their employer’s home-base city. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that operated aircraft for business purposes. Job Outlook In the long run, opportunities for persons seeking flight attendant jobs should improve as the airline industry continues to recover from the effects of September 11, 2001, and the downturn in the economy. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Population growth and an improving economy are expected to boost the number of airline passengers. As airlines expand their capacity to meet rising demand by increasing the number and size of planes in operation, more flight attendants will be needed. Over the next decade, however, demand for flight attendants will fluctuate with the demand for air travel, which is highly sensitive to swings in the economy. During downturns, as air traffic declines, the hiring of flight attendants declines, and some experienced attendants may be laid off until traffic recovers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Despite the improving outlook, competition is expected to be keen because this job usually attracts more applicants than there are jobs, with only the most qualified eventually being hired. College graduates who have experience dealing with the public should have the best chance of being hired. Job opportunities may be better with the faster growing regional and commuter, low-fare, and charter airlines. There also are job opportunities for professionally trained flight attendants to work for companies operating private aircraft for their executives. The majority of job openings through the year 2014 will arise from the need to replace flight attendants who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations, often for higher earnings or a more stable lifestyle. With the job now viewed increasingly as a profession, however, fewer flight attendants leave their jobs, and job turnover is not as high as in the past. The average job tenure of attendants is currently more than 7 years and is increasing. Earnings Median annual earnings of flight attendants were $43,440 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,310 and $67,590. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $95,850. According to data from the Association of Flight Attendants, beginning attendants had median earnings of about $15,552 a year in 2004. Beginning pay scales for flight attendants vary by carrier, however. New hires usually begin at the same pay scale regardless of experience, and all flight attendants receive the same future pay increases based on an established pay scale. Flight attendants receive extra compensation for increased hours. Further, some airlines offer incentive pay for working holidays, night and international flights, or taking positions that require additional responsibility or paperwork. Most airlines guarantee a minimum of 65 to 85 flight hours per month, with the option to work additional hours. Flight attendants also receive a “per diem” allowance for meal expenses while on duty away from home. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to free or discounted fares on their own airline and reduced fares on most other airlines. Some airlines require that the flight at tendant be with an airline for 3 to 6 months before taking advantage of this benefit. Other benefits may include medical, dental, and life insurance; 401K or other retirement plan; sick leave; paid holidays; stock options; paid vacations; and tuition reimbursement. Flight attendants are required to purchase uniforms and wear them while on duty. The airlines usually pay for uniform replacement items, and may provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. The majority of flight attendants hold union membership, pri marily with the Association of Flight Attendants. Other unions that represent flight attendants include the Transport Workers Union of America and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional, while requiring the ability to be calm even under trying circumstances, in clude emergency medical technicians and paramedics and firefighting occupations. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities and qualifications required for work at a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the airline’s human resources office. For further information on flight attendants, contact: ► Association of Flight Attendants, 501 Third St. NW„ Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.afanet.org Service Occupations 397 Gaming Services Occupations___ (0*NET 39-1011.00, 39-1012.00, 39-3011.00, 39-3012.00, 39-3019.99, 39-3099.99) MUi| Significant Points • Job opportunities are available nationwide and are no longer limited to Nevada and New Jersey. • Workers need a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission; licensure requires proof of residency in the State in which gaming workers are employed. • Employment is projected to grow faster than average. • Job prospects are best for those with a degree or certifi cation in gaining or a hospitality-related field, previous training or experience in casino gaming, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. Nature of the Work Legalized gambling in the United States today includes casino gam ing, State lotteries, pari-mutuel wagering on contests such as horse or dog racing, and charitable gaming. Gaming, the playing of games of chance, is a multibillion-dollar industry that is responsible for the creation of a number of unique service occupations. The majority of all gaming services workers are employed in casinos. Their duties and titles may vary from one establishment to another. Despite differences in job title and task, however, work ers perform many of the same basic functions in all casinos. Some positions are associated with oversight and direction—supervision, surveillance, and investigation—while others involve working with the games or patrons themselves, performing such activities as tend ing slot machines, handling money, writing and running tickets, and dealing cards or running games. Like nearly every business establishment, casinos have workers who direct and oversee day-to-day operations. Gaming supervi sors oversee the gaming operations and personnel in an assigned area. They circulate among the tables and observe the operations to ensure that all of the stations and games are covered for each shift. It is not uncommon for gaming supervisors to explain and interpret the operating rules of the house to patrons who may have difficulty understanding the rules. Gaming supervisors also may plan and organize activities to create a friendly atmosphere for the guests staying in their hotels or in casino hotels. Periodically, they address and adjust complaints about service. Some gaming occupations demand specially acquired skills— dealing blackjack, for example—that are unique to casino work. Others require skills common to most businesses, such as the ability to conduct financial transactions. In both capacities, the workers in these jobs interact directly with patrons in attending to slot machines, making change, cashing or selling tokens and coins, writing and running for other games, and dealing cards at table games. Part of their responsibility is to make those interactions enjoyable. Slot key persons coordinate and supervise the slot department and its workers. Their duties include verifying and handling payoff winnings to patrons, resetting slot machines after completing the payoff, and refilling machines with money. Slot key persons must be familiar with a variety of slot machines and be able to make minor repairs and adjustments to the machines as needed. If major repairs are required, slot key persons determine whether the slot machine should be removed from the floor. Working the floor as frontline personnel, they enforce safety rules and report hazards. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' -r ” ' dv Mff ■ .S L % Gaming service workers must keep track ofall the money’ being paid to and received from patrons. Gaming and sportsbook writers and runners assist in the opera tions of games such as bingo and keno, in addition to taking bets on sporting events. They scan tickets presented by patrons and calculate and distribute winnings. Some writers and runners oper ate the equipment that randomly selects the numbers. Others may announce numbers selected, pick up tickets from patrons, collect bets, or receive, verify, and record patrons’ cash wagers. Gaming dealers operate table games such as craps, blackjack, and roulette. Standing or sitting behind the table, dealers provide dice, dispense cards to players, or run the equipment. Some dealers also monitor the patrons for infractions of casino rules. Gaming dealers must be skilled in customer service and in executing their game. Dealers determine winners, calculate and pay winning bets, and collect losing bets. Because of the fast-paced work environment, most gaming dealers are competent in at least two games, usually blackjack and craps. Working Conditions The atmosphere in casinos is generally filled with fun and often considered glamorous. However, casino work can also be physically demanding. Most occupations require that workers stand for long periods; some require the lifting of heavy items. The atmosphere in casinos exposes workers to certain hazards, such as cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be distracting to some, although workers wear protective headgear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. Most casinos are open 24 hours a day, seven days a week and offer three staggered shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no minimum educational requirements for entry-level gaming jobs, although most employers prefer at least a high school diploma or GED. Each casino establishes its own requirements for education, training, and experience. Some of the major casinos and slot manufacturers run their own training schools, and almost all provide some form of in-house training in addition to requiring certification. The type and quantity of classes needed may vary. Many institutions of higher learning give training toward certificates in gaming, as well as offering an associate, bachelor’s, or master’s degree in a hospitality-related field such as hospitality management, hospitality administration, or hotel management. Some schools offer training in games, gam ing supervision, slot attendant and slot repair technician work, slot department management, and surveillance and security. 398 Occupational Outlook Handbook Gaming services workers are required to have a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or com mission. Applicants for a license must provide photo identification, offer proof of residency in the State in which they anticipate work ing, and pay a fee. Age requirements vary by State. The licensing application process also includes a background investigation. In addition to possessing a license, gaming services workers need superior customer service skills. Casino gaming workers provide entertainment and hospitality to patrons, and the quality of their service contributes to an establishment’s success or failure. There fore, gaming workers need good communication skills, an outgoing personality, and the ability to maintain their composure even when dealing with angry or demanding patrons. Personal integrity also is important, because workers handle large amounts of money. Gaming services workers who manage money should have some experience handling cash or using calculators or computers. For such positions, most casinos administer a math test to assess an applicant’s level of competency. Most gaming supervisors have experience in. other gaming occupations, typically as dealers, and have a broad knowledge of casino rules, regulations, procedures, and games. While an associate or bachelor’s degree is beneficial, it is not a requirement for most positions. Gaming supervisors must have strong leadership, orga nizational, and communication skills. Excellent customer service and employee skills also are necessary. Slot key persons do not need to meet formal educational require ments to enter the occupation, but completion of slot attendant or slot technician training is helpful. As with most other gaming workers, slot key persons receive on-the-job training during the first several weeks of employment. Gaming and sportsbook writers and runners must have at least a high school diploma or GED. Most of these workers receive on-the-job training. Because gaming and sportsbook writers and runners work closely with patrons, they need excellent customer service skills. Most gaming dealers acquire their skills by attending a dealer school or vocational and technical school. Most of these schools are found in Nevada and New Jersey. They teach the rules and proce dures of the games as well as State and local laws and regulations. Graduation from one of these schools does not guarantee a job at many casinos, however, as most casinos require prospective dealers to also audition for open positions. During the audition, personal qualities are assessed along with knowledge of the games. Experi enced dealers, who often are able to attract new or return business, have the best job prospects. Dealers with more experience are placed at the “high-roller” tables. Advancement opportunities in casino gaming depend less on workers’ previous casino duties and titles than on their ability and eagerness to learn new jobs. For example, an entry-level gaming worker eventually might advance to become a dealer or card room manager or to assume some other supervisory position. casinos, including land-based or riverboat casinos, in 11 States: Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, and South Dakota. The largest num ber works in casinos in Nevada, and the second-largest group works in similar establishments in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Mississippi, which boasts the greatest number of riverboat casinos in operation, employs the most workers in that venue. In addition, there are 28 States with Indian casinos. Legal lotteries are held in 40 States and the District of Columbia, and pari-mutuel wagering is legal in 40 States. Forty-seven States and the District of Columbia also allow charitable gaming. Other States have recently passed legislation to permit gambling, but no casinos have been opened as of yet. For most workers, gaming licensure requires proof of residency in the State in which gaming workers are employed. But some gam ing services workers do not limit themselves to one State or even one country, finding jobs on the small number of casinos located on luxury cruise liners that travel the world. These individuals live and work aboard the vessel. Job Outlook With demand for gaming showing no sign of waning, employment in gaming services occupations is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Even during the recent downturn in the economy, revenues at casinos have risen. In ad dition, the increasing popularity and prevalence of Indian casinos, particularly in California, and pari-mutuel casinos will provide sub stantial job openings that were not available in the past. With many States benefiting from casino gambling in the form of tax revenue or agreements with Indian tribes, additional States are reconsider ing their opposition to legalized gambling and will likely approve the construction of more casinos and other gaming establishments during the next decade. Some job growth will occur in established gaming areas in Nevada and Atlantic City, New Jersey, but most of the openings in these locations will come from job turnover. The increase in gaming reflects growth in the population and in its disposable income, both of which are expected to continue. Higher expectations for customer service among gaming patrons also should result in more jobs for gaming services workers. Job prospects in gaming services occupations will be best for those with previous casino gaming experience, a degree or techni cal or vocational training in gaming or a hospitality-related field, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. As a direct result of increasing demand for additional table games in gaming establishments, the most rapid growth is expected among gaming dealers. However, there are generally more applicants than jobs for dealers, creating keen competition for jobs. In addition to job openings arising from employment growth, opportunities will result from the need to replace workers transferring to other occupations or leaving the labor force. Earnings Gaming services occupations provided 177,000 jobs in 2004. Em ployment by occupational specialty was distributed as follows: Wage earnings for gaming services workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, and size of the gaming establishment. The following were median earnings for various gaming services occupations in May 2004: Gaming dealers............................................................................. Gaming supervisors...................................................................... Slot key persons............................................................................ Gaming and sports book writersand runners................................ Gaming service workers, all other................................................ 83,000 38,000 23,000 18,000 15,000 Gaming supervisors...................................................................... $40,840 Slot key persons............................................................................ 23,010 Gaming service workers, all other.............................................. 20,820 Gaming and sports bookwriters and runners................................ 18,390 Gaming dealers............................................................................. 14,340 Gaming services workers are found mainly in the traveler accom modation and gaming industries. Most are employed in commercial Gaming dealers generally receive a large portion of their earn ings from tokes, which are tips in the form of tokens received from Employment https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations players. Earnings from tokes can vary depending on the table games the dealer operates and the personal traits of the dealer. Related Occupations Many other occupations provide hospitality and customer service. Some examples of related occupations are security guards and gam ing surveillance officers, sales worker supervisors, cashiers, gaming change persons and booth cashiers, retail salespersons, gaming cage workers, and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in gaming, visit your public library and your State gaming regulatory agency or casino control commission. Information on careers in gaming also is available from: > American Gaming Association, 555 13th St. NW., Suite 1010 East, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.americangaming.org Personal and Home Care Aides (0*NET 39-9021.00) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent because of rapid growth in home health care and high replace ment needs. Skill requirements are low, as is the pay. 399 and of clients’ condition and progress. They report changes in the client’s condition to the supervisor or case manager. In carrying out their work, aides cooperate with health care professionals, including registered nurses, therapists, and other medical staff. Working Conditions The personal and home care aide’s daily routine may vary. Aides may go to the same home every day for months or even years. However, most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Aides often visit four or five clients on the same day. Surroundings differ from case to case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, whereas others are untidy and depressing. Some clients are pleasant and cooperative; others are angry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult. Personal and home care aides generally work on their own, with periodic visits by their supervisor. They receive detailed instruc tions explaining when to visit clients and what services to perform for them. About one-third of aides work part time, and some work weekends or evenings to suit the needs of their clients. Aides are individually responsible for getting to the client’s home. They may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one client to another. Because mechanical lifting devices that are available in institutional settings are seldom available in patients’ homes, aides must be careful to avoid overexertion or injury when they assist clients. — — About 33 percent of personal and home care aides work part time; most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Nature of the Work Personal and home care aides help elderly, disabled, ill, and mentally disabled persons live in their own homes or in residen tial care facilities instead of in health facilities. Most personal and home care aides work with elderly or physically or mentally disabled clients who need more extensive personal and home care than family or friends can provide. Some aides work with families in which a parent is incapacitated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs. (Home health aides—who pro vide health-related services, rather than mainly housekeeping and routine personal care—are discussed in the statement on nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides, elsewhere in the mm Handbook.) Personal and home care aides—also called homemakers, caregiv ers, companions, and personal attendants—provide housekeeping and routine personal care services. They clean clients’ houses, do laundry, and change bed linens. Aides may plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and cook. Aides also may help clients get out of bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Some accompany clients to doctors’ appointments or on other errands. Personal and home care aides provide instruction and psychologi cal support to their patients. They may advise families and patients on nutrition, cleanliness, and household tasks. Aides also may assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child, or they may just listen to clients talk about their problems. In home health care agencies, a registered nurse, physical thera pist, or social worker assigns specific duties and supervises personal and home care aides. Aides keep records of services performed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most aides provide routine personal care and housekeeping services to elderly or disabled patients. 400 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Earnings In some States, the only requirement for employment is on-the-job training, which generally is provided by most employers. Other States may require formal training, which is available from com munity colleges, vocational schools, elder care programs, and home health care agencies. The National Association for Home Care and Hospice (NAHC) offers national certification for personal and home care aides. Certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry standards. Certification requires the completion of a standard 75-hour course and written exam developed by NAHC. Home care aides seeking certification are evaluated on 17 different skills by a registered nurse. Personal and home care aides should have a desire to help people and not mind hard work. They should be responsible, compassionate, emotionally stable, and cheerful. In addition, aides should be tactful, honest, and discreet because they work in private homes. Aides also must be in good health. A physical examination, including State-man dated tests such as those for tuberculosis, may be required. A criminal background check also may be required for employment. Additionally, personal and home care aides are responsible for their own transporta tion to reach patients’ homes. Advancement for personal and home care aides is limited. In some agencies, workers start out performing homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on personal care duties. Some aides choose to receive additional training to become nursing and home health aides, licensed practical nurses, or registered nurses. Some experienced personal and home care aides may start their own home care agency. Median hourly earnings of personal and home care aides were $8.12 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.83 and $9.70 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.93, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.87 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of personal and home care aides in May 2004 were as follows: Employment Personal and home care aides held about 701,000 jobs in 2004. The majority of jobs were in home health care services; individual and family services; residential care facilities; and private house holds. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or super vision and accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. Job Outlook Excellent job opportunities are expected for this occupation, because rapid employment growth and high replacement needs are projected to produce a large number of job openings. Employment of personal and home care aides is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The number of elderly people, an age group characterized by mounting health problems and requiring some assistance with daily activities, is projected to rise substantially. In addition to the elderly, other patients, such as the mentally disabled, will increasingly rely on home care. This trend re flects several developments, including efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing care facilities as quickly as possible; the realization that treatment can be more effective in familiar rather than clinical surroundings; and the development and improvement of medical technologies for in-home treatment. In addition to job openings created by the increase in demand for these workers, replacement needs are expected to lead to many openings. The relatively low skill requirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work result in high replacement needs. For these same reasons, many people are reluctant to seek jobs in the occupation. Therefore, persons who are interested in and suited for this work—particularly those with experience or training as personal care, home health, or nursing aides-—should have excel lent job prospects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities....................................................... $9.09 Vocational rehabilitation services..................................................... 8.76 Community care facilities for the elderly......................................... 8.49 Individual and family services.......................................................... 8.48 Home health care services................................................................ 6.99 Most employers give slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Aides usually are paid only for the time they work in the home, not for travel time between jobs. Employers often hire on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits. Related Occupations Personal and home care aides combine the duties of caregivers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help others include childcare workers; nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; occupational therapist assistants and aides; physical therapist assistants and aides; and social and hu man service assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing care facilities, home health care agencies, psychiatric facilities, residential mental health facilities, social assis tance agencies, and local offices of the State employment service. Recreation Workers (0*NET 39-9032.00) Significant Points • Educational requirements for recreation workers range from a high school diploma to a graduate degree. • Competition will remain keen for full-time career posi tions in recreation. • The recreation field offers an unusually large number of part-time and seasonal job opportunities. Nature of the Work People spend much of their leisure time participating in a wide variety of organized recreational activities, such as arts and crafts, the per forming arts, camping, and sports. Recreation workers plan, organize, and direct these activities in local playgrounds and recreation areas, parks, community centers, religious organizations, camps, theme parks, and tourist attractions. Increasingly, recreation workers also are being found in workplaces, where they organize and direct leisure activities for employees. Recreation workers hold a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Recreation leaders, who are responsible for a recreation program’s daily operation, primarily organize and direct participants. They may lead and give instruction in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; schedule the use of facilities; keep records of equipment use; and ensure that recreation facilities and equip- Service Occupations 401 Working Conditions ditm 'SLr*. Recreation workers may work in a variety of settings—for example, a cruise ship, a woodland recreational park, a summer camp, or a playground in the center of a large urban community. Regardless of the setting, most recreation workers spend much of their time outdoors and may work in a variety of weather conditions. Recreation directors and supervisors, however, typically spend most of their time in an of fice, planning programs and special events. Directors and supervisors generally engage in less physical activity than do lower level recreation workers. Nevertheless, recreation workers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activities. Many recreation workers work about 40 hours a week. People enter ing this field, especially camp counselors, should expect some night and weekend work and irregular hours. Many recreation jobs are seasonal. HHi1 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement ;; A lifesaving certificate is a prerequisite for teaching or coaching water-related activities. ment are used properly. Workers who provide instruction and coach groups in specialties such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis may be called activity specialists. Recreation supervisors oversee recreation leaders and plan, organize, and manage recreational ac tivities to meet the needs of a variety of populations. These workers often serve as liaisons between the director of the park or recreation center and the recreation leaders. Recreation supervisors with more specialized responsibilities also may direct special activities or events or oversee a major activity, such as aquatics, gymnastics, or performing arts. Directors of recreation and parks develop and manage comprehensive recreation programs in parks, playgrounds, and other settings. Directors usually serve as technical advisors to State and local recreation and park commissions and may be responsible for recreation and park budgets. (Workers in a related occupation, recreational therapists, help individuals to recover from or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems; this occupa tion is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Camp counselors lead and instruct children and teenagers in outdoor-oriented forms of recreation, such as swimming, hiking, horseback riding, and camping. In addition, counselors provide campers with specialized instruction in subjects such as archery, boating, music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, and computers. In resi dent camps, counselors also provide guidance and supervise daily living and general socialization. Camp directors typically supervise camp counselors, plan camp activities or programs, and perform the various administrative functions of a camp. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Educational requirements for recreation workers range from a high school diploma—or sometimes less for those seeking many summer jobs—to graduate degrees for some administrative positions in large public recreation systems. Full-time career professional positions usually require a college degree with a major in parks and recreation or leisure studies, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient for some jobs in the private sector. In industrial recreation, or “employee services” as it is more commonly called, companies prefer to hire those with a bachelor’s degree in recreation or leisure studies and a background in business administration. Specialized training or experience in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, is an asset for many jobs. Some jobs also require certification. For example, a lifesaving certificate is a prerequisite for teaching or coaching water-related activities. Gradu ates of associate’s degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other human services disciplines also enter some career recreation positions. High school graduates occasionally enter career positions, but this is not common. Some college students work part time as recreation workers while earning degrees. A bachelor’s degree in a recreation-related discipline and ex perience are preferred for most recreation supervisor jobs and are required for higher level administrative jobs. However, an increasing number of recreation workers who aspire to administrative positions are obtaining master’s degrees in parks and recreation, business administration, or public administration. Certification in the rec reation field may be helpful for advancement. Also, many persons in other disciplines, including social work, forestry, and resource management, pursue graduate degrees in recreation. Programs leading to an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in parks and recreation, leisure studies, or related fields are offered at several hundred colleges and universities. Many also offer master’s or doctoral degrees in the field. In 2004, about 100 bachelor’s degree programs in parks and recreation were accredited by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and practice of park and recreation management. Courses offered include community organization; supervision and administration; recreational needs of special populations, such as the elderly or disabled; and supervised fieldwork. Students may specialize in areas such as therapeutic recreation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or com mercial recreation, or camp management. The NRPA certifies individuals for professional and technical jobs. Certified Park and Recreation Professionals must pass an exam; earn a bachelor’s degree with a major in recreation, park resources, or leisure services from a program accredited by the NRPA and the American Association for Leisure and Recreation; or earn a bachelor’s degree and have at least 5 years of relevant full-time work experience. Continuing education is necessary to remain certified. 402 Occupational Outlook Handbook Persons planning recreation careers should be outgoing, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of others. Excellent health and physical fitness are often required, due to the physical nature of some jobs. Volunteer experience, part-time work during school, or a summer job can lead to a full-time career as a recreation worker. As in many fields, managerial skills are needed to advance to supervisory or managerial positions. The large number of temporary, seasonal jobs in the recreation field typically are filled by high school or college students, gener ally do not have formal education requirements, and are open to anyone with the desired personal qualities. Employers compete for a share of the vacationing student labor force, and although salaries in recreation often are lower than those in other fields, the nature of the work and the opportunity to work outdoors are attractive to many. Employment Recreation workers held about 310,000 jobs in 2004, and many ad ditional workers held summer jobs in the occupation. Of those with year-round jobs as recreation workers, about 35 percent worked for local governments, primarily in park and recreation departments. Around 11 percent of recreation workers were employed in civic and social organizations, such as the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts or the Red Cross. Another 15 percent of recreation workers were employed by nursing and other personal care facilities. The recreation field has an unusually large number of part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs, including summer camp counselors, craft specialists, and afterschool and weekend recreation program leaders. In addition, many teachers and college students accept jobs as recreation workers when school is not in session. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local day camp programs, or in youth organizations, camps, nursing homes, hospitals, senior centers, and other settings. Job Outlook Competition will remain keen for career positions as recreation workers because the field attracts many applicants and because the number of career positions is limited compared with the number of lower level seasonal jobs. Opportunities for staff positions should be best for persons with formal training and experience gained in part-time or seasonal recreation jobs. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative positions. Job openings also will stem from the need to replace the large numbers of workers who leave the occupation each year. Overall employment of recreation workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. People will spend more time and money on recreation, spurring growth in civic and social organizations and, to a lesser degree, State and local government. Much growth will be driven by retiring baby boomers, who, with more leisure time, high disposable income, and concern for health and fitness, are expected to increase their consumption of rec reation services. Job growth also will be driven by rapidly increasing employment in nursing and residential care facilities. Employment growth may be inhibited, however, by budget constraints that local governments may face over the 2004-14 projection period. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings In May 2004, median annual earnings of recreation workers who worked full time were $19,320. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,640 and $25,380. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $13,260, while the highest paid 10 percent earned $34,280 or more. However, earnings of recreation directors and others in supervisory or managerial positions can be substantially higher. Most public and private recreation agencies provide full-time recreation workers with typical benefits; part-time workers receive few, if any, benefits. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of recreation workers were as follows: Nursing care facilities................................................................... $20,660 Local government ........................................................................ 19,650 Individual and family services...................................................... 19,260 Other amusement and recreation industries.................................. 17,060 Civic and social organizations...................................................... 16,950 Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity when dealing with people. Other occupations that require similar per sonal qualities include counselors, probation officers and correc tional treatment specialists, psychologists, recreational therapists, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on jobs in recreation, contact employers such as local government departments of parks and recreation, nursing and personal care facilities, the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts, or local social or religious organizations. For information on careers, certification, and academic programs in parks and recreation, contact: >- National Recreation and Park Association, Division of Professional Services, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd., Ashbum, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org For career information about camp counselors, contact: >- American Camping Association, 5000 State Road 67 North, Martinsville, IN 46151-7902. Internet: http://www.acacamps.org Sales and Related Occupations Advertising Sales Agents (0*NET 41-3011.00) Significant Points • Overall earnings are higher than average but can vary considerably because they are usually based on a salary plus performance-based commissions and bonuses. • Pressure to meet monthly sales quotas can be stressful. Nature of the Work Advertising sales agents—often referred to as account executives or advertising sales representatives—sell or solicit advertising, in cluding graphic art, advertising space in publications, custom-made signs, or television and radio advertising time. More than half of all advertising sales agents work in the information sector, mostly for media firms, including television and radio broadcasters, print and Internet publishers, and cable program distributors. Other agents work for firms engaged in direct mail advertising or display and outdoor advertising, such as billboards and signs. Because most revenue for magazines, newspapers, directories, and broadcasters is generated from advertising, advertising sales agents play an im portant role in their success. Outside sales agents call on clients and prospects at their place of business. They may have an appointment, or they may practice “cold calling,” arriving without an appointment. Inside sales agents work on their employer’s premises and handle sales to customers who walk in or telephone the firm to inquire about advertising. Some also may make telephone sales calls—calling prospects, attempting to sell the media firm’s advertising space or time, and arranging follow-up appointments between interested prospects and outside sales agents. Advertising sales agents should not be confused with telemarketers, whose duties are limited solely to soliciting orders for goods or services over the telephone and who work primarily in call centers that provide telemarketing services on contract. Within the advertising and related services industry, media rep resentative firms sell advertising space or time for media owners, including print and Internet publishers, radio and television stations, and cable systems. Media representative firms maintain offices in major cities and employ their own teams of advertising sales agents. These agents work exclusively with the executives at advertising agencies, called media buyers, who purchase advertising space for their clients. Media representative firms may represent any num ber of publications and radio or television stations, selling space to advertising agencies with clients who want to initiate a national advertising campaign or place advertisements outside their local market. Sales agents employed in media representation normally do not cultivate new advertisers but maintain contacts with existing advertisers through the advertising agencies. A local television or radio station or publication would have a national sales manager to promote its best interests and coordinate the efforts of all the media representative firms on its behalf. Local sales agents are employed by local publications or radio and television stations and are responsible for sales in a local territory. For these sales agents, obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job, and they may spend much of their time traveling to and visiting prospective advertisers and current clients. During a sales call, they https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis discuss the client’s advertising needs and suggest how their products and services can meet those needs. Acritical part of building arelationship with a client is to find out as much as possible about the client and its products. Sales agents inquire about the client’s current customers, prospective customers, and the geographic area of the target market. During the first meeting with a client, sales agents gather back ground information and explain how specific types of advertising will help promote a client’s products or services most effectively. Next, the advertising sales agent prepares an advertising proposal to present to the client. This entails determining the advertising medium to be used, preparing sample advertisements, and providing clients with estimates of the cost of the proposal. Consolidation in the media industries has brought the sale of different types of ad vertising under one roof. Sales are increasingly made of integrated packages that include advertisements to be placed in print, online, and with a broadcast subsidiary. After a contract has been established, advertising sales agents serve as the main contact between the client and the firm. They handle communication between the parties and assist the client in developing sample artwork or radio and television spots. They also arrange for commercial taping sessions and may accompany clients to the sessions. Beyond selling, advertising sales agents have other duties as well. They analyze sales statistics, prepare reports, and handle the scheduling of their appointments and work hours. They read about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. In many firms, the advertising sales agent handles the drafting of contracts specifying the advertising work to be performed and its cost, as well as the billing and record keeping for their customers’ accounts—which may include customer service responsibilities such as answering questions or addressing any problems the client may have with the proposal. Sales agents also are responsible for developing sales tools, promotional plans, and media kits, which they use to help make the sale. Working Conditions Selling can be stressful work because income and job security de pend directly on the agent’s ability to maintain and expand clientele. Companies generally set monthly sales quotas and place considerable Calling clients to obtain new accounts is important to an advertising sales agent’s success. 403 404 Occupational Outlook Handbook pressure on advertising sales agents to meet those quotas. The added stress of rejection places more pressure on the agent. Many advertising sales agents work more than 40 hours per week. Although the hours are long and often irregular, most have the freedom to determine their own schedule. The Internet and other electronic tools allow agents to do more work from home or while on the road, enabling them to send messages and documents to clients and coworkers, keep up with industry news, and access databases that help them target potential customers. Advertising sales agents use e-mail to conduct much of the business with their clients. Use of e-mail has considerably shortened the time it takes to negotiate a sale and place the ad. Sales agents may accomplish more in less time, but many work more hours than in the past, spending additional time on follow-up and service calls. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some employers prefer applicants with a college degree, particularly for sales positions that require meeting with clients. Courses in marketing, leadership, communication, business, and advertising are helpful. For those who sell over the telephone or who have a proven record of successfully selling other products, a high school degree may be sufficient. After gaining entry into the occupation, successful sales experience becomes more important than education when looking for a position. In general, smaller companies are more willing to hire unproven individuals. Personality traits are equally important as academic back ground. Because they represent their employers to the executives of client organizations, advertising sales agents must have excel lent interpersonal and written communication skills. Employers look for applicants who possess a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat professional appearance. Self-motivation, organiza tion, persistence, independence, and the ability to multitask are required because advertising sales agents set their own schedules and perform their duties without much supervision. Training takes place mainly on the job. In most cases, an experienced sales manager instructs a newly hired advertising sales agent who lacks sales experience. In this one-on-one environment, the supervisor typically coaches the new hire and observes as she makes sales calls and contacts clients. The super visor then advises the new hire on ways to improve. To conduct more specialized training—for example, in selling to a particular market segment, such as real estate professionals or automotive dealers—the employer may bring in a consultant. Advancement in the occupation means taking on bigger, more important clients. Agents with proven leadership ability and a strong sales record may advance to supervisory and managerial positions such as sales supervisor, sales manager, or vice president of sales. Frequent contact with managers of other departments and people in other firms provides sales agents with leads about job openings, enhancing advancement opportunities. In small firms, where the number of supervisory and management positions is limited, advancement may come slowly. Promotion may occur more quickly in large firms. Employment Advertising sales agents held over 154,000 jobs in 2004. Workers were concentrated in three industries: More than 3 in 10 jobs were in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; 3 in 10 in advertising and related services; and 2 in 10 in radio and televi sion broadcasting. A relatively small number of jobs were found in specialized design services, including industrial and graphic designers; printing and related support activities; computer systems design and related services; business support services; and cable and other program distribution. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment was spread around the country, but jobs in larger, well-known publications or radio and television stations were concentrated in big cities. Media representative firms also were concentrated in large cities with many advertising agencies. Part-time employment of advertising sales agents was most common in advertising and related services and less common in publishing and radio and television broadcasting. Self-em ployment also was more common in advertising and related services. Overall, relatively few advertising sales agents were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of advertising sales agents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014 because of growth in population and advertising revenue.* Ris ing demand for advertising sales agents also will stem from fast growth in cable systems and from the expansion of firms into the growing Hispanic market. The industries employing advertising sales agents experienced considerable consolidation in recent years, and that trend is expected to continue over the next decade, although at a slower pace. This consolidation is not expected to affect employment of advertising sales agents significantly because prospective clients still will re quire sales agents to create and demonstrate advertising proposals. Technology has made advertising sales agents more productive, allowing them to take on additional duties and improve the quality of the services they provide, without substantially lessening overall demand. Productivity gains have occurred mostly in the account ing, proposal creation, and customer service responsibilities of sales agents, allowing them to provide improved services. In addition to the job openings generated by employment growth, openings will occur each year because of the need to replace sales representatives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Each year, many advertising sales agents discover they are unable to earn enough money and leave the occupation. As a result, job opportunities should be good, especially for those with a college degree or a proven sales record. Advertising revenues are sensitive to economic downturns, which cause the industries and companies that advertise to reduce both the frequency of campaigns and the overall level of spending on advertising. Advertising sales agents must work hard to get the most out of every dollar spent on advertising under these conditions. Therefore, the number of job opportunities for advertising sales agents fluctuates with the business cycle. Earnings Most employers pay a combination of salaries, commissions, and bonuses. Commissions are usually based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. For agents covering multiple areas or regions, commissions also may be based on the difficulty in making a sale in that particular area. Sales revenue is affected by the economic conditions and business expectations facing the industries that tend to advertise. Earnings from commissions are likely to be high when these industries are doing well, low when companies decide not to advertise as frequently. Median annual earnings for all advertising sales agents were $40,300 including commissions, in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,740 and $59,880 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,720 a year. Median annual earnings for sales agents in May 2004 in the industries employing the largest numbers of them were as follows: Sales and Related Occupations Advertising and related services................................................... $44,900 Radio and television broadcasting................................................ 38,980 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers............... 35,090 In addition to their earnings, advertising sales agents usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plans, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and frequent flier mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Related Occupations Advertising sales agents must have sales ability and knowledge of their clients’ needs and businesses. Workers in other occupations requiring these skills include advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; insurance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; sales engineers; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information For information about advertising sales careers in newspaper pub lishing, contact: >■ The Newspaper Association of America, 1921 Gallows Rd., Suite 600, Vienna, VA 22182. Internet: http://www.naa.org Cashiers (0*NET 41-2011.00,41-2012.00) Significant Points • Cashiers are trained on the job; this occupation pro vides opportunities for many young people with no previous work experience. • Nearly one-half of all cashiers work part time. • Despite projected slower-than-average employment growth, good employment opportunities are expected because of the large number of workers who leave this occupation each year. • Many cashiers start at minimum wage. 405 the store’s policies and procedures for each type of payment the store accepts. For checks and charges, they may request additional identification from the customer or call in for an authorization. They must verify the age of customers purchasing alcohol or tobacco. When the sale is complete, cashiers issue a receipt to the customer and return the appropriate change. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. At the end of their shifts, they once again count the drawers’ con tents and compare the totals with sales data. An occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked but, in many establishments, repeated shortages are grounds for dismissal. In addition to count ing the contents of their drawers at the end of their shifts, cashiers usually separate and total charge forms, return slips, coupons, and any other noncash items. Most cashiers now use scanners and computers, but some estab lishments still require price and product information to be entered manually. In a store with scanners, a cashier passes a product’s Universal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, cashiers manually enter codes into computers, and descriptions of the items and their prices appear on the screen. Depending on the type of establishment, cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets, for example, cashiers weigh produce and bulk food, as well as return unwanted items to the shelves. In convenience stores, cashiers may be required to know how to use a variety of machines other than cash registers, and how to furnish money orders and sell lottery tickets. Operating ticket-dispensing machines and answering customers’ questions are common duties for cashiers who work at movie theaters and ticket agencies. In casinos, gaming change persons and booth cashiers exchange coins and tokens and may issue payoffs. They may also operate a booth in the slot-machine area and furnish change persons with a money bank at the start of the shift, or count and audit money in drawers. Working Conditions Nearly one-half of all cashiers work part time. Hours of work often vary depending on the needs of the employer. Generally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accom modate customers’ needs. However, many employers offer flexible schedules. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, gasoline service stations, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses employ cashiers to register the sale of their merchandise. Most cashiers total bills, receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers usually are assigned to a register at the beginning of their shifts and are given drawers containing a specific amount of money with which to start—their “tills.” They must count their tills to ensure that they con tain the correct amount of money and adequate supplies of change. Cashiers also handle returns and exchanges. They must ensure that returned merchandise is in good condition, and determine where and when it was purchased and what type of payment was used. After entering charges for all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the customer’s bill and take payment. Acceptable forms of payment include cash, personal checks, credit cards, and debit cards. Cashiers must know https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cashiers handle money and ineract with customers face-to-face. 406 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in booths or behind counters. In addition, they often are unable to leave their worksta tions without supervisory approval because they are responsible for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious, but improvements in workstation design are being made to combat problems caused by repetitive motion. In addition, the work can sometimes be dangerous; cashiers’ risk from robberies and homicides is much higher than that of the total workforce, although more safety precautions are being taken to help deter robbers. Gaming change persons and booth cashiers can expect a safer work environment than cashiers in other industries. However, casinos are not without their hazards such as exposure to fumes from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes and noise from slot machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry-level positions requiring little or no previous work experience. Although there are no specific educa tional requirements, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer applicants with high school diplomas. Gaming change persons and booth cashiers are required to obtain a license and background check from their State’s gaming board and must meet a certain age requirement, usually set at 21 years old. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small businesses, an experienced worker often trains beginners. The trainee spends the first day observing the operation and becoming familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures. After this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of an expe rienced worker. In larger businesses, trainees spend several days in classes before being placed at cash registers. Topics typically covered in class include a description of the industry and the company, store policies and procedures, equipment operation, and security. Training for experienced workers is not common, except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, the employer or a representative of the equipment manufac turer trains workers on the job. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repeti tious work accurately. They also need basic mathematics skills and good manual dexterity. Because cashiers deal constantly with the public, they should be neat in appearance and able to deal tactfully and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some businesses prefer to hire persons who can operate specialized equipment or who have business experience, such as typing, selling, or handling money. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash-office clerk. In addition, this job offers a good opportunity to learn about an employer’s business and can serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. cupations or leave the labor force. There is substantial movement into and out of the occupation because education and training requirements are minimal, and the predominance of part-time jobs is attractive to people seeking a short-term source of income rather than a full-time career. Historically, workers under the age of 25 have filled many of the openings in this occupation—in 2004, almost fifty percent of all cashiers were 24 years of age or younger. Some establishments have begun hiring elderly and disabled persons to fill some of their job openings. Cashier employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The rising popularity of purchasing goods online may reduce the employment growth of cashiers, although many customers still prefer the tra ditional method of purchasing goods at stores. Also, the growing use of self-service check-out systems in retail trade, especially at grocery stores, should have an adverse effect on employment of cashiers. These self-checkout systems may outnumber checkouts with clerks in the future in many establishments. The impact on employment growth of cashiers will largely depend on the public’s acceptance of the new self-service technology. Job opportunities may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy affects demand for cashiers. Companies tend to hire more persons for such jobs when the economy is strong. Seasonal demand for cashiers also causes fluctuations in employment. Opportunities will be strong for gaming cashiers as more States legalize casinos and gaming becomes more popular. An increasing number of gaming venues and high turnover in this occupation will generate many job openings. However, many casinos are finding ways to use less cash in their operations, particularly the slot machines, which now generate tickets that can be accepted by other slot machines. Earnings Many cashiers start at the Federal minimum wage, which was $5.15 an hour in 2005. Some State laws set the minimum wage higher, and establishments must pay at least that amount. Wages tend to be higher in areas in which there is intense competition for workers. Median hourly earnings of cashiers, except gaming in May 2004 were $7.81. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.72 and $9.10 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.91, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.30 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cashiers in May 2004 were: Grocery stores.................................................................................... $7.90 Department stores.............................................................................. 7.89 Other general merchandise stores..................................................... 7.85 Health and personal care stores......................................................... 7.68 Gasoline stations................................................................................ 7.54 Employment Cashiers held about 3.5 million jobs in 2004. Of these, 29,000 were employed as gaming change persons and booth cashiers. Although cashiers are employed in almost every industry, 27 percent of all jobs were in food and beverage stores. Gasoline stations, department stores, other retail establishments, and restaurants also employed large numbers of these workers. Outside of retail establishments, many cashiers worked in amusement, gambling, and recreation industries, local government, and personal and laundry services. Be cause cashiers are needed in businesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are found throughout the country. Job Outlook Opportunities for full-time and part-time cashier jobs should continue to be good, because of employment growth and the need Digitized FRASER to for replace the large number of workers who transfer to other oc https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median hourly earnings for gaming cashiers in May 2004 were $9.87. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.23 and $ 11.74 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.07, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 13.51 an hour. Benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than those for cashiers working part time. In addition to typical benefits, those working in retail establishments often receive discounts on pur chases, and cashiers in restaurants may receive free or low-cost meals. Some employers also offer employee stock-option plans and education-reimbursement plans. Related Occupations Cashiers accept payment for the purchase of goods and services. Other workers with similar duties include tellers, counter and rental clerks, food and beverage serving and related workers, gaming cage Sales and Related Occupations workers, Postal Service workers, and retail salespersons, all of whom are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. 407 code and display a description of the item on a computer screen. However, clerks must ensure that the data on the screen pertain to the product. Sources of Additional Information General information on retailing is available from: ► National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. General information on careers in grocery stores is available from: >■ Food Marketing Institute, 655 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For information about employment opportunities as a cashier, contact: >■ National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2792. ► United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, Education Office, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006-1502. Counter and Rental Clerks Working Conditions Firms employing counter and rental clerks usually operate nights and weekends for the convenience of their customers. As a result, many employers offer flexible schedules. Some counter and rental clerks work 40-hour weeks, but about half are on part-time sched ules—usually during rush periods, such as weekends, evenings, and holidays. Working conditions usually are pleasant; most stores and service establishments are clean, well lighted, and temperature controlled. However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be confined behind a small counter area or may be required to move, lift, or carry heavy machinery or other equipment. The job requires constant interaction with the public and can be stressful, especially during busy periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement (0*NET 41-2021.00) Significant Points • Jobs primarily are entry level and require little or no experience and minimal formal education. • Faster-than-average employment growth is expected as businesses strive to improve customer service. • Part-time employment opportunities should be plentiful. Most counter and rental clerk jobs are entry-level positions that require little or no experience and minimal formal education. How ever, many employers prefer workers with at least a high school diploma. Mimm ■ .4 Nature of the Work Whether renting videos, air compressors, or moving vans or dropping off clothes to be drycleaned or appliances to be serviced, custom ers rely on counter and rental clerks to handle their transactions efficiently. Although the specific duties of these workers vary by establishment, counter and rental clerks answer questions involv ing product availability, cost, and rental provisions. Counter and rental clerks also take orders, calculate fees, receive payments, and accept returned merchandise. (Cashiers and retail salespersons, two occupations with similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the ■M- Handbook.) Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be knowledgeable about the company’s goods and services, policies, and procedures. Depending on the type of establishment, counter and rental clerks use their special knowledge to give advice on a wide variety of products and services, ranging from hydraulic tools to shoe repair. For example, in the car rental industry, these workers inform customers about the features of different types of automobiles and about daily and weekly rental costs. They also ensure that customers meet age and other requirements for renting cars, and they indicate when and in what condition the cars must be returned. Those in the equipment rental industry have similar duties but also must know how to operate and care for the machinery rented. In drycleaning establishments, counter clerks inform customers when items will be ready and about the effects, if any, of the chemicals used on garments. In video rental stores, counter clerks advise customers about the use of video and game players and the length of a rental, scan returned movies and games, restock shelves, handle money, and log daily reports. When taking orders, counter and rental clerks use various types of equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order forms, although most use computers or barcode scanners. Most of these computer systems are user friendly, require very little data Digitized entry, for FRASER and are customized for each firm. Scanners read the product https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In video rental stores, counter clerks advise customers about the use of video and game players and the length of a rental, scan returned movies and games, restock shelves, handle money, and log daily reports. 408 Occupational Outlook Handbook In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job, sometimes through the use of videos, brochures, and pamphlets. Clerks usually learn how to operate a firm’s equip ment and become familiar with the firm’s policies and procedures under the observation of a more experienced worker. However, some employers have formal classroom training programs lasting from a few hours to a few weeks. Topics covered in this training include the nature of the industry, the company and its policies and procedures, operation of equipment, sales techniques, and customer service. Counter and rental clerks also must become familiar with the different products and services rented or provided by their company to give customers the best possible service. Counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people and should have the ability to deal tactfully with difficult custom ers. They also should be able to handle several tasks at once, while continuing to provide friendly service. In addition, good oral and written communication skills are essential. Advancement opportunities depend on the size and type of company. Many establishments that employ counter or rental clerks tend to be small businesses, making advancement difficult. In larger establishments, however, jobs such as counter and rental clerks offer good opportunities for workers to learn about their company’s prod ucts and business practices. These jobs can lead to more responsible positions. It is common in many establishments to promote counter and rental clerks to event planner, assistant manager, or salesperson. Workers may choose to pursue related positions, such as mechanic, or even establish their own business. In certain industries, such as equipment repair, counter and rental jobs may be an additional or alternative source of income for workers who are unemployed or semiretired. For example, retired mechanics could prove invaluable at tool rental centers because of their knowledge of, and familiarity with, tools. Employment Counter and rental clerks held 451,000 jobs in 2004. About 23 percent of clerks worked in consumer goods rental, which includes video rental stores. Other large employers included drycleaning and laundry services; automotive equipment rental and leasing services; automobile dealers; amusement, gambling, and recreation industries; and grocery stores. Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the country, but are concentrated in metropolitan areas, where personal services and renting and leasing services are in greater demand. commissions, based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell. Median hourly earnings of counter and rental clerks in May 2004 were $8.79. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.21 and$11.99 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.15 an hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.79 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of counter and rental clerks in May 2004 were as follows: Automobile dealers......................................................................... $ 17.87 Automotive equipment rental and leasing...................................... 10.42 Lessors of real estate....................................................................... 9.92 Consumer goods rental................................................................... 7.78 Drycleaning and laundry services................................................... 7.62 Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance, paid vacation, and sick leAve. Benefits for counter and rental clerks who work part time or work for independent stores tend to be sig nificantly less than for those who work full time. Many companies offer discounts to both full-time and part-time employees on the goods or services they provide. Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for ser vices rendered. Other workers with similar duties include tellers, cashiers, food and beverage serving and related workers, gaming cage workers, Postal Service workers, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information For general information on employment in the equipment rental industry, contact: > American Rental Association, 1900 19th St., Moline, IL61265. Internet: http://www.ararental.org For more information about the work of counter clerks in dry cleaning and laundry establishments, contact: > International Fabricare Institute, 14700 Sweitzer Lane, Laurel, MD 20707. Internet: http://www.ifi.org Demonstrators, Product Promoters, and Models (0*NET 41 -9011.00, 41 -9012.00) Significant Points Job Outlook Employment of counter and rental clerks is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, as all types of businesses strive to improve customer service by hiring more clerks. In addition, some industries employing counter and rental clerks—for example, rental and leasing ser vices and amusement and recreation industries—are expected to grow rapidly. Nevertheless, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Part-time employment opportunities are expected to be plentiful. Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments covered by Federal law, was $5.15 an hour in 2004. In some States, the law sets the minimum wage higher, and establishments must pay at least that amount. Wages also tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for work ers. In addition to wages, some counter and rental clerks receive https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Job openings should be plentiful for demonstrators and product promoters, but keen competition is expected for modeling jobs. • Most jobs are part time or have variable work sched ules, and many jobs require frequent travel. • Formal training and education requirements are limited. Nature of the Work Demonstrators, product promoters, and models create public inter est in buying products such as clothing, cosmetics, food items, and housewares. The information they provide helps consumers make educated choices among the wide variety of products and services available. Demonstrators and product promoters create public interest in buying a product by demonstrating it to prospective customers and answering their questions. They may sell the demonstrated mer- Sales and Related Occupations Models often have to travel and go on location for shoots. chandise, or gather names of prospects to contact at a later date or to pass on to a sales staff. Demonstrators promote sales of a product to consumers, while product promoters try to induce retail stores to sell particular products and market them effectively. Product demonstration is an effective technique used by both to introduce new products or promote sales of old products because it allows face-to-face interaction with potential customers. Demonstrators and product promoters build current and future sales of both sophisticated and simple products, ranging from computer software to mops. They attract an audience by offering samples, administering contests, distributing prizes, and using direct-mail advertising. They must greet and catch the attention of possible customers and quickly identify those who are interested and qualified. They inform and educate customers about the fea tures of products and demonstrate their use with apparent ease to inspire confidence in the product and its manufacturer. They also distribute information, such as brochures and applications. Some demonstrations are intended to generate immediate sales through impulse buying, while others are considered an investment to gener ate future sales and increase brand awareness. Demonstrations and product promotions are conducted in retail and grocery stores, shopping malls, trade shows, and outdoor fairs. Locations are selected based on both the nature of the product and the type of audience. Demonstrations at large events may require teams of demonstrators to efficiently handle large crowds. Some demonstrators promote products on videotape or on television pro grams, such as “infomercials” or home shopping programs. Demonstrators and product promoters may prepare the content of a presentation and alter it to target a specific audience or to keep it current. They may participate in the design of an exhibit or customize exhibits for particular audiences. Results obtained by demonstrators and product promoters are analyzed, and presentations are adjusted to make them more effective. Demonstrators and product promoters also may be involved in transporting, assembling, and disassembling materials used in demonstrations. A demonstrator’s presentation may include visuals, models, case studies, testimonials, test results, and surveys. The equipment used for a demonstration varies with the product being demonstrated. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 409 A food product demonstration might require the use of cooking utensils, while a software demonstration could require the use of a multimedia computer. Demonstrators must be familiar with the product to be able to relate detailed information to customers and to answer any questions that arise before, during, or after a demon stration. Therefore, they may research the product to be presented, the products of competitors, and the interests and concerns of the target audience before conducting a demonstration. Demonstrations of complex products can require practice. Models pose for photos or as subjects for paintings or sculp tures. They display clothing, such as dresses, coats, underclothing, swimwear, and suits, for a variety of audiences and in various types of media. They model accessories, such as handbags, shoes, and jewelry, and promote beauty products, including fragrances and cosmetics. The most successful models, called supermodels, hold celebrity status and often use their image to sell products such as books, calendars, and fitness videos. In addition to modeling, they may appear in movies and television shows. Models’ clients use printed publications, live modeling, and television to advertise and promote products and services. There are different categories of modeling jobs within these media, and the nature of a model’s work may vary with each. Most modeling jobs are for printed publications, and models usually do a combination of editorial, commercial, and catalog work. Editorial print model ing uses still photographs of models for fashion magazine covers and to accompany feature articles, but does not include modeling for advertisements. Commercial print modeling includes work for advertisements in magazines and newspapers, and for outdoor advertisements such as billboards. Catalog models appear in de partment store and mail order catalogs. During a photo shoot, a model poses to demonstrate the features of clothing and products. Models make small changes in posture and facial expression to capture the look desired by the client. As they shoot film, photographers instruct models to pose in certain positions and to interact with their physical surroundings. Models work closely with photographers, hair and clothing stylists, makeup artists, and clients to produce the desired look and to finish the photo shoot on schedule. Stylists and makeup artists prepare the model for the photo shoot, provide touchups, and change the look of models throughout the day. If stylists are not provided, models must apply their own makeup and bring their own clothing. Because the client spends time and money planning for and preparing an advertising campaign, the client usually is present to ensure that the work is satisfactory. The client also may offer suggestions. Editorial printwork generally pays less than other types of model ing, but provides exposure for a model and can lead to commercial modeling opportunities. Often, beginning fashion models work in foreign countries where fashion magazines are more plentiful. Live modeling is done in a variety of locations. Live models stand, turn, and walk to demonstrate clothing to a variety of audi ences. At fashion shows and in showrooms, garment buyers are the primary audience. Runway models display clothes that either are intended for direct sale to consumers or are the artistic expressions of the designer. High fashion, or haute couture, runway models confidently walk a narrow runway before an audience of photogra phers, journalists, designers, and garment buyers. Live modeling also is done in apparel marts, department stores, and fitting rooms of clothing designers. In retail establishments, models display clothing directly for shoppers and may be required to describe the features and price of the clothing. Other models pose for sketching artists, painters, and sculptors. Models may compete with actors and actresses for work in television and may even receive speaking parts. Television work includes commercials, cable television programs, and even game 410 Occupational Outlook Handbook shows. However, competition for television work is intense because of the potential for high earnings and extensive exposure. Because advertisers need to target very specific segments of the population, models may specialize in a certain area. Petite and plus-size fashions are modeled by women whose dress size is smaller or larger than that worn by the typical model. Models who are disabled may be used to model fashions or products for disabled consumers. “Parts” models have a body part, such as a hand or foot, that is particularly well-suited to model products such as fingernail polish or shoes. Almost all models work through agents. Agents provide a link between models and clients. Clients pay models, while the agency receives a portion of the model’s earnings for its services. Agents scout for new faces, advise and train new models, and promote them to clients. A typical modeling job lasts only 1 day, so modeling agencies differ from other employment agencies in that they main tain an ongoing relationship with the model. Agents find and nurture relationships with clients, arrange auditions called “go-sees,” and book shoots if a model is hired. They also provide bookkeeping and billing services to models and may offer them financial plan ning services. Relatively short careers and variable incomes make financial planning an important issue for many models. With the help of agents, models spend a considerable amount of time promoting and developing themselves. Models assemble and maintain portfolios, print composite cards, and travel to go-sees. A portfolio is a collection of a model’s previous work that is car ried to all go-sees and bookings. A composite card, or comp card, contains the best photographs from a model’s portfolio, along with his or her measurements. Models must gather information before a job. From an agent, they learn the pay, date, time, and length of the shoot. Also, models need to ask if hair, makeup, and clothing stylists will be provided. It is helpful to know what product is being promoted and what image they should project. Some models research the client and the product being mod eled to prepare for a shoot. Models use a document called a voucher to record the rate of pay and the actual duration of the job. The voucher is used for billing purposes after both the client and model sign it. Once a job is completed, models must check in with their agency and plan for the next appointment. Working Conditions More than half of all demonstrators, product promoters, and models work part time and about 1 in 4 have variable work schedules. Many positions last 6 months or less. Demonstrators and product promoters may work long hours while standing or walking, with little opportunity to rest. Some of them travel frequently, and night and weekend work often is required. The atmosphere of a crowded trade show or State fair is often hectic, and demonstrators and product promoters may feel pressure to influence the greatest number of consumers possible in a very limited amount of time. However, many enjoy the opportunity to interact with a variety of people. Models work under a variety of conditions, which can often be both difficult and glamorous. The coming season’s fashions may be modeled in a comfortable, climate-controlled studio or in a cold, damp outdoor location. Schedules can be demanding, and models must keep in constant touch with an agent so that they do not miss an opportunity for work. Being away from friends and family, and needing to focus on the photographer’s instructions despite constant interruption for touchups, clothing, and set changes can be stressful. Yet, successful models interact with a variety of people and enjoy frequent travel. They may meet potential clients at several go-sees in one day and often travel to work in distant cities, foreign countries, and exotic locations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training and education requirements are limited for demonstra tors, product promoters, and models. Training usually is moderate term, lasting a month or more. Postsecondary education, while helpful, usually is not required: only 1 in 5 of these workers has a bachelor’s degree or higher. Demonstrators and product promoters usually receive on-the-job training. Training is primarily product oriented because a demon strator must be familiar with the product to demonstrate it properly. The length of training varies with the complexity of the product. Experience with the product or familiarity with similar products may be required for demonstration of complex products, such as comput ers. During the training process, demonstrators may be introduced to the manufacturer’s corporate philosophy and preferred methods for dealing with customers. Employers look for demonstrators and product promoters with good communication skills and a pleasant appearance and person ality. Demonstrators and product promoters must be comfortable with public speaking. They should be able to entertain an audience and use humor, spontaneity, and personal interest in the product as promotional tools. Foreign language skills are helpful. While no formal training is required to begin a modeling career, models should be photogenic and have a basic knowledge of hair styling, makeup, and clothing. Some local governments require models under the age of 18 to hold a work permit. An attractive physical appearance is necessary to become a successful model. A model should have flawless skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Specific requirements depend on the client, but most models must be within certain ranges for height, weight, and dress or coat size in order to meet the practical needs of fashion designers, photographers, and advertisers. Requirements may change slightly from time to time as our society’s perceptions about physical beauty change; however, most fashion designers feel that their clothing looks its best on tall, thin models. Although physical requirements may be relaxed for some types of modeling jobs, opportunities are limited for those who do not meet these basic requirements. Because a model’s career depends on preservation of his or her physical characteristics, models must control their diet, exercise regularly, and get enough sleep in order to stay healthy. Haircuts, pedicures, and manicures are necessary work-related expenses for models. In addition to being attractive, models must be photogenic. The ability to relate to the camera in order to capture the desired look on film is essential, and agents test prospective models using snapshots or professional photographs. For photographic and runway work, models must be able to move gracefully and confidently. Train ing in acting, voice, and dance is useful and allows a model to be considered for television work. Foreign language skills are useful because successful models travel frequently to foreign countries. Because models must interact with a large number of people, personality plays an important role in success. Models must be professional, polite, and prompt; every contact could lead to future employment. Organizational skills are necessary to manage personal lives, financial matters, and busy work and travel schedules. Because competition for jobs is stiff and clients’ needs are very specific, patience and persistence are essential. Modeling schools provide training in posing, walking, makeup application, and other basic tasks, but attending such schools does not necessarily lead to job opportunities. In fact, many agents prefer beginning models with little or no previous experience and discourage models from attending modeling schools and purchasing professional photographs. A model’s selection of an agency is an important factor for advancement in the occupation. The better the reputation and skill of the agency, the more assignments a model is likely to get. Because Sales and Related Occupations clients prefer to work with agents, it is very difficult for a model to pursue a freelance career. Agents continually scout for new faces, and many of the top models are discovered in this way. Most agencies review snapshots or have “open calls”, during which models are seen in person; this service usually is provided free of charge. Some agencies sponsor modeling contests and searches. Very few people who send in snapshots or attend open calls are offered contracts. Agencies advise models on how to dress, wear makeup, and conduct themselves properly during go-sees and bookings. Because models’ advancement depends on their previous work, development of a good portfolio is key to getting assignments. Models accumulate and display current tear sheets—examples of a model’s editorial print work—and photographs in the portfolio. The higher the quality and currency of the photos in the portfolio, the more likely it is that the model will find work. Demonstrators and product promoters who perform well and show leadership ability may advance to other marketing and sales occupa tions or open their own businesses. Because modeling careers are rela tively short, most models eventually transfer to other occupations. Employment 411 Earnings Demonstrators and product promoters had median hourly earnings of $9.95 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.18 and $13.29. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.25, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.08. Employers of demonstrators, product promoters, and models generally pay for job-related travel expenses. Median hourly earnings of models were $10.50 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.44 and $14.34. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.16, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.17. Earnings vary for different types of modeling, and depend on the experience and reputation of the model. Female models typically earn more than male models for similar work. Hourly earn ings can be relatively high, particularly for supermodels and others in high demand, but models may not have work every day, and jobs may last only a few hours. Models occasionally receive clothing or clothing discounts instead of, or in addition to, regular earnings. Almost all models work with agents, and pay 15 to 20 percent of their earnings in return for an agent’s services. Models who do not find immediate work may receive payments, called advances, from agents to cover promotional and living expenses. Models must provide their own health and retirement benefits. Demonstrators, product promoters, and models held about 120,000jobs in 2004. Of these, models held only about 2,200 jobs in 2004. About 23 percent of all salaried jobs for demonstrators, product promoters, and models were in retail trade, especially general merchandise stores, and 14 percent were in administrative and support services—which includes employment services. Other jobs were found in advertising and related services. Demonstrator and product promoter jobs may be found in com munities throughout the Nation, but modeling jobs are concentrated in New York, Chicago, Miami, and Los Angeles. Demonstrators, product promoters, and models create public interest in buying clothing, products, and services. Others who create interest in a product or service include actors, producers, and directors; insurance sales agents; real estate brokers; retail salespersons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Job Outlook For information about modeling schools and agencies in your area, contact a local consumer affairs organization such as the Better Busi ness Bureau. Employment of demonstrators, product promoters, and models is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Job growth should be driven by increases in the number and size of trade shows and greater use of these workers in department stores and various retail shops for in-store promotions. Additional job openings will arise from the need to replace demonstrators, product promoters, and models that transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job openings should be plentiful for demonstrators and product promoters. Employers may have difficulty finding qualified demon strators who are willing to fill part-time, short-term positions. Product demonstration is considered a very effective marketing tool. New jobs should arise as firms devote a greater percentage of marketing budgets to product demonstration. On the other hand, modeling is considered a glamorous occupa tion, with limited formal entry requirements. Consequently, those who wish to pursue a modeling career can expect keen competition for jobs. The modeling profession typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are job openings available. Only models who closely meet the unique requirements of the occupation will achieve regular employment. The increasing diversification of the general population should boost demand for models more representative of diverse racial and ethnic groups. Work for male models also should increase as society becomes more receptive to the marketing of men’s fashions. Because fashions change frequently, demand for a model’s look may fluctuate. Most models experience periods of unemployment. Employment of demonstrators, product promoters, and models is affected by downturns in the business cycle. Many firms tend to reduce advertising budgets during recessions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information Insurance Sales Agents (0*NET 41-3021.00) Significant Points • Agents increasingly offer comprehensive financial planning services, including retirement and estate plan ning; as a result, in addition to offering insurance poli cies, agents sell mutual funds, annuities, and securities. • Agents must obtain a license in the States where they plan to do their selling. Despite slower than average growth, job opportunities should be good for college graduates who have sales ability, excellent interpersonal skills, and expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. • • Successful agents often have high earnings, but many beginning agents fail to earn enough from commissions to meet their income goals and eventually transfer to other careers. Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent. These workers help indi viduals, families, and businesses select insurance policies that 412 Occupational Outlook Handbook nr* An increasing number ofinsurance sales agents offer comprehensive financial planning services to their clients. provide the best protection for their lives, health, and property. Insurance sales agents who work exclusively for one insurance company are referred to as captive agents. Independent insur ance agents, or brokers, represent several companies and place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. In either case, agents prepare reports, maintain records, seek out new clients, and, in the event of a loss, help policyholders settle their insurance claims. Increasingly, some are also offering their clients financial analysis or advice on ways the clients can minimize risk. Insurance sales agents, commonly referred to as “producers” in the insurance industry, sell one or more types of insurance, such as property and casualty, life, health, disability, and long-term care. Property and casualty insurance agents sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss resulting from automobile accidents, fire, theft, storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and casualty insurance can also cover injured workers’ compensation, product liability claims, or medical malpractice claims. Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay ben eficiaries when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a cash-value policy can be designed to provide retire ment income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. Life insurance agents also sell annuities that promise a retirement income. Health insurance agents sell health insurance policies that cover the costs of medical care and loss of income due to illness or injury. They also may sell dental insurance and short-term and long-term-disability insurance policies. An increasing number of insurance sales agents are offering comprehensive financial planning services to their clients, such as retirement planning, estate planning, or assistance in setting up pension plans for businesses. As a result, many insurance agents are involved in “cross-selling” or “total account development.” Besides offering insurance, these agents may become licensed to sell mu tual funds, variable annuities, and other securities. This practice is most common with life insurance agents who already sell annuities; however, property and casualty agents also sell financial products. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (See the statement on securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technology has greatly affected the insurance agency, making it much more efficient and giving the agent the ability to take on more clients. Agents’ computers are now linked directly to the insurance carriers via the Internet, making the tasks of obtaining price quotes and processing applications and service requests faster and easier. Computers also allow agents to be better informed about new prod ucts that the insurance carriers may be offering. The growth of the Internet in the insurance industry is gradu ally altering the relationship between agent and client. In the past, agents devoted much of their time to marketing and selling products to new clients, a practice that is now changing. Increas ingly, clients are obtaining insurance quotes from a company’s Web site and then contacting the company directly to purchase policies. This interaction gives the client a more active role in selecting a policy at the best price, while reducing the amount of time agents spend actively seeking new clients. Because insurance sales agents also obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that they maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure that the clients’ financial needs are being met. Developing a satisfied clientele that will recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field. Increasing competition in the insurance industry has spurred carriers and agents tafind new ways to keep their clients satisfied. One solution is to increase the use of call centers, which usually are accessible to clients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Insurance carriers and sales agents also are hiring customer service repre sentatives to handle routine tasks such as answering questions, making changes in policies, processing claims, and selling more products to clients. The opportunity to cross-sell new products to clients will help agents’ businesses grow. The use of call centers also allows agents to concentrate their efforts on seeking out new clients and maintaining relationships with old ones. (See separate Handbook statements on customer service representatives and on claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.) Working Conditions Most insurance sales agents are based in small offices, from which they contact clients and provide information on the policies they sell. However, much of their time may be spent outside their offices, trav eling locally to meet with clients, close sales, or investigate claims. Agents usually determine their own hours of work and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Although most agents work a 40-hour week, some work 60 hours a week or longer. Commercial sales agents, in particular, may meet with clients during business hours and then spend evenings doing paperwork and preparing presentations to prospective clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For insurance sales agent jobs, most companies and indepen dent agencies prefer to hire college graduates—especially those who have majored in business or economics. High school graduates are occasionally hired if they have proven sales ability or have been successful in other types of work. In fact, many entrants to insurance sales agent jobs transfer from other occupations. In selling commercial insurance, technical experience in a particular field can help sell policies to those in the same profession. As a result, new agents tend to be older than entrants in many other occupations. College training may help agents grasp the technical aspects of insurance policies and the fundamentals and procedures of sell ing insurance. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and a few schools offer a bachelor’s degree in the field. Sales and Related Occupations College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, econom ics, business law, marketing, and business administration enable insurance sales agents to understand how social and economic conditions relate to the insurance industry. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, because computers provide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products and greatly improve agents’ efficiency, familiarity with computers and popular software packages has become very important. Insurance sales agents must obtain a license in the States where they plan to do their selling. Separate licenses are required for agents to sell life and health insurance and property and casualty insurance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified prelicensing courses and who pass State examinations covering insurance fundamentals and State insurance laws. The insurance industry is increasingly moving toward uniform State licensing standards and reciprocal licensing, allowing agents who earn a license in one State to become licensed in other States upon passing the appropriate courses and examination. A number of organizations offer professional designation pro grams that certify one’s expertise in specialties such as life, health, and property and casualty insurance, as well as financial consulting. For example, The National Alliance for Education and Research offers a wide variety of courses in health, life and property, and casualty insurance for independent insurance agents. Although voluntary, such programs assure clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant specialty. Agents are usually required to complete a specified number of hours of continuing education to retain their designation. Employers also are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education as the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents increases. It is important for insurance agents to keep up to date on issues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefits programs, and other State and Federal regula tions can affect the insurance needs of clients and the way in which agents conduct business. Agents can enhance their selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services by taking courses at colleges and universities and by attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. Most State licensing authorities also have mandatory continuing education requirements focusing on insurance laws, consumer pro tection, and the technical details of various insurance policies. As the demand for financial products and financial planning increases, many insurance agents are choosing to gain the proper licensing and certification to sell securities and other financial products. Doing so, however, requires substantial study and passing an additional examination—either the Series 6 or Series 7 licensing exam, both of which arc administered by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). The Series 6 exam is for individuals who wish to sell only mutual funds and variable annuities, whereas the Series 7 exam is the main NASD series license that qualifies agents as general securities sales represen tatives. In addition, to further demonstrate competency in the area of financial planning, many agents find it worthwhile to earn the certified financial planner or chartered financial consultant designation. The Certified Financial Planner credential issued by the Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, requires relevant experience, completion of education requirements, passing a comprehensive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. The CFP exams test the candidate’s knowledge of the financial planning process, insurance and risk management, employee benefits planning, taxes and retirement planning, and investment and estate planning. The Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation, issued by the American https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 413 College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, which requires experience and the completion of an eight-course program of study. The CFP and ChFC designation and other professional designations have continuing education requirements. Insurance sales agents should be flexible, enthusiastic, confi dent, disciplined, hard working, and willing to solve problems. They should communicate effectively and inspire customer confidence. Because they usually work without supervision, sales agents must be able to plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new clients. An insurance sales agent who shows ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some—par ticularly in the property and casualty field—establish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms. Employment Insurance sales agents held about 400,000 jobs in 2004. Most insurance sales agents employed in wage and salary positions work for insurance agencies and brokerages. A decreasing num ber work directly for insurance carriers. Although most insurance agents specialize in life and health insurance or property and casualty insurance, a growing number of “multiline” agents sell all lines of insurance. A small number of agents work for banks and securities brokerages as a result of the increasing integration of finance and insurance industries. Approximately 1 out of 4 insurance sales agents is self-employed. Insurance sales agents are employed throughout the country, but most work in or near large urban centers. Some are employed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but the majority work out of local offices or independent agencies. Job Outlook Although employment of insurance sales agents is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014, opportunities will be favorable for college graduates who have sales ability, excellent interpersonal skills, and expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Multilingual agents also should be in high demand because they can serve a wider range of customers. Insurance language tends to be quite technical, so it is important for insurance sales agents to have a firm understanding of relevant technical and legal terms. Many beginning agents fail to earn enough from commissions to meet their income goals and eventually transfer to other careers. Most job openings are likely to result from the need to replace agents who leave the occupation or retire. A large number of agents are expected to retire over the next decade. Future demand for insurance sales agents depends largely on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. Sales of health insurance and long-term-care insurance are expected to rise sharply as the population ages. In addition, a growing population will increase demand for insurance for automobiles, homes, and high-priced valuables and equipment. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand their insurance coverage, sales of com mercial insurance also should increase, including coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, employee benefits, and pollution liability insurance. Employment of agents will not keep up with the rising level of insurance sales, however. Many insurance carriers are trying to contain costs. As a result, many are shedding their captive agents—those agents working directly for insurance carriers—and are relying more on independent agents or direct marketing through the mail, by phone, or on the Internet. 414 Occupational Outlook Handbook Agents who incorporate new technology into their existing businesses will remain competitive. Agents who use the Internet to market their products will reach a broader client base and expand their businesses, but because most clients value their relationship with their agent, the Internet should not threaten jobs, given that many individuals still prefer discussing their policies directly with their agents, rather than through a computer. Also, the automation of policy and claims processing is allowing insurance agents to take on more clients. Agents may face increased competition from traditional securities brokers and bankers as they begin to sell insurance policies. Because of increasing consolidation among insurance companies, banks, and brokerage firms, and due to increasing demands from clients for more comprehensive financial planning, insurance sales agents will need to expand the products and services they offer. Agents who offer better customer service also will remain competitive. Call centers are another important way carriers and agents are offering better service to customers, because such centers provide greater access to their policies and more prompt services. Insurance and investments are becoming more complex, and many people and businesses lack the time and expertise to buy insur ance without the advice of an agent. Moreover, most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Sources of Additional Information Occupational information about insurance sales agents is available from the home office of many insurance companies. Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any State capital. For information about insurance sales careers and training, contact: > Independent Insurance Agents of America, 127S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA22314. Internet: http://www.iiaa.org > Insurance Vocational Education Student Training (InVEST), 127 S. Pey ton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.investprogram.org For information about health insurance sales careers, contact: >- National Association of Health Underwriters, 2000 N. 14th St., Suite 450, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nahu.org For general information on the property and casualty field, contact: > Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org For information about professional designation programs, contact: >- The American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwrit ers/Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org >- The American College, 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010 2195. Internet: http://www.theamericancollege.edu Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents Earnings The median annual earnings of wage and salary insurance sales agents were $41,720 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,980 and $66,160. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of $23,170 or less, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $108,800. Median annual earnings in May 2004 in the two industries employing the largest number of insurance sales agents were $42,010 for insurance carriers, and $41,840 for agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities. Many independent agents are paid by commission only, where as sales workers who are employees of an agency or an insurance carrier may be paid in one of three ways—salary only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. In general, commissions are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold and on whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses usually are awarded when agents meet their sales goals or when an agency meets its profit goals. Some agents involved with financial planning receive a fee for their services, rather than a commission. Company-paid benefits to insurance sales agents usually include continuing education, training to qualify for licensing, group insurance plans, office space, and clerical support services. Some companies also may pay for automobile and transportation expenses, attendance at conventions and meetings, promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans. Independent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for marketing and other expenses. Related Occupations Other workers who provide or sell financial products or services include real estate sales agents and brokers; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; and financial managers. Other occupations in the insurance industry include insurance underwriters; claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (Q*NET 41-9021.00, 41-9022.00) Significant Points • Real estate brokers and sales agents often work evenings and weekends and usually are on call to suit the needs of clients. • A license is required in every State and the District of Columbia. • Although gaining a job may be relatively easy, beginning workers may face competition from well-estab lished, more experienced agents and brokers in obtaining listings and in closing an adequate number of sales. • Employment is sensitive to swings in the economy, especially interest rates; during periods of declining economic activity and increasing interest rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers fall. Nature of the Work One of the most complex and significant financial events in peoples’ lives is the purchase or sale of a home or investment property. Because of this complexity and significance, people typically seek the help of real estate brokers and sales agents when buying or selling real estate. Real estate brokers and sales agents have a thorough knowledge of the real estate market in their communities. They know which neighborhoods will best fit clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws and know where to obtain financing. Agents and brokers also act as intermediaries in price negotiations between buyers and sellers. Real estate agents usually are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed real estate broker on a contract basis. In return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned from the agent’s sale of the property. Brokers are independent businesspeople who sell real estate owned by others; they also may Sales and Related Occupations rent or manage properties for a fee. When selling real estate, brokers arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers during which the details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession of the property. A broker may help to arrange favorable financing from a lender for the prospective buyer; often, this makes the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, brokers and agents assume primary respon sibility for closing sales; in others, lawyers or lenders do. Brokers supervise agents who may have many of the same job duties. Brokers also supervise their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as selling insurance or practicing law, with their real estate business. Besides making sales, agents and brokers must have properties to sell. Consequently, they spend a significant amount of time ob taining listings—agreements by owners to place properties for sale with the firm. When listing a property for sale, agents and brokers compare the listed property with similar properties that recently sold, in order to determine a competitive market price for the property. Once the property is sold, both the agent who sold it and the agent who obtained the listing receive a portion of the commission. Thus, agents who sell a property that they themselves have listed can increase their commission. Most real estate brokers and sales agents sell residential prop erty. A small number—usually employed in large or specialized firms—sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Every specialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and the location of the property. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about the region’s transportation, utilities, and labor supply. Whatever the type of property, the agent or broker must know how to meet the client’s particular requirements. Before showing residential properties to potential buyers, agents meet with them to get a feeling for the type of home the buyers would like. In this prequalifying phase, the agent determines how much the buyers can afford to spend. In addition, the agent and the buyer usually sign a loyalty contract which states that the agent will be the only one to show houses to buyers. An agent or broker then gener ates lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and available sources of financing. In some cases, agents and brokers use computers to give buyers a virtual tour of properties in which they are interested. With a computer, buyers can view interior and exterior images or floor plans without leaving the real estate office. Real estate brokers and sales agents have a thorough knowledge of Digitized the for FRASER real estate market in their communities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 415 Agents may meet several times with prospective buyers to discuss and visit available properties. Agents identify and emphasize the most pertinent selling points. To a young family looking for a house, they may emphasize the convenient floor plan, the area’s low crime rate, and the proximity to schools and shopping centers. To a potential investor, they may point out the tax advantages of owning a rental property and the ease of finding a renter. If bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents must follow their client’s instructions carefully and may have to present counteroffers in order to get the best possible price. Once both parties have signed the contract, the real estate broker or agent must make sure that all special terms of the contract are met before the closing date. For example, the agent must make sure that the mandated and agreed-upon inspections, including that of the home and termite and radon inspections, take place. Also, if the seller agrees to any repairs, the broker or agent must see that they are made. Increasingly, brokers and agents are handling environmental problems as well, by making sure that the properties they sell meet environmental regulations. For example, they may be responsible for dealing with lead paint on the walls. While loan officers, attorneys, or other persons handle many details, the agent must ensure that they are carried out. Working Conditions Advances in telecommunications and the ability to retrieve data about properties over the Internet allow many real estate brokers and sales agents to work out of their homes instead of real estate offices. Even with this convenience, much of the time of these workers is spent away from their desks—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, or researching the state of the market. Agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week. They usually work evenings and weekends and are always on call to suit the needs of clients. Although the hours are long and frequently irregular, most agents and brokers have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Consequently, they can arrange their work so that they can have time off when they want it. Business usually is slower during the winter season. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advcement In every State and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospective agents must be high school graduates, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete between 30 and 90 hours of classroom instruction. Those seeking a broker’s license need between 60 and 90 hours of formal training and a specific amount of experience selling real estate, usually 1 to 3 years. Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for ap plicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. State licenses typically must be renewed every 1 or 2 years; usually, no examination needs to be taken. However, many States require continuing education for license renewals. Prospective agents and brokers should contact the real estate licensing commis sion of the State in which they wish to work in order to verify the exact licensing requirements. As real estate transactions have become more legally complex, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents and brokers have some college training. College courses in real estate, finance, business administration, statistics, economics, law, and English are helpful. For those who intend to start their own company, business courses such as marketing and accounting are as significant as courses in real estate or finance. 416 Occupational Outlook Handbook Personality traits are equally as important as one’s academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess a pleasant per sonality, are honest, and present a neat appearance. Maturity, good judgment, trustworthiness, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order to encourage prospective customers in this highly competitive field. Agents should be well organized, be detail oriented, and have a good memory for names, faces, and business particulars. Those interested in jobs as real estate agents often begin in their own communities. Their knowledge of local neighborhoods is a clear advantage. Under the direction of an experienced agent, beginners learn the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties and identify sources of financing. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms usually offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. More than a thousand universities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate’s or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate associations that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in mortgage financing, property develop ment and management, and other subjects also are available. Advancement opportunities for agents may take the form of higher rates of commission. As agents gain knowledge and expertise, they become more efficient in closing a greater number of transac tions and increase their earnings. In many large firms, experienced agents can advance to sales manager or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may become real estate appraisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property managers. (See the Handbook statements on property, real estate, and com munity association managers; and appraisers and assessors of real estate.) Experienced agents and brokers with a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Employment In 2004, real estate brokers and sales agents held about 460,000 jobs; real estate sales agents held approximately 24 percent of these jobs. Many worked part time, combining their real estate activities with other careers. About 6 out of 10 real estate agents and brokers were self-employed. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employ ment is concentrated in large urban areas and in rapidly growing communities. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some are oneperson businesses. By contrast, some large real estate firms have several hundred agents operating out of numerous branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training sales staff and running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of their firms. Real estate brokers and sales agents are older, on average, than most other workers. Historically, many homemakers and retired persons were attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part time work schedules characteristic of the field. These individuals could enter, leave, and later return to the occupation, depending on the strength of the real estate market, their family responsibilities, or other personal circumstances. Recently, however, the attractiveness of part-time real estate work has declined, as increasingly complex https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis legal and technological requirements are raising startup costs as sociated with becoming an agent. Job Outlook Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014, because of the increasing housing needs of a growing population, as well as the perception that real estate is a good investment. Relatively low interest rates should continue to stimulate sales of real estate, resulting in the need for more agents and brokers. In addition, a large number ofjob openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, job growth will be somewhat limited by the increasing use of technology, which is improving the productivity of agents and brokers. For example, prospec tive customers often can perform their own searches for properties that meet their criteria by accessing real estate information on the Internet. The increasing use of technology is likely to be more detrimental to part time or temporary real estate agents than to full-time agents, because part-time agents generally are not able to compete with full-time agents who have invested in new technology. Changing legal requirements, such as disclosure laws, also may dissuade some who are not serious about practicing full time from continuing to work part time. This occupation is relatively easy to enter and is attractive because of its flexible working conditions; the high interest in, and familiarity with, local real estate markets that entrants often have; and the potential for high earnings. Therefore, although gaining a job as a real estate agent or broker may be relatively easy, beginning agents and brokers may face competition from their well-established, more experienced counterparts in obtaining listings and in closing an adequate number of sales. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling—particularly those with extensive social and business connections in their communi ties—should have the best chance for success. Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents often is sen sitive to swings in the economy, especially interest rates. During periods of declining economic activity and increasing interest rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers falls. As a result, the earnings of agents and brokers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation altogether. Earnings The median annual earnings of salaried real estate sales agents, including commissions, were $35,670 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,500 and $58,110 a year. The low est 10 percent earned less than $17,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,770. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of real estate sales agents in May 2004 were as follows: Residential building constmction................................................. $54,770 Offices of real estate agents and brokers....................................... 37,970 Activities related to real estate........................................................ 32,460 Lessors of real estate........................................................................ 25,840 Median annual earnings of salaried real estate brokers, including commission, were $58,720 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,480 and $99,820 a year. Median annual earning of real estate brokers were $61,550 in offices of real estate agents and brokers and $44,920 in activities related to real estate. Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers. The rate of commission varies according to whatever the agent and broker agree on, the type of property, and its value. The percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land is typically higher than the percentage paid for selling a home. Sales and Related Occupations Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. When the property is sold, the broker or agent who obtained the listing usually shares the commission with the broker or agent who made the sale and with the firm that employs each of them. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. Agents who both list and sell a property maximize their commission. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but indi vidual motivation, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and in local real estate associations can broaden their contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular, because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent to draw against future earnings from a special account, the practice is not common with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live for about 6 months or until commis sions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character traits important in their work include insurance sales agents; retail salespersons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Although not involving sales, the work of property, real estate, and community association managers, as well as appraisers and assessors of real estate, requires an understanding of real estate. 417 specifications, the types of options and financing available, and the warranty. Consumers spend millions of dollars every day on merchandise and often form their impression of a store by evaluating its sales force. Therefore, retailers stress the importance of providing courteous and efficient service to remain competitive. For example, when a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, the salesperson may check the stockroom, place a special order, or call another store to locate the item. In addition to selling, most retail salespersons—especially those who work in department and apparel stores—make out sales checks; receive cash, checks, debit, and charge payments; bag or package purchases; and give change and receipts. Depending on the hours they work, retail salespersons may have to open or close cash registers. This work may include counting the money in the register; separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash office. Salespersons often are held responsible for the contents of their registers, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in many organizations. (Cashiers, who have similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Salespersons also may handle returns and exchanges of merchan dise, wrap gifts, and keep their work areas neat. In addition, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. Frequently, salespersons must be aware of special sales and promotions. They also must recognize security risks and thefts and know how to handle or prevent such situations. Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing requirements for real estate brokers and sales agents is available from most local real estate organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. More information about opportunities in real estate is available on the Internet site of the following organization: >- National Association of Realtors. Internet: http://www.realtor.org Retail Salespersons (0*NET 41-2031.00) Significant Points • • • Good employment opportunities are expected because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave the occupation each year. Most salespersons work evenings and weekends, par ticularly during sales and other peak retail periods. Most salespersons in retail trade work in dean, comfortable, well-lighted stores. However, they often stand for long periods and may need super visory approval to leave the sales floor. They also may work outdoors if they sell items such as cars, plants, or lumber yard materials. The Monday-through-Friday, 9-to-5 workweek is the excep tion rather than the rule in retail trade. Most salespersons work evenings and weekends, particularly during sales and other peak retail periods. The end-of-year holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers. As a result, many employers restrict the use of vacation time to some period other than Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. The job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with people. Patience and courtesy are required, especially when the work is repetitious and the customers are demanding. ■ ’ Employers look for people who enjoy working with others and who have tact, patience, an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communi cate clearly. Nature of the Work Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, retail salespersons assist customers in finding what they are looking for and try to interest them in buying the merchandise. They describe a product’s features, demonstrate its use, or show various models and colors. For some sales jobs, particularly those involving expensive and complex items, retail salespersons need special knowledge or skills. For example, salespersons who sell automobiles must be able to explain the features of various models, the manufacturers’ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Retail salespersons describe a product’s features, demonstrate its use, or show various models and colors. 418 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no formal education requirements for this type of work, although a high school diploma or the equivalent is preferred. Employers look for people who enjoy working with others and who have the tact and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly and effectively. The ability to speak more than one language may be helpful for employment in communities where people from various cultures tend to live and shop. Before hiring a salesperson, some employ ers may conduct a background check, especially for a job selling high-priced items. In most small stores, an experienced employee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating cash registers. In large stores, training programs are more formal and are usually conducted over several days. Topics generally discussed are customer service, security, the store’s poli cies and procedures, and how to work a cash register. Depending on the type of product they are selling, employees may be given additional specialized training by manufacturers’ representatives. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of products the store has available and for whom the cosmet ics would be most beneficial. Likewise, salespersons employed by motor vehicle dealers may be required to participate in training programs designed to provide information on the technical details of standard and optional equipment available on new vehicle models. Since providing the best possible service to customers is a high priority for many employers, employees often are given periodic training to update and refine their skills. As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usually move to positions of greater responsibility and may be given their choice of departments in which to work. This often means moving to areas with potentially higher earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential usually lies in selling “big-ticket” items—such as cars, jewelry, furniture, and electronic equipment—although doing so often requires extensive knowledge of the product and an extraordinary talent for persuasion. Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some establishments, advancement is limited because one person—often the owner—does most of the managerial work. In others, some salespersons are promoted to assistant managers. Large retail businesses usually prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increasingly important. How ever, motivated and capable employees without college degrees still may advance to administrative or supervisory positions in large establishments. Retail selling experience may be an asset when one is applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as financial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing. Employment • Retail salespersons held about 4.3 million wage and salary jobs in 2004. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing a few workers to giant department stores with hundreds of salespersons. In addition, some were self-employed representa tives of direct-sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail salespersons are department stores, clothing and clothing accessories stores, building material and garden equipment and supplies dealers, other general merchandise stores, and motor vehicle and parts dealers. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others seeking to supplement their income. However, most of those selling big-ticket items work full time and have substantial experience. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employ ment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population. Job Outlook As in the past, employment opportunities for retail salespersons are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force each year. In addition, many new jobs will be created for retail salespersons as businesses seek to expand operations and enhance customer service. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014, reflecting rising retail sales stemming from a growing population. Opportunities for part-time work should be abundant, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak selling periods, such as the end-of-year holiday season. The availability of part-time and temporary work attracts many people seeking to supplement their income. During economic downturns, sales volumes and the resulting demand for sales workers usually decline. Purchases of costly items, such as cars, appliances, and furniture, tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of many types of goods decline. However, because turnover among retail salespersons is high, employers often can adjust employment levels simply by not replacing all those who leave. Despite the growing popularity of electronic commerce, Internet sales have not decreased the need for retail salespersons. Retail stores commonly use an online presence to complement their in-store sales; there are very few Internet-only apparel and specialty stores. Retail salespersons will remain important in assuring customers that they will receive specialized service and in improving customer satisfaction, something Internet services cannot do. Therefore, the impact of electronic commerce on employment of retail salespersons is expected to be minimal. Earnings The starting wage for many retail sales positions is the Federal minimum wage, which was $5.15 an hour in 2004. In areas where employers have difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages tend to be higher than the legislated minimum. Median hourly earnings of retail salespersons, including com missions, were $8.98 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.46 and $12.22 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.38, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.85 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of retail salespersons in May 2004 were as follows: Automobile dealers......................................................................... $ 18.61 Building material and suppliesdealers............................................ 10.85 Department stores........................................................................... g 47 Other general merchandise stores................................................... 8.36 Clothing stores................................................................................ 347 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer chandise sold. Salespersons receive hourly wages, commissions, or a combination thereof. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales they make. This system offers sales workers the opportunity to increase their earnings considerably, but they may find that their earnings strongly depend on their ability to sell their product and on the ups and downs of the economy. Employers may use incentive programs such as awards, banquets, bonuses, and profit-sharing plans to promote teamwork among the sales staff. Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but benefits in large establishments usually are comparable to those offered by other Sales and Related Occupations employers. In addition, nearly all salespersons are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, with the savings depending on the type of merchandise. Related Occupations Salespersons use sales techniques, coupled with their knowledge of merchandise, to assist customers and encourage purchases. Workers in other occupations who use these same skills include sales repre sentatives, wholesale and manufacturing; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; counter and rental clerks; real estate brokers and sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; insurance sales agents; sales engineers; and cashiers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores or from State merchants’ associa tions. General information about retailing is available from: >• National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Information about retail sales employment opportunities is available from: >■ Retail, Wholesale, and Department Store Union, 30 East 29th St., 4th Floor, New York, NY 10016. Information about training for a career in automobile sales is available from: > National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Department, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: www.nada.org Sales Engineers (0*NET 41-9031.00) Significant Points • A bachelor’s degree in engineering typically is re quired; many sales engineers have previous work experience in an engineering specialty. • Projected employment growth stems from the increasing number and technical nature of products and services to be sold. • More job opportunities are expected in independent sales engineer is to demonstrate to the customer the usefulness of the product or service—for example, how much money new production machinery would save. Most sales engineers have a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and many have previous work experience in an engineering spe cialty. Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and mathematics to technical problems. Their work is the link between scientific discoveries and commercial applications. Many sales engineers specialize in an area related to an engineering specialty. For example, sales engineers selling chemical products may have chemical engineering backgrounds, while those selling business software or information systems may have degrees in computer engineering. Information on engineers, including 17 engineering specialties, appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Many of the duties of sales engineers are similar to those of other salespersons. They must interest the client in purchasing their products, many of which are durable manufactured products such as turbines. Sales engineers often are teamed with other salespersons who concentrate on the marketing and sales, enabling the sales engineer to concentrate on the technical aspects of the job. By working on a sales team, each member is able to focus on his or her strengths and knowledge. (Information on other sales occupations, including sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, ap pears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sales engineers tend to employ selling techniques that are dif ferent from those used by most other sales workers. They generally use a “consultative” style; that is, they focus on the client’s problem and show how it could be solved or mitigated with their product or service. This selling style differs from the “benefits and features” method, whereby the salesperson describes the product and leaves the customer to decide how it would be useful. In addition to maintaining current clients and attracting new ones, sales engineers help clients solve any problems that arise when the product is installed. Afterward, they may continue to serve as a liaison between the client and their company. Increasingly, sales engineers are asked to undertake tasks related to sales, such as market research, because of their familiarity with clients’ purchasing needs. Drawing on this same familiarity, sales engineers may help identify and develop new products. Sales engineers may work directly for manufacturers or service providers, or they may work in small independent sales firms. In an independent firm, they may sell complementary products from several different suppliers and be paid entirely on commission. sales agencies. • 419 — Earnings are based on a combination of salary and commissions. Nature of the Work Many products and services, especially those purchased by large companies and institutions, are highly complex. Sales engi neers—who also ihay be called manufacturers’ agents, sales rep resentatives, or technical sales support workers—work with the production, engineering, or research and development departments of their companies, or with independent sales firms, to determine how products and services could be designed or modified to suit customers’ needs. They also may advise customers on how best to use the products or services provided. Selling, of course, is an important part of the job. Sales engi neers use their technical skills to demonstrate to potential customers how and why the products or services they are selling would suit the customer better than competitors’ products. Often, there may not be a directly competitive product. In these cases, the job of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis m i Ife ' Sales engineers consult with their clients to offer them products or services that solve specific problems they may face. 420 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Many sales engineers work more than 40 hours per week to meet sales goals and their clients’ needs. Selling can be stressful because sales engineers’ income and job security often directly depend on their success in sales and customer service. Some sales engineers have large territories and travel extensively. Because sales regions may cover several States, sales engineers may be away from home for several days or even weeks at a time. Others work near their home base and travel mostly by car. International travel, to secure contracts with foreign clients, is becoming more common. Although the hours may be long and often are irregular, many sales engineers have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Consequently, they often can arrange their appointments so that they can have time off when they want it. However, most independent sales engineers do not earn any income while on vacation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering usually is required to become a sales engineer. However, some workers with previous experience in sales combined with technical experience or training sometimes hold the title of sales engineer. Also, workers who have a degree in a science, such as chemistry, or even a degree in business with little or no previous sales experience, may be termed sales engineers. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include a solid background in mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calculus) and the physical sciences (biology, chemistry, and physics), as well as basic courses in English, social studies, humanities, and computer science. University programs vary in content, though all require the development of computer skills. For example, some programs emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in industry, whereas others are more theoretical and prepare students for graduate school. Therefore, students should investigate curriculums and check accreditations carefully before making a selection. Once a university has been selected, a student must choose an area of engineering in which to specialize. Some programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then specialize on the job or in graduate school. Most engineering degrees are granted in electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in related branches. Many sales engineers first work as engineers. For some, the en gineering experience is necessary to obtain the technical background needed to sell their employers’ products or services effectively. Others move into the occupation because it offers better earnings and advancement potential or because they are looking for a new challenge. New graduates with engineering degrees may need sales experi ence and training before they can work directly as sales engineers. Training may involve teaming with a sales mentor who is familiar with the employer’s business practices, customers, procedures, and company culture. After the training period has been completed, sales engineers may continue to partner with someone who lacks technical skills, yet excels in the art of sales. Promotion may include a higher commission rate, larger sales territory, or elevation to the position of supervisor or marketing manager. Alternatively, sales engineers may leave their companies and form independent firms that may offer higher commissions and more freedom. Independent firms tend to be small, although relatively few sales engineers are self-employed. It is important for sales engineers to continue their engineering and sales education throughout their careers because much of their value to their employers depends on their knowledge of the latest technology and their ability to sell that technology. Sales engi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis neers in high-technology areas, such as information technology or advanced electronics, may find that technical knowledge rapidly becomes obsolete. Employment Sales engineers held about 74,000 jobs in 2004. About 35 percent were employed in wholesale trade and another 27 percent were employed in the manufacturing industries. Smaller numbers of sales engineers worked in information industries, such as software publishers and telecommunications; professional, scientific, and technical services, such as computer systems designs and related services and architectural, engineering, and related services; and other industries. Unlike workers in many other sales occupations, very few sales engineers are self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of sales engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Projected employment growth stems from the increasing variety and technical nature of goods and services to be sold. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently and to optimize their manufactur ing and sales processes. In addition to new positions created as companies expand their sales forces, some openings will arise each year from the need to replace sales engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Manufacturers, especially foreign manufacturers that sell their products in the United States, are expected to continue outsourcing more of their sales functions to independent sales agencies in an at tempt to control costs. This should result in more job opportunities for sales engineers in independent agencies. In wholesale trade, both outsourcing to independent sales agencies and the use of information technology are expected to affect employ ment opportunities for sales engineers. Although outsourcing should lead to more jobs in independent agencies, employment growth for sales engineers in wholesale trade likely will be dampened by the increasing ability of businesses to find, order, and track shipments directly from wholesalers through the Internet, without assistance from sales engineers. Since direct purchases from wholesalers are more likely to be of commodity products, their impact on sales en gineers should remain somewhat limited. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, as well as the personal traits necessary for successful sales work. Earnings Compensation varies significantly by the type of firm and the product sold. Most employers offer a combination of salary and commission payments or a salary plus a bonus. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all workers in the group or dis trict, or on the company’s performance. Earnings from commissions and bonuses may vary greatly from year to year, depending on sales ability, the demand for the company’s products or services, and the overall economy. Median annual earnings of sales engineers, including com missions, were $70,620 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,270 and $91,500 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,430, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $117,260 a year. Median annual earnings of those employed by firms in the computer systems design and related services industry were $86,980. Sales and Related Occupations In addition to their earnings, sales engineers who work for manu facturers usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation, meals, hotels, and customer entertainment. In addition to typical benefits, sales engineers often get personal use of a company car and frequent-flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding performance. Sales engineers who work in independent firms may have higher but less stable earnings and, often, relatively few benefits. Related Occupations Sales engineers must have sales ability and knowledge of the products and services they sell, as well as technical and analytical skills. Other occupations that require similar skills include advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; engineers; insurance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and agents is available from: >- Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, P.O. Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654-3467. Internet: http://www.manaonline.org >• Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, RO. Box 247, Geneva, IL 60134. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org 421 wholesaler often are called sales representatives. Manufacturers’ agents or manufacturers’ representatives are self-employed sales workers or independent firms who contract their services to all types of manufacturing companies. Many of these titles, however, are used interchangeably. Sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers and current clients. During a sales call, they discuss the client’s needs and suggest how their merchandise or services can meet those needs. They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their company stocks and inform customers about prices, availability, and ways in which their products can save money and boost productivity. Because a vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers sell similar products, sales representatives must emphasize any unique qualities of their products and services. Manufacturers’ agents or manufacturers’ representa tives might sell several complementary products made by different manufacturers and, thus, take a broad approach to their customers business. Sales representatives may help install new equipment and train employees in its use. They also take orders and resolve any problems with or complaints about the merchandise. Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job. Sales representatives follow leads trom other clients, track advertisements in trade journals, participate in trade shows and conferences, and may visit potential clients unannounced. In addition, they may spend lime meeting with and entertaining prospective clients during evenings and weekends. Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing __ (0*NET 41-4011.01,41 -4011.02, 41 -4011.03, 41 -4011.04,41 -4011.05, 41-4011.06,41-4012.00) ---- | Significant Points • Employment opportunities will be best for those with a college degree, the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, and the personal traits necessary for success ful selling. • • Job prospects for wholesale sales representatives will be better than those for manufacturing sales representa tives, particularly in small firms. Earnings of sales representatives usually are based on a combination of salary and commissions. Nature of the Work Sales representatives are an important part of manufacturers’ and wholesalers’ success. Regardless of the type of product they sell, their primary duties are to interest wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchandise and to address clients’ ques tions and concerns. Sales representatives represent one or several manufacturers or wholesale distributors by selling one product or a complementary line of products. Sales representatives demonstrate their products and advise clients on how using these products can reduce costs and increase sales. They market their company’s products to manufacturers, wholesale and retail establishments, construction contractors, government agencies, and other institu tions. (Retail salespersons, who sell directly to consumers, and sales engineers, who specialize in sales of technical products and services, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on where they work, sales representatives have dif ferent job titles. Those employed directly by a manufacturer or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales representatives demonstrate their products and advise clients on how using these products can reduce costs and increase sales. 422 Occupational Outlook Handbook In a process that can take several months, sales representatives present their product to a customer and negotiate the sale. Aided by a laptop computer connected to the Internet, or other telecommunica tions device, they can make a persuasive audiovisual sales pitch and often can answer technical and nontechnical questions immediately. Frequently, sales representatives who lack technical expertise work as a team with a technical expert. In this arrangement, the technical expert—sometimes a sales engineer—attends the sales presentation to explain the product and answer questions or con cerns. The sales representative makes the preliminary contact with customers, introduces the company’s product, and closes the sale. The representative is then able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. Af ter the sale, representatives may make followup visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train cus tomers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs, store displays, and advertising. Sales representatives have several duties beyond selling products. They analyze sales statistics; prepare reports; and handle adminis trative duties, such as filing expense account reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They read about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. Manufacturers’ agents who operate a sales agency also must manage their business. This requires organizational and general business skills, as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Working Conditions Some sales representatives have large territories and travel consider ably. Because a sales region may cover several States, representa tives may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their home base and travel mostly by car. Because of the nature of the work and the amount of travel, sales representa tives may work more than 40 hours per week. Although the hours are long and often irregular, most sales repre sentatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Sales representatives often are on their feet for long periods and may carry heavy sample products, necessitating some physical stamina. Dealing with different types of people can be stimulating but demanding. Sales representatives often face competition from representatives of other companies. Companies usually set goals or quotas that representatives are expected to meet. Because their earnings depend on commissions, manufacturers’ agents are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their clientele. increasingly used in the workplace to place and track orders and to monitor inventory levels. Many companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives lasting up to 2 years. However, most busi nesses are accelerating these programs to reduce costs and expedite the returns from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installa tion, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the supervision of a field sales manager. New workers may get training by accompanying experienced workers on their sales calls. As they gain familiarity with the firm s products and clients, the new workers are given increasing responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own territory. As businesses experience greater competition, increased pressure is placed upon sales representatives to produce sales. Sales representatives stay abreast of new products and the chang ing needs of their customers in a variety of ways. They attend trade shows at which new products and technologies are showcased. They also attend conferences and conventions to meet other sales representatives and clients and discuss new product developments. In addition, the entire sales force may participate in company-spon sored meetings to review sales performance, product development, sales goals, and profitability. There are many certifications designed to raise standards and develop the skills of sales representatives, wholesale and manufac turing. A few examples are the Certified Professional Manufacturers’ Representative, the Certified Sales Professional, and the Certified National Pharmaceutical Representative. Certification may involve completion of formal training and passing an examination. Those who want to become sales representatives should be goal oriented, persuasive, and able to work well both independently and as part of a team. A pleasant personality and appearance, the ability to communicate well with people, and problem-solving skills are highly valued. Patience and perseverance also are key to completing a sale, which can take several months. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Ex perienced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales trainers, who instruct new employees on selling techniques and on company policies and procedures. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to higher level positions such as sales supervisor, district manager, or vice president of sales. In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, some manufacturers’ agents go into business for themselves. Others find opportunities in purchasing, advertising, or marketing research. Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. Many employers hire individuals with previous sales ex perience who lack a college degree, but they increasingly prefer or require a bachelor’s degree because job requirements have become more technical and analytical. Nevertheless, for some consumer products, factors such as sales ability, personality, and familiar ity with brands are more important than educational background. On the other hand, firms selling complex, technical products may require a technical degree in addition to some sales experience. Many sales representatives attend seminars in sales techniques or take courses in marketing, economics, communication, or even a foreign language to provide the extra edge needed to make sales. In general, companies are looking for the best and brightest individuals who have the personality and desire to sell. Sales representatives need to be familiar with computer technology as computers are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about 1.9 million jobs in 2004. About half of all salaried representatives worked in wholesale trade. Others were employed in manufacturing, retail trade, information, and construction. Because of the diversity of products and services sold, employment opportunities are avail able in every part of the country in a wide range of industries. In addition to those working directly for a firm, many sales repre sentatives are self-employed manufacturers’ agents. They often form small sales firms and work for a straight commission based on the value of their own sales. Usually, however, manufacturers’ agents gain experience and recognition with a manufacturer or wholesaler before becoming self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations Sales and Related Occupations through the year 2014, primarily because of continued growth in the variety and number of goods to be sold. Also, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Prospective customers require sales workers to demonstrate or illustrate the particulars of a good or service. Computer technology makes sales representatives more effective and productive, for ex ample, by allowing them to provide accurate and current information to customers during sales presentations. Job prospects for sales representatives, wholesale and manu facturing, will be best for persons with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise as well as the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Opportunities will be better for wholesale sales representatives than for manufacturing sales representatives because manufacturers are expected to continue contracting out sales duties to independent agents rather than using in-house or direct selling personnel. Agents are paid only if they sell, a practice that reduces the overhead cost to their clients. Also, by using an agent who usually contracts his or her services to more than one company, companies can share costs with the other companies involved with that agent. As their customers and manufacturers continue to merge with other companies, independent agents and other wholesale trade firms will, in response, also merge with each other to better serve their clients. Although the demand for independent sales agents will increase over the 2004-14 projection period, the supply is expected to remain stable, or possibly decline, because of the difficulties associated with self employment. This factor could lead to many opportunities for sales representatives to start their own independent sales agencies. Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that direct selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best for products for which there is strong demand. Furthermore, jobs will be most plentiful in small wholesale and manufacturing firms because a growing number of these companies will rely on agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Earnings Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and the product sold. Most employers use a combination of salary and commissions or salary plus bonus. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Median annual earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products, were $58,580, in cluding commissions, in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,660 and $84,480 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 114,540 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, technical and scientific products, in May 2004 were as follows: Computer systems design and related services........... Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers Drugs and druggists’ sundries merchant wholesalers.. Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers............................... Electrical and electronic goods merchant wholesalers $70,220 65,990 60,130 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $45,400, including commission, in May 2004. The middle 50 per cent earned between $32,640 and $65,260 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,070, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,740 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, except tech nical and scientific products, in May 2004 were as follows: Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers....... Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers....................................... Grocery and related product wholesalers............................ Miscellaneous nondurable goods merchant wholesalers.... $50,680 46,030 45,320 44,210 40,240 In addition to their earnings, sales representatives usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plan, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and frequent flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, manufacturers’ agents are paid strictly on commission and usually are not reimbursed for expenses. Depending on the type of product or products they are selling, their experience in the field, and the number of clients they have, they can earn significantly more or less than those working in direct sales. Related Occupations Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require similar skills include advertising, marketing, promo tions, public relations, and sales managers; insurance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; retail salespersons; sales engineers; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and agents is available from; >- Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, One Spectrum Pointe, Suite 150, Lake Forest, CA 92630. Internet: http://www.manaonline.org >- Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, P.O. Box 247, Geneva, IL 60134. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org Sales Worker Supervisors (0*NET41-1011.00,41-1012.00) Significant Points • Overall employment is projected to grow more slowly than average; the number of self-employed sales worker supervisors is expected to decline. • Applicants with retail experience should have the best job opportunities. In many retail establishments, managers are promoted from within the company; a postsecondary degree may speed a sales worker supervisor’s advancement into • 59,080 52,870 Median annual earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products, were 423 • management. Long, irregular hours, including evenings and week ends, are common. 424 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Sales worker supervisors oversee the work of sales and related workers, such as retail salespersons; cashiers; customer service representatives; stock clerks and order fillers; sales engineers; and sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing. Sales worker supervisors are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employees, as well as for preparing work schedules and assigning workers to specific duties. Many of these workers hold job titles such as sales manager or department manager. Under the occupational classification system used in the Handbook, however, workers with the title manager who mainly supervise nonsupervisory workers are called supervisors rather than managers, even though many of these workers often perform numerous managerial functions. (Related occupations discussed elsewhere in the Handbook are retail sales persons; cashiers; customer service representatives; stock clerks and order fillers; sales engineers; and sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.) In retail establishments, sales worker supervisors ensure that customers receive satisfactory service and quality goods. They also answer customers’ inquiries, deal with complaints, and sometimes handle purchasing, budgeting, and accounting. Their responsibilities vary with the size and type of establishment. As the size of retail stores and the types of goods and services increase, supervisors tend to spe cialize in one department or one aspect of merchandising. (Managers in eating and drinking places are discussed in the Handbook statement on food service managers.) Sales worker supervisors in large retail establishments, often referred to as department managers, provide day-to-day oversight of individual departments, such as shoes, cosmetics, or housewares in large department stores; produce and meat in grocery stores; and sales in automotive dealerships. These workers establish and imple ment policies, goals, objectives, and procedures for their specific departments; coordinate activities with other department heads; and strive for smooth operations within their departments. They supervise employees who price and ticket goods and place them on display; clean and organize shelves, displays, and inventories in stockrooms; and inspect merchandise to ensure that nothing is '■■MBA wmm L Sales worker supervisors ensure that customers receive satisfactory service and quality goods. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis outdated. Sales worker supervisors also review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, and coordinate sales promotions. In addition, they may greet and assist customers and promote sales and good public relations. Sales worker supervisors in nonretail establishments supervise and coordinate the activities of sales workers who sell industrial products, automobiles, or services such as advertising or Internet services. They may prepare budgets, make personnel decisions, devise sales-incentive programs, assign sales territories, and ap prove sales contracts. In small or independent companies and retail stores, sales worker supervisors not only directly supervise sales associates, but also are responsible for the operation of the entire company or store. Some are self-employed business or store owners. Working Conditions Most sales worker supervisors have offices. In retail trade, their offices are within the stores, usually close to the areas they oversee. Although they spend some time in the office completing merchandise orders or arranging work schedules, a large portion of their workday is spent on the sales floor, supervising employees or selling. Work hours of supervisors vary greatly among establishments because work schedules usually depend on customers’ needs. Super visors generally work at least 40 hours a week. Long, irregular hours are common, particularly during sales, holidays, and busy shopping hours and at times when inventory is taken. Supervisors are expected to work evenings and weekends but usually are compensated with a day off during the week. Hours can change weekly, and managers sometimes must report to work on short notice, especially when employees are absent. Independent owners often can set their own schedules, but hours must be convenient to customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales worker supervisors usually acquire knowledge of management principles and practices—an essential requirement for a supervisory or managerial position in retail trade—through work experience. Many supervisors begin their careers on the sales floor as sales persons, cashiers, or customer service representatives. In these positions, they learn merchandising, customer service, and the basic policies and procedures of the company. The educational backgrounds of sales worker supervisors vary widely, Regardless of the education they receive, recommended courses include accounting, marketing, management, and sales, as well as psychology, sociology, and communication. Supervisors also must be computer literate because almost all cash registers, inventory control systems, and sales quotes and contracts are computerized. Supervisors who have postsecondary education often hold as sociate or bachelor’s degrees in liberal arts, social sciences, busi ness, or management. To gain experience, many college students participate in internship programs that usually are developed jointly by individual schools and firms. The type and amount of training available to supervisors vary from company to company. Many national retail chains and com panies have formal training programs for management trainees that include both classroom and on-site training. Training time may be as brief as 1 week but may also last more than 1 year in organizations that require trainees to gain experience during all sales seasons. Ordinarily, classroom training includes topics such as interview ing and customer service skills, employee and inventory manage ment, and scheduling. Management trainees may work in one specific department while training on the job, or they may rotate through several departments to gain a well-rounded knowledge of the company’s operation. Training programs for retail franchises are generally extensive, covering all functions of the company’s Sales and Related Occupations operation, including budgeting, marketing, management, finance, purchasing, product preparation, human resource management, and compensation. College graduates usually can enter management training programs directly. Sales worker supervisors must get along with all types of people. They need initiative, self-discipline, good judgment, and decisive ness. Patience and a conciliatory temperament are necessary when dealing with demanding customers. Sales worker supervisors also must be able to motivate, organize, and direct the work of subor dinates and communicate clearly and persuasively with customers and other supervisors. Individuals who display leadership and team-building skills, self-confidence, motivation, and decisiveness become candidates for promotion to assistant manager or manager. A postsecondary degree may speed a sales worker supervisor’s advancement into management because employers view it as a sign of motivation and maturity—qualities deemed important for promotion to more responsible positions. In many retail establishments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establish ments, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. Large estab lishments often have extensive career ladder programs and may offer supervisors the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Although promotions may occur more quickly in large establishments, some managers may need to relocate every several years in order to advance. Supervisors also can become advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers (workers who coordinate marketing plans, monitor sales, and propose adver tisements and promotions) or purchasing managers, buyers, or purchasing agents (workers who purchase goods and supplies for their organization or for resale). (These occupations are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some supervisors who have worked in their industry for a long time open their own stores or sales firms. However, retail trade and sales occupations are highly competitive, and although many inde pendent owners succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. To prosper, owners usually need good business sense and strong customer service and public relations skills. Employment Sales worker supervisors held about 2.2 million jobs in 2004. Ap proximately 36 percent were self-employed, most of whom were store owners. About 43 percent were wage and salary sales worker supervisors employed in the retail sector; some of the largest employ ers were grocery stores, department stores, motor vehicle and parts dealers, and clothing and clothing accessory stores. The remaining sales worker supervisors worked in nonretail establishments. Job Outlook Candidates who have retail experience—as a retail salesperson, cashier, or customer service representative, for example—will have the best opportunities for jobs as sales worker supervisors. As in other fields, competition is expected for supervisory jobs, particularly those with the most attractive earnings and working conditions. Employment of sales worker supervisors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Growth in the occupation will be restrained somewhat as retail companies hire more sales staff and increase the responsibili ties of sales worker supervisors. Many job openings will occur as experienced supervisors move into higher levels of management, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. However, as with other supervisory and managerial occupations, job turnover Digitized forisFRASER relatively low. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 425 The Internet and electronic commerce are creating new opportuni ties to reach and communicate with potential customers. Some firms are hiring Internet sales managers, who are in charge of maintaining an Internet site and answering inquiries relating to the product, to prices, and to the terms of delivery—a trend that will increase demand for these supervisors. Overall, Internet sales and electronic commerce may reduce the number of additional sales workers needed, thus reducing the number of additional supervisors required. However, the impact of electronic commerce on employment of sales worker supervisors should be minimal. Projected employment growth of sales worker supervisors will mirror, in part, the patterns of employment growth in the industries in which they work. For example, faster-than-average employment growth is expected in many of the rapidly growing service-providing industries. In contrast, the number of self-employed sales worker su pervisors is expected to decline as independent retailers face increasing competition from national chains. Unlike mid-level and top-level managers, retail store managers generally will not be affected by the restructuring and consolidation taking place at the corporate headquarters of many retail chains. Earnings Salaries of sales worker supervisors vary substantially, depending on the level of responsibility the individual has; the person’s length of service; and the type, size, and location of the firm. In May 2004, median annual earnings of salaried supervisors of retail sales workers, including commissions, were $32,720. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,120 and $43,110 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,110, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,400 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried supervisors of retail sales workers in May 2004 were as follows: Building material and supplies dealers Grocery stores...................................... Clothing stores..................................... Other general merchandise stores....... Gasoline stations................................. $34,210 31,360 30,660 30,150 27,510 In May 2004, median annual earnings of salaried supervisors of nonretail sales workers, including commissions, were $59,300. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,350 and $87,580 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,830, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $127,870 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried supervi sors of nonretail sales workers in May 2004 were as follows: Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers................................................... Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers.................... Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers.................................................. Grocery and related product wholesalers........ Postal Service................................................... $79,480 72,320 61,150 59,130 52,490 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and by merchandise sold. Many supervisors receive a commission or a combination of salary and commission. Under a commission system, supervisors receive a percentage of department or store sales. Thus, supervisors have the opportunity to increase their earnings considerably, but their earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those who sell large amounts of merchandise or exceed sales goals often receive bonuses or other awards. 426 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Sales worker supervisors serve customers, supervise workers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment. Others with similar responsibilities include financial managers, food service managers, lodging managers, and medical and health services managers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for sales worker supervi sors may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establishments or from State employment service offices. General information on management careers in retail establish ments is available from: > National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW„ Suite 1100, Washington DC 20004. ’ Information on management careers in grocery stores and on schools offering related programs is available from: >- International Food Service Distributors Association, 201 Park Washington Ct., Falls Church, VA 22046-4521. Internet: http://www.ifdaonline.org Information about management careers and training programs in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from: > National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Dept., S400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org Information about management careers in convenience stores is available from: >- National Association of Convenience Stores, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria VA 22314-3436. Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents (0*NET 41 -3031.01,41 -3031.02) Significant Points • A college degree, sales ability, good interpersonal and communication skills, and a strong desire to succeed are important qualifications. • Securities and commodities sales agents must pass licensing exams. • Competition for entry-level jobs usually is keen, espe cially in larger firms; opportunities should be better in smaller firms. • Turnover is high for beginning agents, who often are unable to establish a sizable clientele; once established, securities and commodities sales agents have a very strong attachment to their occupation because of their high earnings and considerable investment in training. Nature of the Work Most investors, whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or large institutions with'millions, use securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities, or other financial products. In addition, many clients seek out these agents for advice on investments, insurance, tax planning, estate planning, and other financial matters. Securities and commodities sales agents, also called brokers, stockbrokers, registered representatives, account executives, or financial consultants, perform a variety of tasks, depending on their specific job duties. When an investor wishes to buy or sell a security, for example, sales agents may relay the order through https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their firm’s computers to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities and commodi ties sales agents known as floor brokers negotiate the price with other floor brokers, make the sale, and forward the purchase price to the sales agents. If a security is not traded on an exchange, as in the case of bonds and over-the-counter stocks, the broker sends the order to the firm’s trading department. Here, using their own funds or those of the firm, other securities sales agents, known as dealers, buy and sell securities directly from other dealers, with the intention of reselling the security to customers at a profit. After the transaction has been completed, the broker notifies the customer of the final price. Securities and commodities sales agents also provide many re lated services for their customers. They may explain stock market terms and trading practices, offer financial counseling or advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities, and design an individual client’s financial portfolio, which could include securities, life insur ance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit, annuities, and other investments. Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some indi viduals prefer long-term investments, for capital growth or to pro vide income over a number of years; others might want to invest in speculative securities, which they hope will quickly rise in price. On the basis of each customer’s objectives, securities and commodities sales agents furnish information about the advantages and disadvan tages of an investment. They also supply the latest price quotes on any securities, as well as information on the activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing the securities. Most securities and commodities sales agents serve individual investors; others specialize in institutional investors, such as banks and pension funds. In institutional investing, sales agents usually concentrate on a specific financial product, such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. At other times, they may also handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate securities issued to finance the expansion of a plant. The most important part of a sales representative’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities and commodities sales agents spend much of their time searching for customers—relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They also may meet clients through business and social contacts. Agents often join civic organizations and other social organizations to expand their networks. Many sales agents find it useful to contact potential clients by teaching adult education investment courses or by giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales agents lists of people with whom the firm has done business in the past. Some agents inherit the clients of agents who have retired. After an agent is established, referrals from satisfied clients are an important source of new business. Financial services sales agents sell a wide variety of bank ing and related services. They contact potential customers to explain their services and to ascertain customers’ banking and other financial needs. In doing so, they discuss services such as loans, deposit accounts, lines of credit, sales or inventory financing, certificates of deposit, cash management, mutual funds, or investment services. They also may solicit businesses to participate in consumer credit card programs. Financial ser vices sales agents who serve all the financial needs of a single affluent individual or a business often are called private bankers or relationship managers. With deregulation of the financial services industry, the distinc tions among sales agents are becoming less clear as securities firms, banks, and insurance companies venture further into each other’s products and services. The agents’ jobs also are becoming more important as competition between the firms intensifies. Sales and Related Occupations 427 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement jSfjJjS >.«g s**"-* III!!!! Because securities and commodities sales agents must be knowl edgeable about economic conditions and trends, a college educa tion is important, especially in larger securities firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of workers in this occupation are college graduates. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have considerable sales ability, good interpersonal and communica tion skills, and a strong desire to succeed. Some employers also make sure that applicants have a good credit history and a clean record. Self-confidence and an ability to handle frequent rejections are important ingredients for success. Because maturity and the ability to work independently are important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Most firms prefer candidates with sales experience, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Therefore, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securities and commodities sales agents following retirement from other fields. Securities and commodities sales agents must meet State licens ing requirements, which usually include passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales agents must register as representatives of their firm with the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination (Series 7 exam), administered by the NASD, and be an employee of a registered firm People increasingly seek the advice and services of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents to realize their financial goals. Working Conditions Most securities and commodities sales agents work in offices under fairly stressful conditions. They have access to “quote boards” or computer terminals that continually provide information on the prices of securities. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unantici pated changes in the economy, the pace can become very hectic. Established securities and commodities sales agents usually work a standard 40-hour week. Beginners who are seeking customers usu ally work longer hours. New brokers spend a great deal of time learn ing the firm’s products and services and studying for exams in order to qualify to sell other products, such as insurance and commodities. Most securities and commodities sales agents accommodate custom ers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. A growing number of securities sales agents, employed mostly by discount or online brokerage firms, work in call-center environ ments. In these centers, hundreds of agents spend much of the day on the telephone taking orders from clients or offering advice and information on different securities. Often, such call centers operate 24 hours a day, requiring agents to work in shifts. Financial services sales agents normally work 40 hours a week in a comfortable, less stressful office environment. They may spend considerable time outside the office, meeting with current and pro spective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales agents work exclusively inside banks, providing service to walk-in customers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for at least 4 months. Most States require a second examination—the Uniform Se curities Agents State Law Examination. This test measures the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities business in general, customer protection requirements, and recordkeeping procedures. Many take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities examinations. Within 2 years, brokers are encouraged to take additional licensing exams in order to sell mutual funds, insurance, and commodities. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities and commodities sales agents meet the registration requirements for certification. In most firms, the training period takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling; may take courses offered by business schools and associa tions; and may undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. Many firms like to rotate their trainees among various departments, to give them a broad perspective of the securities busi ness. In small firms, sales agents often receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Securities and commodities sales agents must understand the basic characteristics of the wide variety of financial products of fered by brokerage firms. Brokers periodically take training through their firms or outside institutions in order to keep abreast of new financial products and to improve their sales techniques. Computer training also is important, because the securities sales business is highly automated. It is mandatory for all registered securities and commodities sales agents to attend periodic continuing education classes to maintain their licenses. Courses consist of computer-based training in regulatory matters and company training on new products and services. In addition, more sales agents are taking courses to become certified financial planners. The Certified Financial Plan ner credential issued by the Certified Financial Planner Board of 428 Occupational Outlook Handbook Standards, requires relevant experience, completion of education requirements, passing a comprehensive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. The CFP exams test the candidate’s knowledge of the financial planning process, insurance and risk management, employee benefits planning, taxes and retirement planning, and investment and estate planning. The principal form of advancement for securities and commodi ties sales agents is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of indi vidual investors, they may eventually handle very large institutional accounts, such as those of banks and pension funds. After taking a series of tests, some brokers become portfolio managers and have greater authority to make investment decisions regarding an account. Some experienced sales agents become branch office managers and supervise other sales agents while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few agents advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree that includes courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Often, financial services sales agents learn their jobs through on-the-job training under the supervision of bank officers. However, those who wish to sell mutual funds and insur ance products may need to undergo formal training and pass some of the same exams required of securities sales agents. Employment Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents held about 281,000 jobs in 2004. More than half of jobs were found in securities, commodity contracts, and other financial investments and related activities. One in 5 worked in depository and nondepository credit intermediation, including commercial banks, savings institu tions, and credit unions. Although securities and commodities sales agents are employed by firms in all parts of the country, many work •for a small number of large securities and investment banking firms headquartered in New York City. About 1 out of 8 securities, com modities, and financial services sales agents were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. As people’s incomes continue to climb, they will increasingly seek the advice and services of securities, com modities, and financial services sales agents to realize their financial goals. Growth in the volume of stocks traded over the Internet will limit job growth. Nevertheless, the overall increase in investment is expected to spur employment growth among these workers, with a majority of transactions still requiring the advice and services of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Baby boomers in their peak savings years will fuel much of this increase in investment. Saving for retirement has been made much easier by the government, which continues to offer a number of taxfavorable pension plans, such as the 401 (k) and the Roth IRA. The participation of more women in the workforce also means higher household incomes and more women qualifying for pensions. Many of these pensions are self-directed, meaning that the recipient has the responsibility for investing the money. With such large amounts of money to invest, sales agents, in their role as financial advisors, will be in great demand. Other factors that will affect the demand for brokers are the increasing number and complexity of investment products, as well as the effects of globalization. As the public and businesses become more sophisticated about investing, they are venturing into the op https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tions and futures markets. Brokers are needed to buy or sell these products, which are not traded online. Also, markets for investment are expanding with the increase in global trading of stocks and bonds. Furthermore, the New York Stock Exchange has extended its trading hours to accommodate trading in foreign stocks and compete with foreign exchanges. Employment of sales agents is adversely affected by downturns in the stock market or the economy. Turnover is high for beginning agents, who often are unable to establish a sizable clientele even in good times. Once established, securities and commodities sales agents have a very strong attachment to their occupation because of their high earnings and considerable investment in training. Competition usually is keen, especially in larger companies with more applicants than jobs. Opportunities for beginning sales agents should be better in smaller firms. Employment of financial services sales agents in banks will in crease as banks expand their product offerings in order to compete directly with other investment firms. Earnings Median annual earnings of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were $69,200 in May 2004. The middle half earned between $40,750 and $131,290. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents in 2004 were: Other financial investment activities............................................. $94,670 Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage.............................................................................. 85,350 Management of companies and enterprises ................................... 67,690 Nondepository credit intermediation............................................ 51,820 Depository credit intermediation..................................................... 44,670 Stockbrokers, who provide personalized service and more guidance with respect to a client’s investments, usually are paid a commission based on the amount of stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, and other products they sell. Earnings from commissions are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling, and low when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales agents with a steady income by paying a “draw against com mission”—a minimum salary based on commissions they can be expected to earn. Securities and commodities sales agents who can provide their clients with the most thorough financial services should enjoy the greatest income stability. Trainee brokers usually are paid a salary until they develop a client base. The salary gradu ally decreases in favor of commissions as the broker gains clients. A small, but increasing, number of full-service brokers are paid a percentage of the assets they oversee. This fee often covers a certain number of trades done for free. Brokers who work for discount brokerage firms that promote the use of telephone and online trading services usually are paid a salary, sometimes boosted by bonuses that reflect the profitability of the office. Financial services sales agents usually are paid a salary also; however, bonuses or commissions from sales are starting to account for a larger share of their income. Related Occupations Other jobs requiring knowledge of finance and an ability to sell include insurance sales agents, real estate brokers and sales agents, and financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Sources of Additional Information For general information on the securities industry, contact: ► Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271. Sales and Related Occupations For information about job opportunities for financial services sales agents in various States, contact State bankers’ associations or write directly to a particular bank. Travel Agents (0*NET 41-3041.00) Significant Points 429 Travel agents also promote their services, using telemarketing, direct mail, and the Internet. They make presentations to social and special-interest groups, arrange advertising displays, and suggest company-sponsored trips to business managers. Travel agents no longer receive commission payments from domestic airlines, and agents face increasing competition from the Internet for low-cost fares. In an effort to find a niche in the market, many travel agents now specialize in travel to certain regions or for certain groups of people, such as honeymooners, grandparents, or ethnic groups. Working Conditions • Travel benefits, such as reduced rates for transportation and lodging, attract many people to this occupation. • Training at a postsecondary vocational school, college, or university is increasingly important. Travel agents increasingly specialize in specific desti nations or type of travel or traveler. Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. During vaca tion seasons and holiday periods, they may be under a great deal of pressure. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. With advanced computer systems and telecommunication networks, it is increasingly common for travel Keen competition for jobs is expected. agents to work at home. • • Nature of the Work Constantly changing airfares and schedules, thousands of available vacation packages, and a vast amount of travel information on the Internet can make travel planning frustrating and time consuming. To sort out the many travel options, tourists and business people often turn to travel agents, who assess their needs and help them make the best possible travel arrangements. Also, many major cruise lines, resorts, and specialty travel groups use travel agents to promote travel packages to millions of people every year. In general, travel agents give advice on destinations and make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommodations, car rentals, tours, and recreation. They also may advise on weather conditions, restaurants, and tourist attractions. For international travel, agents also provide information on customs regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates. Travel agents consult a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to evaluate comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service so that they can base recommendations on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients. ’ \ | rK. : Travel agents give advice on destinations and make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommodations, car rentals, tours, and recreation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for those interested in becoming a travel agent is a high school diploma or equivalent. Technology and computerization have increased the training needs, however, and many employers prefer applicants with more education, such as a postsecondary vocational award. Many vocational schools offer full-time travel agent programs that last several months, as well as evening and weekend programs. Travel agent courses also are offered in public adult education programs and in community and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer bachelor’s or master’s degrees in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to travel or tourism, a college education sometimes is desired by employers to establish a background in fields such as computer science, geography, communication, foreign languages, and world history. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. The American Society of Travel Agents offers a correspondence course that provides a basic understanding of the travel industry. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job training for their employees, a significant part of which consists of computer instruction. All employers require computer skills of workers whose jobs involve the operation of airline and centralized reservation systems. Continuing education is critical, as the abundance of travel in formation readily available through the Internet and other sources has resulted in a more informed consumer who wants to deal with an expert when choosing a travel agent. Experienced travel agents can take advanced self-study or group-study courses from the Travel Institute, leading to the Certified Travel Counselor designation. The Travel Institute also offers marketing and sales skills develop ment programs and destination specialist programs, which provide detailed knowledge of regions such as North America, Western Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Rim. With the trend toward more specialization, these and other destination specialist courses are increasingly important. Personal travel experience or experience as an airline reserva tion agent is an asset because knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps influence a client’s travel plans. Patience and the ability to gain the confidence of clients also are useful qualities. Travel agents must be well-organized, accurate, and meticulous to compile information from various sources and plan and organize their clients’ travel itineraries. Also, agents who specialize in business travel must work quickly and efficiently because business travel often must be arranged on short notice. 430 Occupational Outlook Handbook As the Internet has become an important tool for making travel arrangements, more travel agencies are using websites to provide their services to clients. This trend has increased the importance of computer skills in this occupation. Other desirable qualifica tions include good writing and interpersonal and sales skills. Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to office manager or to other managerial positions. Those who start their own agencies generally have had experience in an established agency. Before they can receive commissions, these agents usually must gain formal approval from suppliers or corporations, such as airlines, ship lines, or rail lines. The Airlines Reporting Corporation and the International Airlines Travel Agency Network, for example, are the approving bodies for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be financially sound and employ at least one experienced manager or travel agent. There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents. In 2004, however, 13 States required some form of registration or certification of retail sellers of travel services. More information may be obtained by contacting the Office of the Attorney General or Department of Commerce in each State. Employment Travel agents held about 103,000jobs in 2004 and are found in every part of the country. More than 3 out of 5 agents worked for travel agencies. Around 14 percent were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to decline through 2014. Most openings will occur as experienced agents transfer to other oc cupations or leave the labor force. Because of the projected decline in employment and the fact that a number of people are attracted by the travel benefits associated with this occupation, keen competition for jobs is expected. Travel agents who specialize and can utilize the Internet to reduce their costs and better compete with other travel suppliers should have the best chance for success. The Internet increasingly allows people to access travel infor mation from their personal computers, enabling them to research and plan their own trips, make their own reservations and travel arrangements, and purchase their own tickets. As a result, demand will decline for travel agents who simply take orders, such as book ing tickets for a specified date and time. Also, domestic airlines no longer pay commissions to travel agencies, which has reduced revenues and caused some agencies to go out of business. This change also has led many travel agents to begin charging fees for their services. Tojustify those fees, customers expect travel agents to provide good service and travel expertise. Opportunities may be better for agents who specialize in specific destinations, luxury travel, or particular types of travelers such as ethnic groups or groups with a special interest or hobby. Many consumers still prefer to use a professional travel agent to plan a complete trip; to deal with some of the more complex transactions; to ensure reliability; to suggest excursions or destinations that might otherwise be missed; to save time; or, in some cases, to save money. Several factors should offset the adverse effect of Internet travel arrangement and the loss of revenues from airline bookings. For example, spending on tourism and travel is expected to increase over the next decade. With rising household incomes, smaller families, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and an increasing number of older people who are more likely to travel, more people are expected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently—than in the past. Business travel also should rebound from recession and terrorism-related declines as business activity expands. Business travel also should increase as U.S. busi nesses open more foreign operations and businesses increasingly sell their goods and services worldwide. In addition, luxury and specialty travel should increase among the growing number of Americans with the available time and money for these more expensive trips. Another positive factor is the increasing affordability of air travel. Greater competition among airlines, especially from low-cost carriers, has brought airfares within the budgets of more people. In addition, American travel agents now organize more tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Also, travel agents often are able to offer various travel packages at a substantial discount. The demand for travel is sensitive to economic downturns and in ternational political crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Therefore, the number of job opportunities for travel agents fluctu ates. Flowever, the number of travelers has risen recently, possibly reflecting demand from consumers who delayed travel because of terrorism and safety concerns. Demand for travel remains volatile, though, and trends could change at any time. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Median annual earnings of travel agents were $27,640 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,600 and $35,070. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,180, while the top 10 percent earned more than $44,090. Median earnings in May 2004 for travel agents em ployed in the travel arrangement and reservation services industry were $27,490. Salaried agents usually enjoy standard employer-paid benefits that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. When traveling for personal reasons, agents usually get reduced rates for transportation and accommodations. In addition, agents sometimes take familiarization” trips, at lower cost or no cost to themselves, to learn about various vacation sites. These benefits attract many people to this occupation. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from travel-related bookings and service fees they charge clients. Often it takes time to acquire a sufficient number of clients to have adequate earnings, so it is not unusual for new self-employed agents to have low earnings. Established agents may have lower earnings during economic downturns. Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recre ational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibili ties include tour and travel guides, and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact: > American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.travelsense.org For information on training and certification qualifications, contact: ► The Travel Institute, 148 Linden St., Suite 305, Wellesley, MA 02482. Office and Administrative Support Occupations Financial Clerks Bill and Account Collectors (0*NET 43-3011.00) Significant Points • • • About 1 in 5 collectors works for a collection agency; others work in banks, retail stores, government, physi cians’ offices, hospitals, and other institutions that lend money and extend credit. Most jobs in this occupation require only a high school diploma, though many employers prefer workers with some postsecondary training. Faster-than-average employment growth is expected as companies focus more efforts on collecting unpaid mm debts. Nature of the Work Bill and account collectors, called simply collectors, keep track of accounts that are overdue and attempt to collect payment on them. Some are employed by third-party collection agencies, while oth ers—known as “in-house collectors”—work directly for the original creditors, such as department stores, hospitals, or banks. The duties of bill and account collectors are similar in the many different organizations in which they are employed. First, collectors are called upon to locate and notify customers of delinquent accounts, usually over the telephone, but sometimes by letter. When customers move without leaving a forwarding address, collectors may check with the post office, telephone companies, credit bureaus, or former neighbors to obtain the new address. The attempt to find the new address is called “skip tracing.” New computer systems assist in trac ing by automatically tracking when customers change their address or contact information on any of their open accounts. Once collectors find the debtor, they inform him or her of the overdue account and solicit payment. If necessary, they review the terms of the sale, service, or credit contract with the customer. Collectors also may attempt to learn the cause of the delay in payment. Where feasible, they offer the customer advice on how to pay off the debts, such as by taking out a bill consolidation loan. However, the collector’s prime objective is always to ensure that the customer pays the debt in question. If a customer agrees to pay, collectors record this commitment and check later to verify that the payment was indeed made. Collectors may have authority to grant an extension of time if customers ask for one. If a customer fails to respond, collectors prepare a statement indicating the customer’s action for the credit department of the establishment. In more extreme cases, collectors may initiate repossession proceed ings, disconnect the customer’s service, or hand the account over to an attorney for legal action. Most collectors handle other administra tive functions for the accounts assigned to them, including recording changes of addresses and purging the records of the deceased. Collectors use computers and a variety of automated systems to keep track of overdue accounts. Typically, collectors work at video https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bill and account collectors calculate overdue accounts and arrange repayments. display terminals that are linked to computers. In sophisticated pre dictive dialer systems, a computer dials the telephone automatically, and the collector speaks only when a connection has been made. Such systems eliminate time spent calling busy or nonanswering numbers. Many collectors use regular telephones, but others wear headsets like those used by telephone operators. Working Conditions In-house bill and account collectors typically are employed in an office environment, while those who work for third-party collection agencies may work in a call-center environment. Workers spend most of their time on the phone tracking down and contacting people with debts. The work can be stressful as some customers can be confrontational when pressed about their debts, although some appreciate assistance in resolving their outstanding debt. Collectors may also feel pressured to meet targets for the amount of debt they are expected recover in a certain period. Bill and account collectors often have to work evenings and weekends, when it usually is easier to reach people. As a result, it is not uncommon for workers to work part time or on flexible work schedules, though the majority work 40 hours per week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bill and account collectors are required to have at least a high school diploma. However, employers prefer workers 431 432 Occupational Outlook Handbook who have completed some college or who have experience in other occupations that involve contact with the public. Workers should have good communication skills and be computer liter ate; experience with advanced telecommunications equipment is also useful. Once hired, workers usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or some other senior worker, new em ployees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Additional training topics usually include telephone techniques and negotiation skills. Workers are also instructed in the laws govern ing the collection of debt as mandated by the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA), which applies to all third party and some in-house collectors. Workers usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Many companies fill supervisory positions by pro moting individuals from within the organization, and workers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. Earnings Median hourly earnings of bill and account collectors were $13.20 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.87 and $16.28. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.22, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $20.10. In addition to a basic rate of pay, many bill and account collectors earn commissions based on the amount of debt they recover. Related Occupations Bill and account collectors review and collect information on accounts. Other occupations with similar responsibilities include credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; loan officers; and interviewers. Sources of Additional Information Career information on bill and account collectors is available from > ACA International, The Association of Credit and Collection Pro fessionals, P.O. Box 390106, Minneapolis, MN 55439. Internet: http://www.acaintemational.org Employment Bill and account collectors held about 456,000 jobs in 2004. About 1 in 5 collectors works for a collection agency. Many others work in banks, retail stores, government, physician’s offices, hospitals, and other institutions that lend money and extend credit. Billing and Posting Clerks and Machine Operators (Q*NET 43-3021.01, 43-3021.02, 43-3021.03) Job Outlook Employment of bill and account collectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Cash flow is becoming increasingly important to companies, which are now placing greater emphasis on collecting unpaid debts sooner. Thus, the workload for collectors is expected to con tinue to increase as they seek to collect not only debts that are relatively old, but ones that are more recent. Also, as more companies in a wide range of industries get involved in lend ing money and issuing their own credit cards, they will need to hire collectors, because debt levels will likely continue to rise. In addition to job openings from employment growth, a significant number of openings will result from the high level of turnover in the occupation. As a result, job opportunities should be favorable. Hospitals and physicians’ offices are two of the fastest growing industries requiring collectors. With insurance reimbursements not keeping up with cost increases, the health care industry is seeking to recover more money from patients. Government agencies also are making more use of collectors to collect on everything from parking tickets to child-support payments and past-due taxes. Finally, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is looking into outsourcing the collection of overdue Federal taxes to third-party collection agencies. If the IRS does outsource, more collectors will be required for this large job. Despite the increasing demand for bill collectors, employ ment growth may be limited due to an increased use of third party debt collectors, who are generally more efficient than in-house collectors. Also, some firms are beginning to use offshore collection agencies, whose lower cost structures al low them to collect debts that are too small for domestic col lection agencies. Contrary to the pattern in most occupations, employment of bill and account collectors tends to rise during recessions, reflecting the difficulty that many people have in meeting their financial obligations. However, collectors usually have more success at getting people to repay their debts when the economy is good. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • The health care industry employs 1 out of 3 workers. • Most jobs in this occupation require only a high school diploma; however, many employers prefer to hire workers who have completed some college courses or a degree. • Slower-than-average employment growth is expected as increased automation of billing services reduces the need for billing clerks. Nature of the Work Billing and posting clerks and machine operators, commonly called billing clerks, compile records of charges for services rendered or goods sold, calculate and record the amounts of these services and goods, and prepare invoices to be mailed to customers. Billing clerks review purchase orders, sales tickets, hospital records, or charge slips to calculate the total amount due from a customer. They must take into account any applicable discounts, special rates, or credit terms. A billing clerk for a trucking com pany often needs to consult a rate book to determine shipping costs of machine parts, for example. A hospital’s billing clerk may need to contact an insurance company to determine what items will be reimbursed and for how much. In accounting, law, consulting, and similar firms, billing clerks calculate client fees based on the actual time required to perform the task. They keep track of the accumulated hours and dollar amounts to charge to each job, the type of job performed for a customer, and the percentage of work completed. After billing clerks review all necessary information, they compute the charges, using calculators or computers. They then prepare itemized statements, bills, or invoices used for billing and recordkeeping purposes. In one organization, the clerk might prepare a bill containing the amount due and the date and type of service; in another, the clerk would produce a detailed invoice with codes Office and Administrative Support Occupations 433 computers on a daily basis, workers may have to sit for extended periods and also may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement :: Billing clerks review statements for errors before sending them to customers. for all goods and services provided. This latter form might list the items sold, the terms of credit, the date of shipment or the dates services were provided, a salesperson’s or doctor’s identification, if necessary, and the sales total. Computers and specialized billing software allow many clerks to calculate charges and prepare bills in one step. Computer packages prompt clerks to enter data from handwritten forms, and to manipulate the necessary entries of quantities, labor, and rates to be charged. Bill ing clerks verify the entry of information and check for errors before the computer prints the bill. After the bills are printed, billing clerks check them again for accuracy. Computer software also allows bills to be sent electronically if both the biller and the customer prefer not to use paper copies; this, coupled with the prevalence of electronic payment options, allows a completely paperless billing process. In offices that are not automated, billing machine operators run off the bill on a billing machine to send to the customer. In addition to producing invoices, billing clerks may be asked to handle follow-up questions from customers and resolve any discrepancies or errors. Finally, all changes must be entered in the accounting records. Working Conditions Billing clerks typically are employed in an office environment, although a growing number—particularly medical billers—work at home. Most billing clerks work 40 hours per week during regular business hours, though about one in seven works part time. Because billing clerks use https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most billing clerks need at least a high school diploma. However, many employers prefer to hire workers who have completed some college courses or a degree. Workers with an associate or bachelor’s degree are likely to start at higher salaries and advance more easily than those without degrees. Employers also seek workers who are computer literate, and in particular those who have experience with billing software programs. Billing clerks usually receive on-the-job training from their supervi sor or some other senior worker. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in the specific computer software used by the company. Workers must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented with an aptitude for working with numbers in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. Workers also should be discreet and trustworthy, because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. Medical billers in particular need to understand and follow the regulations of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which were enacted to maintain the confidentiality of patient medical records. A number of community and career colleges offer certificate programs in medical billing. Courses typically cover basic biology, anatomy, and physiology in addition to training on coding and computer billing software. Billing clerks usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupa tion. Most companies fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within the organization. Workers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate experience and education, some billing clerks may become accountants, human resource specialists, or buyers. Employment In 2004, billing and posting clerks and machine operators held about 523,000 jobs. Although all industries employ billing clerks, the health care industry employs the most, about a third of all billing clerks. The wholesale and retail trade industries also employ a large number of billing clerks. Third-party billing companies—companies that provide billing services for other companies—are employing a growing number of billing clerks. Industries that are providing this service are the accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services industry and the office administrative and business support services industries. These industries currently employ around 5 percent of the occupation, although a portion of clerks in these in dustries are performing the function on their own accounts. Another 3 percent—mostly medical billers—were self employed. Job Outlook Employment of billing and posting clerks and machine operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Automated and electronic billing processes are greatly simplifying billing and allowing companies to send out bills faster without hiring additional workers. In addition, as the billing process becomes simplified, other people, particularly accounting and bookkeeping clerks, are taking on the billing function. Strong growth in the health care industry, which employs many billing clerks due to the complicated nature of medical billing, will generate some jobs for billing clerks in the future. Although growth will be limited, many job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in the occupation is relatively high, 434 Occupational Outlook Handbook characteristic of an entry-level occupation that typically requires only a high school diploma. Employment growth will occur in the expanding health care in dustries, but growth will be limited as more hospitals and physicians’ offices use contract billing companies. Contract billing companies generally have much more sophisticated technology and software, enabling them to produce more bills per person. In all industries, including health care, the billing function is becoming increasingly automated and invoices and statements are automatically generated upon delivery of the service or shipment of goods. Bills also will increasingly be delivered electronically over the Internet, eliminating the production and mailing of paper bills. Earnings Median hourly earnings of billing and posting clerks and machine operators were $13.00 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.76 and $15.86. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $9.12, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.88. Related Occupations Billing clerks process and send records of transactions for payment; other occupations with similar responsibilities include payroll and timekeeping clerks; bookkeeping, auditing, and accounting clerks; tellers; and order clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for billing clerks is avail able from local offices of the State employment service. Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks (0*NET 43-3031.00) Significant Points • Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held more than 2 million jobs in 2004 and are employed in every industry. • Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average as the spread of office automation lifts worker productivity. • The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for temporary and part-time work; those who can carry out a wider range of bookkeeping and accounting activities will be in greater demand than specialized clerks. Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are an organization’s financial recordkeepers. They update and maintain one or more accounting records, including those which tabulate expenditures, receipts, accounts payable and receivable, and profit and loss. They represent a wide range of skills and knowledge from full-charge bookkeepers who can maintain an entire company’s books to ac counting clerks who handle specific accounts. All of these clerks make numerous computations each day and increasingly must be comfortable using computers to calculate and record data. In small establishments, bookkeeping clerks handle all financial transactions and recordkeeping. They record all transactions, post debits and credits, produce financial statements, and prepare reports https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ESz.-. Mbi. ' Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks update and maintain accounting records. and summaries for supervisors and managers. Bookkeepers also prepare bank deposits by compiling data from cashiers, verifying and balancing receipts, and sending cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. They also may handle payroll, make purchases, prepare invoices, and keep track of overdue accounts. In large offices and accounting departments, accounting clerks have more specialized tasks. Their titles, such as accounts payable clerk or accounts receivable clerk, often reflect the type of accounting they do. In addition, their responsibilities vary by level of experi ence. Entry-level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total accounts, and compute interest charges. They also may monitor loans and accounts to ensure that payments are up to date. More advanced accounting clerks may total, balance, and recon cile billing vouchers; ensure the completeness and accuracy of data on accounts; and code documents according to company procedures. These workers post transactions in journals and on computer files and update the files when needed. Senior clerks also review computer printouts against manually maintained journals and make necessary corrections. They may review invoices and statements to ensure that all the information appearing on them is accurate and complete, and they may reconcile computer reports with operating reports. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other work ers. They check figures, postings, and documents to ensure that they are correct, mathematically accurate, and properly coded. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other workers to adjust. As organizations continue to computerize their financial records, many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are using spe cialized accounting software on personal computers. With manual posting to general ledgers becoming obsolete, these clerks increas ingly are posting charges to accounts on computer spreadsheets and databases. They now enter information from receipts or bills into computers, and the information is then stored either electronically or as computer printouts (or both). The widespread use of comput ers also has enabled bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks to take on additional responsibilities, such as payroll, procurement, and billing. Many of these functions require these clerks to write letters, make phone calls to customers or clients, and interact with colleagues. Therefore, good communication skills are becoming increasingly important in the occupation. Working Conditions Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work in an office environment. They may experience eye and muscle strain, back Office and Administrative Support Occupations aches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries as a result of using computers on a daily basis. Clerks may have to sit for extended periods while reviewing detailed data. Many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work regular business hours and a standard 40-hour week. A substantial number work just part time. Full-time and part-time clerks may work some evenings and weekends. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks may work longer hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly or yearly accounting audits are performed. Those who work in hotels, restaurants, and stores may put in overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are required to have a high school degree at a minimum. However, having some col lege is increasingly important and an associate degree in business or accounting is required for some positions. Although a college degree is rarely required, graduates may accept bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerk positions to get into a particular company or to enter the accounting or finance field with the hope of eventually being promoted to professional or managerial positions. Experience in a related job and working in an office environment also is recommended. Employers prefer workers who are computerliterate; knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software is especially valuable. Once hired, bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usu ally receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy, because they frequently come in contact with confidential mate rial. In addition, all bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Bookkeepers, particularly those who handle all the recordkeeping for companies, may find it beneficial to become certified. The Certified Bookkeeper designation, awarded by the American Institute of Profes sional Bookkeepers, assures employers that individuals have the skills and knowledge required to carry out all the bookkeeping and account ing functions up through the adjusted trial balance, including payroll functions. For certification, candidates must have at least 2 years of bookkeeping experience, pass three tests, and adhere to a code of ethics. More than 100 colleges and universities offer a preparatory course for certification and another 150 offer a course online. The Universal Ac counting Center offers the Professional Bookkeeper designation. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually advance by tak ing on more duties in the same occupation for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Most companies fill office and administra tive support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individu als from within their organizations, so clerks who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate experience and education, some bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks may become accountants or auditors. in outsourcing of this occupation. About 1 out of 4 bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks worked part time in 2004. Job Outlook Employment of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. More job openings will stem from replacement needs than from job growth. Each year, numerous jobs will become avail able as these clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for temporary and part-time work. Although a growing economy will result in more financial trans actions and other activities that require these clerical workers, the continuing spread of office automation will lift worker productivity and contribute to the slower-than-average increase in employment. In addition, organizations of all sizes will continue to downsize and con solidate various recordkeeping functions, thus reducing the demand for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. Furthermore, some work performed by these workers will be outsourced to lower-wage foreign countries. Those who can carry out a wider range of bookkeeping and accounting activities will be in greater demand than specialized clerks. Demand for full-charge bookkeepers is expected to increase, because they are called upon to do much of the work of accountants, as well as perform a wider variety of financial transactions, from payroll to bill ing. Certified bookkeepers and those with several years of accounting or bookkeeper experience will have the best job prospects. Earnings In May 2004, the median wage and salary annual earnings of book keeping, accounting, and auditing clerks were $28,570. The middle half of the occupation earned between $22,960 and $35,450. The top 10 percent of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks more than $43,570, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $18,580. Related Occupations Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work with financial records. Other clerks who perform similar duties include bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; brokerage clerks; credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks; payroll and timekeeping clerks; procurement clerks; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Bookkeeper designation, contact: >- American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, 6001 Montrose Rd„ Suite 500, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.aipb.org Gaming Cage Workers (0*NET 43-3041.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are available nationwide and are no longer limited to Nevada and New Jersey. • Most employers prefer applicants who have at least a high school diploma as well as experience in handling money or previous casino employment. • Workers need a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commission; licensure requires proof of residency in the State in which gaming workers are employed and a background investigation. Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held more than 2 mil lion jobs in 2004. They are found in all industries and at all levels of government. Local government and the accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services industry are among the individual industries employing the largest numbers of these clerks. A growing number work for employment services firms, the result of an increase https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 435 436 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Gaming cage workers, more commonly called cage cashiers, work in casinos and other gaming establishments. The “cage” where these workers can be found is the central depository for money, gaming chips, and paperwork necessary to support casino play. Cage workers carry out a wide range of financial transactions and handle any paperwork that may be required. They perform credit checks and verify credit references for people who want to open a house credit account. They cash checks according to rules established by the casino. Cage workers sell gambling chips, tokens, or tickets to patrons or to other workers for resale to patrons and exchange chips and tokens for cash. They may use cash registers, adding machines, or computers to calculate and record transactions. At the end of their shift, cage cashiers must balance the books. Because gaming establishments are closely scrutinized, cage workers must follow a number of rules and regulations related to their handling of money. For example, they monitor large cash transactions for money laundering and tax purposes, and report these transactions to the Internal Revenue Service. Also, in de termining when to extend credit or cash a check, cage workers must follow detailed procedures. Working Conditions The atmosphere in casinos is often considered glamorous. However, casino work can also be physically demanding. This occupation requires workers to stand for long periods with constant reaching and grabbing. Sometimes cage workers may be expected to lift and carry relatively heavy items. The casino atmosphere exposes workers to certain hazards, such as cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be distracting to some, although workers wear protective headgear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. Most casinos are open 24 hours a day, seven days a week and offer three staggered shifts. Casinos typically require cage workers to work on nights, weekends, and holidays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no minimum educational requirements, al though most employers prefer at least a high school diploma or the equivalent. Experience in handling money or previous casino employment also is preferred. Prospective gaming cage workers are sometimes required to pass a basic math test. Good customer service skills and computer proficiency are also necessary for this occupation. Each casino establishes its own requirements for education, training, and experience. Once hired, gaming cage workers usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific gaming regulations and procedures. Gaming cage work ers must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy, because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. All gaming workers are required to have a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a State casino control board or commis sion. Applicants for a license must provide photo identification, offer proof of residency in the State in which they anticipate working, and pay a fee. Age requirements vary by State. The licensing application process also includes a background investigation. Employment Gaming cage workers held about 20,000 jobs in 2004. All of these individuals work in establishments that offer gaming, and employ ment is concentrated in Nevada and Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, a growing number of States and Indian reservations have legalized gambling, and gaming establishments can now be found in many parts of the country. Job Outlook Employment of gaming cage workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. The outlook for gaming cage workers depends on the demand for gaming, which is expected to remain strong. No longer con fined to Nevada and New Jersey, gaming is becoming legalized in more States that consider gaming an effective way to increase revenues. A substantial portion of this growth will come from the construction of new Indian casinos and “racinos,” which are race tracks that offer casino games. Gaming cage workers, however, will have fewer job oppor tunities than others in gaming establishments, as casinos find ways to reduce the amount of cash handled by employees. For example, self-serve cash-out and change machines are com mon along with automated teller machines. In addition, slot machines are now able to make payouts in tickets, instead of coins, which can be read by other slot machines and the amount on the ticket transferred to the new machine. These technolo gies reduce the amount of cash needed to play and speed up the exchange process, which means less workers are needed to handle the cage than in the past. However, a fair number of openings will result from high turnover in this occupation, due to the high level of scrutiny workers receive and the need to be accurate. Persons with good mathematics abilities, pre vious casino experience, some background in accounting or bookkeeping, and good customer service skills should have the best opportunities. Earnings Gaming cage workers perform credit checks for patrons trying to establish house credit accounts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Wage earnings for gaming cage workers vary according to level of experience, training, location, and size of the gaming establishment. Median hourly earnings of gaming cage workers were $10.74 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.24 and $12.85 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.91, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.99 an hour. Office and Administrative Support Occupations Related Occupations Many other occupations provide hospitality and customer service. Some examples of related occupations are credit authorizers, check ers, and clerks; gaming service occupations; sales worker supervi sors; cashiers; retail salespersons; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for gaming cage workers is available from local offices of the State employment service. Information on careers in gaming also is available from: >- American Gaming Association, 555 13th St. NW., Suite 1010 East, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.americangaming.org Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks (0*NET 43-3051.00) Significant Points • • • Payroll and timekeeping clerks are found in every industry. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma; computer skills are very desirable. Those who have completed a certification program, indicating that they can handle more complex payroll issues, will have an advantage in the job market. Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital function: ensuring that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are ac curate. If inaccuracies occur, such as monetary errors or incorrect amounts of vacation time, these workers research and correct the records. In addition, they may perform various other clerical tasks. Automated timekeeping systems that allow employees to enter the number of hours they have worked directly into a computer have eliminated much of the data entry and review by timekeepers and have elevated the job of payroll clerk. In offices that have not automated this function, however, payroll and timekeeping clerks still perform many of the traditional job functions. The fundamental task of timekeeping clerks is distributing and collecting timecards each pay period. These workers review em- a • Payroll and timekeeping clerks ensure that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are accurate. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 437 ployee work charts, timesheets, and timecards to ensure that infor mation is properly recorded and that records have the signatures of authorizing officials. In companies that bill for the time spent by staff, such as law or accounting firms, timekeeping clerks make sure that the hours recorded are charged to the correct job so that clients can be properly billed. These clerks also review computer reports listing timecards that cannot be processed because of errors, and they contact the employee or the employee’s supervisor to resolve the problem. In addition, timekeeping clerks are responsible for informing managers and other employees about procedural changes in payroll policies. Payroll clerks, also called payroll technicians, screen timecards for calculating, coding, or other errors. They compute pay by subtract ing allotments, including Federal and State taxes and contributions to retirement, insurance, and savings plans, from gross earnings. Increasingly, computers are performing these calculations and alerting payroll clerks to problems or errors in the data. In small organiza tions or for new employees whose records are not yet entered into a computer system, clerks may perform the necessary calculations manually. In some small offices, clerks or other employees in the accounting department process payroll. Payroll clerks record changes in employees’ addresses; close out files when workers retire, resign, or transfer; and advise employees on income tax withholding and other mandatory deductions. They also issue and record adjustments to workers’ pay because of previous errors or retroactive increases. Payroll clerks need to follow changes in tax and deduction laws, so they are aware of the most recent revisions. Finally, they prepare and mail earnings and tax-withholding statements for employees’ use in preparing income tax returns. In small offices, payroll and timekeeping duties are likely to be included in the duties of a general office clerk, a secretary, or an accounting clerk. However, large organizations employ special ized payroll and timekeeping clerks to perform these functions. In offices that have automated timekeeping systems, payroll clerks perform more analysis of the data, examine trends, and work with computer systems. They also spend more time answering employees’ questions and processing unique data. Working Conditions Payroll and timekeeping clerks usually work in clean, pleasant, and comfortable office settings. Clerks usually work a standard 35- to 40-hour week; however, longer hours might be necessary during busy periods. Payroll and timekeeping clerks also may face stress at times, particularly from the pressure to meet deadlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or GED. Computer skills are very desirable. Payroll and timekeeping clerks learn their skills through a combination of on-the-job experi ence and informal training. Training also can be attained through programs in high schools, business schools, and community colleges. New workers receive training in payroll, timekeeping, personnel issues, workplace practices, and company policies. Payroll and timekeeping clerks must be able to interact and communicate with individuals at all levels of the organization. In addition, clerks should demonstrate poise, tactfulness, and diplo macy, and have a high level of interpersonal skills in order to handle sensitive and confidential situations. Most organizations specializing in payroll and timekeeping offer classes intended to enhance the marketable skills of their members. Some organizations offer certification programs; completion of a certification program indicates competence and can enhance one’s advancement opportunities. For example, the American Payroll As 438 Occupational Outlook Handbook sociation offers two levels of certification, the Fundamental Payroll Certification (FPC) and the Certified Payroll Professional (CPP). The FPC is open to all individuals who wish to demonstrate basic payroll competency. The more advanced CPP is available those who have been employed in the practice of payroll for at least 3 years and who have obtained the FPC within the last 18 months. Both require experience and a passing score on a comprehensive exam. Employment Payroll and timekeeping clerks held about 214,000jobs in 2004. They can be found in every industry, but a growing number work for employ ment services companies as temporary employees, or for accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services firms, which increas ingly are taking on the payroll function as a service to other companies. Approximately 18 percent of all payroll and timekeeping clerks worked part time in 2004. Job Outlook Employment of payroll and timekeeping clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In ad dition to job growth, numerous job openings will arise each year as payroll and timekeeping clerks leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Those who have completed a certification program, indicating that they can handle more complex payroll issues, will have an advantage in the job market. As entering and recording payroll and timekeeping informa tion becomes more simplified, the job itself is becoming more complex, with companies now offering a greater variety of pension, 401 (k), and other investment plans to their employees. Also, the growing use of garnishment of wages for child support is adding to the complexity. These developments will fuel the demand for payroll and timekeeping clerks, who will be needed to record and monitor such information. Firms increasingly are outsourcing the payroll function. As a result, the best employment opportunities are expected to be in companies that specialize in payroll, including companies in the employment services industry and the accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services industry. Many of these compa nies are data processing facilities, but accounting firms also are tak ing on the payroll function to supplement their accounting work. The increasing use of computers will limit employment growth of payroll and timekeeping clerks. For example, automated time clocks, which calculate employee hours, allow large organiza tions to centralize their timekeeping duties in one location. At individual sites, employee hours increasingly are tracked by computer and verified by managers. This information is compiled and sent to a central office to be processed by payroll clerks. In addition, the growing use of direct deposit will reduce the need to draft paychecks, because these funds are transferred automati cally each pay period. Also, more organizations are allowing employees to update their payroll records electronically. In smaller organizations, payroll and timekeeping duties are be ing assigned to secretaries, general office clerks, or accounting clerks. Furthermore, the greater complexity of the job, coupled with the automation of records that is simplifying data entry, is resulting in payroll professionals, not payroll and timekeeping clerks, doing more of the work. Earnings Salaries of payroll and timekeeping clerks may vary considerably. The region of the country, size of city, and type and size of establish ment all influence salary levels. Also, the level of expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a clerk’s responsibilities may affect earnings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual earnings of payroll and timekeeping clerks in May 2004 were $30,350. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,430 and $36,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,270. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of payroll and timekeeping clerks in May 2004 were: Management of companies and enterprises................................. $32,600 Elementary and secondary schools............................................... 32,390 Local government ........................................................................... 31,620 Accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services. 29,040 Employment services....................................................................... 28,010 Some employers offer educational assistance to payroll and timekeeping clerks. Related Occupations Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital financial function— ensuring that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are accurate. In addition, they may perform various other office and administrative support duties. Other financial clerks include bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; gaming cage workers; procurement clerks; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about payroll and timekeeping clerks, contact: >- American Payroll Association, 660 North Main Ave., Suite 100, Suite660, San Antonio, TX 78205-1217. Internet: http://www.amcricanpayroll.org >■ WorldatWork, 14040 N. Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260. In ternet: http://www.worIdatwork.org Information on employment opportunities for payroll and time keeping clerks is available from local offices of the State employ ment service. Procurement Clerks (0*NET 43-3061.00) Significant Points • About 3 in 10 procurement clerks work for Federal, State, and local governments. • Most employers prefer applicants who have a high school diploma and who are computer-literate. • Overall employment is expected to decline through 2014 as a result of increasing automation. Nature of the Work Procurement clerks compile requests for materials, prepare purchase orders, keep track of purchases and supplies, and handle inquiries about orders. Usually called purchasing clerks or purchasing technicians, they perform a variety of tasks related to the ordering of goods and supplies for an organization and make sure that what was purchased arrives on schedule and meets the purchaser’s specifications. Automation is having a profound effect on this occupation. Orders for goods now can be placed electronically when supplies are low. For example, computers integrated with cash registers at stores record purchases and automatically reorder goods when supplies reach a certain target level. However, automation is still years away for many firms, and the role of the procurement clerk is unchanged in many organizations. Office and Administrative Support Occupations Procurement clerks perform a wide range of tasks and also have a wide range of responsibilities. Some clerks act more like buyers, particularly at small to medium-size companies, while others perform strictly clerical functions. In general, procure ment clerks process requests for purchases. They first determine whether there is any of the requested product left in inventory and may go through catalogs or to the Internet to find suppliers. They may prepare invitation-to-bid forms and mail them to sup pliers or distribute them for public posting. Procurement clerks may interview potential suppliers by telephone or face-to-face to check on prices and specifications and thereby put together spreadsheets with price comparisons and other facts about each supplier. Upon the organization’s approval of a supplier, pur chase orders are prepared, mailed, and entered into computers. Procurement clerks keep track of orders and determine the causes of any delays. If the supplier has questions, clerks try to answer them and resolve any problems. When the shipment arrives, procurement clerks may reconcile the purchase order with the shipment, making sure that they match; notify the vendors when invoices are not received; and verify that the bills concur with the purchase orders. Some purchasing departments, particularly in small compa nies, are responsible for overseeing the organization’s inventory control system. At these organizations, procurement clerks monitor in-house inventory movement and complete inventory transfer forms for bookkeeping purposes. They may keep in ventory spreadsheets and place orders when materials on hand are insufficient. Working Conditions Procurement clerks usually work a standard 40-hour week. Most procurement clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and rela tively quiet. These workers sit for long periods of time in front of computer terminals, which many cause eyestrain and headaches. Workers in this occupation may sometimes be expected to work overtime or varied shifts. 439 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of education and related experience. Most em ployers prefer workers who are computer-literate and have a working knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software. Most procurement clerks are trained on the job under close supervision of more experienced employees. Proficiency with desktop computer software is becoming increasingly important as most tasks, such as preparing purchase orders, are being filed electronically. Some procurement clerks that have more education and show a greater understanding of contracts and purchasing may be promoted to the position of purchasing agent or buyer. Employment In 2004, procurement clerks held about 74,000 jobs. Procurement clerks are found in every industry, including manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, health care, and government. About 3 in 10 procurement clerks work for Federal, State, and local governments; most of these clerks work for the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment of procurement clerks is expected to decline through 2014 as a result of increasing automation. The need for procurement clerks will be reduced as the use of computers to place orders directly with suppliers—called electronic data interchange—and as ordering over the Internet—known as “e-procurement”—become more com monplace. In addition, procurement authority for some purchases is now being given to employees in the departments originating the purchase. These departments may be issued procurement cards, which are similar to credit cards that enable a department to charge purchases up to a specified amount. Although overall employment in the occupation is expected to decline, job outlook varies by industry. For example, employment will decline in manufacturing, the primary employer of procurement clerks in the goods-producing sector of the economy. In contrast, employment of procurement clerks will increase in some industries in the service-providing sector—such as retail trade, professional services, and health care—which are beginning to realize that a centralized procurement department may be more cost effective than units making purchases independently, as many service companies had been doing. However, most job openings will arise out of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with good writing and communication skills, along with computer skills, will have the best opportunities for employment. Earnings Median hourly earnings of procurement clerks in May 2004 were $ 14.85. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.82 and $18.11. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.52 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.03. Procurement clerks working for the Federal Government had an average annual income of $39,011 in 2005. Related Occupations ■Jk. . . .... \. Procurement clerks compile information and records to draw up pur chase orders for materials and services. Other workers who perform similar duties are purchasing agents and buyers, order clerks, file clerks, secretaries, and receptionists and information clerks. Sources of Additional Information Procurement clerks process requests for purchases. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information on employment opportunities for procurement clerks is available from local offices of the State employment service. 440 Occupational Outlook Handbook Tellers (0*NET 43-3071.00) Significant Points • Most jobs require only a high school diploma; tellers should enjoy public contact, must feel comfortable handling large amounts of money, and should be dis creet and trustworthy. • About 3 out of 10 tellers work part time. • Most job openings will arise from replacement needs because turnover is high. • Although the job outlook for tellers has improved recently, employment is projected to grow more slowly than average. 1|| t ■' Nature of the Work The teller is the person most people associate with a bank. Tellers make up approximately one-fourth of bank employees and conduct most of a bank’s routine transactions. Among the responsibilities of tellers are cashing checks, accepting deposits and loan payments, and processing withdrawals. They also may sell savings bonds, ac cept payment for customers’ utility bills and charge cards, process necessary paperwork for certificates of deposit, and sell travelers’ checks. Some tellers specialize in handling foreign currencies or commercial or business accounts. Being a teller requires a great deal of attention to detail. Before cashing a check, a teller must verify the date, the name of the bank, the identity of the person who is to receive payment, and the legality of the document. A teller also must make sure that the written and numerical amounts agree and that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller then must carefully count cash to avoid errors. Sometimes a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller prepares and verifies. When accepting a deposit, tellers must check the accuracy of the deposit slip before processing the transaction. Prior to starting their shifts, tellers receive and count an amount of working cash for their drawers. A supervisor—usually the head teller—verifies this amount. Tellers use this cash for pay ments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. Before leaving, tellers count their cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a balance sheet, make sure that the ac counts balance, and sort checks and deposit slips. Over the course of a workday, tellers also may process numerous mail transactions. Some tellers replenish their cash drawers and corroborate deposits and payments to automated teller machines (ATMs). In most banks, head tellers are responsible for the teller line. They set work schedules, ensure that the proper procedures are adhered to, and act as a mentor to less experienced tellers. In addition, head tellers may perform the typical duties of a teller, as needed, and may deal with the more difficult customer problems. They may access the vault, ensure that the correct cash balance is in the vault, and oversee large cash transactions. Technology continues to play a large role in the job duties of all tellers. In most banks, for example, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. These terminals often give tellers quick access to detailed informa tion on customer accounts. Tellers can use this information to tailor the bank’s services to fit a customer’s needs or to recommend an appropriate bank product or service. As banks begin to offer more and increasingly complex financial services, tellers are being trained to identify sales opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis M®i Tellers must pay attention to detail. This task requires them to learn about the various financial products and services the bank offers so that they can briefly explain them to customers and refer interested customers to appropriate special ized sales personnel. In addition, tellers in many banks are being cross-trained to perform some of the functions of customer service representatives. (Customer service representatives are discussed separately in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Tellers work in an office environment. They may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries as a result of using computers on a daily basis. Tellers may have to sit for extended periods while reviewing detailed data. Many tellers work regular business hours and a standard 40-hour week. A substantial number work just part time. Full-time and part time tellers may work some evenings and weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most tellers are required to have at least a high school diploma. Some have some college training or even a bachelor’s degree in business, accounting, or liberal arts. Although a degree is rarely required, graduates may accept teller positions to get into a particular company or to enter the banking field with the hope of eventually being promoted to professional or managerial positions. Experience working in an office environment or in customer service, and particularly cash-handling experience, can be important for tellers. Regardless of experience, employers prefer workers who have good communication skills and who are computer-liter ate; knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software also is valuable. Once hired, tellers usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees leam company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Tellers should enjoy contact with the public. They must have a strong aptitude for numbers and feel comfortable handling large amounts of money. They should be discreet and trustworthy, Office and Administrative Support Occupations because they frequently come in contact with confidential mate rial. Tellers also must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses offered throughout the country by banking and financial institutes, colleges and universities, and private training institutions. Tellers usually advance by taking on more duties in the same oc cupation or by being promoted to head teller or to another supervisory job. Many banks and other employers fill supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within their organizations, so outstanding tellers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. 441 transactions. For example, ATMs and the increased use of direct deposit of paychecks and benefit checks have reduced the need for bank customers to interact with tellers for routine transactions. In addition, electronic banking is spreading rapidly throughout the banking industry. This type of banking, conducted over the tele phone or the Internet, also will reduce the number of tellers over the long run. Employment of tellers also is being affected by the increasing use of 24-hour telephone centers by many large banks. These centers allow a customer to interact with a bank representative at a distant location, either by telephone or by video terminal. Such centers usually are staffed by customer service representatives, who can handle a wider variety of transactions than tellers can, including applications for loans and credit cards. Employment Tellers held about 558,000 jobs in 2004. The overwhelming ma jority worked in commercial banks, savings institutions, or credit unions. The remainder worked in a variety of other finance and other industries. About 3 out of 10 worked part time. Job Outlook Employment prospects for tellers have improved recently. Employ ment is projected to grow, but more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Banks are looking at their branch offices as places to attract customers for the increasing number and variety of financial products the banks sell. As recently as a few years ago, banks were closing branch offices and discourag ing the use of tellers in an effort to cut costs, but in a turnaround, banks are now opening branch offices in more locations. They also are keeping them open longer during the day and on week ends, a practice that is expected to increase opportunities for tellers, particularly those who work part time. Most job openings will arise from replacement needs because turnover is high—a characteristic typical of large occupations that normally require little formal education and offer relatively low pay. Tellers who have excellent customer service skills, are knowledgeable about a variety of financial services, and can sell those services will be in greater demand in the future. Despite the improved outlook, automation and technology will continue to reduce the need for tellers who perform only routine Earnings Salaries of tellers may vary with their experience and with the re gion of the country, size of city, and type and size of establishment. Median annual earnings of tellers were $21,120 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,320 and $23,900 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28,100 a year. As in other occupations, part-time tellers may not enjoy the same benefits—such as vacations, health and life insurance, and pensions—as full-time workers. Related Occupations Tellers enter data into a computer, handle cash, and keep track of financial transactions. Other clerks who perform similar duties include bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; gaming cage workers; brokerage clerks; and credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for tellers is available from banks and other employers and local offices of the State em ployment service and from: > Bank Administration Institute, 1 North Franklin St., Chicago, IL 60606. Information and Record Clerks Brokerage Clerks (0*NET 43-4011.00) Significant Points • More than 9 out of 10 worked for securities and com modities, banks, and other finance industries. • Brokerage clerks may be high school or college gradu ates, but positions dealing with the public, such as broker’s or sales assistant and those dealing with more complicated financial records are increasingly being held by college graduates. • Although a growing economy will result in more finan cial transactions that require these workers, the con tinuing spread of office automation and the emergence of online trading will result in slower-than-average growth in employment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Brokerage clerks handle much of the day-to-day operations of broker ages, performing a number of differentjobs with a wide range of respon sibilities; all involve computing and recording data pertaining to securities transactions. Brokerage clerks also may contact customers, take orders, and inform clients of changes to their accounts. Some of these jobs are more clerical and require only a high school diploma, while others are considered entry-level positions for which a bachelor’s degree is needed. Brokerage clerks, who work in the operations departments of securities firms, on trading floors, and in branch offices, also are called margin clerks, dividend clerks, transfer clerks, and broker’s assistants. The broker’s assistant, also called sales assistant, is the most common type of brokerage clerk. These workers typically assist two brokers, for whom they take calls from clients, write up order tickets, process the paperwork for opening and closing accounts, record a client’s purchases and sales, and inform clients of changes to their accounts. All broker’s assistants must be knowledgeable about in vestment products so that they can communicate clearly with clients. Those with a “Series 7” license can make recommendations to clients 442 Occupational Outlook Handbook at the instruction of the broker. This license, issued to securities and commodities sales representatives by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD), allows them to provide advice on securi ties to the public. (Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Brokerage clerks in the operations areas of securities firms perform many duties to facilitate the sale and purchase of stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. These clerks produce the necessary records of all transactions that occur in their area of the business. Job titles for many of them depend upon the type of work that they perform. Purchase-and-sale clerks, for example, match orders to buy with orders to sell. They balance and verify trades of stock by comparing the records of the selling firm with those of the buying firm. Dividend clerks ensure timely payments of stock or cash dividends to clients of a particular bro kerage firm. Transfer clerks execute customer requests for changes to security registration and examine stock certificates to make sure that they adhere to banking regulations. Receive-and-deliver clerks facilitate the receipt and delivery of securities among firms and institutions. Margin clerks record and monitor activity in custom ers’ accounts to ensure that clients make payments and stay within legal boundaries concerning their purchases of stock. Technology is changing the nature of many of these jobs. A signif icant and growing number of brokerage clerks use custom-designed software programs to process transactions more quickly. Only a few customized accounts are still handled manually. Furthermore, the rapid expansion of online trading reduces the amount of paperwork because brokerage clerks are able to make trades electronically. Working Conditions Brokerage clerks work in offices. Usually the work flow is fairly regular; however, when sales activity increases, the pace can be come hectic. Brokerage clerks generally work a standard 40-hour week, but, they may work overtime during particularly busy periods. Most brokerage clerks work in areas that are clean and well lit, but may be noisy at times. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Depending on the job description, brokerage clerks can be high school or college graduates. Positions dealing with the public, such as broker’s or sales assistant, and those dealing with more complicated financial records are increasingly being held by college graduates. Brokerage clerk jobs require good organizational and commu nication skills, as well as attention to detail. Computer skills also Brokerage clerks record data pertaining to securities transactions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are important in order to enter and retrieve data quickly. A Series 7 brokerage license can make a clerk more valuable to the broker because it gives the assistant the ability to answer more of a client’s questions and to pass along securities recommendations from the broker. Before clerks can obtain a license, however, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination (Series 7 exam), administered by the NASD, and be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months. Most new employees are trained on the job, working under the close supervision of more experienced employees. Some firms of fer formal training that may include courses in telephone etiquette, computer use, and customer service skills. Clerks may be promoted to sales representative positions or other professional positions within the securities industry. Some of the larger firms have training programs, especially for their college graduates, that provide clerks with the skills they need for advancement. Employment Brokerage clerks held about 75,000 jobs in 2004. More than 9 out of 10 worked for securities and commodities, banks, and other finance industries. Job Outlook Employment of brokerage clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Although a growing economy will result in more financial transactions and other activities that require these workers, the continuing spread of office automation will lift worker productivity and restrict job growth. With people increasingly investing in securities, brokerage clerks will be required to process larger volumes of transactions. Moreover, some brokerage clerks will still be needed to update records, enter changes into customers’ accounts, and verify transfers of securities. However, the emergence of online trading and widespread automation in the securities and commodities industry will limit demand for brokerage clerks in the coming decade. Some job openings will stem from the need to replace clerks who transfer to other occupations or stop working. Earnings Median hourly earnings of brokerage clerks were $16.94 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.52 and $21.60. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.22 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.11. Related Occupations Brokerage clerks compute and record data. Other workers who perform calculations and record data include bill and account collec tors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; order clerks; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide informa tion about job openings for brokerage clerks. Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks (0*NET 43-4041.01, 43-4041.02) Significant Points • Most jobs require only a high school diploma. • Employment is expected to decline. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 443 Nature of the Work reports. These workers often are called credit investigators or credit Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks review credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of individuals or businesses applying for credit. They spend much of their day on the telephone or on the Internet obtaining information from credit bureaus, employers, banks, credit institutions, and other sources to determine applicants’ credit history and ability to repay what they borrow or charge. Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks process and authorize applications for credit, including applications for credit cards. Al though the distinctions among the three job titles are disappearing, some general differences remain. Credit clerks typically handle the processing of credit applications by verifying the information on the application, calling applicants if additional data are needed, contacting credit bureaus for a credit rating, and obtaining any other information necessary to determine applicants’ creditworthiness. If clerks work in a department store or other establishment that offers instant credit, they enter the applicant’s information into a computer at the point of sale. A credit rating is then transmitted from a central office within seconds to indicate whether the application should be rejected or approved. Credit checkers investigate the credit history and current credit standing of a person or business prior to the issuance of a loan or line of credit. Credit checkers also may contact credit departments of businesses and service companies to obtain information about an applicant’s credit standing. Credit reporting agencies and bureaus hire checkers to secure, update, and verify information for credit reporters. Credit authorizes approve charges against customers’ existing accounts. Most charges are approved automatically by computer. However, when accounts are past due, overextended, or invalid, or when they show a change of address, salespersons refer the associated transactions to credit authorizers located in a central office. These authorizers evaluate the customers’ computerized credit records and payment histories and quickly decide whether to approve new charges. Working Conditions Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks usually work a standard 40hour week. However, they may work overtime during particularly busy periods, such as holiday shopping seasons and store sales. Most credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. These workers sit for long periods of time in front of computer screens, which may cause eyestrain and headaches. Part-time work is available, and temporary workers are often hired during peak workloads. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma or its equivalent is usually the minimum re quirement for these workers. Other requirements of the job include good telephone and organizational skills and the ability to pay close attention to details and meet tight deadlines. Computer skills also are important in order to enter and retrieve data quickly. Most new employees are trained on the job, working under close supervision of more experienced employees. Some firms offer formal training that may include courses in telephone etiquette, computer use, and customer service skills. Some credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks also take courses in credit offered by banking and credit associations, public and private vocational schools, and colleges and universities. These workers typically can advance to loan or credit department supervisor or team leader of a small group of clerks. Employment fill! authorizers process applications for credit cards. DigitizedCredit for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks held about 67,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly half of these workers were employed by finance and insurance industries, mainly firms in credit intermediation and related activities, such as commercial and savings banks; credit unions; and mortgage, finance, and loan companies. Credit bureaus, collection agencies, and wholesale and retail trade establishments also employ these clerks. Job Outlook Employment of credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks is expected to decline through 2014. Despite a projected increase in the number of credit applications, technology will allow these applications to be pro cessed, checked, and authorized by fewer workers than were required in the past. Credit scoring is a major development that has improved the productivity of credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks, thus limiting employment growth in the occupation. Companies and credit bureaus now can purchase software that quickly analyzes an applicant’s creditworthiness and summarizes it with a “score.” Credit issuers then can easily decide whether to accept or reject an application on the basis of its score, speeding up the authorization of loans or credit. Obtaining credit ratings also has become much easier for credit checkers and authorizers because businesses now have computer systems directly linked to credit bureaus that provide immediate access to a person’s credit history. The job outlook for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in interest rates usually leads to a decline in demand for 444 Occupational Outlook Handbook credit. Even in slow economic times, however, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons. Earnings Median hourly earnings of credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks in May 2004 were $13.97. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.27 and $17.56. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.19, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.90. Median hourly earnings in nondepository credit intermediation were $13.74 in 2004, while median earnings in depository credit intermediation were $13.62. Related Occupations Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks obtain and analyze credit his tories. Other workers who review account information include bill and account collectors, loan officers, and insurance underwriters. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide infor mation about job openings for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks. Customer Service Representatives (0*NET 43-4051.01, 43-4051.02) Significant Points • Job prospects are expected to be excellent. • Most jobs require only a high school diploma but edu cational requirements are rising. • Strong verbal communication and listening skills are important. Nature of the Work Customer service representatives are employed by many different types of companies throughout the country to serve as a direct point of contact for customers. They are responsible for ensuring that their company’s customers receive an adequate level of service or help with their questions and concerns. These customers may be individual consumers or other companies, and the nature of their service needs can vary considerably. All customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products or services and to handle and resolve complaints. They communicate with customers through a variety of means—by telephone; by e-mail, fax, or regular mail correspondence; or in person. Some customer service representatives handle general questions and complaints, whereas others specialize in a particular area. Many customer inquiries involve routine questions and requests. For example, customer service representatives may be asked to provide a customer with their credit card balance, or to check on the status of an order that has been placed. Obtaining the answers to such questions usually requires simply looking up information on their computer. Other questions are more involved, and may call for additional research or further explanation on the part of the customer service representative. In handling customers’ complaints, customer service representatives must attempt to resolve the problem according to guidelines established by the company. These proce dures may involve asking questions to determine the validity of a complaint; offering possible solutions; or providing customers with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis refunds, exchanges, or other offers, such as discounts or coupons. In some cases, customer service representatives are required to fol low up with an individual customer until a question is answered or an issue is resolved. Some customer service representatives help people decide what types of products or services would best suit their needs. They may even aid customers in completing purchases or transactions. Although the primary function of customer service representatives is not sales, some may spend a part of their time with customers encouraging them to purchase additional products or services. (For information on workers whose primary function is sales, see the statements on sales and related occupations elsewhere in the Hand book.) Customer service representatives also may make changes or updates to a customer’s profile or account information. They may keep records of transactions and update and maintain databases of information. Most customer service representatives use computers and tele phones extensively in their work. Customer service representatives frequently enter information into a computer as they are speaking to customers. Often, companies have large amounts of data, such as account information, that can be pulled up on a computer screen while the representative is talking to a customer so that he or she can answer specific questions relating to the account. Customer service representatives also may have access to information such as answers to the most common customer questions, or guidelines for dealing with complaints. In the event that they encounter a question or situation to which they do not know how to respond, workers consult with a supervisor to determine the best course of action. Customer service representatives use multiline telephones systems, which often route calls directly to the most appropriate representa tive. However, at times, the customer service representative must transfer a call to someone who may be better able to respond to the customer’s needs. In some organizations, customer service representatives spend their entire day on the telephone. In others, they may spend part of their day answering e-mails and the remainder of the day taking calls. For some, most of their contact with the customer is face to face. Customer service representatives need to remain aware of the amount of time spent with each customer so that they can fairly distribute their time among the people who require their assistance. This is particularly important for customer service representatives whose primary activities are answering telephone calls and whose conversations often are required to be kept within set time limits. For customer service representatives working in call centers, there usually is very little time between telephone calls; as soon as repre sentatives have finished with one call, they must move on to another. When working in call centers, customer service representatives are likely to be under close supervision. Telephone calls may be taped and reviewed by supervisors to ensure that company policies and procedures are being followed, or a supervisor may listen in on conversations. Job responsibilities can differ, depending on the industry in which a customer service representative is employed. For ex ample, a customer service representative working in the branch office of a bank may assume the responsibilities of other work ers, such as teller or new account clerk, as needed. In insurance agencies, a customer service representative interacts with agents, insurance companies, and policyholders. These workers handle much of the paperwork related to insurance policies, such as policy applications and changes and renewals to existing poli cies. They answer questions regarding policy coverage, help with reporting claims, and do anything else that may need to be done. Although they must know as much as insurance agents about insurance products, and usually must have credentials equal Office and Administrative Support Occupations Illli! Si© i Ijpfifs 445 The occupation also offers the opportunity for seasonal work in certain industries, often through temporary help agencies. Call centers may be crowded and noisy, and work may be repeti tious and stressful, with little time between calls. Workers usually must attempt to minimize the length of each call, while still provid ing excellent service. To ensure that these procedures are followed, conversations may be monitored by supervisors, something that can be stressful. Also, long periods spent sitting, typing, or looking at a computer screen may cause eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Customer service representatives working outside of a call center environment may interact with customers through several different means. For example, workers employed by an insurance agency or in a grocery store may have customers approach them in person or contact them by telephone, computer, mail, or fax. Many of these customer service representatives work a standard 40-hour week; however, their hours generally depend on the hours of operation of the establishment in which they are employed. Work environ ments outside of a call center also vary accordingly. Most customer service representatives work either in an office or at a service or help desk. For virtually all types of customer service representatives, deal ing with difficult or irate customers can be a trying task; however, the ability to resolve customers’ problems has the potential to be very rewarding. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information about products or services. to those of an agent in order to sell products and make changes to policies, the duties of a customer service representative differ from those of an agent in that customer service representatives are not responsible for actively seeking potential customers. Customer service representatives employed by utilities and com munications companies assist individuals interested in opening accounts for various utilities such as electricity and gas, or for communication services such as cable television and telephone. They explain various options and receive orders for services to be installed, turned on, turned off, or changed. They also may look into and resolve complaints about billing and service provided by utility, telephone, and cable television companies. Working Conditions Although customer service representatives can work in a variety of settings, most work in areas that are clean and well lit. Many work in call or customer contact centers. In this type of environ ment, workers generally have their own workstation or cubicle space equipped with a telephone, headset, and computer. Because many call centers are open extended hours, beyond the traditional work day, or arc staffed around the clock, these positions may require workers to take on early morning, evening, or late night shifts. Weekend or holiday work also may be necessary. As a result, the occupation is well suited to flexible work schedules. 1 out of 5 customer service representatives work part time. Digitized Nearly for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most customer service representative jobs require only a high school diploma. However, due to employers demanding a higher skilled workforce, many customer service jobs now require an associate or bachelor’s degree. Basic to intermediate computer knowledge and good interpersonal skills also are important qualities for people who wish to be successful in the field. Because customer service repre sentatives constantly interact with the public, good communication and problem-solving skills are a must. Verbal communication and listening skills are especially important. Additionally, for workers who communicate through e-mail, good typing, spelling, and writ ten communication skills are necessary. High school courses in computers, English, or business are helpful in preparing for a job in customer service. Customer service representatives play a critical role in providing an interface between customer and company, and for this reason employers seek out people who come across in a friendly and professional manner. The ability to deal patiently with problems and complaints and to remain courteous when faced with difficult or angry people is very important. Also, a customer service repre sentative needs to be able to work independently within specified time constraints. Workers should have a clear and pleasant speak ing voice and be fluent in English. However, the ability to speak a foreign language is becoming increasingly necessary, and bilingual skills are considered a plus. Training requirements vary by industry. Almost all customer service representatives are provided with some training prior to beginning work, and training continues once on the job. This training generally covers customer service and phone skills, products and services and common customer problems with them, the use or operation of the telephone and/or computer systems, and company policies and regulations. Length of train ing varies, but it usually lasts at least several weeks. Because of a constant need to update skills and knowledge, most customer service representatives continue to receive instruction and train ing throughout their career. This is particularly true of workers in industries such as banking, in which regulations and products are continually changing. 446 Occupational Outlook Handbook Although some positions may require previous industry, office, or customer service experience, many customer service jobs are entry level. Customer service jobs are often good introductory positions into a company or an industry. In some cases, experienced workers can move up within the company into supervisory or managerial positions or they may move into areas such as product develop ment, in which they can use their knowledge to improve products and services. Within insurance agencies and brokerages, however, a customer service representative job usually is not an entry-level position. Workers must have previous experience in insurance and are often required by State regulations to be licensed like insurance sales agents. A variety of designations are available to demonstrate that a candidate has sufficient knowledge and skill, and continuing educa tion and training are often offered through the employer. As they gain more knowledge of industry products and services, customer service representatives in insurance may advance to other, higher level positions, such as insurance sales agent. Employment Customer service representatives held about 2.1 million jobs in 2004. Although they were found in a variety of industries, about 1 in 4 customer service representatives worked in finance and insurance. The largest numbers were employed by insurance carriers, insurance agencies and brokerages, and banks and credit unions. About 1 in 8 customer service representatives were employed in administrative and support services. These workers were con centrated in the business support services industry (which includes telephone call centers) and employment services (which includes temporary help services and employment placement agencies). Another lin 8 customer service representatives were employed in retail trade establishments such as general merchandise stores, food and beverage stores, or nonstore retailers. Other industries that employ significant numbers of customer service representatives include information, particularly the telecommunications industry; manufacturing, such as printing and related support activities; and wholesale trade. Although they are found in all States, customer service representa tives who work in call centers tend to be concentrated geographically. Four States—California, Texas, Florida, and New York—employ 30 percent of customer service representatives. Delaware, Arizona, South Dakota, and Utah, have the highest concentration of workers in this occupation, with customer service representatives comprising over 2 percent of total employment in these States. Job Outlook Prospects for obtaining a job in this field are expected to be excel lent, with more job openings thanjobseekers. Bilingual jobseek ers, in particular, may enjoy favorable job prospects. In addition to many new openings occurring as businesses and organizations expand, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace experienced customer service representatives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are expected to be significant in this large occupation because many young people work as customer service representatives before switching to other jobs. This occupation is well suited to flexible work schedules, and many opportunities for part-time work will continue to be available, particularly as organizations attempt to cut labor costs by hiring more temporary workers. Employment of customer service representatives is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Beyond growth stemming from expansion of the industries in which customer service representatives are employed, a need for additional customer service representatives is likely to result from https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis heightened reliance on these workers. Customer service is critical to the success of any organization that deals with customers, and strong customer service can build sales and visibility as companies try to distinguish themselves from competitors. In many industries, gaining a competitive edge and retaining customers will be increas ingly important over the next decade. This is particularly true in industries such as financial services, communications, and utilities, which already employ numerous customer service representatives. As the trend toward consolidation in industries continues, central ized call centers will provide an effective method for delivering a high level of customer service. As a result, employment of customer service representatives may grow at a faster rate in call centers than in other areas. However, this growth may be tempered: a variety of factors, including technological improvements, make it increasingly feasible and cost-effective for call centers to be built or relocated outside of the United States. Technology is affecting the occupation in many ways. The Internet and automated teller machines have provided customers with means of obtaining information and conducting transactions that do not entail interacting with another person. Technology also allows for a greater streamlining of processes, while at the same time increasing the productivity of workers. The use of computer software to filter e-mails, generating automatic responses or di recting messages to the appropriate representative, and the use of similar systems to answer or route telephone inquiries are likely to become more prevalent in the future. Also, with rapidly improving telecommunications, some organizations have begun to position their call centers overseas. Despite such developments, the need for customer service representatives is expected to remain strong. In many ways, tech nology has heightened consumers’ expectations for information and services, and availability of information online seems to have generated more need for customer service representatives, particu larly to respond to e-mail. Also, technology cannot replace human skills. As more sophisticated technologies are able to resolve many customers’ questions and concerns, the nature of the inquiries to be handled by customer service representatives is likely to become increasingly complex. Furthermore, the job responsibilities of customer service rep resentatives are expanding. As companies downsize or take other measures to increase profitability, workers are being trained to perform additional duties such as opening bank accounts or cross selling products. As a result, employers may increasingly prefer customer service representatives who have education beyond high school, such as some college or even a college degree. While jobs in some industries, such as retail trade, may be af fected by economic downturns, the customer service occupation is generally resistant to major fluctuations in employment. Earnings In May 2004, median annual earnings for wage and salary customer service representatives were $27,020. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,510 and $34,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,160. Earnings for customer service representatives vary according to level of skill required, experience, training, location, and size of firm. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these workers in May 2004 are shown below: Insurance carriers.......................................................................... $29,790 Agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities...... 28,800 Depository credit intermediation.................................................. 26,140 Employment services.................................................................... 23,100 Business support services................................................................ 21,390 Office and Administrative Support Occupations In addition to receiving an hourly wage, full-time customer service representatives who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may receive shift differential pay. Also, because call centers are often open during extended hours, or even 24 hours a day, some customer service representatives have the benefit of be ing able to work a schedule that does not conform to the traditional workweek. Other benefits can include life and health insurance, pensions, bonuses, employer-provided training, and discounts on the products and services the company offers. Related Occupations Customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products and services and to handle and resolve complaints. Other occupations in which workers have similar dealings with customers and the public are information and record clerks; financial clerks, such as tellers and new-account clerks; insurance sales agents; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; retail salespersons; computer support specialists; and gaming services workers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities for customer service representatives. 447 paper stored in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the former case, the clerk retrieves the document manually and hands or forwards it to the requester. In the latter case, the clerk retrieves the microform and displays it on a microform reader. If necessary, file clerks make copies of records and distribute them. In addition, they keep track of materials removed from the files, to ensure that borrowed files are returned. Increasingly, file clerks are using computerized filing and retrieval systems that have a variety of storage devices, such as a mainframe computer, CD-ROM, or floppy disk. To retrieve a document in these systems, the clerk enters the document’s identification code, obtains the location of the document, and gets the document for the patron. Ac cessing files in a computer database is much quicker than locating and physically retrieving paper files. Still, even when files are stored elec tronically, backup paper or electronic copies usually are also kept. Working Conditions File clerks usually work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. The work is not overly strenuous but may involve a lot of standing, walking, reaching, pulling, and bending, depending on the method used to retrieve files. Prolonged exposure to computer screens may lead to eyestrain for the many file clerks who work with computers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement File Clerks (0*NET 43-4071.00) Significant Points • About 3 out of 10 file clerks work part time. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. • Employment is expected to decline through the year 2014. Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of education and related experience. File clerks must be able to work with others since part of the job may consist of helping fellow workers. These workers must be alert, accurate, and able to make quick decisions. Also, willingness to do routine and detailed work is important. Most new employees are trained on the job under close super vision of more experienced employees. Proficiency with desktop computer software is becoming increasingly important as more files are now being stored electronically. These workers can advance to more senior clerical office positions such as receptionist or book keeping clerk. Nature of the Work The amount of information generated by organizations continues to grow rapidly. File clerks classify, store, retrieve, and update this information. In many small offices, they often have additional responsibilities, such as entering data, performing word processing, sorting mail, and operating copying or fax machines. File clerks are employed across the Nation by organizations of all types. File clerks, also called record, information, or record center clerks, examine incoming material and code it numerically, alphabetically, or by subject matter. They then store paper forms, letters, receipts, or reports or enter necessary information into other storage devices. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them; others convert documents to film that is then stored on microforms, such as microfilm or microfiche. A growing number of file clerks use imaging systems that scan paper files or film and store the material on computers. In order for records to be useful, they must be up to date and ac curate. File clerks ensure that new information is added to files in a timely manner and may discard outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. Clerks also check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are correctly sequenced and placed. When records cannot be found, file clerks attempt to locate the missing material. As an organization’s needs for information change, file clerks implement changes to the filing system. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and give them to the person requesting them. A record may be a sheet of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mm lillllllliiiliS File clerks classify, store, and retrieve large amounts of information. 448 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Nature of the Work File clerks held about 255,000 jobs in 2004. Although file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, more than 90 percent of these workers are employed in service-providing indus tries, including government. Healthcare establishments employed around 1 out of every 4 file clerks. About 3 out of every 10 file clerks worked part time in 2004. Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks perform a variety of services for guests of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments. Regard less of the type of accommodation, most desk clerks have similar responsibilities. They register arriving guests, assign rooms, and check out guests at the end of their stay. They also keep records of room assignments and other registration-related information on computers. When guests check out, desk clerks prepare and explain the charges, as well as process payments. Front-desk clerks always are in the public eye and typically are the first line of customer service for a lodging property. Their attitude and behavior greatly influence the public’s impressions of the estab lishment. And as such, they always must be courteous and helpful. Desk clerks answer questions about services, checkout times, the local community, or other matters of public interest. Clerks also report problems with guest rooms or public facilities to members of the housekeeping or maintenance staff for them to correct the problems. In larger hotels or in larger cities, desk clerks may refer queries about area attractions to a concierge and may direct more complicated questions to the appropriate manager. In some smaller hotels and motels, where smaller staffs are em ployed, clerks may take on a variety of additional responsibilities, such as bringing fresh linens to rooms, which usually are performed by employees in other departments of larger lodging establishments. In the smaller places, desk clerks often are responsible for all frontoffice operations, information, and services. For example, they may perform the work of a bookkeeper, advance reservation agent, cashier, laundry attendant, and telephone switchboard operator. Job Outlook Employment of file clerks is expected to decline through the year 2014 largely due to productivity gains stemming from office automation and the consolidation of clerical jobs. Most files are stored digitally and can be retrieved electronically, reducing the demand for file clerks. Nonetheless, there will be some job opportunities for file clerks as a large number of workers will be needed to replace workers who leave the occupation each year. Job turnover among file clerks reflects the lack of formal training requirements, limited advancement potential, and relatively low pay. Demand for file clerks stems from the need for these workers to record and retrieve information in organizations across the economy Jobseekers who have typing and other secretarial skills and who arc familiar with a wide range of office machines, especially personal computers, should have the best job opportunities. File clerks should find opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods. Earnings Median hourly earnings of file clerks in May 2004 were $10.11. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.22 and $12.59. The low est 10 percent earned less than $6.97, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.72. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of file clerks in May 2004 are shown below: Local government .......................................................................... General medical and surgical hospitals........................................... Legal services.................................................................................. Employment services...................................................................... Offices of physicians......................................................................... $11.79 10.38 10.32 10.06 9.07 Related Occupations File clerks classify and retrieve files. Other workers who perform similar duties include receptionists and information clerks and stock clerks and order fillers. Working Conditions Hotels are open around the clock creating the need for night and weekend work. Extended hours of operation also afford the many part-time job seekers an opportunity to find work in these establish ments, especially on evenings and late-night shifts or on weekends and holidays. About half of all desk clerks work a 35 to 40 hour week—most of the rest work fewer hours—so the jobs are attractive to persons seeking part-time work or jobs with flexible schedules. Most clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet, although lobbies can become crowded and noisy when busy. Many hotels have stringent dress guidelines for desk clerks. Desk clerks may experience particularly hectic times during check-in and check-out limes or incur the pressures encountered when dealing with convention guests or large groups of tourists Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide informa tion about job openings for file clerks. Hotel, Motel, and Resort Desk Clerks (0*NET 43-4081.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be plentiful, because of sub stantial replacement needs. • Evening, weekend, and part-time work hours create potential for flexible schedules. • Professional appearance and personality are more im Digitized for portant FRASERthan formal academic training in landing a job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks answer questions about lodging services, checkout times, the local community, or other matters of public interest. Office and Administrative Support Occupations at one time. Moreover, dealing with irate guests can be stressful. Computer failures can further complicate an already busy time and add to stress levels. Hotel desk clerks may be on their feet most of the time and may occasionally be asked to lift heavy guest luggage. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks deal directly with the public, so a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are important. A clear speaking voice and fluency in English also are essential, because these employees talk directly with hotel guests and the public and frequently use the telephone or public-address systems. Good spelling and computer literacy are needed, because most of the work involves use of a computer. In addition, speaking a foreign language fluently is increasingly helpful, because of the growing international clientele of many properties. Most hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks receive orientation and training on the job. Orientation may include an explanation of the job duties and information about the establishment, such as the arrangement of sleeping rooms, availability of additional services, such as a business or fitness center, and location of guest facilities, such as ice and vending machines, restaurants and other nearby retail stores. New employees learn job tasks through on-the-job training under the guidance of a supervisor or an experienced desk clerk. They often receive additional training on interpersonal or customer service skills and on how to use the computerized reserva tion, room assignment, and billing systems and equipment. Desk clerks typically continue to receive instruction on new procedures and on company policies after their initial training ends. Formal academic training generally is not required so many stu dents take jobs as desk clerks on evening or weekend shifts or during school vacation periods. Most employers look for people who are friendly and customer-service oriented, well groomed, and display the maturity and self confidence to demonstrate good judgment. Desk clerks, especially in high-volume and higher-end properties should be quick-thinking, show initiative, and be able to work as a member of a team. Hotel managers typically look for these personal characteristics when hiring first-time desk clerks, because it is easier to teach company policy and computer skills than personality traits. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned establishments. The large chains have more extensive career ladder programs and may of fer desk clerks an opportunity to participate in a management training program. Also, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association offers home-study or group-study courses in lodging management, which may help some obtain promotions more rapidly. Employment Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks held about 195,000jobs in 2004. Virtually all were in hotels, motels, and other establishments in the accommodation industry. Few were self employed. Job Outlook Employment of hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, as more hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments are built and occupancy rates rise. Job opportunities for hotel and motel desk clerks also will result from a need to replace workers, because many of these clerks either transfer to other occupations that offer better pay and advancement opportunities or simply leave the workforce altogether. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be plentiful, because these businesses typically are staffed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks should benefit from an increase in business and leisure travel. Shifts in preferences away from https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 449 long vacations and toward long weekends and other, more frequent, shorter trips also should boost demand for these workers, because such stays increase the number of nights spent in hotels. While many lower budget and extended-stay establishments are being built to cater to families and the leisure traveler, many new luxury and resort ac commodations also are opening to serve the upscale client. With the increased number of units requiring staff, employment opportunities for desk clerks should be good. Growth of hotel, motel, and resort desk clerk jobs will be moder ated by technology. Automated check-in and check-out procedures reduce the backlog of guests waiting for desk service and may reduce peak front desk staffing needs in many establishments. Nevertheless, the front desk remains the principal point of contact for guests at most properties and most will continue to have clerks on duty. Employment of desk clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, vacation and business travel declines, and hotels and motels need fewer desk clerks. Similarly, employment is affected by special events, business and convention business, and seasonal fluctuations. Earnings Median annual earnings of hotel, motel and resort desk clerks were $ 17,700 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 15,190 and $21,270. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 13,040, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $25,200. Earnings of hotel, motel and resort desk clerks vary by a number of seasonal or geographic factors, such as whether the establishment is in a major metropolitan area, a resort community, or other economic or regional characteristic. Earnings also will vary according to the size of the hotel and the level of service offered. For example, luxury hotels that offer guests more personal attention and a greater number of services typically have stricter and more demanding requirements for their desk staff. However, these higher standards of service also result in higher earnings for employees. Related Occupations Other positions in the hospitality industry include lodging managers. Occupations that also require workers to deal face-to-face with the public include counter and rental clerks, customer service representa tives, receptionists and information clerks, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in the lodging industry, as well as informa tion about professional development and training programs, may be obtained from: >- Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Asso ciation, 800 N. Magnolia Ave., Suite 1800, Orlando, FL 32803. Internet: http://www.ei-ahma.org Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping __ (0*NET 43-4161.00) Significant Points • • • About 1 out of 4 work for Federal, State, and local governments. Employment will grow as human resources assistants assume more responsibilities. Computer, communication, and interpersonal skills are important. 450 Occupational Outlook Handbook include interviewing applicants; corresponding with law enforce ment authorities; and preparing badges, passes, and identification cards. Working Conditions Human resources assistants usually work in clean, pleasant, and comfortable office settings. Assistants usually work a standard 35- to 40-hour week. Prolonged exposure to video display terminals may lead to eyestrain for assistants who work with computers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Human resources assistants maintain the records of an organization’s employees. Nature of the Work Human resources assistants maintain the human resource records of an organization’s employees. These records include information such as name, address, job title, and earnings; benefits such as health and life insurance; and tax withholding. On a daily basis, these as sistants record information and answer questions about employee absences and supervisory reports on employees’job performance. When an employee receives a promotion or switches health insur ance plans, the human resources assistant updates the appropriate form. Human resources assistants also may prepare reports for managers elsewhere within the organization. For example, they might compile a list of employees eligible for an award. In small organizations, some human resources assistants perform a variety of other clerical duties, including answering telephone or written inquiries from the public, sending out announcements of job openings or job examinations, and issuing application forms. When credit bureaus and finance companies request confirmation of a person’s employment, the human resources assistant provides authorized information from the employee’s personnel records. Assistants also may contact payroll departments and insurance companies to verify changes to records. Some human resources assistants are involved in hiring. They screen job applicants to obtain information such as their education and work experience; administer aptitude, personality, and interest tests; explain the organization’s employment policies and refer qualified applicants to the employing official; and request references from present or past employers. Also, human resources assistants inform job applicants, by telephone or letter, of their acceptance for or denial of employment. In some job settings, human resources assistants have specific job titles. For example, assignment clerks notify a firm’s existing employees of upcoming vacancies, identify applicants who qualify for the vacancies, and assign those who are qualified to various positions. They also keep track of vacancies that arise throughout the organization, and they complete and distribute forms advertising vacancies. When filled-out applications are returned, these clerks review and verify the information in them, using personnel records. After a selection for a position is made, they notify all of the ap plicants of their acceptance or rejection. As another example, identification clerks are responsible for security matters at defense installations. They compile and record personal data about vendors, contractors, and civilian and military personnel and their dependents. The identification clerk’s job duties https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or GED. Generally, training beyond high school is not required. However, training in computers, in filing and maintaining filing systems, in organizing, and in human resources practices is desirable. Proficiency using Microsoft Word, Excel, and other computer ap plications also is very desirable. Many of these skills can be learned in a vocational high school program aimed at office careers, and the remainder can be learned on the job. Formal training is available at a small number of colleges, most of which offer diploma programs in office automation. Many pro prietary schools also offer such programs. Human resources assistants must be able to interact and commu nicate with individuals at all levels of the organization. In addition, assistants should demonstrate poise, tactfulness, diplomacy, and good interpersonal skills in order to handle sensitive and confiden tial situations. Employment Human resources assistants held about 172,000jobs in 2004. About 1 out of 4 work for Federal, State, and local governments. Other jobs for human resources assistants were in various industries such as health care; management of companies and enterprises; finance and insurance; and administrative and support services. Job Outlook Employment of human resources assistants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, as assistants assume more responsibilities. For example, workers conduct Internet research to locate resumes, they must be able to scan resumes of job candidates quickly and efficiently, and they must be increasingly sensitive to confidential information such as salaries and Social Security numbers. In a favorable job mar ket, more emphasis is placed on human resources departments, thus increasing the demand for assistants. However, even in economic downturns there is demand for assistants, as human resources departments in all industries try to make their organi zations more efficient by determining what type of employees to hire and strategically filling job openings. Human resources assistants may play an instrumental role in their organization’s human resources policies. For example, they may talk to staffing firms and consulting firms, conduct other research, and then offer their ideas on issues such as whether to hire temporary contract workers or full-time staff. As with other office and administrative support occupations, the growing use of computers in human resources departments means that much of the data entry that is done by human resources as sistants can be eliminated, as employees themselves enter the data and send the electronic file to the human resources office. Such an arrangement, which is most feasible in large organizations with multiple human resources offices, could limit job growth among human resources assistants. In addition to positions arising from job growth, replacement needs will account for many job openings for human resources Office and Administrative Support Occupations assistants as they advance within the human resources department, take jobs unrelated to human resources administration, or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of human resources assistants in May 2004 were $31,750. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,780 and $38,770. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,250 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,780. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of human resources assistants in May 2004 were: Federal Government.................................... Elementary and secondary schools............ Local government...................................... Management of companies and enterprises General medical and surgical hospitals...... $35,490 33,030 32,460 30,930 29,390 In 2005, the Federal Government typically paid salaries rang ing from $20,984 to $88,103 a year. Beginning human resources assistants with a high school diploma or 6 months of experience were paid an average annual salary of $20,984. The average sal ary for all human resources assistants employed by the Federal Government was $36,576 in 2005. Some employers offer educational assistance to human resources assistants. Related Occupations Human resources assistants maintain the personnel records of an organization’s employees. On a daily basis, these assistants record information and answer questions about employee absences and supervisory reports on employees’job performance. Other workers with similar skills and expertise in interpersonal relations include bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; communications equipment operators; customer service representatives; data entry and information processing workers; order clerks; receptionists and information clerks; secretaries and administrative assistants; stock clerks and order fillers; and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For information about human resource careers and certification, contact: >• Society for Human Resource Management, 1800 Duke St., Alexandria, VA22314. Internet: http://www.shrm.org Interviewers ________ (0*NET 43-4061.01,43-4061.02, 43-4111.00,43-4131.00) Significant Points • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. • The number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, is projected to grow faster than average; however, the number of loan interviewers and clerks, and eligibility interviewers for government programs, is projected to decline. Nature of the Work Interviewers obtain information from individuals and business rep resentatives who are opening bank accounts, trying to obtain loans, seeking admission to medical facilities, participating in consumer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 451 surveys, applying to receive aid from government programs, or providing data for various other purposes. By mail, by telephone, or in person, these workers solicit and verify information, create files, and perform a number of other related tasks. The specific duties and job titles of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, depend upon the type of employer. In doctors’ offices and other health care facilities, for example, interviewing clerks also are known as admitting interviewers or patient representatives. These workers obtain all preliminary information required for a patient’s record or for his or her admission to a hospital, such as the patient’s name, address, age, medical history, present medications, previous hospitalizations, religion, persons to notify in case of emergency, attending physician, and party responsible for payment. In some cases, interviewing clerks may be required to verify that an individual is eligible for health benefits or to work out financing options for those who might need them. . Other duties of interviewers in health care include assigning patients to rooms and summoning escorts to take patients to their rooms; sometimes, interviewers may escort patients themselves. Using the facility’s computer system, interviewers schedule labora tory work, x rays, and surgeries; prepare admission and discharge records; and route these medical records to appropriate departments. They also may bill patients, receive payments, and answer the telephone. In an outpatient or office setting, interviewers schedule appointments, keep track of cancellations, and provide general in formation about care. In addition, the role of the admissions staff, particularly in hospitals, is expanding to include a wide range of patient services, from assisting patients with financial and medical questions to helping family members find hotel rooms. Interviewing clerks who conduct market research surveys and polls for research firms have somewhat different responsibilities. These interviewers ask a series of prepared questions, record the responses, and forward the results to management. They may ask individuals questions about their occupation and earnings, political preferences, buying habits, satisfaction with certain goods or ser vices sold to them, or other aspects of their lives. Although most interviews are conducted over the telephone, some are conducted in focus groups or by randomly polling people in a public place. More recently, the Internet is being used to elicit people’s opinions. Almost all interviewers use computers or similar devices to enter the responses to questions. Eligibility interviewers, government programs, determine the eligibility of individuals applying to receive government assistance, such as welfare, unemployment benefits, Social Security benefits, and public housing. These interviewers gather the relevant personal and financial information on an applicant and, on the basis of the rules and regulations of the particular government program, grant, modify, deny, or terminate an individual’s eligibility for the program in question. They also help to detect fraud committed by persons who try to obtain benefits that they are not eligible to receive. Loan interviewers and clerks review individuals’ credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of applicants for loans and credit cards. These workers spend much of their day on the telephone, obtaining information from credit bureaus, employers, banks, credit institutions, and other sources to determine an applicant’s credit history and ability to pay back a loan or charge. Loan clerks, also called loan processing clerks, loan closers, or loan service clerks, assemble documents pertaining to a loan, process the paperwork associated with the loan, and ensure that all informa tion is complete and verified. Mortgage loans are the primary type of loan handled by loan clerks, who also may have to order appraisals of the property, set up escrow accounts, and secure any additional information required to transfer the property. 452 Occupational Outlook Handbook fill open positions by promoting qualified individuals from within the company. Interviewers who obtain additional skills or training will have the best opportunities. For certain managerial positions, a college degree may be required. Employment v: Interviewers ask specific questions, record answers, and may assist persons with completing applications. The specific duties of loan clerks vary by specialty. Loan clos ers, for example, complete the loan process by gathering the proper documents for signature at the closing, including deeds of trust, property insurance papers, and title commitments. They set the time and place for the closing, make sure that all parties are present, and ensure that all conditions for settlement have been met. After the settlement, the loan closer records all of the documents involved and submits the final package to the owner of the loan. Loan service clerks maintain the payment records on a loan once it is issued. These clerical workers process the paperwork for payment of fees to insur ance companies and tax authorities, and also may record changes in clients’ addresses and ownership of a loan. When necessary, they answer calls from customers with routine inquiries as well. Loan interviewers have duties that are similar to those of loan clerks. They interview potential borrowers; help them fill out applications for loans; investigate the applicant’s background and references; verify the information on the application; and forward any findings, reports, or documents to the company’s appraisal department. Finally, interviewers inform the applicant as to whether the loan has been accepted or denied. Working Conditions Working conditions vary for different types of interviewers, but most of these workers work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. Most of these workers work a standard 35 to 40 hour week, but evening and weekend work may be required in some establish ments. Some interviewers may conduct surveys on the street or in shopping malls, or they may even go door to door. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of education and related experience. Because interviewers deal with the public, they must have a pleasant personal ity, clear speaking voice, and professional appearance. Familiarity with computers and strong interpersonal skills are very important. Fluency in a foreign language also can be beneficial. New employees are generally trained on the job, working under the close supervision of more experienced employees, although some firms offer formal training. Some loan interviewers also take courses in credit offered by banking and credit associations, public and private vocational schools, and colleges and universities. Experienced interviewers may advance to positions with added responsibilities or supervisory duties. Many organizations elect to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Interviewers held about 515,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 199,000 were interviewers, except eligibility and loan; 218,000 were loan interviewers and clerks; and 98,000 were eligibility interviewers, government programs. About 2 out of every 5 in terviewers, except eligibility and loan, worked in health care and social assistance industries, while most loan interviewers and clerks worked in financial institutions. Almost all eligibility interview ers, government programs, worked in State and local government. Around 1 out of every 4 interviewers, except eligibility and loan, worked part time. Job Outlook Employment of interviewers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. However, the projected change in employment varies by specialty. Most job openings should arise from the need to replace the numerous interviewers who leave the occupation or the labor force each year. Prospects for filling these openings will be best for applicants with a broad range of job skills, such as good customer service, math, and telephone skills. In addition to openings for full-time jobs, opportunities also should be available for part-time and temporary jobs. The number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, is projected to grow faster than average, reflecting growth in the health care and social assistance sector. This sector will hire more admissions inter viewers as health care facilities consolidate staff and expand the role of the admissions staff and as an aging and growing population requires more visits to health care practitioners. In addition, an increasing use of market research will create more jobs requiring interviewers to col lect data. In the future, though, more market research is expected to be conducted over the Internet, thus reducing the need for telephone interviewers to make individual calls. The number of loan interviewers and clerks is projected to decline due to advances in technology that are making these workers more productive. Despite a projected increase in the number of applica tions for loans, automation will increase productivity so that fewer workers will be required to process, check, and authorize applica tions than in the past. The effects of automation on employment will be moderated, however, by the many interpersonal aspects of the job. Mortgage loans, for example, require loan processors to personally verify financial data on the application, and loan closers are needed to assemble documents and prepare them for settlement. Employment, however, also will be adversely affected by changes in the financial services industry. For example, significant consolida tion has occurred among mortgage loan servicing companies. As a result, fewer mortgage banking companies are involved in servicing loans, making the function more efficient and reducing the need for loan service clerks. The job outlook for loan interviewers and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in interest rates usually leads to a decline in the demand for loans, particularly mortgage loans, and can result in layoffs. Even in slow economic times, however, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons. Like that of loan interviewers and clerks, employment of eligibil ity interviewers for government programs also is projected to decline due to advances in technology and the transformation of govern ment aid programs over the last decade. Automation should have a significant effect on these workers because, as with credit and loan Office and Administrative Support Occupations ratings, eligibility for government aid programs can be determined instantaneously by entering information into a computer. The job outlook for eligibility interviewers, however, also is sensitive to overall economic activity; a severe slowdown in the economy will cause more people to apply for government aid programs, increasing demand for eligibility interviewers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of eligibility interviewers, government programs, in May 2004 were $ 15.92. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.04 and $19.32. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.19, and the highest lOpercent earned more than $21.83. Median hourly earnings of eligibility interviewers, government programs, was $15.67 in State government and $16.43 in local government in May 2004. Median hourly earnings of loan interviewers and clerks in May 2004 were $13.94. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.45and $17.26. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.48, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.20. Median hourly earnings of loan interviewers and clerks in depository credit intermediation was $ 13.13 in May 2004, while median hourly earnings in nondepository credit intermediation was $14.48. Median hourly earnings of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, in May 2004 were $11.38. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.19 and $13.93. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.57, and the highest lOpercent earned more than$16.98. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, in May 2004 were as follows: State government ........................................................................... $16.78 Colleges, universities, and professional schools............................ 13.55 General medical and surgical hospitals.......................................... 11-94 Scientific research and development services................................ 10.71 Other professional, scientific, and technical services.................... 8.89 453 them available to users. (Librarians and library technicians are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Library assistants register patrons so that they can borrow materials from the library and then issue a library card. At the circulation desk, library assistants lend and collect books, periodicals, videotapes, and other materials. When an item is borrowed, assistants scan the patron’s library card and the material to record the transaction in the library database; they then print a receipt with the due date or stamp the due date on the item. When an item is returned, assistants inspect returned materials for damage and enter the materials into the circulation database. Electronic circulation systems are able to automatically generate overdue notices reminding patrons that their materials are overdue, but library assistants review the record for accuracy before sending out the notice. They also answer patrons’ questions and refer those they cannot answer to a librarian. Throughout the library, assistants sort returned books, periodi cals, and other items and put them on their designated shelves, in the appropriate files, or in storage areas. They locate materials to be lent, to either a patron or another library. Because nearly all card catalogues are computerized, library assistants must be familiar with computers. Before reshelving returned materials, if they notice any damage, these workers try to repair it. For example, they may use tape or paste to repair tom pages or book covers and use other specialized processes to repair more valuable materials. Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons who have vision problems. Sometimes referred to as library, talking-books, or braille-and-talking-books clerks, they review the borrower’s list of desired reading materials. They locate those materials or closely related substitutes from the library collection of large-type or braille volumes, tape cassettes, and open-reel talking books; complete the requisite paperwork; and give or mail the materials to the borrower. Working Conditions Related Occupations Interviewers obtain information from individuals. Other workers who perform similar duties include procurement clerks, customer service representatives, and bill and account collectors. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities for interviewers. For specific information on a career as a loan processor or loan closer, contact: ► Mortgage Bankers Association, 1919 PennsylvaniaAve. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.mortgagebankers.org Library assistants who prepare library materials may sit at desks or computer terminals for long periods and can develop headaches or eyestrain from working with the terminals. Some duties can be repetitive and boring, such as shelving new or returned materials. Others can be rewarding, such as assisting patrons who are perform ing computer searches with the use of local and regional library networks and cooperatives. Library assistants may lift and carry books, climb ladders to reach high stacks, and bend low to shelve books on bottom shelves. Library Assistants, Clerical (0*NET 43-4121.00) Significant Points • Minimal training requirements and flexible schedules make this occupation appealing to students, retirees, and others interested in part-time work. • Most libraries use electronic cataloging systems so computers skills are essential. Nature of the Work Library assistants, clerical—sometimes referred to as library media assistants, library aides, or circulation assistants—assist librarians and library technicians in organizing library resources and making https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Library assistants sort and reshelve returned items. 454 Occupational Outlook Handbook Library assistants in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (academic) libraries also work weekends, evenings and some holidays. About half of all library assistants work part time, making the job appealing to retirees, students, and others interested in flexible schedules. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library assistants are generally minimal; most libraries prefer to hire workers with a high school diploma or GED, but little to no formal postsecondary training is expected. Some employers hire individuals with experience in other clerical jobs, while others train inexperienced workers on the job. Given the rapid spread of automation in libraries, computer skills are needed for most jobs; knowledge of databases and other library automation systems is especially useful. Library assistants usually advance by assuming added respon sibilities. Many begin by performing simple jobs such as shelving books or cataloging new books and periodicals when they arrive. After gaining experience, they may move into positions that allow them to interact with patrons, such as manning the circulation desk. Experienced aids may be able to advance into library technician positions, which involve more responsibility in providing library services to patrons. Employment Library assistants held about 109,000jobs in 2004. More than half of these workers were employed by local governments in public librar ies; most of the remaining employees worked in school, college, and university libraries. Opportunities for flexible schedules are abun dant; nearly half of these workers were on part-time schedules. Job Outlook Employment of library assistants is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Efforts to contain costs in local governments and academic institutions of all types may result in more hiring of library support staff than librarians. Also, due to changing roles within libraries, library assistants are taking on more responsibility. Many library assistants leave this relatively low-paying occupation for other jobs that offer higher pay or full-time work, so job opportuni ties should be good for persons interested in jobs as library assistants. The work is often attractive to retirees, students, and others who want a part-time schedule, and there is a lot of movement into and out of the occupation. Some positions become available as library assistants move within the organization. Library assistants can be promoted to library technicians and, eventually, supervisory positions in publicservice or technical-service areas. Advancement opportunities are greater in large libraries. Because most are employed by public institutions, library assis tants are not directly affected by the ups and downs of the business cycle. However, some of these workers may lose their jobs if there are cuts in government budgets. Earnings Median hourly earnings of library assistants, clerical were $9.96 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.77 and $12.89. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.41, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.08. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library assistant can be obtained from either of the following organizations: >- Council on Library/Media Technology, P.O. Box 42048, Mesa, AZ 85274-2048. Internet: http://colt.ucr.edu https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ► American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org/hrdr Public libraries and libraries in academic institutions also can provide information about job openings for library assistants. Order Clerks (Q*NET 43-4151.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to decline because of growth in online retailing and in business-to-business electron ic commerce, and the use of automated systems that make placing orders easy and convenient. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process orders for a variety of goods or services, such as spare parts for machines, consumer appliances, gas and electric power connections, film rentals, and articles of clothing. They sometimes are called order-entry clerks, sales representatives, order processors, or order takers. Orders for materials, merchandise, or services can come from inside or from outside of an organization. In large companies with many worksites, such as automobile manufacturers, clerks order parts and equipment from the company’s warehouses. Inside order clerks receive orders from other workers employed by the same company or from salespersons in the field. Many other order clerks, however, receive orders from outside companies or individuals. Order clerks in wholesale businesses, for instance, receive orders from retail establishments for merchandise that the retailer, in turn, sells to the public. An increasing number of order clerks are working for catalog companies and online retail ers, receiving orders from individual customers by telephone, fax, regular mail, or e-mail. Order clerks dealing primarily with the public sometimes are referred to as outside order clerks. Computers provide order clerks with ready access to in formation such as stock numbers, prices, and inventory. The successful filling of an order frequently depends on having the right products in stock and being able to determine which products are most appropriate for the customer’s needs. Some order clerks—especially those in industrial settings—must be able to give price estimates for entire jobs, not just single parts. Others must be able to take special orders, give expected arrival dates, prepare contracts, and handle complaints. Many order clerks receive orders directly by telephone, entering the required information as the customer places the order. However, a rapidly increasing number of orders now are received through com puter systems, the Internet, faxes, and e-mail. In some cases, these orders are sent directly from the customer’s terminal to the order clerk’s terminal. Orders received by regular mail are sometimes scanned into a database that is instantly accessible to clerks. Clerks review orders for completeness and clarity. They may fill in missing information or contact the customer for the information. Clerks also contact customers if the customers need additional infor mation, such as prices or shipping dates, or if delays in filling the order are anticipated. For orders received by regular mail, clerks extract checks or money orders, sort them, and send them for processing. After an order has been verified and entered, the customer’s final cost is calculated. The clerk then routes the order to the proper Office and Administrative Support Occupations lllfllfpll HIIHII® Order clerks review orders for completeness and clarity. department—such as the warehouse—which actually sends out or delivers the item in question. In organizations with sophisticated computer systems, inven tory records are adjusted automatically, as sales are made. In less automated organizations, order clerks may adjust inventory records. Clerks also may notify other departments when inventories are low or when filling certain orders would deplete supplies. Some order clerks must establish priorities in filling orders. For example, an order clerk in a blood bank may receive a request from a hospital for a certain type of blood. The clerk must first find out whether the request is routine or an emergency and then take ap propriate action. Working Conditions Order clerks usually work a standard 40-hour workweek. Most order clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. These workers sit for long periods of time in front of com puter terminals, which may cause eyestrain and headaches. Order clerks in retail establishments typically work overtime during peak holiday seasons, when sales volume is high. 455 productivity. While overall employment of order clerks is expected to decline through the year 2014, numerous openings will occur each year to replace order clerks who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force completely. Many of these openings will be for seasonal work, especially in catalog companies or online retailers catering to holiday gift buyers. The growth in online retailing and in business-to-business electronic commerce, and the use of automated systems that make placing orders easy and convenient, will decrease demand for order clerks. The spread of electronic data interchange, which enables computers to communicate directly with each other, allows orders within establishments to be placed with little human intervention. In addition, internal systems allowing a firm’s employees to place orders directly are becoming increas ingly common. Outside orders placed over the Internet often are entered directly into the computer by the customer; thus, the order clerk is not involved at all in placing the order. Some com panies also use automated phone menus that are accessible with a touch-tone phone to receive orders, and others use answering machines. Developments in voice recognition technology may further reduce the demand for order clerks. Furthermore, increased automation will allow current order clerks to be more productive, with each clerk able to handle an increas ingly higher volume of orders. Sophisticated inventory control and automatic billing systems permit companies to track inventory and accounts with much less help from order clerks than in the past. Earnings Median hourly earnings of order clerks in May 2004 were $12.07. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.45 and $15.53. The low est 10 percent earned less than $7.75, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.34. Median hourly earnings in electronic shopping and mail-order houses was $9.83 while median earnings in machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers was $14.05 in May 2004. In business support services, median hourly earning was $9.71 in May 2004. Related Occupations Order clerks receive and process orders. Other workers who perform similar duties include stock clerks and order fillers as well as hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or its equivalent or a mix of education and related experience. Most em ployers prefer workers who are computer literate and have a working knowledge of word-processing and spreadsheet software. Most order clerks are trained on the job under the close supervi sion of more experienced employees. Proficiency with computer software is becoming increasingly important because most orders are being filed electronically. By taking on more duties, ambitious order clerks can receive higher pay or become eligible for advance ment opportunities. Some use their experience as an order clerk to Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide informa tion about job openings for order clerks. Receptionists and Information Clerks (0*NET 43-4171.00) Significant Points move into sales positions. Employment Order clerks held about 293,000 jobs in 2004. Over 50 percent of order clerks were employed in wholesale and retail trade establish ments, and another 16 percent were employed in manufacturing firms. Other jobs for order clerks were in industries such as information, warehousing and storage, couriers, and business support services. Job Outlook Job openings for order clerks likely will be limited, as improvements in technology and office automation continue to increase worker https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis _________ • Good interpersonal skills are critical. • A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Employment is expected to grow faster than average. • Nature of the Work Receptionists and information clerks are charged with a responsi bility that may have a lasting impact on the success of an organiza tion: making a good first impression. These workers often are the first representatives of an organization that a visitor may encounter, 456 Occupational Outlook Handbook work environment, however, may be very friendly and motivating for individuals who enjoy greeting customers face to face and making them feel comfortable Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Receptionists answer telephones, mute calls, greet visitors, and provide information about the organization. so good interpersonal skills—being courteous, professional, and helpful—are critical. Receptionists answer telephones, route and screen calls, greet visitors, respond to inquiries from the public, and provide information about the organization. Some reception ists are responsible for the coordination of all mail into and out of the office. In addition, receptionists contribute to the security of an organization by helping to monitor the access of visitors—a function that has become increasingly important since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, heightened security concerns. Whereas some tasks are common to most receptionists and information clerks, the specific responsibilities of receptionists vary with the type of establishment in which they work. For example, receptionists in hospitals and in doctors’ offices may gather patients’ personal and financial information and direct them to the proper waiting rooms. In corporate headquarters, receptionists may greet visitors and manage the scheduling of the board room or common conference area. In beauty or hair salons, by contrast, receptionists arrange appointments, direct custom ers to the hairstylist, and may serve as cashiers. In factories, large corporations, and government offices, they may provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take visitors to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and other related matters. Increasingly, receptionists use multiline telephone systems, personal computers, and fax machines. Despite the widespread use of automated answering systems or voice mail, many receptionists still take messages and inform other employees of visitors’ arrivals or cancellation of an appointment. When they are not busy with callers, most receptionists are expected to perform a variety of office duties, including opening and sorting mail, collecting and distributing parcels, transmitting and delivering facsimiles, updating appointment calendars, preparing travel vouchers, and performing basic bookkeeping, word processing, and filing. Working Conditions Receptionists who greet customers and visitors usually work in areas that are highly visible and designed and furnished to make a good impression. Most work stations are clean, well lighted, and relatively quiet. The work performed by some receptionists and information clerks may be tiring, repetitious, and stressful as many receptionists spend all day answering continuously ringing telephones and sometimes encounter difficult or irate callers. The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Although hiring requirements for receptionists and information clerks vary by industry, a high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Good interpersonal skills and being technologically proficient also are important to employers. Receptionists and information clerks generally receive on-the-job training. However, employers often look for applicants who already possess certain skills, such as prior computer experience or answering telephones. Some employers also may prefer some formal office edu cation or training. On the job, they learn how to operate the telephone system and computers. They also learn the proper procedures for greeting visitors and for distributing mail, faxes, and parcels. Advancement for receptionists generally comes about either by transferring to a more responsible occupation or by being promoted to a supervisory position. Receptionists with especially strong com puter skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary or an administrative assistant. Employment Receptionists and information clerks held about 1.1 million jobs in 2004. More than 90 percent worked in service-providing industries. Among service-providing industries, healthcare and social assistance industries—including doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent-care centers, surgical centers, and clinics—employed about one-third of all reception ists and information clerks. Manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, government, and real estate industries also employed large numbers of receptionists and information clerks. More than 3 of every 10 receptionists and information clerks worked part time. Job Outlook Employment of receptionists and information clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. This increase will result from rapid growth in service providing industries—including physicians’ offices, law firms, temporary help agencies, and consulting firms—where most are employed. In addition, turnover in this large occupation will create numerous openings as receptionists and information clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force altogether. Opportunities should be best for persons with a wide range of clerical and technical skills, particularly those with related work experience. Technology will have conflicting effects on the demand for receptionists and information clerks. The increasing use of voice mail and other telephone automation reduces the need for recep tionists by allowing one receptionist to perform work that formerly required several. However, the increasing use of other technology has caused a consolidation of clerical responsibilities and grow ing demand for workers with diverse clerical and technical skills. Because receptionists and information clerks may perform a wide variety of clerical tasks, they should continue to be in demand. Further, they perform many tasks that are interpersonal in nature and are not easily automated, ensuring continued demand for their services in a variety of establishments. Earnings Median hourly earnings of receptionists and information clerks in May 2004 were $10.50. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.62 and $12.88. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.21, Office and Administrative Support Occupations and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.53. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of reception ists and information clerks in May 2004 are shown below: Offices of dentists........................................................................... $12.37 General medical and surgical hospitals.......................................... 11 -07 Offices of physicians....................................................................... 10.92 Employment services...................................................................... 10.28 Personal care services..................................................................... 8.16 In 2005, the Federal Government typically paid salaries ranging from $22,937 to $27,818 a year to beginning receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of experience. The average annual salary for all receptionists employed by the Federal Government was about $29,185 in 2005. Related Occupations Receptionists deal with the public and often direct people to others who can assist them. Other workers who perform similar duties include dispatchers, secretaries and administrative assistants, and customer service representatives. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job openings for receptionists. 457 quickly as possible, information needed to make, change, or cancel reservations for customers. Transportation ticket agents are sometimes known as passen ger service agents, passenger booking clerks, reservation clerks, airport service agents, ticket clerks, or ticket sellers. They work in airports, train stations, and bus stations, selling tickets, assigning seats to passengers, and checking baggage. In addition, they may answer inquiries and give directions, examine passports and visas, or check in pets. They may be required assist customers who have trouble operating self-service ticket printing machines, which also are known as kiosks. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate or station agents, work in airport terminals, assisting passengers boarding airplanes. These workers direct passengers to the correct boarding area, check tickets and seat assignments, make boarding announcements, and provide special assistance to young, elderly, or disabled passengers when they board or disembark. Most travel clerks are employed by membership organizations, such as automobile clubs. These workers, sometimes called member services counselors or travel counselors, plan trips, calculate mile age, and offer travel suggestions, such as the best route from the point of origin to the destination, to club members. Travel clerks also may prepare an itinerary indicating points of interest, restau rants, overnight accommodations, and availability of emergency services during a trip. In some cases, they make rental car, hotel, and restaurant reservations for club members. ..... Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks______ __ (0*NET 43-4181.01,43-4181.02) ; mm __________ Significant Points • • • • Most jobs are found in large metropolitan airports, downtown ticket offices, large reservation centers, and train or bus stations. A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than average because of the significant impact of technology on worker productivity. Applicants for jobs are likely to encounter considerable competition; those who have previous experience in the travel industry, in sales, or in customer service should have the best chances. Nature of the Work Each year, millions of Americans travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. Many of these travelers rely on the services of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks, who perform functions as varied as selling tickets, confirming reserva tions, checking baggage, and providing tourists with useful travel information. Most reservation agents work for large hotel chains or airlines, helping people to plan trips and make reservations. They usually work in large reservation centers, answering telephone or e-mail inquiries and offering suggestions and information about travel arrangements, such as routes, schedules, rates, and types of accom modation. Reservation agents quote fares and room rates, provide travel information, and make and confirm transportation and hotel reservations. Most agents use proprietary networks to obtain, as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks sell tickets, confirm reservations, check baggage, and provide tourists with travel information. 458 Occupational Outlook Handbook Passenger rate clerks generally work for bus companies. They sell tickets for regular bus routes and arrange nonscheduled or chartered trips. They plan travel routes, compute rates, and keep customers informed of appropriate details. They also may arrange travel accommodations. Working Conditions Most reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks work in areas that are clean and well lit. This is especially true for agents who greet customers and visitors in person. Reservation and ticket agents may spend much of their day talking on the tele phone; however, they commonly work away from the public, often in large centralized reservation or phone centers. Because a large number of agents or clerks may share the same workspace, it may be crowded and noisy. Although most reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks work a standard 40-hour week, about 2 out of 10 work part time. Some high school and college students are employed part time in this occupation, working after school or during vacations. Some agents work evenings, late nights, weekends, and holidays. In general, employees with the most seniority tend to be assigned the more desirable shifts. The work performed by reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks may be repetitive and stressful. They often work under stringent time constraints or must meet quotas on the number of calls answered or reservations made. Difficult or angry customers also can create stressful situations as agents usually bear the bmnt of customers’ dissatisfaction. Agents may work on their feet for a large portion of their shift, and may have to lift heavy baggage. In addition, prolonged exposure to a computer monitor, which is common in this occupation, may lead to eyestrain. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common edu cational requirement for reservation and transportation ticket agent and travel clerk jobs. Some employers, however, prefer applicants who have completed college coursework in management or business. Experience with computers, including good typing skills, also is usually required. Some jobs require applicants to be over 18 years of age and posses a valid driver’s license. Agents who handle pas senger luggage must be able to lift heavy objects. Most airline reservation and ticket agents learn their skills through formal company training programs that can last several weeks. Here, they learn company and industry policies as well as ticketing procedures. Trainees also learn to use the airline’s computer system to obtain information on schedules, fares, and the availability of seats; to make reservations for passengers; and to plan passenger itineraries. In addition, they must become familiar with airport and airline code designations, regulations, and safety procedures. After completing classroom instruction, new agents work under the direct guidance of a supervisor or experienced agent. During this time the supervisors may, for example, monitor telephone conversations to improve the quality of customer service so that agents learn to provide customer service in a courteous manner, while limiting the time spent on each call. In contrast to those who work for airlines, reservation and trans portation ticket agents and travel clerks who work for automobile clubs, bus lines, and railroads are trained on the job through short in-house classes that last several days. Many reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks deal directly with the public, so a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are important. A clear speaking voice and fluency in the English language also are essential, because these employees frequently use the telephone or public-address systems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In addition, fluency in a foreign language is becoming increasingly helpful for those seeking reservation and ticket agent jobs. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks may advance by being transferred to a position with more responsibilities, or by being promoted to a supervisory position. Many travel compa nies fill supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individu als within their organization, so those who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their opportunities for advancement. Some companies require that candidates for supervisory positions have an associate degree in a business-related field, such as management, business administration, or marketing. Within the airline industry, a ticket agent may advance to lead worker on the shift. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 163,000 jobs in 2004. About 6 out of 10 are employed by airlines. Others work for automobile clubs, hotels and other lodg ing places, railroad companies, bus lines, and other companies that provide transportation services. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the country, most work in large metropolitan airports, downtown ticket offices, large reservation centers, and train or bus stations. The remainder work in small, regional airports, or in small communities served only by intercity bus or railroad lines. Job Outlook Applicants for reservation and transportation ticket agent jobs are likely to encounter considerable competition, because the supply of qualified applicants will exceed the expected number of job openings. Entry requirements for these jobs are minimal, and many people seeking to get into the airline industry or another travel-related business often start out in such positions. The jobs provide excellent travel benefits, and many people view airline and other travel-related jobs as glamorous. Applicants who have previous experience in the travel industry, in sales, or in customer service should have the best chances. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Although a growing population will demand additional travel services, employment of these workers will grow more slowly than this demand because of the significant impact of technology on worker productivity. Automated reservations and ticketing, as well as “ticketless” travel, for example, are reducing the need for some workers. Most train stations and airports now have self-service ticket printing machines, called kiosks, which enable passengers to make reservations, purchase tickets, and check-in for train rides and flights themselves. Many passengers also are able to check flight times and fares, make reservations, purchase tickets, and check-in for flights on the Internet. Nevertheless, not all travelrelated passenger services can be fully automated, primarily for safety and security reasons. As a result, job openings will continue to become available as the occupation grows and as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force altogether. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel declines, and transporta tion service companies are less likely to hire new workers and may even resort to layoffs. Earnings Median annual earnings of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks in May 2004 were $27,750. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,430 and $39,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,100. Many employers offer discounts on travel services Office and Administrative Support Occupations 459 to their employees. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the larges number of agents were: customers include counter and rental clerks, order clerks, customer service representatives, and receptionists and information clerks. Scheduled air transportation......................................................... $31,750 Travel arrangement and reservation services............................... 22,370 Traveler accommodation............................................................... 22,050 Sources of Additional Information Related Occupations For information about job opportunities as reservation and transpor tation ticket agents and travel clerks, write to the personnel manager of individual transportation companies. Addresses of airlines are Other occupations that provide travel-related services include hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks; travel agents; and flight attendants. Other occupations that make sales and provide information to available from: > Air Transport Association of America, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave.NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004-1707. Internet: http://www.airlines.org Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations Cargo and Freight Agents (Q*NET 43-5011.00) Working Conditions Significant Points • • freight agents often track shipments electronically, using bar codes, and answer customers’ inquiries on the status of their shipments. Many jobs are entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Although cargo traffic is expected to grow faster than in the past, employment of cargo and freight agents will not keep pace because of technological advances. Nature of the Work Cargo and freight agents arrange for and track incoming and outgoing cargo and freight shipments in airline, train, or trucking terminals or on shipping docks. They expedite shipments by determining the route that shipments are to take and by preparing all necessary shipping documents. The agents take orders from customers and arrange for the pickup of freight or cargo for delivery to loading platforms. Cargo and freight agents may keep records of the cargo, such as its amount, type, weight, and dimensions. They keep a tally of missing items, record the condition of damaged items, and document any excess supplies. Cargo and freight agents arrange cargo according to its destina tion. They also determine the shipping rates and other charges that can sometimes apply to the freight. For imported or exported freight, they verify that the proper customs paperwork is in order. Cargo and Cargo andfreight agents take ordersfrom customers and arrangefor the pickup offreight or cargo for delivery to loading platforms. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cargo and freight agents work in a wide variety of businesses, insti tutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather. Most jobs for cargo and freight agents involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automated devices have less ened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains some what limited. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material-handling equipment is employed to move heavy items. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs and may be required in other jobs when large shipments are involved. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many jobs are entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Cargo and freight agents start out by checking items to be shipped and then attaching labels to them and making sure that the addresses are correct. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done informally, on the job. As this occupation becomes more automated, however, workers may need longer periods of training in order to master the use of the equipment. Advancement opportunities for cargo and freight agents vary with the place of employment. Employment Cargo and freight agents held about 70,000 jobs in 2004. Most jobs were in transportation. Approximately 20 percent worked in the air transportation industry and 8 percent worked in the truck transporta tion industry. Couriers employed another 11 percent. In addition, about 43 percent worked for firms engaged in support activities for the transportation industry. Job Outlook Employment of cargo and freight agents is expected to decline through 2014. Although cargo traffic is expected to grow faster than in the past, employment of cargo and freight agents will not keep pace because of technological advances. For example, the 460 Occupational Outlook Handbook increasing use of bar codes on cargo and freight allows agents and customers to track these shipments quickly over the Internet, rather than manually tracking their location. In addition, customs and insurance paperwork now can be completed over the Internet by customers, reducing the need for cargo and freight agents. Despite these advances in technology that dampen job growth among cargo and freight agents, job openings will continue to arise due to increases in buying over the Internet, which will result in more shipments. Jobs also will open up because of the increasing importance of same-day delivery, which expands the role of agents. In addition, many job openings will be created to replace cargo and freight agents who leave the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings of cargo and freight agents in May 2004 were $34,250. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,720 and $43,250. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,700, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,480. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Cargo and freight agents plan and coordinate shipments of cargo by airlines, trains, and trucks. They also arrange freight pickup with customers. Others who do similar work are couriers and messen gers; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping; truck drivers and driver/sales workers; and Postal Service workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Couriers and Messengers (0*NET 43-5021.00) Significant Points • Most jobs as couriers and messengers do not require more than a high school diploma. • Employment is expected to decline, reflecting the more widespread use of electronic information-handling technologies such as e-mail and fax. Most couriers and messengers spend much of their time outdoors or in their vehicle. contact them while they are between stops, and they may be routed to go past a stop that recently called in a delivery. Consequently, most couriers and messengers spend much of their time outdoors or in their vehicle. They usually maintain records of deliveries and often obtain signatures from the persons receiving the items. Most couriers and messengers deliver items within a limited geo graphic area, such as a city or metropolitan area. Items that need to go longer distances usually are sent by mail or by an overnight delivery service. Some couriers and messengers carry items only for their em ployer, which typically might be a law firm, bank, medical laboratory, or financial institution. Others may act as part of an organization’s internal mail system and carry items mainly within the organization’s buildings or entirely within one building. Many couriers and mes sengers work for messenger or courier services; for a fee, they pick up items from anyone and deliver them to specified destinations within a local area. Most are paid on a commission basis. Couriers and messengers reach their destination by several methods. Many drive vans or cars or ride motorcycles. A few travel by foot, es pecially in urban areas or when making deliveries nearby. In congested urban areas, messengers often use bicycles to make deliveries. Bicycle messengers usually are employed by messenger or courier services. Although e-mail and fax machines can deliver information faster than couriers and messengers can, and although a great deal of information is available over the Internet, an electronic copy cannot substitute for the original document in many types of business transactions. Working Conditions Nature of the Work Couriers and messengers move and distribute information, docu ments, and small packages for businesses, institutions, and govern ment agencies. They pick up and deliver letters, important business documents, or packages that need to be sent or received quickly within a local area. Trucks and vans are used for larger deliveries, such as legal caseloads and conference materials. By sending an item by courier or messenger, the sender ensures that it reaches its destination the same day or even within the hour. Couriers and messengers also deliver items that the sender is unwilling to entmst to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial docu ments, passports, airline tickets, or medical samples to be tested. Couriers and messengers receive their instructions either in per son—by reporting to their office—or by telephone, two-way radio, or wireless data service. Then they pick up the item and carry it to its destination. After each pickup or delivery, they check in with their dispatcher to receive instructions. Sometimes the dispatcher will https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Couriers and messengers spend most of their time alone, making deliveries, and usually are not closely supervised. Those who de liver by bicycle must be physically fit and are exposed to all weather conditions, as well as to the many hazards associated with heavy traf fic. Car, van, and truck couriers must sometimes carry heavy loads, either manually or with the aid of a hand truck. They also have to deal with difficult parking situations, as well as traffic jams and road construction. The pressure of making as many deliveries as possible to increase one’s earnings can be stressful and may lead to unsafe driv ing or bicycling practices. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most couriers and messengers are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Because communication with other people is Office and Administrative Support Occupations an integral part of some courier and messenger jobs, good oral and written communication skills are essential. Couriers and messengers usually learn on the job, training with an experienced worker for a short time. Those who work as independent contractors for a messenger or delivery service may be required to have a valid driver’s license, a registered and inspected vehicle, a good driving record, and insurance coverage. Many couriers and messengers who are employees, rather than independent contrac tors, also are required to provide and maintain their own vehicle. Although some companies have spare bicycles or mopeds that their riders may rent for a short period, almost all two-wheeled couriers own their own bicycle, moped, or motorcycle. A good knowledge of the geographic area in which they travel and a good sense of direction also are important. Couriers and messengers, especially those who work for mes senger or courier services, have limited advancement opportunities; a few move into the office to learn dispatching or to take service requests by phone. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Persons interested in courier and messenger jobs also may con tact messenger and courier services, mail-order firms, banks, printing and publishing firms, utility companies, retail stores, or other large companies. Dispatchers (0*NET 43-5031.00, 43-5032.00) Significant Points • • Employment Couriers and messengers together held about 147,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 23 percent were employed in the couriers and mes sengers industry. About 13 percent worked in healthcare, and around 8 percent worked in the legal services industry. Another 8 percent were employed in finance and insurance firms. Technically, many messengers are self-employed independent contractors, because they provide their own vehicles and, to a certain extent, set their own schedules. In many respects, however, they are like employees, because they usually work for one company. Job Outlook Employment of couriers and messengers is expected to decline through 2014, despite an increasing volume of parcels, business documents, promotional materials, and other written information that must be handled and delivered as the economy expands. However, some jobs will arise out of the need to replace couriers and mes sengers who leave the occupation. Employment of couriers and messengers will continue to be ad versely affected by the more widespread use of electronic information handling technologies such as e-mail and fax. Many documents, forms, and other materials that people used to have delivered by hand are now downloaded from the Internet. Many legal and financial documents, which used to be delivered by hand because they required a handwritten signature, now can be delivered electronically with online signatures. However, couriers and messengers still will be needed to transport materials that cannot be sent electronically—such as blueprints and other oversized materials, securities, and passports. Also, they still will be required by medical and dental laboratories to pick up and deliver medical samples, specimens, and other materials. Earnings Median annual earnings of couriers and messengers in May 2004 were $20,190. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,390 and $24,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,020, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30,510. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Messengers and couriers deliver letters, parcels, and other items. They also keep accurate records of their work. Others who do similar work are Postal Service workers; truck drivers and driver/sales workers; receiving, and traffic clerks; and cargo and freight agents. Digitized shipping, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 461 • Population growth and economic expansion are expected to spur employment growth for all types of dispatchers. Many dispatchers are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Although there are no mandatory licensing or certifica tion requirements, some States require public safety dispatchers to be certified. Nature of the Work Dispatchers schedule and dispatch workers, equipment, or service vehicles to carry materials or passengers. They keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls that they receive, the transportation vehicles that they monitor and control, and the actions that they take. They maintain information on each call and then prepare a detailed report on all activities occurring during their shifts. Many dispatchers employ computer-aided dispatch systems to accomplish these tasks. The work of dispatchers varies greatly, depending on the industry in which they work. Regardless of where they work, all dispatchers are assigned a specific territory and have responsibility for all communications within that area. Many work in teams, especially dispatchers in large communications centers or companies. One person usually handles all dispatching calls to the response units or company drivers, while the other members of the team usually receive the incoming calls and deal with the public. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, monitor the location of emergency services personnel from any one or all of the jurisdiction’s emergency services depart ments. These workers dispatch the appropriate type and number of units in response to calls for assistance. Dispatchers, or call takers, often are the first people the public contacts when emergency as sistance is required. If certified for emergency medical services, the dispatcher may provide medical instruction to those on the scene of the emergency until the medical staff arrives. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers work in a variety of settings: A police station, a fire station, a hospital, or, increasingly, a centralized communications center. In many areas, the police de partment serves as the communications center. In these situations, all emergency calls go to the police department, where a dispatcher handles the police calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. When handling calls, dispatchers question each caller carefully to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. The information obtained is posted either electronically by com puter or, with decreasing frequency, by hand. The request for help is communicated immediately to uniformed or supervisory personnel, who quickly decide on the priority of the incident, the 462 Occupational Outlook Handbook kind and number of units needed, and the location of the closest and most suitable units available. Typically, a team answers calls and relays the information to be dispatched. Responsibility then shifts to the dispatchers, who send response units to the scene and monitor the activity of the public safety personnel answering the dispatched message. During the course of the shift, dispatchers may rotate these functions. When appropriate, dispatchers stay in close contact with other service providers—for example, a police dispatcher would monitor the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medical emergency, dispatchers keep in close touch not only with the dispatched units, but also with the caller. They may give extensive first-aid instructions before the emergency personnel arrive, while the caller is waiting for the ambulance. Dispatchers continuously give updates on the patient’s condition to the ambulance personnel and often serve as a link between the medical staff in a hospital and the emergency medical technicians in the ambulance. (A separate statement on emergency medical technicians and paramedics appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other dispatchers coordinate deliveries, service calls, and re lated activities for a variety of firms. Truck dispatchers, who work for local and long-distance trucking companies, coordinate the movement of trucks and freight between cities. These dispatchers direct the pickup and delivery activities of drivers, receive custom ers’ requests for the pickup and delivery of freight, consolidate freight orders into truckloads for specific destinations, assign drivers and trucks, and draw up routes and pickup and delivery schedules. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long-distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service, and they dispatch other buses or arrange for repairs in order to restore service and schedules. Train dispatchers ensure the timely and efficient movement of trains according to orders and schedules. They must be aware of track switch positions, track maintenance areas, and the location of other trains running on the track. Taxicab dispatchers, or starters, dispatch taxis in response to requests for service and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow-truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road ser vice. They relay the nature of the problem to a nearby service station or a tow-truck service and see to it that the road service is completed. Gas and water service dispatchers monitor gaslines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies. Working Conditions The work of dispatchers can be very hectic when many calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatcher is particularly stressful because a slow or an improper response to a call can result in serious injury or further harm. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may become excited and be unable to provide needed information; some may even become abusive. Despite provocations, dispatchers must remain calm, objective, and in control of the situation. Dispatchers sit for long periods, using telephones, computers, and two-way radios. Much of their time is spent at video display terminals, viewing monitors and observing traffic patterns. As a result of working for long stretches with computers and other elec tronic equipment, dispatchers can experience significant eyestrain and back discomfort. Generally, dispatchers work a 40-hour week; however, rotating shifts and compressed work schedules are com mon. Alternative work schedules are necessary to accommodate evening, weekend, and holiday work, as well as 24-hour-per-day, 7-day-per-week operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement 4 , Dispatchers may sitfor long periods, using telephones, computers, maps, and two-way radios. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many dispatchers are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire people familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. State or local government civil service regulations usually gov ern police, fire, emergency medical, and ambulance dispatching jobs. Candidates for these positions may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. Also, they may be asked to attend training classes and attain the proper certification in order to qualify for advancement. Workers usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This informal training lasts from several days to a few months, de pending on the complexity of the job. Public safety dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. While working with an experienced dispatcher, new employees monitor calls and learn how to operate a variety of communications equipment, includ ing telephones, radios, and various wireless devices. As trainees gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. In smaller operations, dispatchers sometimes act as customer service rep resentatives, processing orders. Many public safety dispatchers also participate in structured training programs sponsored by their employer. Increasingly, public safety dispatchers receive train ing in stress and crisis management as well as family counseling. This training helps them to provide effective services to others; Office and Administrative Support Occupations and, at the same time, it helps them manage the stress involved in their work. Communication skills and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Residency in the city or county of employment frequently is required for public safety dispatchers. Dispatchers in transportation industries must be able to deal with sudden influxes of shipments and disruptions of shipping schedules caused by bad weather, road construction, or accidents. Although there are no mandatory licensing or certification requirements, some States require that public safety dispatch ers possess a certificate to work on a State network, such as the Police Information Network. Many dispatchers participate in these programs in order to improve their prospects for career advancement. Dispatchers who work for private firms, which usually are small, will find few opportunities for advancement. In contrast, public safety dispatchers may become a shift or divisional super visor or chief of communications, or they may move to higher paying administrative jobs. Some become police officers or firefighters. Employment Dispatchers held 266,000 jobs in 2004. About 36 percent were police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for State and local governments—primarily local police and fire departments. About 26 percent of all dispatchers worked in the transportation and warehousing industry, and the rest worked in a wide variety of mainly service-providing industries. Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most dispatchers work in urban areas, where large communications centers and businesses are located. Median annual earnings of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers in 2004 were $28,930. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,060 and $35,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44520. Dispatchers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve directing and controlling the move ment of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as distributing information and messages, include air traffic controllers, communi cations equipment operators, customer service representatives, and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training and certification for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers, contact: >- Association of Public Safety Communications Officials, International, 351 N. Williamson Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32114-1112. Internet: http://www.apco91 l.org > International Municipal Signal Association (TMSA), PO Box 359, 165 E. Union Street, Newark, NY 14513-0539. Internet: http://www.IMSAsafety.org Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers is available from personnel offices of State and local governments or police departments. Information about work op portunities for other types of dispatchers is available from local employers and State employment service offices. Meter Readers, Utilities (0*NET 43-5041.00) Significant Points Job Outlook Employment of dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to those positions resulting from job growth, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Population growth and economic expansion are expected to spur employment growth for all types of dispatchers. The growing and aging population will increase demand for emergency services and stimulate employment growth of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers. Many districts are consolidating their communications centers into a shared area-wide facility. Individuals with computer skills and experience will have a greater opportunity for employment as public safety dispatchers. Employment of some dispatchers is more adversely affected by economic downturns than employment of other dispatchers. For example, when economic activity falls, demand for transportation services declines. As a result, taxicab, train, and truck dispatchers may experience layoffs or a shortened workweek, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding entry-level jobs. Employment of tow-tmck dispatchers, by contrast, is seldom affected by general economic conditions, because of the emergency nature of their business. 463 • Employment is expected to decline, as a result of new automated meter reading (AMR) systems that allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point. • Most meter readers are employed by electric, gas, or water utilities or by local governments. Nature of the Work Meter readers read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record the volume used. They serve both residential and com mercial consumers, either walking or driving along a designated route. Their duties include inspecting the meters and their connec tions for any defects or damage, supplying repair and maintenance workers with the necessary information to fix damaged meters, keeping track of the average usage, and recording reasons for any extreme fluctuations in volume. Meter readers are constantly aware of any abnormal behavior or consumption that might indicate an unauthorized connection. They may turn off service for questionable behavior or nonpay ment of charges, and they also are responsible for turning on service for new occupants. These workers usually keep records showing that the meters on which they have completed work have been serviced. Earnings Median annual earnings of dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance in May 2004 were $30,920. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,480 and $41,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,440. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Meter readers, who usually work 40 hours a week, work outdoors in all types of weather as they travel through communities and neighborhoods taking readings. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday. 464 Occupational Outlook Handbook Postal Service Workers (0*NET 43-5051.00, 43-5052.00, 43-5053.00) Significant Points Most meter readers are employed by electric, gas, or water utilities or by local governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many meter readers are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and busi ness equipment. Typing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Utility meter readers usually work with a more experienced meter reader until they feel comfortable doing the job on their own. They learn how to read the meters and determine the consumption rate. They also must learn the route that they need to travel to read all their customers’ meters. Advancement opportunities for meter readers vary with the place of employment. Employment Meter readers held about 50,000 jobs in 2004. About 44 percent were employed by electric, gas, and water utilities. Most of the rest were employed in local government, reading water meters or meters for other government-owned utilities. Job Outlook Employment of meter readers is expected to decline through 2014. New AMR systems allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point, reducing the need for meter readers. However, because it will be many years before AMR systems can be implemented in all locations, there still will be some openings for meter readers, mainly to replace workers leaving the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings of utility meter readers in May 2004 were $29,440. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,000 and $38,890. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $47,830. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Other workers responsible for the distribution and control of utilities include power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Employment of Postal Service workers is expected to decline because of the increasing use of automation and electronic communication, such as the Internet. • Keen competition is expected because the number of qualified applicants should continue to exceed the num ber of job openings. • Qualification is based on an examination. • Applicants customarily wait I to 2 years or more after passing the examination before being hired. Nature of the Work Each week, the U.S. Postal Service delivers billions of pieces of mail, including letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this in an efficient and timely manner, the Postal Service employs about 619,000 individuals. Most Postal Service workers are clerks, mail carriers, or mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators. Postal clerks wait on customers at post offices, whereas mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators sort incoming and outgoing mail at post offices and mail processing centers. Mail carriers deliver mail to urban and rural residences and businesses throughout the United States. Postal Service clerks, also known as window clerks, sell stamps, money orders, postal stationary, and mailing envelopes and boxes. They also weigh packages to determine postage and check that packages are in satisfactory condition for mailing. These clerks register, certify, and insure mail and answer questions about post age rates, post office boxes, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Window clerks also help customers file claims for dam aged packages. Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distribution. These workers are commonly referred to as mail handlers, distribu tion clerks, mail processors, or mail processing clerks. They load and unload postal trucks and move mail around a mail processing center with forklifts, small electric tractors, or hand-pushed carts. They also load and operate mail processing, sorting, and canceling machinery. Postal Service mail carriers deliver mail, once it has been pro cessed and sorted. Although carriers are classified by their type of route—either city or rural—duties of city and rural carriers are similar. Most travel established routes, delivering and collecting mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morn ing, when they arrange the mail in delivery sequence. Automated equipment has reduced the time that carriers need to sort the mail, allowing them to spend more time delivering it. Mail carriers cover their routes on foot, by vehicle, or a combina tion of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it on a cart. In most urban and rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers must use their own automobiles. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings such as offices or apartments, which generally have all of their tenants’ mailboxes in one location. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and COD (cash-on-delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not Office and Administrative Support Occupations 465 and sidewalks can be treacherous, and each year dogs attack nu merous carriers. HI Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Si* fitSII iifiilt Although machines increasingly are used to sort mail, some mail still is sorted by hand. home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and businesses and turn in the mail, receipts, and money collected during the day. Some city carriers may have specialized duties such as delivering only parcels or picking up mail from mail collection boxes. In contrast to city carriers, rural carriers provide a wider range of postal services, in addition to delivering and picking up mail. For example, rural carriers may sell stamps and money orders and register, certify, and insure parcels and letters. All carriers, however, must be able to answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. Working Conditions Window clerks usually work in the public portion of clean, wellventilated, and well-lit buildings. They have a variety of duties and frequent contact with the public, but they rarely work at night. However, they may have to deal with upset customers, stand for long periods, and be held accountable for an assigned stock of stamps and funds. Depending on the size of the post office in which they work, they also may be required to sort mail. Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of mail sort ers, processors, and processing machine operators can be physically demanding. Workers may have to move heavy sacks of mail around a mail processing center. These workers usually are on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Processing mail can be tiring and boring. Many sorters, processors, and machine operators work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Workers can experience stress as they process mail under tight production deadlines and quotas. Most carriers begin work early in the morning—those with routes in a business district can start as early as 4 a.m. Overtime hours are frequently required for urban carriers. A carrier’s sched ule has its advantages, however. Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon and spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Carri ers spend most of their time outdoors, delivering mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk periodically when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post items when loading their vehicles. In addition, carriers must be of potential hazards on their routes. Wet and icy roads Digitized cautious for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Postal Service workers must be at least 18 years old. They must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States, and males must have registered with the Selective Service upon reaching age 18. Applicants should have a basic competency of English. Qualification is based on a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and the ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examination and drug test, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license and a good driving record, and must receive a passing grade on a road test. Jobseekers should contact the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examina tion scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran and 10 points are added to the score of a veteran who was wounded in combat or is disabled. When a vacancy oc curs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires—usually 2 years after the examination date. Relatively few people become postal clerks or mail carriers on their first job, because of keen competition and the customary waiting period of 1 to 2 years or more after passing the examina tion. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupations. New Postal Service workers are trained on the job by expe rienced workers. Many post offices offer classroom instruction on safety and defensive driving. Workers receive additional instruction when new equipment or procedures are introduced. In these cases, workers usually are trained by another postal employee or a training specialist. Postal clerks and mail carriers should be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. A good memory and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Good interpersonal skills also are vital, because mail distribution clerks work closely with other postal workers, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch or transportation deadlines and quotas. Postal Service workers often begin on a part-time, flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority, as vacancies occur. Full-time workers may bid for preferred assignments, such as the day shift or a high-level nonsupervisory position. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases. Postal Service workers can advance to supervisory posi tions on a competitive basis. Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 75,000 clerks; 335,000 mail car riers; and 209,000 mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators in 2004. Most of them worked full time. Most postal clerks provided window service at post office branches. Many mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators sorted mail at major metropolitan post offices; others worked at mail processing centers. The majority of mail carriers worked in cities and suburbs, while the rest worked in rural areas. Postal Service workers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casuals are hired for 90 days at a time to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation peri 466 Occupational Outlook Handbook ods. Part-time flexible workers do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours but are called as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week, often replacing regular full-time workers on their scheduled day off. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period. Job Outlook Employment of Postal Service workers is expected to decline through 2014. Still, many jobs will become available because of the need to replace those who retire or leave the occupation. Those seeking jobs as Postal Service workers can expect to encounter keen competition. The number of applicants should continue to exceed the number of job openings because of the occupation’s low entry requirements and attractive wages and benefits. A small decline in employment is expected among window clerks over the 2004-14 projection period. Efforts by the Postal Service to provide better service may somewhat increase the demand for window clerks, but the demand for such clerks will be offset by the use of electronic communication, such as the Internet, and private delivery companies. Employment of mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators is expected to decline because of the increasing use of automated materials handling equipment and optical character readers, barcode sort ers, and other automated sorting equipment. A small decline in employment among mail carriers is expect ed through 2014. Competition from alternative delivery systems and the increasing use of electronic communication are expected to influence the demand for mail carriers. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized mail delivery, such as the use of cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of doorto-door deliveries. The best employment opportunities for mail carriers are expected to be in less urbanized areas as the number of addresses to which mail must be delivered continues to grow, especially in fast growing rural areas. However, increased use of the “delivery point sequencing” system, which allows machines to sort mail directly by the order of delivery, should reduce the amount of time that carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them more time to handle longer routes. The role of the Postal Service as a government-approved mo nopoly continues to be a topic of debate. Any legislative changes that would privatize or deregulate the Postal Service might affect employment of all its workers. Employment and schedules in the Postal Service fluctuate with the demand for its services. When mail volume is high, full-time employees work overtime, part-time workers get additional hours, and casual workers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. Earnings Median annual earnings of Postal Service mail carriers were $44,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,590 and $50,580. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $31,980, while the top 10 percent earned more than.$54,240. Rural mail carriers are reimbursed for mileage put on their own vehicles while delivering mail. Median annual earnings of Postal Service clerks were $40,950 in 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,880 and $44,030. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $36,040, while the top 10 percent earned more than $50,510. Median annual earnings of Postal Service mail sorters, proces sors, and processing machine operators were $39,430 in 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,240 and $42,620. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $24,290, while the top 10 percent earned more than $44,540. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Postal Service workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits similar to those enjoyed by Federal Government workers. The American Postal Workers Union, the National Association of Letter Carriers, the National Postal Mail Handlers Union, and the National Rural Letter Carriers Association together represent most of these workers. Related Occupations Other occupations with duties similar to those of Postal Service clerks include cashiers; counter and rental clerks; file clerks; and shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Others with duties related to those of Postal Service mail carriers include couriers and messengers, and truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Occupations whose du ties are related to those of Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators include inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers, and material moving occupations. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment op portunities for Postal Service workers. Production, Planning, and Expediting Clerks (0*NET 43-5061.00) Significant Points • Many production, planning, and expediting jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. • Manufacturing firms and wholesale and retail trade establishments are the primary employers. • Production, planning, and expediting clerks work closely with supervisors who must approve production and work schedules. Nature of the Work Production, planning, and expediting clerks coordinate and expedite the flow of information, work, and materials within or among of fices. Most of their work is done according to production, work, or shipment schedules that are devised by supervisors who determine work progress and completion dates. Production, planning, and expediting clerks compile reports on the progress of work and on production problems. They also may schedule workers, estimate costs, schedule the shipment of parts, keep an inventory of materi als, inspect and assemble materials, and write special orders for services and merchandise. In addition, they may route and deliver parts to ensure that production quotas are met and that merchandise is delivered on the date promised. Production and planning clerks compile records and reports on various aspects of production, such as materials and parts used, products produced, machine and instrument readings, and frequency of defects. These workers prepare work tickets or other production guides and distribute them to other workers. Produc tion and planning clerks coordinate, schedule, monitor, and chart production and its progress, either manually or with electronic equipment. They also gather information from customers’ or ders or other specifications and use the information to prepare a detailed production sheet that serves as a guide in assembling or manufacturing the product. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 467 Job Outlook , mm? As increasing pressure is put on firms to manufacture and deliver their goods more quickly and efficiently, the need for production, planning, and expediting clerks will grow, although the expected decline in overall employment in manufacturing will result in slower than average employment growth for production, planning, and expediting clerks through 2014. The work of production, planning, and expediting clerks is less likely to be automated than the work of many other administrative support occupations. In addition to openings due to employment growth, job openings will arise from the need to replace production, planning, and expediting clerks who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Employers prefer to hire production, planning, and expediting clerks who are familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Expediting clerks contact vendors and shippers to ensure that merchandise, supplies, and equipment are forwarded on the specified shipping dates. They communicate with transportation companies to prevent delays in transit, and they may arrange for the distribution of materials upon their arrival. They may even visit work areas of vendors and shippers to check the status of orders. Expediting clerks locate and distribute materials to specified production areas. They may inspect products for quality and quantity to ensure their adherence to specifica tions. They also keep a chronological list of due dates and may move work that does not meet the production schedule to the top of the list. Working Conditions Production, planning, and expediting clerks work closely with su pervisors who must approve production and work schedules. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday. Median annual earnings of production, planning, and expediting clerks in May 2004 were $36,340. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $27,690 and $45,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,850. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Other workers who coordinate the flow of information to assist the production process include cargo and freight agents; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and weigh ers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and from local offices of the State employment service. Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks _ (0*NET 43-5071.00) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many production, planning, and expediting jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Em ployers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Applicants who have taken business courses or have specific job-related experience may be preferred. Because communication with other people is an integral part of some jobs in the occupation, good oral and written communication skills are essential. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Production, planning, and expediting clerks usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They learn how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and tak ing inventory. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics. Production, planning, and expediting clerks must learn both how their company operates and the company’s priori ties before they can begin to write production and work schedules efficiently. Advancement opportunities for production, planning, and expe diting clerks vary with the place of employment. Employment In 2004, production, planning, and expediting clerks held 292,000 jobs. Jobs in .manufacturing made up 42 percent. Another 14 percent in wholesale and retail trade establishments. Digitizedwere for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Many shipping, receiving, and traffic clerk positions are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. • Slower-than-average employment growth is expected, as a result of increasing automation and the growing use of computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Nature of the Work Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the estab lishment they work for and the level of automation used. Larger companies typically are better able to finance the purchase of computers and other equipment to handle some or all of a clerk’s responsibilities. In smaller companies, a clerk maintains records, prepares shipments, and accepts deliveries. In both environments, shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks may lift cartons of various sizes. Shipping clerks keep records of all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels and make sure that orders have been filled correctly. Also, they record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Sometimes they fill the order themselves, obtaining merchandise from the stockroom, not 468 Occupational Outlook Handbook ing when inventories run low, and wrapping or packing the goods in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. In addition, shipping clerks may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to other parts of the company, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move the goods from the plant—sometimes by forklift—to the shipping dock and direct their loading. Receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether orders have been filled correctly by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They make a record of the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks either use hand-held scanners to record barcodes on incoming products or manually enter the information into a computer. These data then can be transferred to the appropriate departments. The shipment is checked for any discrepancies in quantity, price, and discounts. Receiving clerks may route or move shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom. They also may arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or damaged. Receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some duties similar to those of stock clerks. In larger establishments, receiving clerks may control all receiving platform operations, such as scheduling of trucks, recording of shipments, and handling of damaged goods. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They verify rate charges by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. In many companies, this work may be automated. Information ei ther is scanned or is entered by hand into a computer for use by the accounting department or other departments within the company. Traffic clerks also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit. Working Conditions Most jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and car rying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material-handling equipment is employed to move heavy items. mm Due to automation and the growing use of computers to store and retrieve product information, employment ofshipping and receiving clerks will grow more slowly than average. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs and may be required in other jobs when large shipments are involved. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many shipping, receiving, and traffic clerk positions are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employ ers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks usually leam the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They first leam how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and taking inventory. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may be bonded. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks check items to be shipped and attach labels to them, making sure that the addresses are correct. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done informally, on the job. As these occupations become more automated, however, workers in them may need longer periods of training to master the use of the equipment. Advancement op portunities for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks vary with the place of employment. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad understanding of shipping and receiving may enter a related field, such as industrial traffic management. Employment Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks held about 751,000 jobs in 2004. Almost three out of four were employed in manufacturing or by wholesale and retail establishments. Although jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where shipping depots in factories and wholesale establishments usually are located. (For information on workers who perform duties similar to those of shipping, receiv ing, and traffic clerks and who are employed by the U.S. Postal Service, see the statement on Postal Service workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa tions through 2014. Job growth will continue to be limited by automation as all but the smallest firms move to reduce labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of handling materials have changed significantly in re cent years. Large warehouses are increasingly becoming automated, with equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, computer-directed trucks, and automatic data storage and retrieval systems. Automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal computers in shipping and receiving depart ments, has increased the productivity of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Despite technology, job openings will continue to arise be cause of increasing economic and trade activity and because certain tasks cannot be automated. For example, someone needs to check shipments before they go out and when they arrive, to ensure that everything is in order. In addition, openings will oc cur because of the need to replace shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who leave the occupation. Because this is an entry-level occupation, many vacancies are created by a worker’s normal career progression. Office and Administrative Support Occupations Earnings Median annual earnings of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks in May 2004 were $24,400. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,600 and $30,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $37,610. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. Related Occupations Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks record, check, and often store materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks and order fillers; production, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and Postal Service workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Stock Clerks and Order Fillers 469 perform tasks usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. (A separate statement on shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) In many firms, stock clerks and order fillers use hand-held scan ners connected to computers to keep inventories up to date. In retail stores, stock clerks bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, stock clerks store materials in bins, on floors, or on shelves. Instead of putting the merchandise on the sales floor or on shelves, order fillers take customers’ orders and either hold the merchandise until the custom ers can pick it up or send it to them. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably by employment setting. Most jobs for stock clerks and order fillers involve frequent stand ing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. Even though mechanical material handling equipment is employed to move heavy items, the work still can be strenuous. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common and may be required when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken. (0*NET 43-5081.01, 43-5081.02,43-5081.03,43-5081.04) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Significant Points • Employers prefer to hire stock clerks and order fillers who are familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. • Employment is projected to decline, due to the use of automation in factories, warehouses, and stores. Nature of the Work Stock clerks and order fillers receive, unpack, check, store, and track merchandise or materials. They keep records of items entering or leaving the stockroom and inspect damaged or spoiled goods. They sort, organize, and mark items with identifying codes, such as price, stock, or inventory control codes, so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. They also may be required to lift cartons of various sizes. In larger establishments, where they may be responsible for only one task, they may be called stock-control clerks, merchandise distributors, or property custodians. In smaller firms, they also may JEsafili Many stock clerk and order filler positions are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Typing, filing, record keeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Stock clerks and order fillers usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They learn how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and taking inventory. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are impor tant characteristics. Stock clerks whose sole responsibility is to bring merchandise to the sales floor to stock shelves and racks need little training. Stock clerks and order fillers who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may be bonded. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done in formally, on the job. As this occupation becomes more automated, however, workers may need longer periods of training to master the use of the equipment. Advancement opportunities for stock clerks and order fillers vary with the place of employment. With additional training, some stock clerks and order fillers advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent. Employment Stock clerks and order fillers held about 1.6 million jobs in 2004. More than three out of four work in wholesale and retail trade. The greatest numbers are found in grocery stores, followed by department stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in large urban areas that have many large suburban shopping centers, warehouses, and factories. Job Outlook Mostjobs for stock clerks and orderfillers involvefrequent standing, walking, and stretching. Digitized bending, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of stock clerks and order fillers is projected to decline through 2014 as a result of the use of automation in factories, warehouses, and stores. Because the occupation is very large and many jobs are entry level, however, numerous job openings will occur each year to replace those who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. 470 Occupational Outlook Handbook The growing use of computers for inventory control and the instal lation of new, automated equipment are expected to inhibit growth in demand for stock clerks and order fillers, especially in manufacturing and wholesale trade industries, where operations are most easily auto mated. In addition to using computerized inventory control systems, firms in these industries are relying more on sophisticated conveyor belts and automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods. Also, expanded use of battery-powered, driverless, automatically guided vehicles can be expected. Employment of stock clerks and order fillers who work in grocery, general merchandise, department, apparel, and accessories stores is expected to be somewhat less affected by automation because much of their work is done manually and is difficult to automate. In addition, the increasing role of large retail outlets and warehouses, as well as catalog, mail, telephone, and Internet shopping services, should bolster employ ment of stock clerks and order fillers in these sectors of retail trade. Earnings mm* f- w Many workers use weight scales, counting devices, tally sheets, and calculators to obtain information about products. Median annual earnings of stock clerks and order fillers in May 2004 were $20,100. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,250 and $25,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,420. These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. These workers use weight scales, counting devices, tally sheets, and calculators to obtain information about the products. They usu ally move objects to and from the scales with a handtruck or forklift. They issue receipts for the products when needed or requested. Related Occupations Working Conditions Workers who also handle, move, organize, store, and keep records of materials include shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; produc tion, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and procurement clerks. Sources of Additional Information Working conditions vary considerably by employment setting. Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers work in a wide variety of businesses, institutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be tem perature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or on loading platforms where they are exposed to the weather. State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks and order fillers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping Many weigher, measurer, checker, and sampler jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers. Applicants who have specific job-related experience may be preferred. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. Advancement opportunities vary with the place of employment. (0*NET 43-5111.00) Employment Significant Points • Many jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. • Employment of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers is expected to decline because of the in creased use of automated equipment that performs the function of these workers. Nature of the Work Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers weigh, measure, and check materials, supplies, and equipment in order to keep accurate records. Most of their duties are clerical. Using either manual or automated data-processing systems, they verify the quantity, quality, and overall value of the items they are responsible for and check the condition of items purchased, sold, or produced against records, bills, invoices, or receipts. They check the items to ensure the ac curacy of the recorded data. They prepare reports on warehouse inventory levels and on use of parts. Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers also check for any defects in the items and record the severity of the defects they find. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers held about 88,000 jobs in 2004. Their employment is spread across many industries. Retail trade accounted for 20 percent of those jobs, manufacturing accounted for about 21 percent, and wholesale trade employed another 13 percent. Job Outlook Employment of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers is expected to decline through 2014 because of the increased use of automated equipment that performs the function of these workers. Also, many of the industries that employ these workers are expected to decrease employment. In addition to job open ings resulting from job growth, openings should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Earnings Median annual earnings of weighers, measurers, checkers, and sam plers in May 2004 were $24,570. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $19,360 and $32,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,190. Office and Administrative Support Occupations These workers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them. 471 planning, and expediting clerks; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and procurement clerks. Sources of Additional Information Related Occupations Other workers who determine and document characteristics of ma terials or equipment include cargo and freight agents; production, Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Other Office and Administrative Support Occupations Communications Equipment Operators (0*NET 43-2011.00, 43-2021.01,43-2021.02,43-2099.99) Significant Points • Switchboard operators hold 4 out of 5 jobs. • Workers train on the job. • Employment is expected to decline. work for companies that provide business services. Automated systems now handle many of the responsibilities once performed by directory assistance operators. The systems prompt callers for a listing and may even connect the call after providing the telephone number. However, directory assistance operators monitor many of the calls received by automated systems. The operators listen to recordings of the customer’s request and then key information into electronic directories to access the correct telephone numbers. Directory assistance operators also provide personal assistance to customers having difficulty using the automated system. Other communications equipment operators include workers who operate satellite communications equipment, telegraph equipment, and a wide variety of other communications equipment. Nature of the Work Most communications equipment operators work as switchboard operators for a wide variety of businesses, such as hospitals, hotels, telephone call centers, and government agencies. Switchboard operators use private branch exchange (PBX) or voice over Inter net protocol (VoIP) switchboards to relay incoming, outgoing, and interoffice calls, usually for a single organization. They also may handle other clerical duties, such as supplying information, taking messages, and announcing visitors. Technological improvements have automated many of the tasks handled by switchboard opera tors. New systems automatically connect outside calls to the correct destination or automated directories, and voice-mail systems take messages without the assistance of an operator. Some communications equipment operators work as telephone operators, assisting customers in making telephone calls. Although most calls are connected automatically, callers sometimes require the assistance of an operator. Central office operators help custom ers to complete local and long-distance calls, usually under special circumstances. Directory assistance operators provide customers with information such as telephone numbers or area codes. When callers dial “0,” they usually reach a central office operator, also known as a local, long-distance, or call completion operator. Most of these operators work for telephone companies, and many of their responsibilities have been automated. For example, call ers can make international, collect, and credit card calls without the assistance of a central office operator. Other tasks previously handled by these operators, such as billing calls to third parties and monitoring the cost of a call, also have been automated. Callers still need a central office operator for a limited number of tasks, including placing person-to-person calls or interrupting busy lines if an emergency warrants the disruption. When natural disasters such as storms or earthquakes occur, central office operators provide callers with emergency phone contacts. They also assist callers who are having difficulty with automated phone systems. An operator monitoring an automated system that aids a caller in placing collect calls, for example, may intervene if a caller needs assistance with the system. Directory assistance operators provide callers with information such as telephone numbers or area codes. Most directory assistance work for telephone companies; increasingly, they also Digitizedoperators for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most communications equipment operators work in pleasant, welllighted surroundings. Because telephone operators spend much time seated at keyboards and video monitors, employers often provide workstations designed to decrease glare and other physical discom forts. Such improvements reduce the incidence of eyestrain, back discomfort, and injury due to repetitive motion. Switchboard operators generally work the same hours as other clerical employees at their company. In most organizations, full time operators work regular business hours over a 5-day workweek. Work schedules are more irregular in hotels, hospitals, and other organizations that require round-the-clock operator services. In these companies, switchboard operators may work in the evenings and on holidays and weekends. Central office and directory assistance operators must be accessible to customers 24 hours a day; therefore, they work a variety of shifts. Some operators work split shifts, coming on duty during peak calling Many communications equipment operators also perform clerical work. 472 Occupational Outlook Handbook periods in the late morning and early evening and going off duty during the intervening hours. Telephone companies normally assign shifts by seniority, allowing the most experienced operators first choice of schedules. As a result, entry-level operators may have less desirable schedules, including late evening, split-shift, and weekend work. Tele phone company operators may work overtime during emergencies. Approximately 1 in 6 communications equipment operators works part time. Because of the irregular nature of telephone op erator schedules, many employers seek part-time workers for those shifts that are difficult to fill. An operator’s work may be quite repetitive and the pace hectic during peak calling periods. To maintain operators’ efficiency, su pervisors at telephone companies often monitor their performance, including the amount of time they spend on each call. The rapid pace of the job and frequent monitoring may cause stress. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Switchboard operators usually receive informal on-the-job training, last ing only a few days or weeks. Because they are often the first contact with the public or client, switchboard operators often receive some training in customer service. Training may also vary by place of employment—a switchboard operator in a hospital would need training on how to handle different emergencies. Since switchboard operators’ duties may include clerical work, basic computer skills training may also be required. Entry-level central office and directory assistance operators at telecommunications companies may receive both classroom and on-the-job instruction that can last several weeks. These operators may be paired with experienced personnel who provide hands-on instruction. New employees in both occupations are trained in the operation of their equipment and in procedures designed to maximize efficiency. They are familiarized with company policies, including the expected level of customer service. Instructors monitor both the time and quality of trainees’ responses to customer requests. Supervisors may continue to monitor new employees closely after they complete their initial training session. Employers generally require a high school diploma. Applicants should have clear speech, good hearing, and strong reading, spell ing, and numerical skills. Computer literacy and typing skills also are important, and familiarity with a foreign language is helpful for some positions because of the increasing diversity of the population. Candidates for positions may be required to take an examination covering basic language and math skills. Most companies emphasize customer service and seek operators who will remain courteous to customers while working at a fast pace. After 1 or 2 years on the job, communications equipment opera tors may advance to other positions within a company. Many enter clerical occupations in which their operator experience is valuable, such as customer service representative, dispatcher, and reception ist. (See the Handbook statements on these occupations.) Operators interested in more technical work may take training classes and advance into positions having to do with installing and repairing equipment. (See the Handbook statements on radio and telecommu nications equipment installers and repairers, and line installers and repairers.) Promotion to supervisory positions also is possible. Employment Communications equipment operators held about 256,000 jobs in 2004. About 4 out of 5 worked as switchboard operators. Employ ment was distributed as follows: Switchboard operators, including answering service................... 213,000 Telephone operators...................................................................... 39,000 All other communications equipment operators.......................... 4,200 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Switchboard operators work in almost all industries, but are con centrated in telephone call centers, hospitals, and hotels. Many work as temporary employees in the employment services industry. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment operators is projected to decline through 2014, due largely to new labor-saving communica tions technologies, the movement of jobs to foreign countries, and consolidation of telephone operator jobs into fewer locations, often staffed by temporary or contract workers. Virtually all job openings will result from the need to replace communications equipment op erators who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Developments in communications technologies—in particular, voice recognition systems that are accessible and easy to use—will continue to have a significant impact on the demand for communi cations equipment operators. Voice recognition technology allows automated telephone systems to recognize human speech. Call ers speak directly to the system, which interprets the speech and then connects the call. Because voice recognition systems do not require callers to input data through a telephone keypad, they are easier to use than touch-tone systems. Voice recognition systems are increasingly able to understand sophisticated vocabulary and grammatical structures; however, many companies will continue to employ operators so that those callers who do have problems can access a “live” employee if they desire. The proliferation of cell phones has negatively affected both switchboard operators and telephone operators. By allowing for di rect communication between persons, cell phones have eliminated the need for operators to transfer calls in certain situations. Cell phones have reduced the demand for directory ass istance and collect calls, and have resulted in decreasing use of pay phones that often required operators to assist with the call. The increasing use of cell phones also have reduced demand for switchboard operators in hotels, because hotel guests now use in-room phones less frequently. Electronic communication through the Internet or e-mail pro vides alternatives to telephone communication and requires no operators. Internet directory assistance services are reducing the need for directory assistance operators. Local telephone companies currently have the most reliable telephone directory data; however, Internet services provide information such as addresses and maps, in addition to telephone numbers. As the functions of telephones and computers converge, the convenience of Internet directory as sistance is expected to attract many customers, reducing the need for telephone operators to provide this service. As communications technologies have improved and the price of long-distance service has fallen, companies are finding other ways to reduce costs by consolidating operator jobs in low cost locations. Increasingly this has entailed the movement of telephone operator jobs offshore to other lower-wage countries in order to reduce costs. Earnings Median hourly earnings of switchboard operators, including answer ing service, were $ 10.38 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.69 and $12.64. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.35, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.13. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of switchboard operators in May 2004 are: Offices of physicians....................................................................... $10.54 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................... 10.47 Traveler accommodation................................................................. 10.25 Automobile dealers.......................................................................... 9.60 Business support services............................................................... 8.91 Office and Administrative Support Occupations Median hourly earnings of telephone operators in May 2004 were $13.65. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.28 and $19.32. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.91, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.32. Some telephone operators working at telephone companies are members of the Communications Workers of America or the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to advance from one pay step to the next. It normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying nonsupervisory operator posi tion to the highest. Contracts call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 hours a day or 5 days a week, for Sunday and holiday work, and for bilingual positions. A pay differential also is guaranteed for night work and split shifts. Many contracts provide for a 1 -week vacation after 6 months of service, 2 weeks after 1 year, 3 weeks after 7 years, 4 weeks after 15 years, and 5 weeks after 25 years. Holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Median hourly earnings of communication equipment operators, all other, in May 2004 were $15.23. The middle 50 percent earned between$12.27 and$18.99. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.23, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.70. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public include dispatchers; hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks; customer service representatives; receptionists and information clerks; and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact a tele phone company or temporary help agency, or write to either of the following unions: ► Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. ► International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. For more information on training in customer service and customer relations, contact: >- International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW Ambassador Dr., PO Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. 473 securely as possible. They may work with mainframes, minicomput ers, or networks of personal computers. Computer operators must anticipate problems and take preventive action, as well as solve problems that occur during operations. The duties of computer operators vary with the size of the instal lation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. Generally, operators control the console of either a mainframe digital computer or a group of minicomputers. Working from operating instructions prepared by programmers, users, or operations managers, computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators load equipment with tapes, disks, and paper, as needed. While the computer is running—which may be 24 hours a day for large computers—computer operators monitor the control console and respond to operating and computer messages. Messages indicate the individual specifications of each job being run. If an error mes sage occurs, operators must locate and solve the problem or terminate the program. Operators also maintain logbooks or operating records, listing each job that is run and events, such as machine malfunctions, that occur during their shift. In addition, computer operators may help programmers and systems analysts test and debug new programs. (See the statements on computer programmers and computer systems analysts, elsewhere in the Handbook.) As the number and complexity of computer networks continue to grow, a greater number of computer operators are working on personal computers (PCs) and minicomputers. In many offices, factories, and other work settings, PCs and minicomputers are connected in networks, often referred to as local area networks (FANs) or multi-user systems. Whereas users in the area operate some of these computers, many require the services of full-time operators. The tasks performed on PCs and minicomputers are very similar to those performed on large computers. This includes trying to keep computer networks secure in the face of a increasing number of cyber-attacks. As organizations continue to look for opportunities to increase productivity, automation is expanding into additional areas of computer operations. Sophisticated software, coupled with robotics, enables a computer to perform many routine tasks formerly done by computer Computer Operators (Q*NET 43-9011.00) Significant Points • Computer operators rank among the most rapidly declining occupations over the 2004-14 period because advances in technology are making many of the duties traditionally performed by computer operators obsolete. • Computer operators usually receive on-the-job train ing; the length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. • Opportunities will be best for operators who have formal computer education, are familiar with a variety of operating systems, and keep up to date with the latest technology. Nature of the Work Computer operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are used as efficiently and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems. 474 Occupational Outlook Handbook operators. Scheduling, loading and downloading programs, mount ing tapes, rerouting messages, and running periodic reports can be done without the intervention of an operator. Consequently, these improvements will change what computer operators do in the future. As technology advances, the responsibilities of many computer operators are shifting to areas such as network operations, user support, and database maintenance. Computer operators held about 149,000jobs in 2004. Jobs are found in various industries such as government, health care,, manufactur ing, data processing services and other information industries, and fi nance and insurance. A number of computer operators are employed by firms in computer systems design and related services, as more companies contract out their data processing operations. Working Conditions Job Outlook Computer operators generally work in well-lighted, well-ventilated, comfortable rooms. Because many organizations use their computers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, computer operators may be required to work evening or night shifts and weekends. Shift assignments usually are made based on seniority. However, increasingly auto mated operations will lessen the need for shift work, because many companies can let the computer take over operations during less desirable working hours. In addition, advances in telecommuting technologies—such as faxes, modems, and e-mail—and data center automation, such as automated tape libraries, enable some operators to monitor batch processes, check systems performance, and record problems for the next shift. Because computer operators generally spend a lot of time in front of a computer monitor, as well as performing repetitive tasks such as loading and unloading printers, they may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment of computer operators is projected to decline signifi cantly. In fact, computer operators rank among the most rapidly declining occupations over the 2004-14 period because advances in technology are making many of the duties traditionally performed by computer operators obsolete. Experienced operators are expected to compete for the few job openings that will arise each year to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities will be best for operators who have formal computer education, are familiar with a variety of operating systems, and keep up to date with the latest technology. Advances in technology have reduced both the size and cost of computer equipment, while increasing the capacity for data storage and processing automation. Sophisticated computer hardware and software are now used in practically every industry, in such areas as factory and office automation, telecommunications, health care, education, and government. The expanding use of software that au tomates computer operations gives companies the option of making systems more user-friendly, greatly reducing the need for operators. Such improvements require operators to monitor a greater number of operations at the same time and be capable of solving a broader range of problems that may arise. The result is that fewer operators will be needed to perform more highly skilled work. Computer operators who are displaced by automation may be reassigned to support staffs that maintain personal computer networks or assist other members of the organization. Operators who keep up with changing technology, by updating their skills through additional training, should have the best prospects of moving into other areas such as network administration and technical support. Others may be retrained to perform different job duties, such as supervising an operations center, maintaining automation packages, or analyzing computer operations to rec ommend ways to increase productivity. In the future, operators who wish to work in the computer field will need to know more about programming, automation software, graphics interface, client/server environments, and open systems in order to take advantage of changing job opportunities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer operators usually receive on-the-job training in order to become acquainted with their employer’s equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. However, previous work experience is the key to obtaining an operator job in many large establishments. Employ ers generally look for specific, hands-on experience with the type of equipment and related operating systems they use. Addition ally, formal computer training, perhaps through a community college or technical school, is recommended. Related training also can be obtained through the U.S. Armed Forces and from some computer manufacturers. As computer technology changes and data processing centers become more automated, employ ers will increasingly require candidates to have formal training and experience for operator jobs. And, although not required, a bachelor’s degree in a computer field can be helpful when one is seeking employment as a computer operator or advancement to a managerial position. Because computer technology changes so rapidly, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. Analytical and technical expertise also are needed, particularly by operators who work in automated data centers, to deal with unique or high-level problems that a computer is not programmed to handle. Operators must be able to communicate well, and to work effectively with program mers, users, and other operators. Computer operators also must be able to work independently because they may have little or no direct supervision. A few computer operators may advance to supervisory jobs, although most management positions within data processing or computer operations centers require advanced formal education, such as a bachelor’s or higher degree. Through on-the-job experi ence and additional formal education, some computer operators may advance to jobs in areas such as network operations or support. As they gain experience in programming, some operators may advance to jobs as programmers or analysts. A move into these types of jobs is becoming much more difficult, as employers increasingly require candidates for more skilled computer jobs to possess at least a bachelor’s degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Earnings Median annual earnings of computer operators were $31,070 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,190 and $39,900 a year. The highest 10 percent earned more than $48,720, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,250. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer operators in May 2004 are shown below: Management of companies and enterprises.................................. $34,370 Computer systems design and related services............................. 31,780 Colleges, universities, and professional schools........................... 28,990 Data processing, hosting, and related services.............................. 28,930 Depository credit intermediation.................................................. 24,880 The average salary for computer operators employed by the Federal Government was $45,158 in 2005. According to Robert Half International, the average starting salaries for computer operators ranged from $27,250 to $39,500 Office and Administrative Support Occupations in 2005. Salaries generally are higher in large organizations than in small ones. Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with computers include computer software engineers; computer programmers; computer support spe cialists and systems administrators; computer systems analysts, and computer scientists and database administrators. Other occupations in which workers operate electronic office equipment include data entry and information processing workers, as well as secretaries and administrative assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a computer operator, contact: > Association for Computer Operations Management (AFCOM), 722 E. Chapman Ave., Orange, CA 92860. For information about work opportunities in computer operations, contact establishments with large computer centers, such as banks, manufacturing firms, insurance companies, colleges and universities, and data processing service organizations. The local office of the State employment service can supply information about employment and training opportunities. Data Entry and Information Processing Workers (0*NET 43-9021.00, 43-9022.00) Significant Points • Employers generally hire high school graduates who meet company requirements for keyboarding speed; for many people, a job as a data entry and information pro cessing worker is their first job after graduating from high school. • Although overall employment is projected to decline, the need to replace workers who leave this large oc cupation each year should produce many job openings. • Job prospects should be best for those with expertise in appropriate computer software applications. 475 combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies. Most keyboarding is now done on computers that normally are connected to a monitor, keyboard, and printer and may have “add-on” capabilities, such as optical character recognition read ers. Word processors use this equipment to record, edit, store, and revise letters, memos, reports, statistical tables, forms, and other printed materials. Although it is becoming less common, some word processing workers are employed on centralized word processing teams that handle transcription and keying for several departments. In addition to fulfilling the duties mentioned above, word proces sors often perform other office tasks, such as answering telephones, filing, and operating copiers or other office machines. Job titles of these workers frequently vary to reflect these duties. For example, administrative clerks combine word processing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Note readers transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into stan dard formats. Data entry keyers usually input lists of items, numbers, or other data into computers or complete forms that appear on a computer screen. They also may manipulate existing data, edit current infor mation, or proofread new entries into a database for accuracy. Some examples of data sources include customers’ personal information, medical records, and membership lists. Usually, this information is used internally by a company and may be reformatted before other departments or customers utilize it. Keyers use various types of equipment to enter data. Many use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks for entry into a computer system. Others prepare materials for printing or publication by using data entry composing machines. Some keyers operate online terminals or personal computers. Increasingly, data entry keyers are working with nonkeyboard forms of data entry, such as scanners and electronically transmitted files. When using the new character recognition systems, data entry keyers often enter only those data which cannot be recognized by machines. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equip ment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Data entry and information processing workers usually work a stan dard 40-hour week in clean offices. They sit for long periods and Nature of the Work Organizations need to process a rapidly growing amount of informa tion. Data entry and information processing workers help ensure the smooth and efficient handling of information. By keying in text, entering data into a computer, operating a variety of office machines, and performing other clerical duties, these workers help organizations keep up with the rapid changes that are characteristic of today’s “Information Age.” In addition to the job titles discussed below—such as word processors, typists, and data entry keyers—data entry and information processing workers are known by various other titles, including electronic data processors, keypunch technicians, and transcribers. Word processors usually set up and prepare reports, letters, mailing labels, and other text material. As entry-level work ers, word processors may begin by keying headings on form letters, addressing envelopes, or preparing standard forms on computers. As they gain experience, they often are assigned tasks requiring a higher degree of accuracy and independent judgment. Senior word processors may work with highly technical material, plan and key complicated statistical tables, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Data entry and information processing workers help ensure the smooth and efficient handling of information. 476 Occupational Outlook Handbook sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines. These workers are susceptible to repetitive strain injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, neck and back injuries, and eyestrain. To help prevent these conditions, many offices have adopted regularly scheduled exercise breaks, ergonomically designed keyboards, and workstations that allow workers to stand or sit as they wish. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire high school graduates who meet their requirements for keyboarding speed. Increasingly, employers also are expecting applicants to have training or experience in word processing or data entry tasks. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar skills are important, as is familiarity with standard office equipment and procedures. Students acquire skills in keyboarding and in the use of word processing, spreadsheet, and database management computer soft ware packages through high schools, community colleges, business schools, temporary help agencies, or self-teaching aids such as books, tapes, and Internet tutorials. For many people, a job as a data entry and information processing worker is their first job after graduating from high school or after a period of full-time family responsibilities. This work frequently serves as a steppingstone to higher pay ing jobs with increased responsibilities. Large companies and government agencies usually have training programs to help administrative employees upgrade their skills and advance to higher level positions. It is common for data entry and informa tion processing workers to transfer to other administrative jobs, such as secretary, administrative assistant, or statistical clerk, or to be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing or data entry center. Employment Data entry and information processing workers held about 525,000 jobs in 2004 and were employed in every sector of the economy; 330,000 were data entry keyers and 194,000 were word processors. Some workers telecommute, working from their homes on personal computers linked by telephone lines to those in the main office. This arrangement enables them to key in material at home while still be ing able to produce printed copy in their offices. About 1 out of 5 data entry and information processing workers held jobs in firms providing administrative and support services, including temporary help and word processing agencies, and another 1 in 5 worked for State or local government. Job Outlook Overall employment of data entry and information processing work ers is projected to decline through 2014. Nevertheless, the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave this large occupation for other reasons will produce numerous job openings each year. Job prospects will be most favorable for those with the best technical skills—in particular, expertise in appropriate computer software applications. Data entry and information processing work ers must be willing to upgrade their skills continuously in order to remain marketable. Although data entry and information processing workers are affected by productivity gains stemming from organizational restructuring and the implementation of new technologies, pro jected growth differs among these workers. Employment of word processors and typists is expected to decline because of the pro liferation of personal computers, which allows other workers to perform duties formerly assigned to word processors and typists. Most professionals and managers, for example, now use desktop https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis personal computers to do their own word processing. However, because technologies affecting data entry keyers tend to be costlier to implement, employment of these workers will decline less than word processors and typists. Employment growth of data entry keyers will be dampened by productivity gains as various data-capturing technologies, such as barcode scanners, voice recognition technologies, and sophisticated character recognition readers, become more preva lent. These technologies can be applied to a variety of business transactions, such as inventory tracking, invoicing, and placing orders. Moreover, as telecommunications technology improves, many organizations will increasingly take advantage of computer networks that allow data to be transmitted electronically. These networks will permit more data to be entered automatically into computers, reducing the demand for data entry keyers. In addition to being affected by technology, employment of data entry and information processing workers will be adversely affected by businesses that are increasingly contracting out their work. Many organizations have reduced or even eliminated permanent in-house staff—for example, in favor of temporary employment and staffing services firms. Some large data entry and information processing firms increasingly employ workers in nations with relatively lower wages. As international trade barriers continue to fall and telecommunications technology improves, this transfer of jobs will mean reduced demand for data entry keyers in the United States. Earnings Median annual earnings of word processors and typists in May 2004 were $28,030. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,850 and $34,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,960, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,190. The salaries of these workers vary by industry and by region. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of word processors and typists were as follows: Legal services................................................................................ $36,890 Local government ........................................................................... 29,190 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 27,630 State government ............................................................................ 27,210 Employment services....................................................................... 25,450 Median annual earnings of data entry keyers in May 2004 were $23,250. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,630 and $28,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,480, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,410. The following are median annual earnings for May 2004 in the industries employing the largest numbers of data entry keyers: Insurance carriers.......................................................................... $23,980 Accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services. 23,120 Depository credit intermediation.................................................. 21,950 Employment services.................................................................... 21,550 Data processing, hosting, and related services............................. 20,750 Related Occupations Data entry and information processing workers must transcribe information quickly. Other workers who deliver information in a timely manner are dispatchers and communications equipment operators. Data entry and information processing workers also must be comfortable working with office technology, and in this regard they are similar to court reporters, medical records and health information technicians, secretaries and administrative assistants, and computer operators. Office and Administrative Support Occupations Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities for data entry and infor mation processing workers, contact the nearest office of the State employment service. Desktop Publishers (0*NET 43-9031.00) Significant Points • About 4 out of 10 work for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers, while 1 out of 4 work in printing and related support activities. • Employment is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations. • Most employers prefer to hire experienced desktop publishers; among persons without experience, op portunities should be best for those with certificates or degrees in desktop publishing or graphic design. Nature of the Work Using computer software, desktop publishers format and combine text, numerical data, photographs, charts, and other visual graphic elements to produce publication-ready material. Depending on the nature of a particular project, desktop publishers may write and edit text, create graphics to accompany text, convert photographs and drawings into digital images and then manipulate those images, design page layouts, create proposals, develop presentations and advertising campaigns, typeset and do color separation, and translate electronic information onto film or other traditional forms. Materials produced by desktop publishers include books, business cards, cal endars, magazines, newsletters and newspapers, packaging, slides, and tickets. As companies have brought the production of marketing, promotional, and other kinds of materials in-house, they increasingly have employed people who can produce such materials. Desktop publishers use a keyboard to enter and select formatting properties, such as the size and style of type, column width, and spacing, and store them in the computer, which then displays and arranges columns of type on a video display terminal or computer monitor. An entire newspaper, catalog, or book page, complete with artwork and graphics, can be created on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators transmit the pages for production either into film and then into printing plates, or directly into plates. Desktop publishing is a rapidly changing field that encompasses a number of different kinds ofjobs. Personal computers enable desktop publishers to perform publishing tasks that would otherwise require complicated equipment and extensive human effort. Advances in computer software and printing technology continue to change and enhance desktop publishing work. Instead of receiving simple typed text from customers, desktop publishers get the material over the Internet or on a computer disk. Other innovations in the occupation include digital color page makeup systems, electronic page layout systems, and off-press color proofing systems. In addition, because most materials today often are published on the Internet, desktop pub lishers may need to know electronic publishing technologies, such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and may be responsible for converting text and graphics to an Internet-ready format. Typesetting and page layout have been affected by the techno logical changes shaping desktop publishing. Increasingly, desktop publishers are using computers to do much of the typesetting and Digitizedpage-layout for FRASER work formerly done by prepress workers, posing new https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 477 challenges for the printing industry. The old “hot type” method of text composition—which used molten lead to create individual let ters, paragraphs, and full pages of text—is nearly extinct. Today, composition work is done primarily with computers. Improvements in desktop-publishing software also allow customers to do much more of their own typesetting. Desktop publishers use scanners to capture photographs, im ages, or art as digital data that can be either incorporated directly into electronic page layouts or further manipulated with the use of computer software. The desktop publisher then can correct mistakes or compensate for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Digital files are used to produce printing plates. Like photographers and multimedia artists and animators, desktop publishers also can create special effects or other visual images using film, video, computers, or other electronic media. (Separate state ments on photographers and on artists and related workers appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Desktop publishers often perform writing and editing tasks as well as page layout and design. For example, in addition to laying out articles for a newsletter, desktop publishers may be responsible for editing content they receive or for writing original content themselves. A desktop publisher’s writing and editing responsibili ties vary widely from employer to employer. Small firms typically need desktop publishers to perform a wide range of tasks, while desktop publishers at large firms specialize in a certain part of the publishing process. (Writers and editors are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on the establishment employing these workers, desk top publishers also may be referred to as publications specialists, electronic publishers, DTP operators, desktop publishing editors, electronic prepress technicians, electronic publishing specialists, image designers, typographers, compositors, layout artists, and Web publications designers. Working Conditions Desktop publishers usually work in clean, air-conditioned office areas with little noise. They generally work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. Some workers work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Desktop publishers often are subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Like other workers who spend long hours working in front of a computer monitor, they may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Using computer software, desktop publishers capture photographs, images, or art as digital data that can be incorporated directly into electronic page layouts. 478 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers qualify for jobs as desktop publishers by taking classes or completing certificate programs at vocational schools, universities, and colleges or through the Internet. Programs range in length, but the average certificate program takes approximately 1 year. However, some desktop publishers train on the job to develop the necessary skills. The length of on-the-job training varies by company. An internship or part-time desktop-publishing assignment is another way to gain experience as a desktop publisher. Students interested in pursuing a career in desktop publishing may obtain an associate degree in applied science or a bachelor’s degree in graphic arts, graphic communications, or graphic design. Graphic arts programs are a good way to learn about desktop pub lishing software used to format pages; assign type characteristics; and import text and graphics into electronic page layouts to produce printed materials such as advertisements, brochures, newsletters, and forms. Applying this knowledge of graphic arts techniques and computerized typesetting usually is intended for students who may eventually move into management positions, while 2-year associate degree programs are designed to train skilled workers. Students also develop finely tuned skills in typography, print media, packaging, branding and identity, Web site design, and motion graphics. The programs teach print and graphic design fundamentals and provide an extensive background in imaging, prepress operations, print reproduction, and emerging media. Courses in other aspects of printing also are available at vocational-technical institutes, indus try-sponsored update and retraining programs, and private trade and technical schools. Although formal training is not always required, those with certificates or degrees will have the best job opportunities. Most employers prefer to hire people who have at least a high school diploma and who possess good communication skills, basic computer skills, and a strong work ethic. Desktop publishers should be able to deal courteously with people because, in small shops, they may have to take customers’ orders. They also may have to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute ratios to estimate job costs. Persons interested in working for firms us ing advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers. Desktop publishers need good manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, a wide field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly also are assets. Artistic ability often is a plus. Employers also seek persons who are even tempered and adaptable—important qualities for work ers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment. Workers with limited training and experience may start as helpers. They begin with instruction from an experienced desktop publisher and advance on the basis of their demonstrated mastery of skills at each level. All workers should expect to be retrained from time to time to handle new, improved software and equip ment. As workers gain experience, they advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory or management positions. Other desktop publishers may start their own company or work as independent consultants, while those with more artistic talent and further education may find opportunities in graphic design or commercial art. Employment Desktop publishers held about 34,000 jobs in 2004. About 4 out of 10 worked for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers, while I out of 4 worked in printing and related support activities; the rest worked in a wide variety of industries. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Firms in the publishing industry publish newspapers, periodicals, books, directory and mailing lists, and greeting cards. Printing and related support activities firms print a wide range of products—news papers, books, labels, business cards, stationery, inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and advertisements—while business form establishments print material such as sales receipts and business forms and perform support activities such as data imaging and bookbinding. Establish ments in printing and related support activities typically perform custom composition, platemaking, and related prepress services. (A separate statement on prepress technicians and workers appears else where in the Handbook.). Other desktop publishers print or publish materials in-house or in-plant for business services firms, government agencies, hospitals, or universities, typically in a reproduction or publications department that operates within the organization. The printing and publishing industries are two of the most geo graphically dispersed industries in the United States, and desktop publishing jobs are found throughout the country. However, most jobs are in large metropolitan cities. Job Outlook Employment of desktop publishers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, as more page layout and design work is performed in-house using computers and sophis ticated publishing software. Desktop publishing is replacing much of the prepress work done by compositors and typesetters, enabling organizations to reduce costs while increasing production speeds. Many new jobs for desktop publishers are expected to emerge in commercial printing and publishing establishments. However, more companies also are turning to in-house desktop publishers, as computers with elaborate text and graphics capabilities have become common, and desktop publishing software has become cheaper and easier to use. In addition to employment growth, many job openings for desktop publishers also will result from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Printing and publishing costs represent a significant portion of a corporation’s expenses, and firms are finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. Desktop publishing reduces the time needed to complete a printing job and allows commercial printers to make inroads into new markets that require fast turnaround. Most employers prefer to hire experienced desktop publishers. As more people gain desktop-publishing experience, however, com petition for jobs may increase. Among persons without experience, opportunities should be best for those with computer backgrounds who are certified or who have completed postsecondary programs in desktop publishing or graphic design. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn the page layout process and adapt more rapidly to new software and techniques. Earnings Earnings for desktop publishers vary according to level of experi ence, training, location, and size of firm. Median annual earnings of desktop publishers were $32,340 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,660 and $42,070. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,460 a year. Median annual earnings of desktop publishers in May 2004 were $36,040 in printing and related support services and $29,040 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Related Occupations Desktop publishers use artistic and editorial skills in their work. These skills also are essential for artists and related workers; com Office and Administrative Support Occupations mercial and industrial designers; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; prepress technicians and workers; public relations specialists; and writers and editors. Sources of Additional Information Details about training programs may be obtained from local employ ers such as newspapers and printing shops or from local offices of the State employment service. For information on careers and training in printing, desktop publishing, and graphic arts, write to; >- Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191-4367. Internet: http://www.makeyourmark.org >- Graphic Arts Information Network, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. Internet: http://www.gain.org Office and Administrative Support Worker Supervisors and Managers (0*NET 43-1011.01, 43-1011.02) Significant Points • Most jobs are filled by promoting office or administra tive support workers from within the organization. • Office automation will cause employment in some office and administrative support occupations to grow slowly or even decline, resulting in slower-than-average growth among supervisors and managers. • Applicants are likely to encounter keen competition be cause their numbers should greatly exceed the number of job openings. Nature of the Work All organizations need timely and effective office and administrative support to operate efficiently. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers coordinate this support. These workers are employed in virtually every sector of the economy, working in positions as varied as teller supervisor, customer services manager, or shipping and receiving supervisor. Although specific functions of office and administrative sup port supervisors and managers vary significantly, they share many common duties. For example, supervisors perform administrative tasks to ensure that their staffs can work efficiently. Equipment and machinery used in their departments must be in good working order. If the computer system goes down or a fax machine malfunc tions, the supervisors must try to correct the problem or alert repair personnel. They also request new equipment or supplies for their department when necessary. Planning the work and supervising the staff are key functions of this job. To do these effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the staff, as well as the results required from and time allotted to each job. Supervi sors must make allowances for unexpected staff absences and other disruptions by adjusting assignments or performing the work themselves if the situation requires it. After allocating work assignments and issuing deadlines, office and administrative support supervisors and managers oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meeting estab lished quality standards. This may involve reviewing each person’s work on a computer—as in the case of accounting clerks—or listening to how a worker deals with customers—as in the case of services representatives. When supervising long-term Digitizedcustomer for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 479 projects, the supervisor may meet regularly with staff members to discuss their progress. Office and administrative support supervisors and manag ers also evaluate each worker’s performance. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor indicates that in the employee’s personnel file and may recommend a promotion or other award. Alternatively, if a worker is performing inadequately, the super visor discusses the problem with the employee to determine the cause and helps the worker to improve his or her performance. This might require sending the employee to a training course or arranging personal counseling. If the situation does not improve, the supervisor may recommend a transfer, demotion, or dismissal. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers usually interview and evaluate prospective employees. When new workers arrive on the job, supervisors greet them and provide ori entation to acquaint them with their organization and its operating routines. Some supervisors may be actively involved in recruiting new workers—for example, by making presentations at high schools and business colleges. They also may serve as the primary liaisons between their offices and the general public through direct contact and by preparing promotional information. Supervisors help train new employees in organization and of fice procedures. They may teach new employees how to use the telephone system and operate office equipment. Because most administrative support work is computerized, they also must teach new employees to use the organization’s computer system. When new office equipment or updated computer software is introduced, supervisors train experienced employees to use it efficiently or, if this is not possible, arrange for their employees to receive special outside training. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers often act as liaisons between the administrative support staff and the professional, technical, and managerial staff. This may involve implementing new company policies or restructuring the workflow in their departments. They also must keep their superiors informed of their progress and any potential problems. Often, this communication takes the form of research projects and progress reports. Because supervisors and managers have access to information such as their department’s performance records, they may compile and present these data for use in planning or designing new policies. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers also may have to resolve interpersonal conflicts among the staff. In mm. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers interview and evaluate prospective employees. 480 Occupational Outlook Handbook organizations covered by union contracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labor-management agreements and run their depart ments accordingly. They also may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances. Working Conditions Office and administrative support supervisors and managers are employed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in clean and well-lit offices that usually are comfortable. Most office and administrative support supervisors and managers work a standard 40-hour week. However, because some organiza tions operate around the clock, supervisors may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Sometimes, supervisors rotate among the three 8-hour shifts in a workday; in other cases, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most firms fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting office or administrative support workers from within their organizations. To become eligible for promotion to a supervisory position, administrative support work ers must prove they are capable of handling additional responsi bilities. When evaluating candidates, supervisors look for strong teamwork, problem-solving, leadership, and communication skills, as well as determination, loyalty, poise, and confidence. They also look for more specific supervisory attributes, such as the ability to organize and coordinate work efficiently, to set priorities, and to motivate others. Increasingly, supervisors need a broad base of office skills coupled with personal flexibility to adapt to changes in organizational structure and move among departments when necessary. In addition, supervisors must pay close attention to detail to identify and correct errors made by the staff they oversee. Good working knowledge of the organization’s computer system also is an advantage. Many employers require postsecondary training—in some cases, an associate or even a bachelor’s degree. Administrative support workers with potential supervisory abili ties may be given occasional supervisory assignments. To prepare for full-time supervisory duties, workers may attend in-house train ing or take courses in time management, project management, or interpersonal relations. Some office and administrative support supervisor positions are filled with people from outside the organization. These positions may serve as entry-level training for potential higher level manag ers. New college graduates may rotate through departments of an organization at this level to learn the work of the organization. Employment Office and administrative support supervisors and managers held 1.5 million jobs in 2004. Although jobs for office and administra tive support supervisors and managers are found in practically every industry, the largest number are found in organizations with a large administrative support workforce, such as banks, wholesalers, gov ernment agencies, retail establishments, business service firms, health care facilities, schools, and insurance companies. Because of most organizations’ need for continuity of supervision, few office and ad ministrative support supervisors and managers work on a temporary or part-time basis. Job Outlook Like those seeking other supervisory and managerial occupa tions, applicants for jobs as office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers are likely to encounter keen https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis competition because the number of applicants should greatly exceed the number of job openings. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Besides the job openings arising from growth, a large number of openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this large occupation for other reasons. Employment of office and administrative support supervisors and managers is determined largely by the demand for administra tive support workers. New technology should increase office and administrative support workers’ productivity and allow a wider variety of tasks to be performed by people in professional posi tions. These trends will cause employment in some administrative support occupations to grow slowly or even decline. As a result, supervisors will direct smaller permanent staffs—supplemented by increased use of temporary administrative support staff—and perform more professional tasks. Office and administrative sup port managers will coordinate the increasing amount of admin istrative work and make sure that the technology is applied and running properly. However, organizational restructuring should continue to reduce employment in some managerial positions, distributing more responsibility to office and administrative sup port supervisors. Earnings Median annual earnings of office and administrative support supervi sors and managers were $41,030 in May 2004; the middle 50 percent earned between $31,860 and $53,110. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $25,190, while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $67,800. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of office and administra tive support supervisors and managers were: Insurance carriers.......................................................................... $49,610 Local government ........................................................................... 42,100 State government ............................................................................ 40,930 Offices of physicians........................................................................ 39,690 Depository credit intermediation.................................................... 36,980 In addition to typical benefits, some office and administrative support supervisors and managers, particularly in the private sector, may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses and stock options. Related Occupations Office and administrative support supervisors and managers must understand and sometimes perform the work of those whom they oversee, including bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; cashiers; communications equipment operators; customer service representatives; data entry and information processing workers; general office clerks; receptionists and information clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; order clerks; and tellers. Their supervisory and administrative duties are similar to those of other supervisors and managers. Sources of Additional Information For information related to a wide variety of management occupa tions, including educational programs and certified designations, contact: >• National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. Internet: http://www.nmal.org ► International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW. Ambassador Dr., P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org Office and Administrative Support Occupations 481 Working Conditions Office Clerks, Genera[ (0*NET 43-9061.00) Significant Points • Employment growth and high replacement needs in this large occupation will result in numerous job • • openings. Prospects should be best for those with knowledge of basic computer applications and office machinery as well as good communication skills. Part-time and temporary positions are common. Nature of the Work Rather than performing a single specialized task, general office clerks have responsibilities that often change daily with the needs of the specific job and the employer. Whereas some clerks spend their days filing or keyboarding, others enter data at a computer terminal. They also can be called on to operate photocopiers, fax machines, and other office equipment; prepare mailings; proofread documents; and answer telephones and deliver messages. The specific duties assigned to a clerk vary significantly, depend ing on the type of office in which he or she works. An office clerk in a doctor’s office, for example, would not perform the same tasks that a clerk in a large financial institution or in the office of an auto parts wholesaler would perform. Although both may sort checks, keep payroll records, take inventory, and access information, clerks also perform duties unique to their employer, such as organizing medications, making transparencies for a presentation, or filling orders received by fax machine. Clerks’ duties also vary by level of experience. Whereas inex perienced employees make photocopies, stuff envelopes, or record inquiries, experienced clerks usually are given additional responsibili ties. For example, they may maintain financial or other records, set up spreadsheets, verify statistical reports for accuracy and complete ness, handle and adjust customer complaints, work with vendors, make travel arrangements, take inventory of equipment and supplies, answer questions on departmental services and functions, or help prepare invoices or budgetary requests. Senior office clerks may be expected to monitor and direct the work of lower level clerks. For the most part, general office clerks work in comfortable office settings. Those on full-time schedules usually work a standard 40-hour week; however, some work shifts or overtime during busy periods. About 16 percent of clerks work part time. Many clerks also work in temporary positions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most office clerk jobs are entry-level administrative support positions, employers may prefer or require previous office or business experience. Employers usually require a high school diploma or equivalent, and some require basic computer skills, in cluding familiarity with word processing software, as well as other general office skills. Training for this occupation is available through business education programs offered in high schools, community and junior colleges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in office practices, word processing, and other computer applications are particularly helpful. Because general office clerks usually work with other office staff, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Em ployers prefer individuals who are able to perform a variety of tasks and satisfy the needs of the many departments within a company. In addition, applicants should have good communication skills, be detail oriented, and adaptable. General office clerks who exhibit strong communication, in terpersonal, and analytical skills may be promoted to supervisory positions. Others may move into different, more senior administra tive jobs, such as receptionist, secretary, or administrative assistant. After gaining some work experience or specialized skills, many workers transfer to jobs with higher pay or greater advancement potential. Advancement to professional occupations within an organization normally requires additional formal education, such as a college degree. Employment General office clerks held about 3.1 million jobs in 2004. Most are employed in relatively small businesses. Although they work in every sector of the economy, about 46 percent worked in local government; health care and social assistance; administrative and support services; finance and insurance; or professional, scientific, and technical services industries. Job Outlook Office clerks have responsibilities that often change daily with the needs of the specific job and the employer. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment growth and high replacement needs in this large oc cupation will result in numerous job openings for general office clerks. In addition to those for full-time jobs, many job openings are expected for part-time and temporary general office clerks. Prospects should be best for those who have knowledge of basic computer applications and office machinery—such as fax machines, telephone systems, and scanners—and good writing and commu nication skills. As general administrative support duties continue to be consolidated, employers will increasingly seek well-rounded individuals with highly developed communication skills and the ability to perform multiple tasks. Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The employment outlook for these workers will be affected by the increasing use of technology, expanding office automation, and the consolidation of administrative support tasks. Automation has led to productivity gains, allowing a wide variety of duties to be performed by fewer office workers. However, automation also has led to a consolidation of administrative support staffs and a diver 482 Occupational Outlook Handbook sification of job responsibilities. This consolidation increases the demand for general office clerks because they perform a variety of administrative support tasks. It will become increasingly common within small businesses to find a single general office clerk in charge of all administrative support work. Job opportunities may vary from year to year because the strength of the economy affects demand for general office clerks. Companies tend to employ more workers when the economy is strong. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluctuations tend to be the most stable places for employment. Earnings Median annual earnings of general office clerks were $22,770 in May 2004; the middle 50 percent earned between $18,090 and $28,950 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,810. Median annual salaries in the industries employing the largest numbers of general office clerks in May 2004 were: Local government ........................................................................ $25,880 State government ......................................................................... 24,970 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 23,500 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.............................. 23,160 Employment services.................................................................... 20,910 Related Occupations The duties of general office clerks can include a combination of bookkeeping, keyboarding, office machine operation, and filing. Other office and administrative support workers who perform similar duties include bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; communications equipment operators; customer service representa tives; data entry and information processing workers; order clerks; receptionists and information clerks; secretaries and administrative assistants; stock clerks and order fillers; and tellers. Nonclerical entry-level workers include cashiers; counter and rental clerks; and food and beverage serving and related workers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide informa tion about job openings for general office clerks. For information related to administrative occupations, including educational programs and certified designations, contact: >- International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW. Ambassador Dr., P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org Nature of the Work As the reliance on technology continues to expand in offices, the role of the office professional has greatly evolved. Office auto mation and organizational restructuring have led secretaries and administrative assistants to assume responsibilities once reserved for managerial and professional staff. Many secretaries and ad ministrative assistants now provide training and orientation for new staff, conduct research on the Internet, and operate and troubleshoot new office technologies. In spite of these changes, however, the core responsibilities for secretaries and administrative assistants have remained much the same: Performing and coordinating an office’s administrative activities and storing, retrieving, and inte grating information for dissemination to staff and clients. Secretaries and administrative assistants are responsible for a variety of administrative and clerical duties necessary to ran an organization efficiently. They serve as information and commu nication managers for an office; plan and schedule meetings and appointments; organize and maintain paper and electronic files; manage projects; conduct research; and disseminate information by using the telephone, mail services, Web sites, and e-mail. They also may handle travel and guest arrangements. Secretaries and administrative assistants are aided in these tasks by a variety of office equipment, such as fax machines, photo copiers, scanners, and videoconferencing and telephone systems. In addition, secretaries and administrative assistants often use computers to do tasks previously handled by managers and pro fessionals: create spreadsheets; compose correspondence; manage databases; and create presentations, reports, and documents using desktop publishing software and digital graphics. They also may negotiate with vendors, maintain and examine leased equipment, purchase supplies, manage areas such as stockrooms or corporate libraries, and retrieve data from various sources. At the same time, managers and professionals have assumed many tasks tradition ally assigned to secretaries and administrative assistants, such as keyboarding and answering the telephone. Because secretaries and administrative assistants often are not responsible for dictation and word processing, they have time to support more members of the executive staff. In a number of organizations, secretaries and administrative assistants work in teams to work flexibly and share their expertise. Specific job duties vary with experience and titles. Executive secretaries and administrative assistants, for example, may perform Secretaries and Administrative Assistants (0*NET 43-6011.00, 43-6012.00,43-6013.00, 43-6014.00) Significant Points • Numerous job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupation each year. • Opportunities should be best for applicants with exten sive knowledge of software applications. Increasing office automation and organizational restruc turing will lead to slower than average growth in overall employment of secretaries and administrative assistants, but average growth is projected for legal and medical Digitized forsecretaries. FRASER g • https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Secretaries and administrative assistants are responsible for a variety ofadministrative and clerical duties necessary to efficiently run an organization. Office and Administrative Support Occupations fewer clerical tasks than do secretaries. In addition to arranging conference calls and scheduling meetings, they may handle more complex responsibilities such as conducting research, preparing statistical reports, training employees, and hiring and supervising other clerical staff. Some secretaries and administrative assistants, such as legal and medical secretaries, perform highly specialized work requiring knowledge of technical terminology and procedures. For instance, legal secretaries prepare correspondence and legal papers such as summonses, complaints, motions, responses, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney or a paralegal. They also may re view legal journals and assist with legal research—for example, by verifying quotes and citations in legal briefs. Medical secretaries transcribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceedings. They also record simple medical histories, arrange for patients to be hospitalized, and order supplies. Most medical secre taries need to be familiar with insurance rules, billing practices, and hospital or laboratory procedures. Other technical secretaries who assist engineers or scientists may prepare correspondence, maintain their organization’s technical library, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers. Working Conditions Secretaries and administrative assistants usually work in schools, hospitals, corporate settings, government agencies, or legal and medical offices. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods. If they spend a lot of time keyboarding, particularly at a computer monitor, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, stress, and repetitive motion ailments such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Office work can lend itself to alternative or flexible working ar rangements, such as part-time work or telecommuting—especially if the job requires extensive computer use. About 19 percent of secretaries work part time and many others work in temporary positions. A few participate in job-sharing arrangements, in which two people divide responsibility for a single job. The majority of secretaries and administrative assistants, however, are full-time employees who work a standard 40-hour week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have basic office skills may qualify for entry-level secretarial positions. However, employers increasingly require extensive knowledge of software applications, such as word processing, spreadsheets, and database management. Secretaries and administrative assistants should be proficient in keyboarding and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communication. Employers also look for good customer service and interpersonal skills because secretaries and administrative as sistants must be tactful in their dealings with people. Discretion, good judgment, organizational or management ability, initiative, and the ability to work independently are especially important for higher level administrative positions. As office automation continues to evolve, retraining and continu ing education will remain integral parts of secretarial jobs. Changes in the office environment have increased the demand for secretaries and administrative assistants who are adaptable and versatile. Secretaries and administrative assistants may have to attend classes or participate in online education to learn how to operate new office technologies, such as information storage systems, scanners, the Internet, or new updated software packages. They also may assist in selecting and maintaining office equipment. Secretaries and administrative assistants acquire skills in vari ous ways. Training ranges from high school vocational education programs that teach office skills and keyboarding to 1- and 2-year https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 483 programs in office administration offered by business schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Many temporary placement agencies also provide formal training in com puter and office skills. However, many skills tend to be acquired through on-the-job instruction by other employees or by equipment and software vendors. Specialized training programs are avail able for students planning to become medical or legal secretaries or administrative technology specialists. Bachelor’s degrees and professional certifications are becoming increasingly important as business continues to become more global. Testing and certification for proficiency in entry-level office skills is available through organizations such as the International As sociation of Administrative Professionals; National Association of Legal Secretaries (NALS), Inc.; and Legal Secretaries International, Inc. As secretaries and administrative assistants gain experience, they can earn several different designations. Prominent designations include the Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) and the Certi fied Administrative Professional (CAP), which can be earned by meeting certain experience or educational requirements and passing an examination. Similarly, those with 1 year of experience in the legal field, or who have concluded an approved training course and who want to be certified as a legal support professional, can acquire the Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS) designation through a test ing process administered by NALS. NALS offers two additional designations: Professional Legal Secretary (PLS), considered an advanced certification for legal support professionals, and a designa tion for proficiency as a paralegal. Legal Secretaries International confers the Certified Legal Secretary Specialist (CLSS) designation in areas such as intellectual property, criminal law, civil litiga tion, probate, and business law to those who have 5 years of legal experience and pass an examination. In some instances, certain requirements may be waived. Secretaries and administrative assistants generally advance by being promoted to other administrative positions with more responsibilities. Qualified administrative assistants who broaden their knowledge of a company’s operations and enhance their skills may be promoted to senior or executive secretary or administrative assistant, clerical supervisor, or office manager. Secretaries with word processing or data entry experience can advance to jobs as word processing or data entry trainers, su pervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial, word processing, or data entry service bureau. Secretarial and administrative support experience also can lead to jobs such as instructor or sales representative with manufacturers of software or computer equipment. With additional training, many legal secretaries become paralegals. Employment Secretaries and administrative assistants held about 4.1 million jobs in 2004, ranking among the largest occupations in the U.S. economy. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by secretarial specialty: Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive.................... Executive secretaries and administrative assistants................. Medical secretaries.................................................................... Legal secretaries........................................................................ 1,934,000 1,547,000 373,000 272,000 Secretaries and administrative assistants are employed in orga nizations of every type. Around 9 out of 10 secretaries and admin istrative assistants are employed in service providing industries, ranging from education and health care to government and retail trade. Most of the rest work for firms engaged in manufacturing or construction. 484 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Overall employment of secretaries and administrative assistants is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa tions over the 2004-14 period. In addition to those resulting from growth, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this very large occupation for other reasons each year. Opportunities should be best for applicants with extensive knowledge of software appli cations, particularly experienced secretaries and administrative assistants. Projected employment of secretaries and administrative as sistants varies by occupational specialty. Employment growth in the health care and social assistance and legal services industries should lead to average growth for medical and legal secretaries. Employment of executive secretaries and administrative assis tants is projected to grow average for all occupations. Growing industries—such as administrative and support services; health care and social assistance; educational services (private); and professional, scientific, and technical services—will continue to generate most new job opportunities. A decline in employment is expected for secretaries, except legal, medical, or executive; they account for about 47 percent of all secretaries and admin istrative assistants. Increasing office automation and organizational restructuring will continue to make secretaries and administrative assistants more productive in coming years. Computers, e-mail, scanners, and voice message systems will allow secretaries and administrative assistants to accomplish more in the same amount of time. The use of automated equipment also is changing the distribution of work in many offices. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as keyboarding, filing, photocopying, and bookkeeping are being assigned to workers in other units or departments. Profes sionals and managers increasingly do their own word processing and data entry and handle much of their own correspondence rather than submit the work to secretaries and other support staff. Also, in some law and medical offices, paralegals and medical assistants are assuming some tasks formerly done by secretaries. As other workers assume more of these duties, there is a trend in many offices for professionals and managers to replace the tradi tional arrangement of one secretary per manager with secretaries and administrative assistants who support the work of systems, departments, or units. This approach often means that secretaries and administrative assistants assume added responsibilities and are seen as valuable members of a team, but it also contributes to the projected decline in the overall number of secretarial and administrative assistant positions. Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the work of secretaries and administrative assistants. However, many secretarial and adminis trative duties are of a personal, interactive nature and, therefore, not easily automated. Responsibilities such as planning conferences, working with clients, and instructing staff require tact and com munication skills. Because technology cannot substitute for these personal skills, secretaries and administrative assistants will continue to play a key role in most organizations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of executive secretaries and administrative assistants were $34,970 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,500 and $43,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,810, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $53,460. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of executive secretaries and administrative assistants in May 2004 were: Management of companies and enterprises.................................. $38,950 Local government ........................................................................ 36,940 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... 34,280 Employment services.................................................................... 31 _620 State government ......................................................................... 30,750 Median annual earnings of legal secretaries were $36,720 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,070 and $46,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,590. Medical secretaries earned a median annual salary of $26,540 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,980 and $32,690. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 19,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $39,140. Median annual earnings of secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive, were $26,110 in May 2004. Salaries vary a great deal, however, reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility. Certification in this field usually is rewarded by a higher salary. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations type, record information, and process paperwork. Among them are bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; receptionists and information clerks; commu nications equipment operators; court reporters; human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping; computer operators; data entry and information processing workers; paralegals and legal assis tants; medical assistants; and medical records and health information technicians. A growing number of secretaries and administrative assistants share in managerial and human resource responsibilities. Occupations requiring these skills include office and administra tive support supervisors and managers; computer and information systems managers; administrative services managers; and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices provide information about job openings for secretaries and administrative assistants. For information on the latest trends in the profession, career development advice, and the CPS or CAP designations, contact: > International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW. Ambassador Dr., P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org Information on the CLSS designation can be obtained from: >- Legal Secretaries International Inc. Internet: http://www.legalsecretaries.org Information on the ALS, PLS, and paralegal certifications are available from: >- National Association of Legal Secretaries, Inc., 314 East Third St., Suite 210, Tulsa, OK 74120. Internet: http://www.nals.org Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations Agricultural Workers _____ (0*NET 45-2011.00, 45-2021.00, 45-2041.00,45-2091.00, 45-2092.01, _______ 45-2092.02, 45-2093.00, and 45-2099.99) Significant Points • Duties and working conditions vary widely, from raising plants in greenhouses, to harvesting crops and tending to livestock outdoors, to inspecting agricultural products at border crossings. • Farmworkers learn through short-term on-the-job train ing; agricultural inspectors and animal breeders require work experience or a college degree. • Most farmworkers receive low pay and perform strenu ous work outdoors in all kinds of weather but many enjoy the rural lifestyle. • Employment is projected to decline slightly. Nature of the Work Agricultural workers play a large role in getting food, plants, and other agricultural products to market. Working mostly on farms or ranches or in nurseries, slaughterhouses, or ports of entry, these workers have numerous and diverse duties. Among their activities are planting and harvesting crops, installing irrigation, delivering animals, and making sure that our food is safe. More than 8 out of 10 agricultural workers are farmworkers and laborers. Farmworkers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse perform numerous activities related to growing and harvesting grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, fiber, trees, shrubs, and other crops. Among their activities are planting and seeding, pruning, irrigating, harvesting, and packing and loading crops for shipment. Farmwork ers also apply pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers to crops; repair fences; and help with irrigation. Nursery and greenhouse workers prepare land or greenhouse beds for growing horticultural products, such as trees, plants, flowers, and sod. Their duties include plant ing, watering, pruning, weeding, and spraying the plants. They may cut, roll, and stack sod; stake trees; tie, wrap, and pack plants to fill orders; and dig up or move field-grown and containerized shmbs and trees. Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals care for live farm, ranch, or aquacultural animals that may include cattle, sheep, swine, goats, horses, poultry, finfish, shellfish, and bees. The animals are usually raised to supply such products as meat, fur, skins, feathers, eggs, milk, and honey. The farmworkers’ duties may include feeding, wa tering, herding, grazing, castrating, branding, debeaking, weighing, catching, and loading animals. On dairy farms, farmworkers oper ate milking machines; they also may maintain records on animals, examine animals to detect diseases and injuries, assist in delivering animals at their birth, and administer medications, vaccinations, or insecticides as appropriate. Daily duties of such farmworkers include cleaning and maintaining animal housing areas. Other farmworkers known as agricultural equipment operators operate a variety of farm equipment used in plowing, sowing, maintaining, and harvesting agricultural products. The equipment may include tractors, fertilizer spreaders, haybines, raking equip ment, balers, combines, and threshers, as well as trucks. These https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis farmworkers also operate machines used in moving and treating crops after their harvest, such as conveyor belts, loading machines, separators, cleaners, and dryers. In addition, they may make ad justments and minor repairs to equipment. When not operating machines, agricultural equipment operators may perform other farm duties that are not typical of other farmworkers. Agricultural inspectors, another type of agricultural worker, are employed by Federal and State governments to ensure compliance with laws and regulations governing the health, quality, and safety of agricultural commodities. Inspectors also make sure that the facilities and equipment used in processing the commodities meet quality standards. Meat safety is one of their prime responsibili ties, and they try to ensure that the meat we eat is free of harmful ingredients or bacteria. In meat-processing facilities, inspectors may collect samples of suspected diseased animals or materi als and send the samples to a laboratory for identification and analysis. They also may inspect livestock to help determine the effectiveness of medication and feeding programs. Some inspec tors are stationed at export and import sites to weigh and inspect agricultural shipments leaving and entering the country to ensure the quality and quantity of the shipments. A few work at logging sites, making sure that safety regulations are enforced. Graders and sorters of agricultural products examine agricultural commodities being prepared to be packed for market and classify them according to quality or size guidelines. They grade, sort, or classify unprocessed food and other agricultural products by size, weight, color, or condition and discard inferior or defective products. For example, graders sort eggs by color and size and also examine the fat content, or marbling, of beef, assigning a grade of “Prime,” “Choice,” or something else, as appropriate. The grade that is as signed determines the price at which the commodity may be sold. Animal breeders select and breed animals using their knowledge of genetics and animal science to produce offspring with desired traits and characteristics, such as chickens that lay more eggs, pigs that produce leaner meat, and sheep with more desirable wool. Animal breeders also raise and breed animals simply to sell their offspring for money, including cats and dogs and other household pets. The larger and more expensive animals that are bred, such as horses and cattle, are usually bred through artificial insemina tion, which requires the taking of semen from the male and then inseminating the female with it. Using this process insures better results and also enables one prized male to sire many more offspring than through conventional mating. To know when and which ani mals to breed, breeders keep detailed records, including the health of the animal, its size and weight, and the amount and quality of the product produced by the animal. They also keep track of the traits of the offspring. Some breeders work as consultants for a number of farmers, while others breed and raise their own animals for eventual sale or to breed. For breeders that raise animals, they may also have to care and clean animal shelters, feed and water the animals, and oversee their day-to-day health or supervise others that perform these jobs. Additionally, animal breeders read journals and newsletters to remain current with the latest information on animal breeding and veterinary advice. Working Conditions Working conditions for agricultural workers vary widely. Much of the work of farmworkers and laborers on farms and ranches takes place outdoors in all kinds of weather and is physical in nature. 485 486 Occupational Outlook Handbook .. . M ' ^rC^'lVL: Vi MS " >'■ their feet all day and may have to lift heavy objects, whereas others may sit during most of their shift and do little strenuous work. Some graders work in clean, air-conditioned environments, suitable for carrying out controlled tests. Some may work evenings or weekends because of the perishable nature of the products. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. Animal breeders spend most of their time outdoors around ani mals, but can also work in offices or in laboratories. If consulting, breeders may have to travel from farm to farm. If they need to sell the offspring, breeders may have to travel to attend shows and to meet with potential buyers. While tending to the animals, breeders may be bitten or kicked. Farmworkers in crop production risk exposure to pesticides and other hazardous chemicals sprayed on crops or plants. However, exposure is relatively minimal if safety procedures are followed. Those who work on mechanized farms must take precautions to avoid injury when working with tools and heavy equipment. Those who work directly with animals risk being bitten or kicked. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement mm Many agricultural workers are found in nurseries, growing flowers and other plants. Harvesting fruits and vegetables, for example, may require much bending, stooping, and lifting. Workers may lack adequate sanitation facilities while working in the field, and their drinking water may be limited. The year-round nature of much livestock production work means that ranch workers must be out in the heat of summer, as well as the cold of winter. While some of these workers enjoy the day-to-day variability of the work, the rural setting, working on the land, and raising animals, the work hours are generally uneven and often long, and work cannot be delayed when crops must be planted and harvested or when animals must be sheltered and fed. Weekend work is common, and farmworkers may work a 6- or 7day week during planting and harvesting seasons. Because much of the work is seasonal in nature, many workers also obtain other jobs during slow seasons. Migrant farmworkers, who move from location to location as crops ripen, live an unsettled lifestyle, which can be stressful. Work also is seasonal for farmworkers in nurseries; spring and summer are the busiest times of the year. Greenhouse workers enjoy relatively comfortable working conditions while tending to plants indoors. However, during the busy seasons, when landscape contrac tors need plants, work schedules may be more demanding, requiring weekend work. Moreover, the transition from warm weather to cold weather means that nursery workers might have to work overtime with little notice given in order to move plants indoors to protect them from a frost. Federal meat inspectors may work in highly mechanized plants or with poultry or livestock in confined areas with extremely cold temperatures and slippery floors. The duties often require work ing with sharp knives, moderate lifting, and walking or standing for long periods. Many inspectors work long and often irregular hours. Inspectors may find themselves in adversarial roles when the organization or individual being inspected objects to the inspection or its potential consequences. Some inspectors travel frequently to visit farms and processing facilities. Others work at ports, inspect ing cargo on the docks or on boats. Graders and sorters may work with similar products for an entire shift, or they may be assigned a variety of items. They may be on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Farmworkers learn through short-term on-the-job training. Most do not have a high school diploma. Workers without a high school diploma are particularly common in the crop production sector, where there are more labor-intensive establishments employing migrant farmworkers. In nurseries, entry-level workers must be able to follow directions and learn proper planting procedures. If driving is an essential part of a job, employers look for applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck. Workers who deal directly with customers must get along well with people. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals, because nursery workers sometimes work with little supervision. For graders and sorters, training requirements vary on the basis of their responsibilities. For those who perform tests on various agricultural products, a high school diploma is preferred and may be required. Simple jobs requiring mostly visual inspection may be filled by beginners provided with short-term on-the-job training. Becoming an agricultural inspector requires relevant work ex perience or some college course work in a field such as biology or agricultural science. Inspectors are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be responsible, like detailed work, and be able to communicate well. Federal Government inspectors whose job performance is satisfactory advance through a career ladder to a specified full-performance level. For positions above this level -usu ally supervisory positions advancement is competitive and based on agency needs and individual merit. Advancement opportunities in State and local governments and in the private sector often are similar to those in the Federal Government. The education and training requirements for animal breeders vary with the type of breeding they do. For those whose primary activ ity is breeding, particularly livestock and other large or expensive animals, rather than raising animals, a bachelor’s degree or higher in the animal sciences is recommended with courses in genetics, animal breeding, and animal physiology. For those with experience raising animals or those who are breeding their own animals, an associate’s degree or other postsecondary training in animal breeding is recom mended. Experience working around animals, especially on a farm, is helpful, even for those getting a degree. Advancement of agricultural workers depends on motivation and experience. Farmworkers who work hard and quickly, have good communication skills, and take an interest in the business may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. Some Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations agricultural workers may aspire to become farm, ranch, and other agricultural managers, or farmers or ranchers themselves. (Farm ers, ranchers, and agricultural managers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition, their knowledge of raising and har vesting produce may provide an excellent background for becom ing purchasing agents and buyers of farm products. Knowledge of working a farm as a business can help agricultural workers become farm and home management advisors. Those who earn a college degree in agricultural science could become agricultural Related Occupations and food scientists. Sources of Additional Information Employment Agricultural workers held about 834,000 jobs in 2004. Of these, farmworkers were the most numerous, holding about 690,000 jobs. Graders and sorters held about 45,000 jobs, agricultural inspectors 14,000jobs, agricultural equipment operators 60,000 jobs, and ani mal breeders 12,000 jobs. More than 66 percent of all agricultural workers worked for crop and livestock producers, while more than 5 percent worked for agricultural service providers, mostly farm labor contractors. Job Outlook Overall employment of agricultural workers is projected to decline slightly over the 2004-14 period, primarily reflecting the outlook for farmworkers in crops, nurseries, and greenhouses, who make up the large majority of all agricultural workers. Low wages, the physical demands of the work, and the large numbers of workers who leave these jobs for other occupation should result in abundant job op portunities, however. Continued consolidation of farms and technological advance ments in farm equipment that make farmworkers both more efficient and less needed will cause fewer of them to be hired. Farmworkers will increasingly work for farm labor contractors rather than being hired directly by the farm. The agriculture industry also is expected to undergo increased competition from foreign countries and rising imports, particularly from Central America, owing to the passing of a free trade agreement with that region. Nursery and greenhouse workers should experience some growth in this period, reflecting the increasing demand for landscaping services. Slower-than-average employment growth is anticipated for agricultural inspectors. Governments at all levels are not expected to hire significant numbers of new inspectors, choosing to leave more of the routine inspection to businesses. Slower-than-average growth also is expected for graders and sorters, while employment of agricultural equipment operators is expected to decline slightly, reflecting the agriculture industry’s continuing ability to produce more with fewer workers. Animal breeders also will grow more slowly than the average, as large commercial farmers continue to attempt to breed the perfect animal. However, because the occupation is so small there will be few job openings. Earnings Median hourly earnings in May 2004 for each of the occupations found in this statement are as follows: Agricultural inspectors........................................................ Animal breeders.................................................................. Agricultural workers, all other........................................... Agricultural equipment operators...................................... Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals............................... Graders and sorters, agricultural products......................... Farmworkers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse Few agricultural workers are members of unions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $14.92 13.55 10.15 8.88 8.31 7.90 7.70 487 The duties of farmworkers who perform outdoor labor are related to the work of fishers and operators of fishing vessels; forest, con servation, and logging workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Farmworkers who work with farm and ranch animals perform work related to that of animal care and service workers. Animal breeders may perform some duties related to those of veterinary technologists or veterinarians. Information on agricultural worker jobs is available from: > National FFA Organization, The National FFA Center, Attention: Career Information Requests, P.O. Box 68690, Indianapolis, IN 46268-0960. In ternet: http://www.ffa.org Information on farmworker jobs is available from: >- Growing New Farmers Consortium, c/o New England Small Farm Institute, RO. Box 11, Belchertown, MA 01007. Internet: http://www.northeastnewfarmers.org Information on obtaining positions as an agricultural inspector with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Per sonnel Management through US AJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Inter net at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Fishers and Fishing Vessel Operators (0*NET 45-3011.00) ______ Significant Points • More than 50 percent of all workers are self-employed, among the highest proportion in the workforce. • Many jobs require strenuous work and long hours and provide only seasonal employment. Employment is projected to decline, due to the deple tion of fish stocks and new Federal and State laws restricting both commercial and recreational fishing. • Nature of the Work Fishers and fishing vessel operators catch and trap various types of marine life for human consumption, animal feed, bait, and other uses. (Aquaculture the raising and harvesting, under controlled conditions, of fish and other aquatic life in ponds or confined bodies of water is covered in the Handbook section on farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.) Fishing hundreds of miles from shore with commercial fishing vessels large boats capable of hauling a catch of tens of thousands of pounds of fish requires a crew that includes a captain, or skip per, a first mate and sometimes a second mate, a boatswain (called a deckboss on some smaller boats), and deckhands with specialized skills. The fishing boat captain plans and oversees the fishing opera tion the fish to be sought, the location of the best fishing grounds, the method of capture, the duration of the trip, and the sale of the catch. The captain ensures that the fishing vessel is seaworthy; oversees the purchase of supplies, gear, and equipment, such as fuel, netting, and cables; obtains the required fishing permits and licenses; and hires qualified crew members and assigns their duties. The captain plots the vessel’s course using compasses, charts, and often electronic 488 Occupational Outlook Handbook navigational equipment such as autopilots, loran systems, and satel lite navigation systems. Ships also use radar to avoid obstacles and utilize depth sounders to indicate the water depth and whether there is marine life between the vessel and sea bottom. Sophisticated tracking technology allows captains to better locate and analyze schools of fish. The captain directs the fishing operation through the officers’ actions and records daily activities in the ship’s log. Upon returning to port, the captain arranges for the sale of the catch directly to buyers or through a fish auction and ensures that each crew member receives the prearranged portion of adjusted net proceeds from the sale of the catch. Some captains have begun buying and selling fish via the Internet, and as electronic commerce grows as a method of finding buyers for fresh catch, more captains may use computers. The first mate the captain's assistant, who must be familiar with navigation requirements and the operation of all electronic equipment assumes control of the vessel when the captain is off duty. Duty shifts, called watches, usually last 6 hours. The mate’s regular duty, with the help of the boatswain and under the captain’s oversight, is to direct the fishing operations and sailing responsibili ties of the deckhands, including the operation, maintenance, and repair of the vessel and the gathering, preservation, stowing, and unloading of the catch. The boatswain, a highly experienced deckhand with supervisory responsibilities, directs the deckhands as they carry out the sailing and fishing operations. Before departure, the boatswain directs the deckhands to load equipment and supplies, either by hand or with hoisting equipment, and to untie lines from other boats and the dock. When necessary, boatswains repair fishing gear, equipment, nets, and accessories. They operate the fishing gear, letting out and pulling in nets and lines, and extract the catch, such as pollock, flounder, and tuna, from the nets or the lines’ hooks. Deckhands use dip nets to prevent the escape of small fish and gaffs to facili tate the landing of large fish. They then wash, salt, ice, and stow away the catch. Deckhands also must ensure that decks are clear and clean at all times and that the vessel’s engines and equipment are kept in good working order. Upon return to port, they secure the vessel’s lines to and from the docks and other vessels. Unless “lumpers” (laborers or longshore workers) are hired, the deckhands unload the catch. Large fishing vessels that operate in deep water generally have technologically advanced equipment, and some may have facilities on board where the fish are processed and prepared for sale. Such vessels are equipped for long stays at sea and can perform the work of several smaller boats. Some full-time and many part-time fishers work on small boats in relatively shallow waters, often in sight of land. Navigation and communication needs are vital and constant for almost all types of boats. Crews are small usually, only one or two people collaborate on all aspects of the fishing operation, which may include placing gill nets across the mouths of rivers or inlets, entrapment nets in bays and lakes, or pots and traps for fish or shellfish such as lobsters and crabs. Dredges and scrapes are sometimes used to gather shellfish such as oysters and scallops. A very small proportion of commercial fishing is conducted as diving operations. Depending upon the water’s depth, divers wearing regulation diving suits with an umbilical (air line) or a scuba outfit and equipment use spears to catch fish and use nets and other equipment to gather shellfish, coral, sea urchins, abalone, and sponges. In very shallow waters, fish are caught from small boats having an outboard motor, from rowboats, or by wading or seining from shore. Fishers use a wide variety of hand-operated equipment for example, nets, tongs, rakes, hoes, hooks, and shovels to gather fish and shellfish; catch amphibians and reptiles such as frogs and turtles; and harvest marine vegetation such as Irish moss and kelp. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mSm ifiimn Fishing vessel workers must be mechanically inclined in order to maintain their equipment. Although most fishers are involved in commercial fishing, some cap tains and deckhands use their expertise in fishing for sport or recreational purposes. For this type of fishing, a group of people charter a fishing vessel, the captain, and possibly several deckhands for periods ranging from several hours to a number of days and embark upon sportfishing, socializing, and relaxation. Working Conditions Fishing operations are conducted under various environmental condi tions, depending on the region of the country and the kind of species sought. Storms, fog, and wind may hamper fishing vessels or cause them to suspend fishing operations and return to port. Divers are af fected by murky water and unexpected shifts in underwater currents. In relatively busy fisheries, smaller boats have to take care not to be hit by larger vessels. Fishers and fishing vessel operators work under some of the most hazardous conditions of any occupation, and often help is not readily available when injuries occur. Treatment for any serious injuries may have to await transfer to a hospital. The crew must be on guard against the danger of injury from malfunctioning fishing gear, entanglement in fishing nets and gear, slippery decks resulting from fish-processing operations, ice formation in the winter, or being swept overboard a fearsome situation. Malfunctioning navigation or communication equipment may lead to collisions or shipwrecks. Divers must guard against entanglement of air lines, malfunction of scuba equipment, decompression problems, and attacks by predatory fish. Fishers and fishing vessel operators face strenuous outdoor work and long hours. Commercial fishing trips may require a stay of several weeks or even months hundreds of miles away from one’s home port. The pace of work may vary, but even during travel between the home port and the fishing grounds, deckhands on smaller boats try to finish their cleaning duties so that there are no chores remaining to be done at port. Flowever, lookout watches are a regular responsibility, and crew members must be prepared to stand watch at prearranged times of the day or night. Although fishing gear has improved, and opera tions have become more mechanized, netting and processing fish are strenuous activities. Newer vessels have improved living quarters and amenities such as television and shower stalls, but crews still experience the aggravations of confined quarters, continuous close personal contact, and the absence of family. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Fishers usually acquire their occupational skills on the job, many as members of families involved in fishing activities. No formal Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations academic requirements exist. Operators of large commercial fishing vessels are required to complete a Coast Guard-approved training course. Students can expedite their entrance into these occupa tions by enrolling in 2-year vocational-technical programs offered by secondary schools. In addition, some community colleges and universities offer fishery technology and related programs that include courses in seamanship, vessel operations, marine safety, navigation, vessel repair and maintenance, health emergencies, and fishing gear technology. Courses include hands-on experience. Secondary and postsecondary programs are normally offered in or near coastal areas. Experienced fishers may find short-term workshops offered through various postsecondary institutions especially useful. These programs provide a good working knowledge of electronic equip ment used in navigation and communication and offer information on the latest improvements in fishing gear. Captains and mates on large fishing vessels of at least 200 gross tons must be licensed. Captains of sportfishing boats used for charter, regardless of the boats’ size, must also be licensed. Crew members on certain fish-processing vessels may need a merchant mariner s document. The U.S. Coast Guard issues these documents and li censes to individuals who meet the stipulated health, physical, and academic requirements. (For information about merchant marine occupations, see the section on water transportation occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Fishers must be in good health and possess physical strength. Good coordination, mechanical aptitude, and the ability to work under difficult or dangerous conditions are necessary to operate, maintain, and repair equipment and fishing gear. Fishers need stamina to work long hours at sea, often under difficult conditions. On large vessels, they must be able to work as members of a team. Fishers must be patient, yet always alert, to overcome the boredom of long watches when they are not engaged in fishing operations. The ability to assume any deckhand’s functions on short notice is important. As supervisors, mates must be able to assume all du ties, including the captain’s, when necessary. The captain must be highly experienced, mature, and decisive and also must possess the business skills needed to run business operations. On fishing vessels, most fishers begin as deckhands. Experi enced, reliable deckhands who display supervisory qualities may become boatswains, who, in turn, may become second mates, first mates, and, finally, captains. Deckhands who acquire experience and whose interests are in ship engineering the maintenance and repair of ship engines and equipment can eventually become li censed chief engineers on large commercial vessels after meeting the Coast Guard’s experience, physical, and academic requirements. Almost all captains become self-employed, and the overwhelm ing majority eventually own, or have an interest in, one or more fishing ships. Some may choose to run a sport or recreational fishing operation. When their seagoing days are over, experienced individuals may work in or, manage, or own stores selling fishing and marine equipment and supplies. Some captains may assume advisory or administrative positions in industry trade associations or government offices, such as harbor development commissions, or in teaching positions in industry-sponsored workshops or edu cational institutions. Divers with experience in fishing operations can enter a commercial diving activity for example, repairing ships or maintaining piers and marinas usually after the completion of a certified training program sponsored by an educational institution or industry association. Employment Fishers and fishing vessel operators held an estimated 38,000 jobs in 2004. One out of two was self-employed. Most fishing takes https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 489 place off the coasts, with Alaska, Louisiana, Virginia, California, and Massachusetts bringing in the greatest volume of fish. While fishing off the New England coast has declined in recent years because of restrictions on catching certain species, it still ranks high in total value of fish caught, according to the National Marine Fisheries Service. Job Outlook Employment of fishers and fishing vessel operators is expected to de cline through the year 2014. Some job openings will nevertheless arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or retire. Fishers and fishing vessel operators depend on the natural ability of fish stocks to replenish themselves through growth and reproduction, as well as on governmental regulation to promote replenishment of fisheries. Many operations are currently at or beyond the maximum sustainable yield, partially because of habitat destruction, and the number of workers who can earn an adequate income from fishing is expected to decline. Many fishers and fishing vessel operators leave the occupation because of the strenuous and hazardous nature of the job and the lack of steady, year-round income. The use of sophisticated electronic equipment for navigation, for communication, and for locating fish has raised the efficiency of finding fish stocks. Also, improvements in fishing gear and the use of highly automated floating processors, where the catch is processed aboard the vessel, have greatly increased fish hauls. In many areas, particularly the North Atlantic and Pacific Northwest, damage to spawning grounds and excess fish harvesting capacity have adversely affected the stock of fish and, consequently, the employment opportunities for fishers. Some fisheries councils have issued various types of restrictions on harvesting, to allow stocks of fish and shellfish to naturally replenish, thereby idling many fishers. In addition, low prices for some species and rising seafood imports are adversely affecting fishing income and also causing some fishers to leave the industry. Fishers are also facing competition from farm-raised fish. Sportfishing boats, however, will continue to provide some job opportunities. Governmental efforts to replenish stocks are having some posi tive results, which should increase the stock of fish in the future. Furthermore, efforts by private fishers’ associations on the West Coast to increase government monitoring of the fisheries may help significantly to prevent the type of decline in fish stocks found in waters off the East Coast. Nevertheless, fewer fishers and fishing vessel operators are expected to make their living from the Nation s waters in the years ahead. Earnings Based on limited information, the majority of full-time wage and salary fishers earn between $322 and $775 per week. Earnings of fishers and fishing vessel operators normally are highest in the sum mer and fall when demand for services peaks and environmental conditions are favorable and lowest during the winter. Many full time and most part-time workers supplement their income by work ing in other activities during the off-season. For example, fishers may work in seafood-processing plants, in establishments selling fishing and marine equipment, in construction, or in a number of unrelated seasonal occupations. Earnings of fishers vary widely, depending upon their position, their ownership percentage of the vessel, the size of their ship, and the amount and value of the catch. The costs of the fishing operation the physical aspects of operating the ship, such as the fuel costs, repair and maintenance of gear and equipment, and the crew’s supplies are deducted from the sale of the catch. Net pro ceeds are distributed among the crew members in accordance with a prearranged percentage. Generally, the ship’s owner usually its captain receives half of the net proceeds. From this amount, the 490 Occupational Outlook Handbook owner pays for depreciation, maintenance and repair, and replace ment and insurance costs of the ship and its equipment; the money that remains is the owner’s profit. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve outdoor work with fish and water craft include water transportation occupations and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information Names of postsecondary schools offering fishing and related marine educational programs are available from: >- Marine Technology Society, 5565 Sterrett Place, Suite 108, Columbia, MD 21044. Internet: http://www.mtsociety.org Information on licensing of fishing vessel captains and mates and on requirements for merchant mariner documentation is available from the U.S. Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office or Marine Safety Office in your State. Or contact either of the following agencies: >- Office of Compliance, Commandant (G-MOC-3) 2100 Second St. SW„ Washington, DC 20593. Internet: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_01/46cfr28_01.html >- Licensing and Evaluation Branch, National Maritime Center, 4200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 630, Arlington, VA 22203-1804. Forest, Conservation, and Logginq Workers (Q*NET 45-4011.00, 45-4021.00, 45-4022.01, 45-4023.00, 45-4029.99) Significant Points • Workers spend all their time outdoors, sometimes in poor weather and often in isolated areas. • Most jobs are physically demanding and can be hazardous. • A slight increase in overall employment is expected. Nature of the Work The Nation’s forests are a rich natural resource, providing beauty and tranquility, varied recreational areas, and wood for commercial use. Managing and harvesting the forests and woodlands require many different kinds of workers. Forest and conservation workers * 1 '» i WF- >1 uni ________ A logging equipment operator uses a feller to cut trees. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis help develop, maintain, and protect the forests by growing and planting new seedlings, fighting insects and diseases that attack trees, and helping to control soil erosion. Timber-cutting and log ging workers harvest thousands of acres of forests each year for the timber that provides the raw material for countless consumer and industrial products. Forest and conservation workers perform a variety of tasks to reforest and conserve timberlands, and to maintain forest facilities, such as roads and campsites. Some forest workers, called tree planters, use digging and planting tools called “dibble bars” and “hoedads” to plant seedlings to reforest timberland areas. Forest workers also remove diseased or undesirable trees with power saws or handsaws, spray trees with insecticides and fungicides to kill insects and to protect against disease, and apply herbicides on undesirable bmsh and trees to reduce competing vegetation. Forest workers in private industry, usually working under the direction of professional foresters, paint boundary lines, assist with prescribed burning, aid in marking and measuring trees, and keep tallies of those trees examined and counted. Forest workers who work for State and local governments or who are under contract to the Federal Govern ment also clear away brush and debris from camp trails, roadsides, and camping areas. Some of these workers clean kitchens and rest rooms at recreational facilities and campgrounds. Other forest and conservation workers work in forest nurser ies, sorting out tree seedlings and discarding those not meeting prescribed standards of root formation, stem development, and condition of foliage. Some forest workers are employed on tree farms, where they plant, cultivate, and harvest many different kinds of trees. Their duties vary with the type of farm. Those who work on specialty farms, such as farms growing Christmas or ornamental trees for nurseries, are responsible for shearing treetops and limbs to control the growth of the trees under their care, to increase the density of limbs, and to improve the shapes of the trees. In addition, these workers’ duties include planting the seedlings, spraying to control surrounding weed growth and insects, and harvesting the trees. Other forest workers gather, by hand or with the use of handtools, products from the woodlands, such as decorative greens, tree cones and barks, moss, and other wild plant life. Still others tap trees for sap to make syrup or to produce chemicals. The timber-cutting and logging process is carried out by a variety of workers who make up a logging crew. Falters, commonly known as tree falters, cut down trees with hand-held power chain saws or mobile felling machines. Usually using gas-powered chain saws, buckers trim off the tops and branches and buck (cut) the resulting logs into specified lengths. Choke setters fasten chokers (steel cables or chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by tractors or forwarded by the cable-yarding system to the landing or deck area, where the logs are separated by species and type of product, such as pulpwood, saw logs, or veneer logs, and loaded onto trucks. Rigging stingers and chasers set up and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the yarding system. Log sorters, markers, movers, and chippers sort, mark, and move logs, based on species, size, and ownership, and tend machines that chip up logs. Logging equipment operators on a logging crew perform a num ber of duties. They use tree harvesters to fell the trees, shear the limbs off trees, and then cut the logs into desired lengths. They drive trac tors mounted on crawler tracks, called crawlers, and self-propelled machines called skidders or forwarders, which drag or transport logs from the felling site in the woods to the log landing area for load ing. They also operate grapple loaders, which lift and load logs into trucks. Some logging equipment operators use tracked or wheeled equipment similar to a forklift to unload logs and pulpwood off of Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations trucks or gondola railroad cars, usually at a sawmill or a pulp-mill woodyard. Some newer, more efficient logging equipment is now equipped with state-of-the-art computer technology, requiring more skilled operators with more training. Log graders and scalers inspect logs for defects, measure logs to determine their volume, and estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulpwood. These workers often use hand-held data collection devices to enter data about individual trees; later, the data can be downloaded or sent from the scaling area to a central computer via modem. Other timber-cutting and logging workers have a variety of responsibilities. Some hike through forests to assess logging con ditions. Some clear areas of brush and other growth to prepare for logging activities or to promote the growth of desirable species of trees. The timber-cutting and logging industry is characterized by a large number of small crews of four to eight workers. A typical crew might consist of one or two tree fallers or one tree harvesting machine operator, one bucker, two logging skidder operators to drag cut trees to the loading deck, and one equipment operator to load the logs onto trucks. Most crews work for self-employed logging contractors who possess substantial logging experience, the capital to purchase equipment, and the skills needed to run a small busi ness successfully. Many contractors work alongside their crews as supervisors and often operate one of the logging machines, such as the grapple loader or the tree harvester. Some manage more than one crew and function as owner-supervisors. Although timber-cutting and logging equipment has greatly im proved and operations are becoming increasingly mechanized, many logging jobs still are dangerous and very labor intensive. These jobs require various levels of skill, ranging from the unskilled task of manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully using chain saws to fell trees, and heavy equipment to skid and load logs onto trucks. To keep costs down, many timber-cutting and logging workers maintain and repair the equipment they use. A skillful, experienced logging worker is expected to handle a variety of log ging operations. Working Conditions Forestry and logging jobs are physically demanding. Workers spend all their time outdoors, sometimes in poor weather and often in iso lated areas. The increased use of enclosed machines has decreased some of the discomforts caused by inclement weather and in general made the tasks to be performed much safer. A few logging camps in Alaska and Maine house workers in bunkhouses. Workers in some sparsely populated western States, as well as northern Maine, commute long distances between their homes and logging sites. In the more densely populated eastern and southern States, commuting distances are shorter. Most logging occupations involve lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activities, although machinery has eliminated some of the heavy labor. Loggers work under unusually hazardous conditions. Falling branches, vines, and rough terrains are constant hazards, as are the dangers associated with tree-felling and log-handling opera tions. Special care must be taken during strong winds, which can even halt logging operations. Slippery or muddy ground, hidden roots, or vines not only reduce efficiency, but also present a constant danger, especially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poisonous plants, brambles, insects, snakes, heat, humidity, and extreme cold are everyday occurrences where loggers work. The use of hearing protection devices is required on logging operations because the high noise level of felling and skidding operations over long periods may impair one’s hearing. Experience, the exercise of caution, and the use of proper safety measures and equipment such https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 491 as hardhats, eye and ear protection, and safety clothing and boots are extremely important to avoid injury. The jobs of forest and conservation workers generally are much less hazardous than those of loggers. It may be necessary for some forestry aides or forest workers to walk long distances through densely wooded areas to accomplish their work tasks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forest, conservation, and logging workers develop skills through on-the-job training, with instruction coming primarily from experienced workers. Logging workers must familiarize themselves with the character and dangers of the forest environment and the operation of logging machinery and equipment. However, logging companies and trade associations, such as the Northeastern Log gers Association, the American Loggers Council, and the Forest Resources Association, Inc., offer training programs for workers who operate large, expensive machinery and equipment. Often, a representative of the equipment manufacturer spends several days in the field explaining and overseeing the operation of newly pur chased machinery. Safety training is a vital and required part of the instruction of all logging workers. Many State forestry or logging associations provide training sessions for tree fallers, whose job duties require more skill and experience than do other positions on the logging team. Sessions may take place in the field, where trainees, under the supervision of an experienced logger, have the opportunity to practice various fell ing techniques. Fallers learn how to manually cut down extremely large or expensive trees safely and with minimal damage to the felled or surrounding trees. Training programs for loggers and foresters are common in many States. These training programs also include sessions on encourag ing the health and productivity of the Nation’s forests through the forest product industry’s Sustainable Forest Initiative program. Logger training programs vary by State, but generally include classroom or field training in a number of areas: best management practices, environmental compliance, safety, endangered species, reforestation, and business management. Some programs lead to logger certification. Generally, a college education is not required for most forest, conservation, and logging occupations. Many secondary schools, including vocational and technical schools and some community colleges, offer courses leading to a two-year technical degree in forestry, wildlife management, conservation, and forest harvest ing, all of which are helpful in obtaining a job. A curriculum that includes field trips to observe or participate in forestry or logging activities provides a particularly good background. Generally, there are no educational requirements for forest worker jobs. Many of these workers are high school or college students who are hired on a part-time or seasonal basis to perform short-term, labor-intensive tasks, such as planting tree seedlings or conducting precommercial tree thinnings. Experience working at a nursery or as a laborer can be useful in obtaining a job as a forest or conservation worker. Logging workers generally advance from occupations involving primarily manual labor to those involving the operation of expensive, sometimes complicated logging equipment. Inexperienced entrants usually begin as laborers, carrying tools and equipment, clearing brush, performing equipment maintenance, and loading and unloading logs and brush. For some, familiarization with logging operations may lead to jobs such as log handling equipment operator. Further experience may lead to jobs involving the operation of more complicated machinery and yarding towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those who have the motor skills required for the efficient use of power saws and other equipment may become fallers and buckers. 492 Occupational Outlook Handbook Forest, conservation, and logging workers must be in good health and able to work outdoors every day. They also must be able to work as part of a team. Many logging occupations require physical strength and stamina. Maturity and good judgment are important in making quick, intelligent decisions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordination are necessary qualities for operators of machinery and equipment, who often are responsible for repair and maintenance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are necessary for success as a self-employed logging contractor. Employment Forest, conservation, and logging workers held about 92,000 jobs in 2004, distributed among the following occupations: Logging equipment operators....................................................... 43,000 Forest and conservation workers.................................................. 17,000 Fallers............................................................................................ 15,000 Log graders and scalers................................................................. 9,000 Logging workers, all other............................................................... 7,000 Most tree fallers, and almost half of all logging equipment opera tors, are employed in logging, although some work for sawmills and planing mills. Employment of log graders and scalers is concentrated largely in sawmills and planing mills. About 45 percent of all forest and conservation workers work for government, primarily at the State and local level. Twenty one percent are employed by companies that operate timber tracts, tree farms, or forest nurseries, or for contractors that supply services to agriculture and forestry industries. Some of those employed in forestry services work on a contract basis for the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service. A small number of forest and conser vation workers work in sawmills and planing mills. Although forest and conservation workers are located in every State, employment is concentrated in the West and Southeast, where many national and private forests and parks are located. Self-employed forest, conservation, and logging workers account for more than 3 of every 10 such workers a much higher proportion of self-employment than in most other occupations. Seasonal demand for forest, conservation, and logging workers varies by region. For example, in the northern States, winter work is common because the frozen ground facilitates logging. In the Southeast, logging and related activities occur year-round, except during periods of very wet weather. Job Outlook Overall employment of forest, conservation, and logging workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupa tions through the year 2014. Most job openings will result from replacement needs. Many logging workers transfer to other jobs that are less physically demanding and dangerous, or else they retire. In addition, some forestry workers are youths who are not committed to the occupation on a long-term basis. Employment of forest and conservation workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Setting aside more land to protect natural resources or wildlife habitats helps to create demand for more forest and conservation workers. In addition, recent Federal legislation designed to prevent destructive wildfires by thinning the forests and setting controlled burns may create more jobs for forest and conservation workers in those areas of the Nation with drier climates and higher susceptibility to forest fires. New federal policy allowing some access to federal timberland may create some logging jobs, and job opportunities also will arise from owners of privately owned forests and tree farms. Nevertheless, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis domestic timber producers continue to face increasing competition from foreign producers, who can harvest the same amount of timber at lower cost. As competition increases, the logging industry is expected to continue to consolidate in order to reduce costs, thereby eliminating some jobs. Increased mechanization of logging operations and improve ments in logging equipment will continue to depress demand for many manual timber-cutting and logging workers. Employment of fallers, buckers, choke setters, and other workers whose jobs are labor intensive should decline as safer laborsaving machinery and other equipment are increasingly used. Employment of machinery and equipment operators, such as tree harvesting, skidding, and log-handling equipment operators, will be less adversely affected and should rise slightly as logging companies switch away from manual tree felling. Weather can force the curtailment of logging operations during the muddy spring season and the cold winter months, depending on the geographic region. Changes in the level of construction, particularly residential construction, also affect logging activities in the short term. In addition, logging operations must be relocated when timber in a particular area has been harvested. During prolonged periods of inactivity, some workers may stay on the job to maintain or repair logging machinery and equipment; while others are laid off or forced to find jobs in other occupations. Earnings Earnings vary with the particular forestry or logging occupation and with experience. Earnings range from the minimum wage in some beginning forestry and conservation positions to about $25.46 an hour for some experienced fallers. Median hourly earnings in May 2004 for forest, conservation, and logging occupations were as follows: Logging workers, all other.............................................................. $14.29 Fallers............................................................................................... ,323 Logging equipment operators......................................................... 13 j 8 Log graders and scalers................................................................... 12.29 Forest and conservation workers.................................................... 9.51 Earnings of logging workers vary by size of establishment and by geographic area. Workers in the largest establishments earn more than those in the smallest ones. Workers in Alaska and the North west earn more than those in the South, where the cost of living is generally lower. Forest and conservation workers who work for State and lo cal governments or for large, private firms generally enjoy more generous benefits than do workers in smaller firms. Small logging contractor firms generally offer timber-cutting and logging workers few benefits beyond vacation leAVE. However, some employers offer full-time workers basic benefits, such as medical coverage, and provide safety apparel and equipment. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with the care of trees and their envi ronment include conservation scientists and foresters, forest and conservation technicians, and grounds maintenance workers. Log ging equipment operators have skills similar to material-moving operators, such as industrial truck and tractor operators, and crane and tower operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about timber-cutting and logging careers and about secondary and postsecondary programs offering training for logging occupations, contact: Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations >• Forest Resources Association, Inc., 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 350, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.forestresources.org >■ American Loggers Council. P.O. Box 966, Hemphill, TX 75948. Internet: http://www.americanloggers.org For information on the Sustainable Forestry Initiative training programs, contact: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 493 >• American Forest & Paper Association, 1111 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.afandpa.org A list of State forestry associations and other forestry-related State associations is available at most public libraries. Schools of Forestry at State land-grant colleges or universities also should be useful sources of information. Construction Trades and Related Workers Boilermakers (Q*NET 47-2011.00) Significant Points • A formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. • Average employment growth is expected; additional openings will be created because many boilermakers are expected to retire. • fans S'a I wBBli Persons with a welding certification or other weld ing training get priority in selection to apprenticeship programs. Nature of the Work Boilermakers and boilermaker mechanics make, install, and repair boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases. Boilers supply steam to drive huge turbines in electric powerplants and to provide heat and power in buildings, factories, and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Boilers and other high-pressure vessels usually are made in sections, by casting each piece out of molten iron or steel. Manu facturers are increasingly automating this process to increase the quality of these vessels. Boiler sections are then welded together, often using automated orbital welding machines, which make more consistent welds than are possible by hand. Small boilers may be assembled in the manufacturing plant; larger boilers usually are assembled on site. Following blueprints, boilermakers locate and mark reference points on the boiler foundation, using straightedges, squares, transits, and tape measures. Boilermakers attach rigging and signal crane operators to lift heavy frame and plate sections and other parts into place. They align sections, using plumb bobs, levels, wedges, and turnbuckles. Boilermakers use hammers, files, grinders, and cutting torches to remove irregular edges, so that edges fit properly. They then bolt or weld edges together. Boilermakers align and attach water tubes, stacks, valves, gauges, and other parts and test complete vessels for leaks or other defects. They also install refractory brick and other heat-resistant materials in fireboxes or pressure vessels. Usually, they assemble large vessels temporarily in a fabrication shop to ensure a proper fit before final assembly on the permanent site. Because boilers last a long time—35 years or more—boiler makers regularly maintain them and update components, such as burners and boiler tubes, to increase efficiency. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and similar vessels. They inspect tubes, fittings, valves, controls, and auxiliary machinery and clean or supervise the cleaning of boilers using scrapers, wire brushes, and cleaning solvents. They repair or replace defective parts, using hand and power tools, gas torches, and welding equip ment, and may operate metalworking machinery to repair or make parts. They also dismantle leaky boilers, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections, and strengthen joints. Working Conditions Boilermakers often use potentially dangerous equipment, such as acetylene torches and power grinders, handle heavy parts, and Digitized 494for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because boilers last a long time, boilermakers need to regularly maintain them and replace components, such as burners and boiler tubes. work on ladders or on top of large vessels. Work is physically demanding and may be done in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks that are often damp and poorly ventilated. In some instances, work may be done at high elevations for an extended period. To reduce the chance of injuries, boilermakers may wear hardhats, harnesses, protective clothing, safety glasses and shoes, and respirators. Boilermakers may experience extended periods of overtime when equipment is shut down for maintenance. Overtime work also may be necessary to meet construction or production deadlines. At other times there may be periods of unemployment between jobs. TY-aining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many boilermakers learn this trade through a formal apprentice ship. Others become boilermakers through a combination of trade or technical school training and employer-provided training. Apprenticeship programs usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by a minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as set-up and assembly rig ging, welding of all types, blueprint reading, and layout. Those with welding training or a welding certification will have priority in applying for apprenticeship programs. Experienced boilermakers often attend apprenticeship classes or seminars to learn about new equipment, procedures, and technology. When an apprenticeship becomes available, the local union publicizes the opportunity by notifying local vocational schools and high school vocational programs. Some boilermakers advance to supervisory positions. Because of their broader training, apprentices usually have an advantage in promotion over those who have not gone through the full program. Construction Trades and Related Workers Employment Boilermakers held about 19,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly 7 out of 10 worked in the construction industry, assembling and erecting boilers and other vessels. More than 1 in 7 worked in manufacturing, primar ily in boiler manufacturing shops, iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, and shipyards. Some also worked for boiler repair firms or railroads. Job Outlook Average growth in employment of boilermakers is expected through the year 2014. Additional openings will be created by the need to replace experienced workers who are expected to retire in great numbers in the next 10 years. Unionized boilermakers are eligible to retire earlier than many other workers, partly due to the physically demanding nature of the work. Persons who have welding training or a welding certificate should have the best opportunities for being selected for boilermaker apprenticeship programs. Growth will be limited by trends toward repairing and retrofit ting, rather than replacing, existing boilers; the growing use of small boilers, which require less onsite assembly; and automation of production technologies. However, many boilers are getting older and will need replacing, which will create some demand for more boilermakers. In addition, utility companies will need to upgrade many of their boiler systems in the next few years to meet the Federal Clean Air Act. Also, as more power companies convert to coal as their primary source of fuel, additional boilers will be needed. Most industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to economic conditions. Therefore, during economic downturns, boilermakers in the construction industry may be laid off. However, mainte nance and repairs of boilers must continue even during economic downturns so boilermaker mechanics in manufacturing and other industries generally have more stable employment. Earnings In May 2004, the median hourly earnings of boilermakers were about $21.68. The middle 50 percent earned between $17.80 and $26.82. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14.07, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.46. Apprentices generally start at about half of journey-level wages, with wages gradually increasing to the journey wage as progress is made in the apprenticeship. About half of all boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers. Other boiler makers are members of the International Association of Machinists, the United Automobile Workers, or the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations assemble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These occupations include assemblers and fabricators; machinists; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwrights; millwrights; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; sheet metal workers; tooland-die makers; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions previ ously mentioned, local construction companies and boiler manufac turers, or the local office of your State employment service. For information on apprenticeships and the boilermaking oc cupation, contact: >- International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Black smiths, Forgers, and Helpers, 753 State Ave., Suite 570, Kansas City, KS 66101. Internet: http://www.boilermakers.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 495 Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons (0*NET 47-2021.00, 47-2022.00) Significant Points • Job prospects are expected to be very good. • Most entrants learn informally on the job, but appren ticeship programs provide the most thorough training. • The work is usually outdoors and involves lifting heavy materials and working on scaffolds. • Nearly 1 out of 3 are self-employed. Nature of the Work Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons work in closely re lated trades creating attractive, durable surfaces and structures. The work varies in complexity, from laying a simple masonry walkway to installing an ornate exterior on a highrise building. Brickmasons and blockmasons—who often are called simply bricklayers—build and repair walls, floors, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures with brick, precast masonry panels, concrete block, and other masonry materials. Some brickmasons specialize in installing firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls, as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone—natural cut stone, such as marble, granite, and limestone; and artificial stone made from concrete, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Stonemasons usually work on nonresidential structures, such as houses of worship, hotels, and office buildings, but they also work on residences. When building a structure, brickmasons use 1 of 2 methods, either the comer lead or the comer pole. Using the comer lead method, they begin by constructing a pyramid of bricks at each comer—called a lead. After the comer leads are complete, less experienced brickmasons fill in the wall between the comers using a line from comer to comer to guide each course, or layer, of brick. Due to the precision needed, comer leads are time-consuming to erect and require the skills of experienced bricklayers. Because of the expense associated with building corner leads, some brickmasons use comer poles, also called masonry guides, that enable them to build an entire wall at the same time. They fasten the corner poles (posts) in a plumb position to define the wall line and stretch a line between them. This line serves as a guide for each course of brick. Brickmasons then spread a bed of mortar (a cement, lime, sand, and water mixture) with a trowel (a flat, bladed metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and press and tap the brick into place. Depending on blue print specifications, brickmasons either cut bricks with a hammer and chisel or saw them to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are then finished with jointing tools for a sealed, neat, uniform appearance. Although brickmasons typi cally use steel supports, or lintels, at window and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches, which support and enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings, in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and carry these prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick operator using a hoist may be needed to lift large stone pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They then align the stones with wedges, 496 Occupational Outlook Handbook plumblines, and levels, and work them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons continue to build the wall by alternating lay ers of mortar and courses of stone. As the work progresses, masons remove the wedges, fill the joints between stones, and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt these brackets to anchors in the wall. Finally, masons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first use a trowel to spread a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and clean the stone slabs. Masons use a special hammer and chisel to cut stone. They cut stone along the grain to make various shapes and sizes, and valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble, which, in many respects, is simi lar to setting large pieces of stone. Brickmasons and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks, and replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Most nonresidential buildings now are built with walls made of concrete block, brick veneer, stone, granite, marble, tile, or glass. In the past, masons doing nonresidential interior work mainly built block partition walls and elevator shafts, but because many types of masonry and stone are used in the interiors of today’s nonresi dential structures, these workers now must be more versatile. For example, some brickmasons and blockmasons now install structural insulated wall panels and masonry accessories used in many highrise buildings. Refractory masons are brickmasons who specialize in installing firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establishments. Most of these workers are employed in steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. T Stonemasons often workfrom a set ofdrawings in which each stone has been numberedfor identification • https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons usually work out doors, but in contrast to the past when work slowed down in the winter months, new processes and materials are allowing these masons to work in a greater variety of weather conditions. Masons stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and often have to lift heavy materials. Common hazards include injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds, but these can often be avoided when proper safety equipment is used and safety practices are followed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons pick up their skills informally, observing and learning from experienced work ers. Many others receive training in vocational education schools or from industry-based programs that are common throughout the country. Another way to learn these skills is through an apprentice ship program, which generally provides the most thorough training. Knowledge of algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing are important in this trade. Individuals who learn the trade on the job usually start as helpers, laborers, or mason tenders. These workers carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity arises, they learn from experienced craftworkers how to spread mortar, lay brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experience, they make the transition to full-fledged craftworkers. The learning period on the job may last longer than if trained in an apprenticeship program. Industry-based training programs offered through construction companies usually last between 2 and 4 years. Apprenticeships for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons usually are sponsored by local contractors, trade associations, or by local union-management committees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to a minimum 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathematics, layout work, and sketching. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education is preferable with courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop helpful. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, carrying mate rials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes the apprentice with job routines and materials. Next, apprentices learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. They may also learn on the job or before they are hired to work with stone and concrete, which enables them to work with more than one masonry material. . Bricklayers who work in nonresidential construction usually work for large contractors and receive well-rounded training—normally through apprenticeship in all phases of brick or stone work. Those who work in residential construction usually work primarily for small contractors and specialize in only one or two aspects of the job. With additional training and experience, brickmasons, block masons, and stonemasons may become supervisors for masonry contractors. Some eventually become owners of businesses employ ing many workers and may spend most of their time as managers rather than as brickmasons, blockmasons, or stonemasons. Others move into closely related areas such as construction management or building inspection. Employment Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons held 177,000 jobs in 2004. The vast majority were brickmasons. Workers in these crafts are employed primarily by building, specialty trade, or gen eral contractors. Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons work throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Construction Trades and Related Workers Nearly 1 out of 3 brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are self-employed. Many of the self-employed are contractors that work on small jobs, such as patios, walkways, and fireplaces. Job Outlook Job opportunities for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are expected to be very good through 2014. A large number of masons are expected to retire over the next decade and in some areas there are not enough applicants for the skilled masonry jobs to replace those that are leaving. Jobs for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are also expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period, as population and business growth create a need for new houses, industrial facilities, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures. Also stimulating demand will be the need to restore a growing stock of old masonry buildings, as well as the increasing use of brick and stone for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Brick exteriors should remain very popular, reflecting a growing preference for durable exterior materials requiring little maintenance. Employment of brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment. 497 For information on training for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons, contact: >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Divi sion, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.trytooIs.org > International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, International Masonry Institute, The James Brice House, 42 East St., Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org >- National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org ► National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org For general information about the work of bricklayers, contact: >- Associated General Contractors ofAmerica, Inc., 2300 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.agc.org >- Brick Industry Association, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1525. Internet: http://www.brickinfo.org >- National Concrete Masonry Association, 13750 Sunrise Valley Dr., Herndon, VA 20171-3499. Internet: http://www.ncma.org Carpenters _______ (0*NET 47-2031.01, 47-2031.02, 47-2031.03,47-2031.04, 47-2031.05, 47-2031.06) Significant Points Earnings Median hourly earnings of brickmasons and blockmasons in May 2004 were $20.07. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.34 and $25.20. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.43. Median hourly earnings in the two industries employing the largest number of brickmasons in 2004 were $22.98 in the nonresidential building construction industry and $19.95 in the foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors industry. Median hourly earnings of stonemasons in 2004 were $16.82. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.74 and $21.45. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.97, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.23. Earnings for workers in these trades can be reduced on occasion because poor weather and slowdowns in construction activity limit the time they can work. Apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. Pay increases as apprentices gain experience and learn new skills. Some brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are members of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers. Related Occupations Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons combine a thorough knowledge of brick, concrete block, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect attractive, yet highly durable, structures. Workers in other occupations with similar skills include carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble-setting contractors; the Associated Builders and Contractors; a local office of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For overall information on apprenticeship programs registered with the U.S. Department of Labor, including links to State apprenticeship see Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat Digitized sites, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • About one-third of all carpenters—the largest construction trade—were self-employed. • Job opportunities should be excellent for those with the most training and all-round skills. To become a skilled carpenter usually takes between 3 and 4 years of both on-the-job training and classroom instruction. • Nature of the Work Carpenters are involved in many different kinds of construction activity, from the building of highways and bridges, to the instal lation of kitchen cabinets. Carpenters construct, erect, install, and repair structures and fixtures made from wood and other materials. Depending on the type of work and the employer, carpenters may specialize in one or two activities or may be required to know how to perform many different tasks. Small home builders and remodel ing companies may require carpenters to learn about all aspects of building a house—framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, building stairs, installing cabinets and molding, and many other tasks. Large construction contractors or specialty contractors, however, may require their carpenters to perform only a few regular tasks, such as framing walls, constructing wooden forms for pouring concrete, or erecting scaffolding. Carpenters also build tunnel brac ing, or brattices, in underground passageways and mines to control the circulation of air through the passageways and to worksites. Each carpentry task is somewhat different, but most involve the same basic steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, carpenters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging materials—in accordance with local building codes. They cut and shape wood, plastic, fiberglass, or dry wall using hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, drills, and sanders. They then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or adhesives. In the final step, carpenters check the accuracy of their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, framing squares, or electronic versions of these tools, and make any necessary adjustments. When working with prefabricated components, such as stairs or wall panels, the carpenter’s task is somewhat simpler because it does not require as 498 Occupational Outlook Handbook Carpenters construct, erect, install, and repair structures andfixtures made primarily of wood. much layout work or the cutting and assembly of as many pieces. Prefabricated components are designed for easy and fast installation and generally can be installed in a single operation. Carpenters who remodel homes and other structures need a broad range of carpentry skills because they must be able to perform any of the many different tasks these jobs may require. Since they are so well-trained, these carpenters often can switch from residential building to commercial construction or remodeling work, depending on which offers the best work opportunities. Carpenters employed outside the construction industry perform a variety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabi nets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, carpenters install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken furniture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in moving or installing machinery. (For more information on workers who install machinery, see the discussion of millwrights as well as industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwrights, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions As is true of other building trades, carpentry work is sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing, climbing, bending, and kneeling often are necessary. Carpenters risk injury working with sharp or rough materials, using sharp tools and power equipment, and working in situations where they might slip or fall. Although many carpen ters work indoors, those that work outdoors are subject to variable weather conditions. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a con struction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs, depending on where the work is available. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through formal and informal training programs. To become a skilled carpenter usually takes between https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 3 and 4 years of both classroom and on-the-job training. While there are a number of different ways to obtain this training, in general, the more formalized the process, the more skilled you will become, and the more in demand by employers. For some, this training can begin in a high school, where classes in English, algebra, geometry, physics, mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, and general shop are recommended. After high school, there are a number of different avenues that one can take to obtain the necessary training. One of the ways is to obtain a job with a contractor who will then provide on-the-job training. Entry-level workers generally start as helpers, assisting more experienced workers. During this time, the carpenter’s helper may elect to attend a trade or vocational school, or community college to receive further trade-related training. Some employers, particularly large nonresidential construction contractors with union membership, offer employees formal ap prenticeships. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship applicants usually must be at least 18 years old and meet local requirements; some union locals, for example, test an applicant’s aptitude for carpentry. Apprenticeship programs are usually 3 to 4 years in length, but vary with the apprentice’s skill. The number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, so only a small proportion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs, mostly those working for com mercial and industrial building contractors. On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and become familiar with common carpentry jobs, such as layout, form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading, freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and various carpen try techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades. Some persons aiming for carpentry careers choose to obtain their classroom training before seeking ajob. There are a number of public and private vocational-technical schools and training academies af filiated with the unions and contractors that offer training to become a carpenter. Employers often look favorably upon these students and usually start them at a higher level than those without the training. Some skills needed to become a carpenter include manual dexter ity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of bal ance. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is required. In addition, a good work history or military service is viewed favorably by contractors. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to become general construction supervisors because carpenters are exposed to the entire construction process. For those who would like to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instructions and safety precautions to workers with limited understanding of English; Spanish-speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many areas. Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisor or general construction supervisor positions. Others may become independent contractors. Supervi sors and contractors need good communication skills to deal with clients and subcontractors, should be able to identify and estimate the quantity of materials needed to complete ajob, and accurately estimate how long ajob will take to complete and at what cost. Employment Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community and make up the largest building trades occupation. They held about 1.3 million jobs in 2004. About one-third worked in building construction and about one-fifth worked for special trade contractors. Most of the rest of the wage and salary workers worked Construction Trades and Related Workers for manufacturing firms, government agencies, retail establishments and a wide variety of other industries. About one-third of all car penters were self-employed. Job Outlook Job opportunities for carpenters are expected to be excellent over the 2004-14 period, particularly for those with the most skills. Employ ment of carpenters is expected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through 2014, and turnover also creates a large number of openings each year. Contractors report having trouble finding skilled carpenters to fill many of their openings, due in part to the fact that many jobseekers are not inclined to go into construction, preferring work that is less strenuous with more comfortable working condi tions. Also, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but eventually leave the occupation because they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment. The need for carpenters is expected to grow as construction activity increases in response to demand for new housing, office and retail space, and for modernizing and expanding schools and industrial plants. A strong home remodeling market also will create a large demand for carpenters. Some of the demand for carpenters, however, will be offset by expected productivity gains resulting from the increasing use of prefabricated components and improved fasteners and tools. Pre fabricated wall panels, roof assemblies and stairs and prehung doors and windows can be installed very quickly. Instead of having to be built on the worksite, prefabricated walls, partitions, and stairs can be lifted into place in one operation; beams—and, in some cases, entire roof assemblies—are lifted into place using a crane. As prefabri cated components become more standardized, builders will use them more often. In addition, improved adhesives are reducing the time needed to join materials, and lightweight, cordless, and pneumatic tools—such as nailers and drills—will all continue to make carpenters more efficient. New and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials also have vastly increased carpenter versatility. Carpenters with all-round skills will have better opportunities for steady work than carpenters who can perform only a few rela tively simple, routine tasks. Carpenters can experience periods of unemployment because of the short-term nature of many construc tion projects, winter slowdowns in construction activity in northern areas, and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, the number of job openings for carpenters declines. Building activity depends on many factors that vary with the state of the economy—interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, government spending, and business investment. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and busi nesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. The areas with the largest population increases will also provide the best job opportunities for carpenters and apprenticeship opportunities for persons seeking to enter carpentry. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of carpenters were $16.78. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.91 and $22.62. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.36, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.65. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of carpenters in May 2004 were as follows: Nonresidential building construction.............................................. $18.70 Building finishing contractors......................................................... 17.51 Residential building construction................................................... 16.48 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors............... 16.40 Employment services...................................................................... 13.94 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 499 Earnings can be reduced on occasion, because carpenters lose worktime in bad weather and during recessions when jobs are unavailable. Some carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Other skilled con struction occupations include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; electricians; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, locals of the union mentioned above, local joint union-contrac tor apprenticeship committees, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. You can also find information on the registered apprenticeship system with links to State apprenticeship programs on the U.S. Department of Labor’s website: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat For information on training opportunities and carpentry in gen eral, contact: >■ Associated Builders and Contractors, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: www.trytools.org ► Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 2300 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.agc.org >■ National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org > National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org >■ United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Carpen ters Training Fund, 6801 Placid Street Las Vegas, NV 89119. Internet: http ://ww w.carpenters.org Carpet, Floor, and Tile Installers and Finishers (0*NET 47-2041.00, 47-2042.00, 47-2043.00, 47-2044.00) Significant Points • Around two-fifths of all carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are self-employed. • Most workers learn on the job. • Tile installers and setters will see the fastest growth; carpet installers will have the most job openings. • Employment of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers is less sensitive to fluctuations in construction activity than that of other construction trades workers. Nature of the Work Carpet, tile, and other types of floor coverings not only serve an important basic function in buildings, but their decorative qualities also contribute to the appeal of the buildings. Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers lay these floor coverings in homes, offices, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and many other types of buildings. Tile also may be installed on walls and ceilings. Before installing carpet, carpet installers first inspect the surface to be covered to determine its condition and, if necessary, correct any imperfections that could show through the carpet or cause the 500 Occupational Outlook Handbook carpet to wear unevenly. They must measure the area to be carpeted and plan the layout, keeping in mind expected traffic patterns and placement of seams for best appearance and maximum wear. When installing wall-to-wall carpet without tacks, installers first fasten a tackless strip to the floor, next to the wall. They then install the padded cushion or underlay. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 2 to 3 inches of extra carpet for the final fitting. Using a device called a “knee kicker,” they position the carpet, stretching it to fit evenly on the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold. They then cut off the excess carpet. Finally, using a power stretcher, they stretch the carpet, hooking it to the tackless strip to hold it in place. The installers then finish the edges using a wall trimmer. Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall installations require installers to join carpet sections together for large rooms. The installers join the sections using heat-taped seams—seams held together by a special plastic tape that is acti vated by heat. On special upholstery work, such as stairs, carpet may be held in place with staples. Also, in commercial installations, carpet often is glued directly to the floor or to padding that has been glued to the floor. Carpet installers use hand tools such as hammers, drills, staple guns, carpet knives, and rubber mallets. They also may use carpet laying tools, such as carpet shears, knee kickers, wall trimmers, loop pile cutters, heat irons, and power stretchers. Floor installers andfloor layers lay floor coverings such as lami nate, linoleum, vinyl, cork, and rubber for decorative purposes, or to deaden sounds, absorb shocks, or create air-tight environments. Although they also may install carpet, wood or tile, that is not their main job. Before installing the floor, floor layers inspect the surface to be covered and, if necessary, correct any imperfections in order to start with a smooth, clean foundation. They measure and cut floor covering materials according to plans or blueprints. Next, they may nail or staple a wood underlayment to the surface or may use an adhesive to cement the foundation material to the floor; the foundation helps to deaden sound and prevents the top floor covering from wearing at board joints. Finally, floor layers install the floor covering to form a tight fit. After a carpenter installs a new hardwood floor or when a cus tomer wants to refinish an old wood floor, floor sanders andfinishers are called in to smooth any imperfections in the wood and apply finish coats of varnish or polyurethane. To remove imperfections and smooth the surface, they will scrape and sand wooden floors using floor-sanding machines. They then inspect the floor and re move excess glue from joints using a knife or wood chisel and may further sand the wood surfaces by hand, using sandpaper. Finally, they apply coats of finish. Tile installers, tilesetters, and marble setters apply hard tile and marble to floors, walls, ceilings, countertops, and roof decks. Tile and marble are durable, impervious to water, and easy to clean, mak ing them a popular building material in hospitals, tunnels, lobbies of buildings, bathrooms, and kitchens. Prior to installation, tilesetters use measuring devices and levels to ensure that the tile is placed in a consistent manner. Tile var ies in color, shape, and size, ranging in size from 1 inch to 24 or more inches on a side, so tilesetters sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to the intended design. This allows them to examine the pattern, check that they have enough of each type of tile, and determine where they will have to cut tiles to fit the design in the available space. In order to cover all exposed areas, includ ing corners and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins, tilesetters cut tiles to fit with a machine saw or a special cutting tool. To set tile on a flat, solid surface such as dry wall, concrete, plaster, or wood, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tilesetters first use a tooth-edged trowel to spread a “thin set,” or thin layer, of cement adhesive or “mastic,” a very sticky paste. They then properly position the tile and gently tap the surface with their trowel handle, rubber mallet, and/or a small block of wood to seat the tile evenly and firmly. To apply tile to an area that lacks a solid surface, tilesetters nail a support of metal mesh or tile backer board to the wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement mortar—called a “scratch coat”—onto the metal screen, and scratch the surface of the soft mortar with a small tool similar to a rake. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply a brown coat of mortar to level the surface, and then apply mortar to the brown coat and place tile it onto the surface. When the cement or mastic has set, tilesetters fill the joints with “grout,” which is very fine cement and includes sand for joints l/8th of an inch and larger. They then apply the grout to the surface with a rubber-edged device called a grout float or a grouting trowel to dress the joints and remove excess grout. Before the grout sets, they finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance. Marble setters cut and set marble slabs in floors and walls of buildings. They trim and cut marble to specified size using a power wet saw, other cutting equipment, or handtools. After setting the marble in place, they polish the marble to high luster using power tools or by hand. Working Conditions Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers generally work indoors and have regular daytime hours. Flowever, when floor covering installers need to work in occupied stores or offices, they may work evenings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Installers and finishers usually work under better conditions than do most other construction workers. By the time workers install carpets, flooring, or tile in a new structure, most construction has been completed and the work area is relatively clean and uncluttered. Installing these materials is labor intensive; workers spend much of IIIIIS In order to coverall exposed areas, including in comers and around pipes, tilesetters use a machine saw or a special cutting tool to cut tiles to fit. Construction Trades and Related Workers their time bending, kneeling, and reaching—activities that require endurance. Carpet installers frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet and may move heavy furniture. Safety regulations may require that they wear kneepads or safety goggles when using certain tools. Carpet and floor layers may be exposed to fumes from various kinds of glue and to fibers of certain types of carpet. Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as hazardous as some other construction occupations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers learn their trade informally on the job. A few, mostly tile setters, learn through formal apprenticeship programs taking nearly 3 years to complete, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training for carpet installers often is sponsored by indi vidual contractors. Workers start as helpers, and begin with simple assignments, such as installing stripping and padding, or helping to stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult assignments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting. Tile and marble setters also learn their craft mostly through onthe-job training. They start by helping carry materials and learning about the tools of the trade. They then learn to prepare the subsurface for tile or marble. As they progress they learn to cut the tile and marble to fit the job. They will also learn to apply grout and seal ants used in finishing the materials to give it its final appearance. Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored programs provide comprehensive training in all phases of the tilesetting and floor layer trades. Floor layers, except carpet, wood, and hard tile, learn on the job and begin by learning how to use the tools of the trade. They next learn to prepare surfaces to receive flooring. As they progress, they learn to cut and install the various floor coverings. Some skills needed to become carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers include manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance and color. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is required. In addition, reliability and a good work history is viewed favorably by contractors. Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers may advance to posi tions as supervisors or become salespersons or estimators. In these positions, they should be able to identify and estimate the quantity of materials needed to complete a job, and accurately estimate how long a job will take to complete and at what cost. Some carpet installers may become managers for large installa tion firms. Many carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers who begin working for someone else eventually go into business for themselves as independent subcontractors. Around two-fifths of all carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are self-employed. For those who would like to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instructions and safety precautions to workers with limited understanding of English; Spanish-speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many areas. Workers who want to advance supervisor jobs or become contractors need good English skills to deal with clients and subcontractors. Tile and marble setters.................................................................. Carpet installers............................................................................ Floor layers, except carpet, wood, and hard tiles......................... Floor sanders and finishers............................................................ 501 44,000 41,000 16,000 7,000 Many carpet installers work for flooring contractors or floor cov ering retailers. Most salaried tilesetters are employed by tilesetting contractors who work mainly on nonresidential construction projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. Most self-employed tilesetters work on residential projects. Although carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are em ployed throughout the Nation, they tend to be concentrated in popu lated areas where there are high levels of construction activity. Job Outlook Employment of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the year 2014, reflecting the continued need to renovate and refurbish existing structures. Job growth and opportunities, however, will differ among the individual occu pations. Tile and marble setters will have faster than average job growth and excellent job opportunities as demand for these workers outstrips the supply; however, because it is a small occupation, job openings will be limited. Carpet installers, the largest specialty, should have the most job openings due to high turnover in this occupation. Employment of floor sanders and finishers—a small specialty—is projected to grow more slowly than average due to the increasing use of prefinished hardwood and laminate flooring. Carpet is expected to increasingly be used as a floor covering in nonresidential structures such as schools, offices, and hospitals. Residential homes will also continue to use carpet in many areas of the house, although other flooring types are currently more popular. Carpet is also required or highly recommended in many multifamily structures as it provides sound dampening. Demand for tile and marble setters will stem from population and business growth, which will result in more construction of shopping malls, hospitals, schools, restaurants, and other structures in which tile is used extensively. Tile is also becoming more popular as a building material in residential structures, particularly in the growing number of more expensive homes. Demand for floor sanders and finishers will be primarily based on growth in the residential construction and remodeling market, as homeowners increasingly choose hardwood as their flooring of choice. The need to periodically refinish older wood floors will also continue to generate demand, but growth will be slowed by the use of more prefinished hardwood and more durable finishes and laminate products that look like wood. Slow employment growth, together with the small size of this occupation, will result in relatively few job openings for these workers. Employment of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finish ers is less sensitive to changes in construction activity than most other construction occupations because much of the work involves replacing worn carpet and other flooring in existing buildings. As a result, these workers tend to be less affected by slowdowns in new construction activity. Earnings Employment Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers held about 184,000 jobs in 2004. About 42 percent of all carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers were self-employed, compared with 19 percent of all construction trades workers. The following tabulation shows 2004 wage and salary employment by specialty: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In May 2004, the median hourly earnings of carpet installers were $16.39. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.94 and $22.20. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.16, and the top 10 percent earned more than $29.27. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of carpet installers were $16.55 working for building finishing contrac tors, and $15.43 for home furnishings stores. 502 Occupational Outlook Handbook Carpet installers are paid either on an hourly basis, or by the number of yards of carpet installed. The rates vary widely depend ing on the geographic location and whether the installer is affiliated with a union. Median hourly earnings of floor layers except carpet, wood, and hard tiles were $15.68 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.80 and $20.93. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.98, and the top 10 percent earned more than $28.09. Median hourly earnings of floor sanders and finishers were $12.88 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.30 and $16.47. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.91, and the top 10 percent earned more than $21.03. Median hourly earnings of tile and marble setters were $17.02 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.69 and $22.59. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.85, and the top 10 percent earned more than $29.35. Earnings of tile and marble setters also vary greatly by geographic location and by union mem bership status. Apprentices and other trainees usually start out earning about half of what an experienced worker earns, although their wage rate increases as they advance through the training program. Some carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Some tilesetters belong to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, while some carpet installers belong to the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers measure, cut, and fit materials to cover a space. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills, but using different materials, include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; carpenters; cement masons, con crete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; painters and paperhangers; roofers; and sheet metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local flooring or tilesetting contractors or retailers, locals of the unions previously mentioned, or the nearest office of the State apprentice ship agency or employment service. For general information about the work of carpet installers and floor layers, contact: >- Floor Covering Installation Contractors Association, 7439 Milwood Dr., West Bloomfield, MI 48322. Additional information on training for carpet installers and floor layers is available from: ► Joint Apprenticeship and Training Fund, International Union of Paint ers and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.jatf.org For general information about the work of tile installers and finishers, contact: >- International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, International Masonry Institute, The James Brice House, 42 East St., Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org >- National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org For more information about tile setting and tile training, contact: >- National Tile Contractors Association, P.O. Box 13629, Jackson, MS 39236. For information concerning training of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers, contact: >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners ofAmerica, 50 F St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.carpenters.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cement Masons, Concrete Finishers, Segmental Pavers, and Terrazzo Workers (Q*NET 47-2051.00,47-2053.00,47-4091.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be good due to a combination of job growth and a growing number of retirements. • Most learn the job though a combination of classroom and on-the-job training that can take 3 to 4 years. • Like many other construction trades, these workers may experience reduced earnings and layoffs during downturns in construction activity. • Cement masons often work overtime, with premium pay, because once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. Nature of the Work Cement masons, concrete finishers, and terrazzo workers all work with concrete, one of the most common and durable materials used in construction. Once set, concrete—a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water—becomes the foundation for everything from decorative patios and floors to huge dams or miles of roadways. Cement masons and concrete finishers place and finish the con crete. They also may color concrete surfaces; expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks; or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. In preparing a site for placing concrete, cement masons first set the forms for holding the concrete and properly align them. They then direct the casting of the concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread it. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to “screed,” or level, the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after leveling the concrete, masons carefully smooth the concrete surface with a “bull float,” a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches that covers the coarser materials in the concrete and brings a rich mixture of fine cement paste to the surface. After the concrete has been leveled and floated, concrete finishers press an edger between the forms and the concrete and guide it along the edge and the surface. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. Concrete finishers use a special tool called a “groover” to make joints or grooves at specific intervals that help control cracking. Next, they trowel the surface using either a powered or hand trowel, a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. Sometimes, cement masons perform all the steps of laying con crete, including the finishing. As the final step, they retrowel the concrete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the surface with a broom or stiff-bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solu tion. For color, they use colored premixed concrete. On concrete surfaces that will remain exposed after the forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, cement masons cut away high spots and loose concrete with hammer and chisel, fill any large indentations with a Portland cement paste, and smooth the surface with a carborundum stone. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich Portland cement mixture, using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish. Construction Trades and Related Workers Throughout the entire process, cement masons must monitor how the wind, heat, or cold affects the curing of the concrete. They must have a thorough knowledge of concrete characteristics so that, by using sight and touch, they can determine what is happening to the concrete and take measures to prevent defects. Segmental pavers lay out, cut, and install pavers, which are flat pieces of masonry usually made from compacted concrete or brick. Pavers are used to pave paths, patios, playgrounds, driveways, and steps. They are manufactured in various textures and often interlock together to form an attractive pattern. Segmental pavers first prepare the site by removing the existing pavement or soil. They grade the remaining soil to the proper depth and determine the amount of base material that is needed, depending on the local soil conditions. They then install and compact the base material, a granular material that compacts easily, and lay the pavers from the center out, so that any trimmed pieces will be on the outside rather than in the center. Then, they install edging materials to prevent the pavers from shifting and fill the spaces between the pavers with dry sand. Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of cement masons. Attractive, marble-chip terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, cement masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers add a 1-inch layer of sandy concrete. Terrazzo workers partially embed, or attach with adhesive, metal divider strips in the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place into each of the panels a fine marble chip mixture that may be colorpigmented. While the mixture is still wet, workers add additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly set, helpers grind it with a ter razzo grinder, which is somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier. Any depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand-troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete, segmental paving, or terrazzo work is fast-paced and strenuous, and requires continuous physical effort. Because most finishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel ofivi in mi m■>■ a; NWl lib 503 ten. Many jobs are outdoors, and work is generally halted during inclement weather. The work, either indoors or outdoors, may be in areas that are muddy, dusty, or dirty. To avoid chemical bums from uncured concrete and sore knees from frequent kneeling, many work ers wear kneepads. Workers usually also wear water-repellent boots while working in wet concrete. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and ter razzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers, or through 3-year or 4-year apprenticeship programs. Some workers also learn their jobs by attending trade or vocationaltechnical schools. Many masons and finishers first gain experience as construction laborers. (See the section on construction laborers elsewhere in the Handbook.) When hiring helpers and apprentices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, possess a driver’s license, and are in good physical condition. The ability to get along with others is also important because cement masons frequently work in teams. High school courses in general science, mathematics, and vocational-technical subjects, such as blueprint reading and mechanical drawing provide a helpful background. On-the-job training programs consist of informal instruction, in which experienced workers teach helpers to use the tools, equipment, machines, and materials of the trade. Trainees begin with tasks such as edging, jointing, and using a straightedge on freshly placed con crete. As training progresses, assignments become more complex, and trainees can usually do finishing work within a short time. Apprenticeship programs usually are sponsored by local contractors, trade associations, or by local union-management committees. They provide on-the-job training in addition to the recommended minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the classroom, apprentices leant applied mathematics, blueprint reading, and safety. Apprentices gener ally receive special instruction in layout work and cost estimation. Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers should enjoy doing demanding work. They should take pride in craftsmanship and be able to work without close supervision. With additional training, cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, or terrazzo workers may become supervisors for masonry contractors, or move into construction management, build ing inspection, or contract estimation. Some eventually become owners of businesses, where they may spend most of their time managing rather than practicing their original trade. For those who want to own their own business, taking business classes will help to prepare workers for operating a business. Employment / liili! w ' *mm Cement masons and concretefinishers spread the concrete, and then smooth and finish the surfaces. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers held about 209,000jobs in 2004; segmental pavers and ter razzo workers accounted for only a small portion of the total. Most cement masons and concrete finishers worked for specialty trade contractors, primarily foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors. They also worked for contractors in residential and nonresidential building construction and in heavy and civil engineering construction on projects such as highways; bridges; shopping malls; or large buildings such as factories, schools, and hospitals. A small number were employed by firms that manufacture concrete products. Most segmental pavers and terrazzo workers worked for specialty trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. Less than 5 percent of cement masons, concrete finishers, seg mental pavers, and terrazzo workers were self-employed, a smaller proportion than in other building trades. Most self-employed masons specialized in small jobs, such as driveways, sidewalks, and patios. 504 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Opportunities for cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers are expected to be good, particularly for those with the most experience and skills. Employers report difficulty in finding workers with the right skills, as many qualified jobseekers often prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Employment of cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers is expected to grow as fast as average for all occupations through 2014. These workers will be needed to build new highways, bridges, factories, and other residential and nonresidential structures to meet the demand of a growing popula tion. Additionally, cement masons will be needed to repair and renovate existing highways and bridges, which are deteriorating rapidly, and other aging structures. The increasing use of concrete as a building material, particularly since September 2001, will add to the demand. In addition to job growth, there are expected to be a significant number of retirements over the next decade, which will create more job openings. Employment of cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to the fluctuations of the economy. Workers in these trades may experience periods of unemployment when the overall level of construction falls. On the other hand, shortages of these workers may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity. Earnings In May 2004, the median hourly earnings of cement masons and concrete finishers were $15.10. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $11.76 and $20.11. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $9.53, and the top 10 percent earned over $25.89. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cement masons and concrete finishers in May 2004 were as follows: Residential building construction................................................... $16.28 Nonresidential building construction.............................................. 15.91 Other specialty trade contractors.................................................... 15.58 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors............... 14.98 Highway, street, and bridge construction........................................ 14.86 construct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupa tions involving similar skills and knowledge include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For general information about cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers, contact: ► National Concrete Masonry Association, 13750 Sunrise Valley Dr., Herndon, VA 20171 -3499. Internet: http://www.ncma.org >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Divi sion, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.trytools.org >- Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 2300 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.agc.org >- International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, International Masonry Institute, The James Brice House, 42 East St., Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners, 50 F St. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.carpenters.org >- Operative Plasterers’ and Ceme'nt Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300, Laurel, MD 20707. Internet: http://www.opcmia.org > National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 110 E. Market St., Suite 200 A, Leesburg, VA 20176. >- National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org >■ Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd„ Skokie, IL 60077. Internet: http://www.cement.org For information about apprenticeships and work opportuni ties, contact local concrete or terrazzo contractors, locals of unions previously mentioned, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. You may also check the U.S. Department of Labor’s Website for information on apprenticeships and links to State apprenticeship programs. Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat Construction and Building Inspectors (Q*NET 47-4011.00) In May 2004, the median hourly earnings of terrazzo workers and finishers were $13.45. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.44 and $19.57. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $9.07, and the top 10 percent earned over $25.72. Like those of other construction trades workers, earnings of cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and slowdowns in construction activity limit the amount of time they can work. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Cement masons often work overtime, with premium pay, because once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. Some cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers belong to unions, mainly the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada and the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers. A few terrazzo workers belong to the United Brother hood of Carpenters and Joiners of the United States. Related Occupations Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrafczo combine skill with knowledge of building materials to Digitizedworkers for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • About 45 percent of inspectors worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments. • Many home inspectors are self-employed. • Opportunities should be best for experienced construc tion supervisors and craftworkers who have some col lege education, engineering or architectural training, or certification as construction inspectors or plan examin • ers. Home inspection has become a standard practice in the home-purchasing process, creating more opportunities for home inspectors. Nature of the Work Construction and building inspectors examine buildings, highways and streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, and other struc tures to ensure that their construction, alteration, or repair complies with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Building codes and standards are the primary means Construction Trades and Related Workers by which building construction is regulated in the United States for the health and safety of the general public. National model build ing codes are published by the International Code Council (ICC), although many localities have additional ordinances and codes that modify or add to the National model codes. To monitor compliance with regulations, inspectors make an initial inspection during the first phase of construction and follow up with further inspections throughout the construction project. However, no inspection is ever exactly the same. In areas where certain types of severe weather or natural disasters—such as earthquakes or hurricanes—are more common, inspectors monitor compliance with additional safety regulations designed to protect structures and occupants during those events. There are many types of inspectors. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality and general safety of buildings. Some special ize in such areas as structural steel orreinforced-concrete structures. Before construction begins, plan examiners determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with building code regulations and whether they are suited to the engineering and en vironmental demands of the building site. To inspect the condition of the soil and the positioning and depth of the footings, inspectors visit the worksite before the foundation is poured. Later, they return to the site to inspect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure, as well as the rate at which it proceeds toward completion, determine the number of other site visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they make a final, comprehensive inspection. In addition to structural characteristics, a primary concern of building inspectors is fire safety. They inspect structures’ fire sprin klers, alarms, smoke control systems, fire exits. Inspectors assess the type of construction, contents of the building, adequacy of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by adjoining buildings. Electrical inspectors examine the installation of electrical systems and equipment to ensure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing sound and security systems, wiring, lighting, motors, and generating equipment. They also inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, appliances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and conveying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and amusement rides. Home inspectors conduct inspections of newly built or previ ously owned homes, condominiums, town homes, manufactured homes, residential-unit living (apartments), and at times commercial buildings. Home inspection has become a standard practice in the home-purchasing process. Typically, home inspectors are hired by prospective home buyers to inspect and report on the condi tion of a home’s systems, components, and structure. Although they look for and report violations of building codes, they do not have the power to enforce compliance with the codes. Typically, are hired either immediately prior to a purchase offer on a home or as a contingency to a sales contract. In addition to examining structural quality, home inspectors inspect all home systems and features, including roofing as well as the exterior, site, attached garage or carport, foundation, interior, plumbing, electrical, and heating and cooling systems. Some home inspections are done for homeowners who want an evaluation of their home’s condition or as a way to diagnose problems. Mechanical inspectors inspect the installation of the mechanical components of commercial kitchen appliances, heating and air-con ditioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas and oil piping, and gas-fired and oil-fired appliances. Some specialize in boilers or ventilating equipment as well. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 505 Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing systems, including private disposal systems, water supply and distribution systems, plumbing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines. Public works inspectors ensure that Federal, State, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifica tions. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works inspectors may specialize in highways, structural steel, reinforced concrete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. The owner of a building or structure under construction employs specification inspectors to ensure that work is done according to design specifications. Specification inspectors represent the owner’s interests, not those of the general public. Insurance companies and financial institutions also may use the services of specification inspectors. Details concerning construction projects, building and occupancy permits, and other documentation generally are stored on computers so that they can easily be retrieved, kept accurate, and be updated. For example, inspectors may use laptop computers to record their findings while inspecting a site. Most inspectors use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and keep track of permits issued, and some can access all construction and building codes from their computers on the jobsite, decreasing the need for paper binders. However, many inspectors continue to use a paper checklist to detail their findings. Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors may use tape measures, survey instruments, metering devices, and equipment such as concrete strength measurers. They keep a log of their work, take photographs, and file reports. Many inspectors also use laptops or other portable electronic devices onsite to facilitate the accuracy of their written reports, as well as e-mail and fax machines to send mm About 45 percent of all construction and building inspectors work for local governments, while many home inspectors are selfemployed. 506 Occupational Outlook Handbook out the results. If necessary, they act on their findings. For example, government and construction inspectors notify the construction con tractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they discover a violation of a code or ordinance or something that does not comply with the contract specifications or approved plans. If the problem is not cor rected within a reasonable or otherwise specified period, government inspectors have authority to issue a “stop-work” order. Many inspectors also investigate construction or alterations be ing done without proper permits. Inspectors who are employees of municipalities enforce laws pertaining to the proper design, construction, and use of buildings. They direct violators of permit laws to obtain permits and to submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors usually work alone. However, several may be assigned to large, complex projects, particularly because inspectors tend to specialize in different areas of construc tion. Although they spend considerable time inspecting construction worksites, inspectors also spend time in a field office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections. Many construction sites are dirty and may be cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or many flights of stairs or crawl around in tight spaces. Although their work generally is not considered hazardous, inspectors, like other construction workers, wear hardhats and adhere to other safety requirements while at a construction site. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, they may work additional hours during periods when a lot of construction is taking place. Also, if an accident occurs at a construction site, inspectors must respond immediately and may work additional hours to complete their report. Nongovernment inspectors—especially those who are self-employed—may have a varied work schedule, at times working evenings and weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although requirements vary considerably, depending upon where one is employed, construction and building inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of construction materials and practices in either a general area, such as structural or heavy construction, or a specialized area, such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. Home inspectors combine a knowledge of multiple specialties, so many of them have a combination of certifications, as well as previous experience in various construc tion trades. For example, many inspectors previously worked as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Because inspectors must possess the right mix of technical knowledge, experience, and education, employers prefer applicants who have both formal training and experience. Most employers require at least a high school diploma or the equivalent, even for workers with considerable experience. More often, employers look for persons who have studied engineering or architecture or who have a degree from a community or junior college with courses in building inspection, home inspection, construction technol ogy, drafting, and mathematics. Many community colleges offer certificate or associate’s degree programs in building inspection technology. Courses in blueprint reading, algebra, geometry, and English also are useful. A growing number of construction and building inspectors are entering the occupation with a college degree, which often can substitute for previous experience. Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction and building sites. They also must have a driver’s license, so that they can get to scheduled appointments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The level of training requirements varies by type of inspector and State. In general, construction and building inspectors receive much of their training on the job, although they must learn building codes and standards on their own. Working with an experienced inspector, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regulations; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and reporting duties. Supervised onsite inspections also may be a part of the training. Other requirements can include various courses and assigned reading. Some courses and instructional material are available online as well as through formal venues. An engineer ing or architectural degree often is required for advancement to supervisory positions. Most States and local jurisdictions require some type of certification for employment. Even if not required, certification can enhance an inspector’s opportunities for employment and advancement to more responsible positions. To become certified, inspectors with substantial experience and education must pass examinations on code requirements, construction techniques and materials, standards of practice, and codes of ethics. The Inter national Code Council (ICC) offers multiple voluntary certifica tions, as do other professional associations. Many categories of certification are awarded for inspectors and plan examiners in a variety of specialties, including the Certified Building Official (CBO) certification, for code compliance, and the Residential Building Inspector (RBI) certification, for home inspectors. In a few cases, there are no education or experience prerequisites, and certification consists of passing an examination in a designated field either at a regional location or online. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments may require inspectors to pass a civil service exam. Being a member of a nationally recognized inspection association enhances employment opportunities and may be required by some employers. Because they advise builders and the general public on build ing codes, construction practices, and technical developments, construction and building inspectors must keep abreast of changes in these areas. Continuing education is imperative and is required by many States and certifying organizations. Numerous employ ers provide formal training to broaden inspectors’ knowledge of construction materials, practices, and techniques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do not conduct their own training programs can expand their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-sponsored training programs, by tak ing college or correspondence courses, or by attending seminars and conferences sponsored by various related organizations, such as the ICC. Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 94,000 jobs in 2004. Local governments—primarily municipal or county building departments—employed 45 percent. Employment of local govern ment inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas un dergoing rapid growth. Local governments employ large inspection staffs, including many plan examiners or inspectors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, and boiler, electrical, and elevator inspection. Another 25 percent of construction and building inspectors worked for architectural and engineering services firms, conducting inspec tions for a fee or on a contract basis. Many of these were home inspectors working on behalf of potential real estate purchasers. Most of the remaining inspectors were employed in other service-providing industries or by State governments. About 1 in 10 construction and building inspectors was self-employed. Since many home inspectors are self-employed, it is likely that most self-employed construction and building inspectors were home inspectors. Construction Trades and Related Workers Job Outlook Job opportunities in construction and building inspection should be best for those highly experienced supervisors and construction craft workers who have some college education, engineering or architectural training, or certification as inspectors or plan exam iners. Thorough knowledge of construction practices and skills in areas such as reading and evaluating blueprints and plans is essential. Employment of construction and building inspectors is expected to grow faster than the average for most occupations through 2014. Concern for public safety and a desire for improvement in the quality of construction should continue to stimulate demand for construction and building inspectors in government as well as in firms special izing in architectural, engineering, and related services. Inspectors are involved in all phases of construction, including maintenance and repair work, and are therefore less likely to lose their jobs when new construction slows during recessions. In addition to openings stemming from the expected employment growth, some job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The routine practice of obtaining home inspections is a rela tively recent development, causing employment of home inspec tors to increase rapidly. Although employment of home inspectors is expected to continue to increase, the attention given to this specialty, combined with the desire of some construction workers to move into less strenuous and potentially higher paying work, may result in competition in some areas. In addition, increasing State regulations are starting to limit entry into the specialty only to those who have a given level of previous experience and are certified. Earnings Median annual earnings of construction and building inspectors were $43,670 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,620 and $54,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,760, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,380. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of construction and building inspectors in May 2004 were: Local government......................................................................... $43,960 Architectural, engineering, and related services.......................... 43,880 State government ......................................................................... 39,310 Building inspectors, including plan examiners, generally earn the highest salaries. Salaries in large metropolitan areas are substantially higher than those in small jurisdictions. Related Occupations Because construction and building inspectors are familiar with construction principles, the most closely related occupations are construction occupations, especially carpenters, plumbers, and electricians. Construction and building inspectors also combine knowledge of construction principles and law with an ability to coordinate data, diagnose problems, and communicate with people. Workers in other occupations using a similar combination of skills include architects, except landscape and naval; appraisers and as sessors of real estate; construction managers; civil engineers; cost estimators; engineering technicians; and surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about certification and a career as a construction or building inspector is available from: >- International Code Council, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600, Falls Church, VAFRASER 22041. Internet: http://www.iccsafe.org Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 507 For more information about constmction inspectors, contact: ► Association of Construction Inspectors, 1224 North Nokomis N.E., Alexandria, MN 56308. Internet: http://www.iami.org/aci/home.cfm For more information about training and requirements for electri cal inspectors, contact: >- International Association of Electrical Inspectors, 901 Waterfall Way, Suite 602, Richardson, TX 75080-7702. Internet: http://www.iaei.org For information about becoming a home inspector, contact any of the following organizations: ► American Society of Home Inspectors, 932 Lee St., Suite 101, Des Plaines, IL 60016. Internet: http://www.ashi.org >• Housing Inspection Foundation, 1224 North Nokomis N.E., Alexandria, MN 56308. Internet: http://www.iami.org/hif.cfm >- National Association of Home Inspectors, 4248 Park Glen Rd., Min neapolis, MN 55416. Internet: http://www.nahi.org For information about a career as a State or local government con struction or building inspector, contact your State or local employment service. Construction Equipment Operators (0*NET 47-2071.00, 47-2072.00,47-2073.01,47-2073.02) Significant Points • Many construction equipment operators acquire their skills on the job, but formal apprenticeship programs provide more comprehensive training. • Job opportunities are expected to be good, with em ployment growing about as fast as the average for all occupations. • Hourly pay is relatively high, but some construction equipment operators cannot work in inclement weather, so total annual earnings may be reduced. Nature of the Work Constmction equipment operators use machinery to move constmction materials, earth, and other heavy materials at constmction sites, mines, and sometimes your back yard. They operate equipment that clears and grades land to prepare it for constmction of roads, buildings, and neighborhoods. They dig trenches to lay or repair sewer and other pipelines, and they hoist heavy constmction materials. They may even work offshore constructing oil rigs. Constmction equipment operators also operate machinery that applies asphalt and concrete to roads and other stmetures. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. The operation of much of this equipment is becoming more complex as a result of computerized controls. Global Positioning System (GPS) technology also is be ing used to help with grading and leveling activities. In addition to controlling the equipment, construction equipment operators also set up and inspect the equipment, make adjustments, and perform some maintenance and minor repairs. Constmction equipment operators include: paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators; piledriver operators; and operating engineers and other constmction equipment operators. Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators operate one or several types of power constmction equipment. They may operate excavation and loading machines equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets that dig sand, gravel, earth, or similar materials and load it into tmeks or onto conveyors. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road graders, and similar equipment. Sometimes, they may drive and control industrial tmeks 508 Occupational Outlook Handbook or tractors equipped with forklifts or booms for lifting materials or with hitches for pulling trailers. They also may operate and maintain air compressors, pumps, and other power equipment at construc tion sites. Construction equipment operators who are classified as operating engineers are capable of operating several different types of construction equipment. Paving and surfacing equipment operators use levers and other controls to operate machines that spread and level asphalt or spread and smooth concrete for roadways or other structures. Asphalt paving machine operators turn valves to regulate the temperature and flow of asphalt onto the roadbed. They must take care that the machine distributes the paving material evenly and without voids, and make sure that there is a constant flow of asphalt going into the hopper. Concrete paving machine operators control levers and turn handwheels to move attachments that spread, vibrate, and level wet concrete within forms. They must observe the surface of concrete to identify low spots into which workers must add concrete. They use other attachments to smooth the surface of the concrete, spray on a curing compound, and cut expansion joints. Tamping equipment operators operate tamping machines that compact earth and other fill materials for roadbeds. They also may operate machines with interchangeable hammers to cut or break up old pavement and drive guardrail posts into the earth. Piledriver operators operate piledrivers—large machines, mount ed on skids, barges, or cranes, that hammer piles into the ground. Piles are long heavy beams of wood or steel driven into the ground to support retaining walls, bulkheads, bridges, piers, or building foundations. Some piledriver operators work on offshore oil rigs. Piledriver operators move hand and foot levers and turn valves to activate, position, and control the pile-driving equipment. Working Conditions Many construction equipment operators work outdoors, in nearly every type of climate and weather condition, although in many ar eas of the country, some types of construction operations must be suspended in winter. Also, during periods of extremely wet weather grading and leveling activities can be difficult to perform and may be suspended. Bulldozers, scrapers, and especially tampers and piledrivers are noisy and shake or jolt the operator. Operating heavy construction equipment can be dangerous. As with most machinery, accidents generally can be avoided by observing proper operating procedures and safety practices. Construction equipment operators — .r dK «— I HF | ■ Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Construction equipment operators usually learn their skills on the job. They may start by operating light equipment under the guid ance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment, such as bulldozers and cranes. However, it is generally accepted that formal training provides more comprehensive skills. Some construction equipment operators train in formal operating en gineer apprenticeship programs administered by union-management committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Because apprentices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than do other beginners, they usually have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years, or 6,000 hours, of on-thc-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Employers of construction equipment operators generally prefer to hire high school graduates, although some employers may train nongraduates to operate some types of equipment. Technologically advanced construction equipment has computer ized controls and improved hydraulics and electronics, requiring more skill to operate. Operators of such equipment may need more training and some understanding of electronics. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their machines. Also, high school courses in science and mechanical drawing are useful. Experience operating related mobile equip ment, such as farm tractors or heavy equipment, in the Armed Forces or elsewhere is an asset. Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such programs may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. However, persons considering such training should check the school’s reputation among employers in the area and find out if it offers the opportunity to work on actual machines in realistic situations. Operators need to be in good physical condition and have a good sense of balance, the ability to judge distance, and eye-hand-foot coordination. Some operator positions require the ability to work at heights. Employment ■„ 3* mm Construction equipment operators use machinery to move construction materials, earth, and other heavy materials at construction sites. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are cold in the winter and hot in the summer, and often get dirty, greasy, muddy, or dusty. Operators may have irregular hours because work on some con struction projects continues around the clock or must be performed late at night or early in the morning. Some operators work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as highways and dams, or in factory or mining operations. Construction equipment operators held about 449,000jobs in 2004. Jobs were found in every section of the country and were distributed among various types of operators as follows: Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators 382,000 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators.................. 63,000 Pile-driver operators...................................................................... 4,400 About three out of five construction equipment operators worked in the construction industry. Many equipment operators worked in heavy construction, building highways, bridges, or railroads. About one out of five of all construction equipment operators worked in State and local government. Others—mostly grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators—worked in mining. Some also worked in manufacturing and for utility companies. Less than one in twenty construction equipment operators were self-employed. Construction Trades and Related Workers 509 Job Outlook Sources of Additional Information Job opportunities for construction equipment operators are expected to be good through 2014. Some potential workers may choose not to enter training programs because they prefer work that has more comfortable working conditions. Employment of construction equipment operators is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014 even with improvements in equipment expected to continue to raise worker productivity and to moderate demand for these work ers. Employment is expected to increase as population and business growth create a need for new houses, industrial facilities, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures. More construction equip ment operators also will be needed as a result of expected growth in highway, bridge, and street construction. Bridge construction is expected to grow the fastest, due to the need to repair or replace structures before they become unsafe. Highway conditions also will spur demand for highway maintenance and repair. In addition to job growth, many job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced construction equipment operators who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the job for other reasons. Like that of other construction workers, employment of construc tion equipment operators is sensitive to fluctuations in the economy. Workers may experience periods of unemployment when the level of construction activity falls. For further information about apprenticeships or work opportuni ties for construction equipment operators, contact a local of the International Union of Operating Engineers, a local apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or employment service. For general information about the work of construction equipment operators, contact: >• National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org >■ Associated General Contractors of America, 2300 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.agc.org >• International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.iuoe.org Construction Laborers (0*NET 47-2061.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be good. • With training and experience, construction laborers can move into other skilled craft occupations. • Most construction laborers learn through informal onthe-job training, but formal apprenticeship programs provide more thorough preparation. • Like many other construction occupations, employment opportunities are affected by the cyclical nature of the construction industry and can vary greatly by State and locality. Earnings Earnings for construction equipment operators vary. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of operating engineers and other construc tion equipment operators were $17.00. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.19 and $23.00. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.98, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.34. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of operating engineers in May 2004 were: Nature of the Work Highway, street, and bridge construction........................................ $19.20 Utility system constmction............................................................. 18.13 Other specialty trade contractors........................................................... 17.73 Local government .......................................................................... State government............................................................................ 15.20 13.52 Median hourly earnings of paving, surfacing, and tamping equip ment operators were $14.42 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.35 and $19.30. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.47, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.51. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators in May 2004 were as follows: Other specialty trade contractors.................................................... $15.03 Highway, street, and bridge construction........................................ 14.56 Local government .......................................................................... 13.70 In May 2004, median hourly earnings of piledriver operators were $21.29. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.50 and $30.23. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.78, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34.04. Pay scales generally are higher in large metropolitan areas. An nual earnings of some workers may be lower than hourly rates would indicate because worktime may be limited by bad weather. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equipment include: agricul tural equipment operators; truck drivers, heavy and tractor trailer; logging equipment operators; and a variety of material moving occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction laborers can be found on almost all construction sites performing a wide range of tasks from the very easy to the poten tially hazardous. They can be found at building, highway, and heavy construction sites; tunnel and shaft excavations; and demolition sites. Many of the jobs they perform require physical strength and some training and experience. Other jobs require little skill and can be learned in a short amount of time. While most construction laborers tend to specialize in a type of construction, such as highway or tunnel construction, they are generalists who perform many different tasks during all stages of construction. However, construction laborers who work in underground construction, such as in tunnels, or in demolition are more likely to specialize in only those areas. Construction laborers clean and prepare construction sites, which may require them to remove asbestos or lead-based paint from build ings. Laborers also remove trees and debris, tend pumps, compressors and generators, and build forms for pouring concrete. They erect and disassemble scaffolding and other temporary structures. They load, unload, identify, and distribute building materials to the appropriate location according to project plans and specifications. Laborers also tend machines; for example, they may mix concrete using a portable mixer or tend a machine that pumps concrete, grout, cement, sand, plaster, or stucco through a spray gun for application to ceilings and walls. Construction laborers often help other craftworkers, including carpenters, plasterers, operating engineers, and masons. Construction laborers are responsible for oversight of the installation and maintenance of traffic control devices and patterns. At heavy and highway construction sites, this work may include clearing and prepar ing highway work zones and rights of way; installing traffic barricades, cones, and markers; and controlling traffic passing near, in, and around work zones. They also dig trenches, install sewer, water, and storm 510 Occupational Outlook Handbook drain pipes, and place concrete and asphalt on roads. Other highly specialized tasks include operating laser guidance equipment to place pipes, operating air, electric, and pneumatic drills, and transporting and setting explosives for tunnel, shaft, and road construction. Construction laborers operate a variety of equipment including pavement breakers; jackhammers; earth tampers; concrete, mortar, and plaster mixers; electric and hydraulic boring machines; torches; small mechanical hoists; laser beam equipment; and surveying and measuring equipment. They may use computers and other hightech input devices to control robotic pipe cutters and cleaners. To perform their jobs effectively, construction laborers must be familiar with the duties of other craftworkers and with the materials, tools, and machinery they use. Construction laborers often work as part of a team with other skilled craftworkers, jointly carrying out assigned construction tasks. At other times, construction laborers may work alone, reading and interpreting instructions, plans, and specifications with little or no supervision. Working Conditions Most laborers do physically demanding work. They may lift and carry heavy objects, and stoop, kneel, crouch, or crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights, or outdoors in all weather conditions. Some jobs expose workers to harmful materials or chemicals, fumes, odors, loud noise, or dangerous machinery. Some laborers may be exposed to lead-based paint, asbestos, or other hazardous substances during their work especially when working in confined spaces. To avoid injury, workers in these jobs wear safety clothing, such as gloves, hardhats, protective chemical suits, and devices to protect their eyes, respiratory system, or hearing. While working in underground construction, construction laborers must be especially alert to safely follow procedures and must deal with a variety of hazards. Construction laborers generally work 8-hour shifts, although longer shifts are common. Overnight work may be required when working on highways. Construction laborers may work only during certain seasons in certain parts of the country. They may also experi ence weather-related work stoppages at any time of the year. 52 mm TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many construction laborer jobs require few skills, but others require specialized training and experience. Many workers enter the occupation with few skills by obtaining a job with a contractor who will then provide on-the-job training. Entry-level workers generally start as helpers, assisting more experienced workers. A growing route of entry is through temporary help agencies that send laborers to construction sites for short-term work. Beginning laborers perform routine tasks, such as cleaning and preparing the worksite and unloading materials. When the opportunity arises, they learn from experienced construction trades workers how to do more difficult tasks, such as operating tools and equipment. During this time, the construction laborer may elect to attend a trade or vocational school, or community college to receive further trade-related training. The most skilled laborers usually have more formalized train ing. Some employers, particularly large nonresidential construc tion contractors with union membership, offer employees formal apprenticeships. These programs include between 2 and 4 years of classroom and on-the-job training. A core curriculum consisting of basic construction skills such as blueprint reading, the correct use of tools and equipment, and knowledge of safety and health procedures comprises the first 200 hours. The remainder of the curriculum consists of specialized skills training in three of the largest segments of the construction industry: Building construc tion; heavy/highway construction; and environmental remediation, such as lead or asbestos abatement, and mold or hazardous waste remediation. Workers who use dangerous equipment or handle toxic chemicals usually receive specialized training in safety awareness and procedures. Apprenticeship applicants usually must be at least 18 years old and meet local requirements. Be cause the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of laborers learn their trade through these programs. High school classes in English, mathematics, physics, me chanical drawing, blueprint reading, welding, and general shop are recommended. Laborers need manual dexterity, eye-hand coordi nation, good physical fitness, an ability to work as a member of a team, and a good sense of balance. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is required. In addition, a good work history or military service is viewed favorably by contractors. Computer skills also are important for advancement as construction becomes increasingly mechanized and computerized. Through training and experience, laborers can move into other construction occupations. Laborers may also advance to become construction supervisors or general contractors. For those who would like to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instruc tions and safety precautions to workers with limited understanding of English; Spanish-speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many areas. Supervisors and contractors need good English skills in order to deal with clients and subcon tractors. Supervisors and contractors should be able to identify and estimate the quantity of materials needed to complete a job, and accurately estimate how long a job will take to complete and at what cost. Employment .. s ■BIB Construction laborers can be found on almost all construction sites performing a wide range of tasks from simple to potentially hazardous. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction laborers held about 1 million jobs in 2004. They worked throughout the country but, like the general population, were concentrated in metropolitan areas. Most construction labor ers work in the construction industry and almost one-third work for special trade contractors. About 15 percent were self-employed in 2004. Construction Trades and Related Workers Job Outlook Employment of construction laborers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 as the construction industry in general grows more slowly than it has in the recent past. However, job opportunities are expected to be good due to the numerous openings that rise each year as labor ers leave the occupation. Opportunities will be best for those with experience and specialized skills, and for those willing to relocate to areas with new construction projects. Opportunities will also be good for laborers specializing in lead, asbestos, and other hazardous materials removal. Although construction will continue to grow, construction laborer jobs will be adversely affected by automation as some jobs are replaced by new machines and equipment that improve productiv ity and quality. Also, laborers will be increasingly employed by staffing agencies that will contract laborers out to employers on a temporary basis. Employment of construction laborers, like that of many other construction workers, can be variable or intermittent due to the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Employment opportunities can vary greatly by State and locality. During economic downturns, job open ings for construction laborers decrease as the level of construction activity declines. Earnings Median hourly earnings of construction laborers in May 2004 were $12.10. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.47 and $16.88. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.71, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.61. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of construction laborers in May 2004 were as follows: • Highway, street, and bridge construction........................................ $13.55 Nonresidential building construction.............................................. 12.94 Other specialty trade contractors.................................................... 12.43 Residential building construction................................................... 12.18 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors............... 11.90 Earnings for construction laborers can be reduced by poor weather or by downturns in construction activity, which some times result in layoffs. Apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. Pay increases as apprentices gain experience and learn new skills. Some laborers belong to the Laborers’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations The work of construction laborers is closely related to other con struction occupations. Other workers who perform similar physi cal work include persons in material-moving occupations; forest, conservation, and logging workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs as construction laborers, contact local building or construction contractors, local joint labor-management apprenticeship committees, apprenticeship agencies, or the local office of your State Employment Service. For information on education programs for laborers, contact: >- Laborers-AGO Education and Training Fund, 37 Deerfield Road, P.O. Box 37, Pomfret Center, CT 06259. Internet: http://www.laborerslearn.org >- National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 511 Drywall Installers, Ceiling Tile Installers, and Tapers (0*NET 47-2081.01, 47-2081.02, 47-2082.00) Significant Points • Most workers learn the trade on the job by starting as helpers to more experienced workers; additional class room instruction may also be needed. • Job prospects are expected to be good. • Inclement weather seldom interrupts work, but work ers may be idled when downturns in the economy slow new construction activity. Nature of the Work Drywall consists of a thin layer of gypsum between two layers of heavy paper. It is used for walls and ceilings in most buildings today because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster. There are two kinds of drywall workers—installers and tapers—although many workers do both types of work. Installers, also called applicators or hangers, fasten drywall panels to the in side framework of residential houses and other buildings. Tapers or finishers, prepare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes— usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—drywall installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally as sists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. Workers often use a lift when placing ceiling panels. After the drywall is installed, tapers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the compound into and along each side of the joint with brush-like strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a paper tape—used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfections—into the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound, as are im perfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. On large projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools that apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Tapers apply second and third coats of the compound, sanding the treated areas where needed after each coat to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. This results in a very smooth and almost perfect surface. Some tapers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Ceiling tile installers, or acoustical carpenters, apply or mount acoustical tiles or blocks, strips, or sheets of shock-absorbing materials to ceilings and walls of buildings to reduce reflection of sound or to decorate rooms. First, they measure and mark the surface according to blueprints and drawings. Then, they nail or screw moldings to the wall to support and seal the joint between the ceiling tile and the wall. Finally, they mount the tile, either by applying a cement adhesive to the back of the tile and then pressing the tile into place, or by nailing, screwing, stapling, or wire-tying the lath directly to the structural framework. Lathers also are included in this occupation. Lathers fasten metal orrockboard lath to walls, ceilings, and partitions of buildings. Lath forms the support base for plaster, fireproofing, or acoustical materi als. At one time, lath was made of wooden strips. Now, lathers work 512 Occupational Outlook Handbook After the drywall is installed, tapers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. mostly with wire, metal mesh, or rockboard lath. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or water or for curved or irregular surfaces for which drywall is not a practical material. Using handtools and portable power tools, lathers nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the structural framework. Working Conditions As in many other construction trades, the work sometimes is strenuous. Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some tapers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Installers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds and injuries from power tools and from working with sharp materials. Because sanding a joint compound to a smooth finish creates a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection. to obtain a job with a contractor who will then provide on-the-job training. Entry-level workers generally start as helpers, assisting more experienced workers. During this time, employers may send the employee to a trade or vocational school, or community college to receive further classroom training. Some employers, particularly large nonresidential construction contractors with union membership, offer employees formal appren ticeships. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years old and meet local requirements. The length of the program, usually 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers learn their trade through these programs. Other jobseekers may choose to obtain their classroom training before seeking a job. There are a number of public and private vocational-technical schools and training academies affiliated with the unions and contractors that offer training to become a drywall installer, ceiling tile installer, and taper. Employers often look fa vorably upon these students and usually start them at a higher level than those without the training. Installer helpers start by carrying materials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Eventu ally, they become fully experienced workers. Tapers learn their job by taping joints and touching up nail holes, scrapes, and other imperfections. They soon learn to install corner guards and to conceal openings around pipes. At the end of their training, drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers learn to estimate the cost of installing and finishing drywall. Training for this profession can begin in a high school, where classes in English, math, mechanical drawing, blueprint reading, and general shop are recommended. Some skills needed to become a drywall installer, ceiling tile installer, and taper include manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, good physical fitness, and a good sense of balance. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is required. In addition, a good work history or military service is viewed favorably by contractors. Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers may ad vance to carpentry supervisor or general construction supervisor positions. Others may become independent contractors. For those who would like to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instructions and safety precautions to workers with limited understanding of English; Spanish-speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many areas. Hispanic workers who want to advance should learn English. Supervisors and contractors nee'd good English skills in order to deal with clients and subcontractors. They also should be able to identify and estimate the quantity of materials needed to complete a job, and accurately estimate how long a job will take to complete and at what cost. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers learn their trade through formal and informal training programs. To become a skilled drywall installer, ceiling tile installer, or taper, between 3 and 4 years of both classroom and on-the-job training may be required, but many of the skills can be learned within the first year. While there arc a number of different ways to obtain this training, in general the more formalized the process, the more skilled the individual becomes, and the more in demand they are by employers. There are a number of different avenues that one can take to obtain the necessary training. The most common entry route is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers held about 196,000 jobs in 2004. Most worked for contractors specializing in drywall and ceiling tile installation; others worked for contractors doing many kinds of construction. About 43,000 were self-employed independent contractors. Most installers and tapers are employed in populous areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall or ceiling tile installer employed full time, carpenters and painters usually do the work. Construction Trades and Related Workers Job Outlook Job opportunities for drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers are expected to be good. Many potential workers are not attracted to this occupation because they prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Experi enced workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment is expected to increase more slowly than average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period reflecting the number of new construction and remodeling projects. In addition to jobs involving traditional interior work, drywall workers will find em ployment opportunities in the installation of insulated exterior wall systems, which are becoming increasingly popular. Besides those resulting from job growth, many jobs will open up each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Some drywall install ers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers with limited skills leave the occupation when they find that they dislike the work or fail to find steady employment. Despite the growing use of exterior panels, most drywall instal lation and finishing is done indoors. Therefore, drywall workers lose less worktime because of inclement weather than do some other construction workers. Nevertheless, they may be unemployed between construction projects and during downturns in construction activity. Earnings In May 2004, the median hourly earnings of drywall and ceil ing tile installers were $16.36. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.59 and $21.82. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.98, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.30. The median hourly earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of drywall and ceiling tile installers in May 2004 were as follows: Residential building construction................................................... $17.33 Building finishing contractors......................................................... 16.53 Nonresidential building construction.............................................. 14.57 In May 2004, the median hourly earnings of tapers were $ 18.78. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.07 and $24.43. The low est 10 percent earned less than $10.66, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.79. Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40-hour week is standard, but the workweek may sometimes be longer or shorter. Workers who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Trainees usually started at about half the rate paid to experienced workers and received wage increases as they became more highly skilled. Related Occupations Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit ac cording to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; insulation workers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing and ceiling tile installation, contact local drywall instal lation and ceiling tile installation contractors, a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee, a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 513 For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall application and finishing and ceiling tile installation, contact: >- Associated Builders and Contractors, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: www.trytools.org ► National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org >■ Joint Apprenticeship and Training Fund, International Union of Paint ers and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.jatf.org >- National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org ► United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, Carpen ters Training Fund, 6801 Placid Street, Las Vegas, NV 89119 Internet: http://www.carpenters.org Electricians (0*NET 47-2111.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be good, especially for those with the right skills. • Most electricians acquire their skills by completing an apprenticeship program lasting 4 to 5 years. • Nearly three-fourths of electricians work for building contractors or are self-employed, but there also will be many job openings for electricians in other industries. Nature of the Work Electricity is essential for light, power, air-conditioning, and refrig eration. Electricians install, connect, test, and maintain electrical systems for a variety of purposes, including climate control, secu rity, and communications. They also may install and maintain the electronic controls for machines in business and industry. Electricians generally specialize in construction or maintenance work, although a growing number do both. Electricians specializ ing in construction work primarily install wiring systems into new homes, businesses, and factories, but they also rewire or upgrade existing electrical systems as needed. Electricians specializing in maintenance work primarily maintain and upgrade existing electrical systems and repair electrical equipment. Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical systems. Blueprints indicate the locations of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must fol low the National Electrical Code and comply with State and local building codes when they install these systems. Regulations vary depending on the setting and require various types of installation procedures. When electricians install wiring systems in factories and commer cial settings, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside partitions, walls, or other concealed areas as designated by the blueprints. They also fasten to the walls small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to complete circuits between these boxes. In residential construction, electricians usually install plastic encased insulated wire, which does not need to be run through conduit. The gauge and number of wires installed in all settings depends upon the load and end use of that part of the electrical system. The greater the diameter of the wire, the higher the voltage and amperage that can flow through it. Electricians connect all types of wire to circuit breakers, trans formers, outlets, or other components. They join the wires in boxes 514 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Electricians work both indoors and out; at construction sites, in homes, and in businesses or factories. Work may be strenuous at times and include bending conduit, lifting heavy objects, and stand ing, stooping, and kneeling for long periods of time. When working outdoors, they may be subject to inclement weather conditions. Some electricians may have to travel long distances to jobsites. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; they must follow strict safety procedures to avoid injuries. Most electricians work a standard 40-hour week, although over time may be required. Those in maintenance work may work nights or weekends, and be on call to go to the worksite when needed. Electricians working in industrial settings may also have periodic extended overtime during scheduled maintenance or retooling pe riods. Companies that operate 24 hours a day may employ three shifts of electricians. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Electricians connect all types of wire to circuit breakers, transformers, outlets, or other components. with various specially designed connectors. During installation, electricians use hand tools such as conduit benders, screwdrivers, pliers, knives, hacksaws, and wire strippers, as well as power tools such as drills and saws. After they finish installing the wiring, they use testing equipment, such as ammeters, ohmmeters, voltmeters, and oscilloscopes, to check the circuits for proper connections, ensuring electrical compatibility, and safety of components. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work perform a wide variety of electrical work for homeowners. They may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker box to ac commodate additional appliances, or they may install new lighting and other electric household items, such as ceiling fans. Those who work in large factories may repair motors, transformers, generators, and electronic controllers on machine tools and industrial robots. Those in office build ings and small plants may repair all types of electrical equipment. Maintenance electricians working in factories, hospitals, and oth er settings repair electric and electronic equipment when breakdowns occur and install new electrical equipment. When breakdowns occur, they must make the necessary repairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize inconvenience. They may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. Electricians also periodically inspect all equipment to ensure it is operating properly, and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. Electricians also advise management whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous. When work ing with complex electronic devices, they may work with engineers, engineering technicians, line installers and repairers, or industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers. (Sections on these occupations appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although primarily classified as work for line installers and repairers, electricians also may install low voltage wiring systems in addition to wiring a building’s electrical system. Low voltage wiring involves voice, data, and video wiring systems, such as those for telephones, computers and related equipment, intercoms, and fire alarm and security systems. Electricians also may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other telecommunications equipment and electronic controls for industrial uses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most electricians learn their trade through apprenticeship programs. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs may be sponsored by joint training committees made up of local unions of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and local chapters of the National Electrical Contractors Association; company management commit tees of individual electrical contracting companies; or local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Independent Electrical Contractors Association. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who complete apprenticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work. Applicants for apprenticeships usually must be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or a G.E.D. They should have good math and English skills, since most instruction manuals are in English. They also may have to pass a test and meet other re quirements. Apprenticeship programs usually last 4 years and each year include at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and 2,000 hours of on-the-job training. In the classroom, apprentices learn electrical theory and installing and maintaining electrical systems. There also take classes in blueprint reading, mathematics, electri cal code requirements, and safety and first aid practices also may receive specialized training in soldering, communications, fire alarm systems, and cranes and elevators. On the job, apprentices work under the supervision of experienced electricians. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and attach conduit. Later, they measure, fabri cate, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. To complete the apprenticeship and become electricians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of the electrician’s work Some persons seeking to become electricians choose to obtain their classroom training before seeking a job. Training to become an electrician is offered by a number of public and private voca tional-technical schools and training academies in affiliation with local unions and contractor organizations. Employers often hire students who complete these programs and usually start them at a more advanced level than those without the training. A few persons become electricians by first working as helpers, assisting electricians setting up job sites, gathering materials, and doing other nonelectrical work, before entering an apprenticeship program. Skills needed to become an electrician include manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is required. Good color vision is needed because workers frequently must identify electrical wires by color. In addition, a good work history or military service is viewed favorably by apprenticeship committees and employers. Construction Trades and Related Workers Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although licens ing requirements vary from area to area, electricians usually must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes. Expe rienced electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code and new materials or methods of installation. For example, classes on installing low voltage voice, data, and video systems have recently become common as these systems have become more prevalent. Experienced electricians can advance to jobs as supervisors. In construction they also may become project managers or construction superintendents. Those with sufficient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business, although this may require an electrical contractor’s license. Many electricians also become electrical inspectors. Supervisors and contractors should be able to identify and estimate the correct type and quantity of materials needed to complete a job, and accurately estimate how long a job will take to complete and at what cost. For those who seek to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instructions and safety precautions to workers with limited understanding of English; Spanish-speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many areas. Spanish-speaking workers who want to advance in this oc cupation need very good English skills to understand instruction presented in classes and installation instructions, which are usually written in English and are highly technical. Employment Electricians held about 656,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly two-thirds of wage and salary workers were employed in the construction industry; while the remainder worked as maintenance electricians in other indus tries. In addition, about one in ten electricians were self-employed. Because of the widespread need for electrical services, electrician jobs are found in all parts of the country. 515 cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, opportunities for maintenance electricians may be limited in many industries by the increased contracting out for electrical services in an effort to reduce operating costs and increase pro ductivity. However, increased job opportunities for electricians in electrical contracting firms should partially offset job losses in other industries. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of electricians were $20.33. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.43 and $26.90. The low est 10 percent earned less than $12.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.63. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electricians in May 2004 were as follows: Motor vehicle parts manufacturing................................................ $30.04 Local government........................................................................... 22.24 Nonresidential building construction............................................. 19.99 Building equipment contractors........................................................ 19.76 Employment services........................................................................ 15.62 Apprentices usually start at between 40 and 50 percent of the rate paid to fully trained electricians, depending on experience. As apprentices become more skilled, they receive periodic pay increases throughout the course of their training. Some electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions representing maintenance electricians are the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Job Outlook Employment of electricians is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. As the population and economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, factories, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. For example, build ings need to increasingly accommodate the use of computers and telecommunications equipment. Also, the increasing prevalence in factories of robots and other automated manufacturing systems will require more complex wiring systems be installed and maintained. Additional jobs will be created as older structures are rehabilitated and retrofitted, which usually requires that they be brought up to meet existing electrical codes. In addition to jobs created by the increased demand for electrical work, many openings are expected to occur over the next decade as a large number of electricians are expected to retire. This will create good job opportunities for the most qualified jobseekers. Job openings for electricians, though, will vary by area and will be greatest in the fastest growing regions of the country. Employment of construction electricians, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. This results from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of construction activity declines. Apprenticeship opportunities also are less plentiful during these periods. Although employment of maintenance electricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the auto motive and other manufacturing industries that are sensitive to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis To install and maintain electrical systems, electricians combine manual skill and knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include heat ing, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; line installers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and elevator installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact the offices of the State employment service, the State apprenticeship agency, local electrical contractors or firms that employ maintenance electricians, or local union-management electrician apprenticeship committees. This information also may be available from local chapters of the Independent Electrical Con tractors, Inc.; the National Electrical Contractors Association; the Home Builders Institute; the Associated Builders and Contractors; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For information about union apprenticeship and training pro grams, contact: >■ National Joint Apprenticeship Training Committee (NJATC), 301 Prince George’s Blvd., Upper Marlboro, MD 20774. Internet: http://www.n jatc.nrg >- National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA), 3 Metro Center, Suite 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.necanet.org >- International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ibew.org For information about independent apprenticeship programs, contact: >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Depart ment, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.trytools.org 516 Occupational Outlook Handbook ► Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 4401 Ford Ave., Suite 1100, Alexandria, VA 22302. Internet: http://www.ieci.org >- National Association of Home Builders, Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org ► National Center for Construction Education and Research, RO. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org Elevator Installers and Repairers (0*NET 47-4021.00) Significant Points • Most workers belong to a union and enter the occupa tion through a 4-year apprenticeship program. • High pay and good benefits, together with expected slow job growth and few separations, should result in keen competition for the few job opportunities that arise in this small occupation; prospects should be best for those with postsecondary education in electronics. • Elevator installers and repairers are less affected by downturns in the economy and inclement weather than other construction trades workers. Nature of the Work Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or elevator mechanics—assemble, install, and replace elevators, escalators, dumbwaiters, moving walkways, and similar equipment in new and old buildings. Once the equipment is in service, they maintain and repair it as well. They also are responsible for modernizing older equipment. To install, repair, and maintain modem elevators, which are almost all electronically controlled, elevator installers and repairers must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydraulics. Many elevators are controlled with microprocessors, which are programmed to analyze traffic conditions in order to dispatch elevators in the most efficient manner. With these computer controls, it is possible to get the greatest amount of service with the least number of cars. When installing a new elevator, installers and repairers begin by studying blueprints to determine the equipment needed to install rails, machinery, car enclosures, motors, pumps, cylinders, and plunger foundations. Once this has been done, they begin equipment installation. Working on scaffolding or platforms, installers bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator. Elevator installers put in electrical wires and controls by running tub ing, called conduit, along a shaft’s walls from floor to floor. Once the con duit is in place, mechanics pull plastic-covered electrical wires through it. They then install electrical components and related devices required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room. Installers bolt or weld together the steel frame of an elevator car at the bottom of the shaft; install the car’s platform, walls, and doors; and attach guide shoes and rollers to minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. They also install the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cabled elevators, these workers install geared or gearless machines with a traction drive wheel that guides and moves heavy steel cables connected to the elevator car and counterweight. (The coun terweight moves in the opposite direction from the car and balances most of the weight of the car to reduce the weight that the elevator’s motor must lift.) Elevator installers also install elevators in which a car sits on a hydraulic plunger that is driven by a pump. The plunger pushes the elevator car up from underneath, similar to a lift in an auto service station. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis j ' Elevator installers and repairers must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydraulics. Installers and repairers also install escalators. They put in place the steel framework, the electrically powered stairs and the tracks, and install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, installers and repairers also may install devices such as dumbwaiters and material lifts—which are similar to elevators in de sign—as well as moving walkways, stair lifts, and wheelchair lifts. The most highly skilled elevator installers and repairers, called “adjusters,” specialize in fine-tuning all the equipment after instal lation. Adjusters make sure that an elevator is working according to specifications and is stopping correctly at each floor within a specified time. Once an elevator is operating properly, it must be maintained and serviced regularly to keep it in safe working condition. Elevator installers and repairers generally do preventive maintenance—such as oiling and greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equipment for optimal performance. They also troubleshoot and may be called to do emergency repairs. A service crew usually handles major repairs—for example, replacing cables, elevator doors, or machine bearings. This may require the use of cutting torches or rigging equipment—tools that an elevator repairer normally would not carry. Service crews also do major modernization and alteration work, such as moving and replacing electrical motors, hydraulic pumps, and control panels. Elevator installers and repairers usually specialize in installa tion, maintenance, or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers generally need greater knowledge of electricity and electronics than do installers, because a large part of maintenance and repair work is troubleshooting. Similarly, adjusters need a thorough knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers to ensure that newly installed elevators operate properly. Working Conditions Most elevator installers and repairers work a 40-hour week. However, overtime is required when essential elevator equipment must be repaired, and some workers are on 24-hour call. Unlike most elevator installers, workers who specialize in elevator maintenance are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically. Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equipment and parts, and may work in cramped spaces or awkward positions. Potential haz ards include falls, electrical shock, muscle strains, and other injuries related to handling heavy equipment. Because most of their work is performed indoors in buildings under construction or in existing buildings, elevator installers and repairers lose less work time due to inclement weather than do other construction trades workers. Construction Trades and Related Workers Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most elevator installers and repairers apply for their jobs through a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Applicants for apprenticeship positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or equivalent, and pass an aptitude test. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude also are important. Elevator installers and repairers learn their trade in a program administered by local joint educational committees representing the employers and the union. These programs, through which the apprentice learns everything from installation to repair, combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction in blueprint reading, electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of phys ics, and safety. In nonunion shops, workers may complete training programs sponsored by independent contractors. Apprentices generally must complete a 6-month probationary pe riod. After successful completion, they work toward becoming fully qualified within 4 years. To be classified as a fully qualified elevator installer or repairer, union trainees must pass a standard examination administered by the National Elevator Industry Educational Program. Most States and cities also require elevator installers and repairers to pass a licensing examination. Both union and nonunion technicians may take the Certified Elevator Technician (CET) or the Certified Accessibility and Private Residence Lift Technician (CAT) program courses offered by the National Association of Elevator Contractors. Most apprentices assist experienced elevator installers and repairers. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, apprentices learn more dif ficult tasks such as wiring, which requires knowledge of local and national electrical codes. High school courses in electricity, mathematics, and physics provide a useful background. As elevators become increasingly so phisticated, workers may find it necessary to acquire more advanced formal education—for example, in a postsecondary technical school or junior college—with an emphasis on electronics. Workers with more formal education, such as an associate degree, usually advance more quickly than do their counterparts without a degree. Many elevator installers and repairers also receive training from their employers or through manufacturers to become familiar with a particular company’s equipment. Retraining is very important if a worker is to keep abreast of technological developments in elevator repair. In fact, union elevator installers and repairers typically receive continual training throughout their careers, through correspondence courses, seminars, or formal classes. Although voluntary, this train ing greatly improves one’s chances for promotion and retention. Some installers may receive further training in specialized areas and advance to the position of mechanic-in-charge, adjuster, supervi sor, or elevator inspector. Adjusters, for example, may be picked for their position because they possess particular skills or are electroni cally inclined. Other workers may move into management, sales, or product design jobs. Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 22,000 jobs in 2004. Most were employed by specialty trades contractors, particularly elevator main tenance and repair contractors. Others were employed by field offices of elevator manufacturers, machinery wholesalers, government agencies, or businesses that do their own elevator maintenance and repair. 517 be replaced, thus reducing job opportunities. Job prospects should be best for those with postsecondary education in electronics. Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Most of the demand for workers will be due to replacements. Demand for additional elevator installers depends greatly on growth in nonresidential construction, such as commercial office buildings and stores that have elevators and escalators. This sector of the construction industry is expected to grow during the decade in response to expansion of the economy. In addition, the need to continually update and repair old equipment, expand access to the disabled, and install increasingly sophisticated equipment and computerized controls also should add to the demand for elevator installers and repairers. Adding to the demand for elevator installers and repairers is a growing residential market where an increasing number of the elderly require easier access to their homes through stair lifts and residential elevators. Elevators, escalators, lifts, moving walkways, and related equipment need to be kept in good working condition year round, so employment of elevator repairers is less affected by economic downturns and seasonality than other construction trades. Earnings Earnings of elevator installers and repairers are among the highest of all construction trades. Median hourly earnings of elevator install ers and repairers were $28.23 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $22.96 and $33.68. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17.36, and the top 10 percent earned more than $39.65. In May 2004, median hourly earnings in the miscellaneous special trade contractors industry were $28.68. Three out of four elevator installers and repairers were members of unions or covered by a union contract, one of the highest propor tions of all occupations. The largest numbers were members of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. In addition to free continuing education, elevator installers and repairers receive basic benefits enjoyed by most other workers. Related Occupations Elevator installers and repairers combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills, such as welding, rigging, measur ing, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that require many of these skills are boilermakers; electricians; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; sheet metal workers; and structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information on opportunities as an elevator installer and repairer, contact: >- International Union of Elevator Constructors, 7154 Columbia Gateway Dr., Columbia, MD 21046. Internet: http://www.iuec.org For additional information about the Certified Elevator Techni cian (CET) program, contact: >- National Association of Elevator Contractors,1298 Wellbrook Circle, Suite A, Conyers, GA 30012. Internet: http://www.naec.org Glaziers (Q*NET 47-2121.00) Job Outlook Workers should expect keen competition when seeking to enter this occupation. Elevator installer and repairer jobs have relatively high earnings and good benefits, involve a significant investment in train ing, and a large proportion are unionized. As a result, workers tend toFRASER stay in this occupation for a long time and few leave and need to Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Many glaziers learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced glaziers. • Job opportunities are expected to be good. 518 Occupational Outlook Handbook .. Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modern life. Insulated and specially treated glass keeps in warmed or cooled air and provides good con densation and sound control qualities, while tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure. In large commercial buildings, glass panels give office buildings a distinctive look while reducing the need for artificial lighting. The creative use of large windows, glass doors, skylights, and sunroom additions makes homes bright, airy, and inviting. Glaziers are responsible for selecting, cutting, installing, replacing, and removing all types of glass. They generally work on one of several types of projects. Residential glazing involves work such as replacing glass in home windows; installing glass mirrors, shower doors, and bathtub enclosures; and fitting glass for tabletops and display cases. On commercial interior projects, glaziers install items such as heavy, often etched, decorative room dividers or security windows. Glaz ing projects also may involve replacement of storefront windows for establishments such as supermarkets, auto dealerships, or banks. In the construction of large commercial buildings, glaziers build metal framework extrusions and install glass panels or curtain walls. Besides working with glass, glaziers also may work with plastics, granite, marble, and other similar materials used as glass substitutes, as well as films or laminates that improve the durability or safety of the glass. They may mount steel and aluminum sashes or frames and attach locks and hinges to glass doors. For most jobs, the glass is precut and mounted in frames at a factory or a contractor’s shop. It arrives at the jobsite ready for glaziers to position and secure it in place. They may use a crane or hoist with suction cups to lift large, heavy pieces of glass. They then gently guide the glass into position by hand. Once glaziers have the glass in place, they secure it with mastic, putty, or other paste-like cement, or with bolts, rubber gaskets, glazing compound, metal clips, or metal or wood moldings. When they secure glass using a rubber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half-tube with a split running its length—they first secure the gasket around the perimeter within the opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When they use metal clips and wood moldings, glaziers first se cure the molding to the opening, place the glass in the molding, and then force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When a glazing compound is used, glaziers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the com pound on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside molding that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with glazing compound and then trim any excess material with a glazing knife. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually at the jobsite. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack, or “A-frame,” or flat against a cutting table. They then measure and mark the glass for the cut. Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has a small, very hard metal wheel. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it carefully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. In addition to handtools such as glasscutters, suction cups, and glazing knives, glaziers use power tools such as saws, drills, cutters, and grinders. An increasing number of glaziers use computers in the shop or at the jobsite to improve their layout work and reduce the amount of glass that is wasted. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier makes a score on the surface of the glass before cutting it. Working Conditions Glaziers often work outdoors, sometimes in inclement weather. Their work can, at times, result in injuries as they work with sharp tools and may need to remove broken glass. They must be prepared to lift heavy glass panels and work on scaffolding, sometimes at great heights. Glaziers do a considerable amount of bending, kneeling, lifting, and standing during the installation process. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Glaziers learn their trade through formal and informal training programs. To become a skilled glazier usually takes 3 years of both classroom and on-the-job training. There are a number of different avenues that one can take to obtain the necessary training. One of the ways is to obtain a job with a contractor who will then provide on-thejob training. Entry-level workers generally start as helpers, assisting more experienced workers. During this time, employers may send the employee to a trade or vocational school, or community college to receive further classroom training. Some employers offer employees formal apprenticeships. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship applicants usually must be at least 18 years old and meet local requirements. The length of the program is usually 3 years, but varies with the apprentice’s skill. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of glaziers learn their trade through these programs. On the job, apprentices or helpers, will start by carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops. They often practice cutting on discarded glass. After a while, they are given an opportunity to cut glass for a job and assist experienced workers on simple installation jobs. By working with experienced glaziers, they eventually acquire the skills of a fully qualified glazier. On the job, they learn to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, measure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the classroom, they are taught about glass and installation techniques as well as basic mathematics, blueprint reading and sketch ing, general construction techniques, safety practices and first aid. Because most glaziers do not learn the trade through a formal apprenticeship program, some associations offer a series of written examinations that certify an individual’s competency to perform glazier work at three progressively more difficult levels of profi ciency. These levels include Level I Glazier; Level II Commercial Interior/Residential Glazier or Storefront/Curtainwall Glazier; and Level III Master Glazier. There also is a certification program for auto-glass repair. Construction Trades and Related Workers Some skills needed to become a glazier include manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is required. In addition, a good work history or military service is viewed favorably by contractors. Advancement generally consists of increases in pay for most glaziers; some advance to supervisory jobs or become contractors or estimators. For those who would like to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instructions and safety precautions to workers with limited understanding of English; Spanish-speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many areas. Glaziers may advance to glazier supervisor or general construction supervisor positions. Others may become independent contractors. Supervisors and contractors need good communication skills to deal with clients and subcontractors and should be able to identify and estimate the quantity of materials needed to complete a job and accurately estimate how long a job will take to complete and at what cost. Employment Glaziers held 49,000 jobs in 2004. Almost two-thirds of glaziers worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construction, al teration, and repair. About 1 in 10 glaziers worked in retail glass shops that install or replace glass and for wholesale distributors of products containing glass. Job Outlook Job opportunities for glaziers are expected to be good as some em ployers report difficulty in finding qualified workers. In addition, employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Employment of glaziers is expected to increase as a result of growth in residential and nonresidential construction. Demand for glaziers also will be spurred by the continuing need to modernize and repair existing structures, which often involves installing new windows. Homeowners also are preferring rooms with more sun light and are adding sunrooms and skylights to houses. Demand for specialized safety glass and glass coated with protective laminates is also growing in response to a higher need for security and the need to withstand hurricanes, particularly in many commercial and government buildings. Like other construction trades workers, glaziers employed in the constmction industry should expect to experience periods of unemployment resulting from the limited duration of constmction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During bad economic times, job openings for glaziers are reduced as the level of constmction declines. However, constmction activity varies from area to area, so job openings fluctuate with local economic conditions. Employment opportunities should be greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing contractors and glass shops are located. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of glaziers were $15.70. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.08 and $21.58. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.73, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.36. In May 2004, median hourly earnings in the foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors industry, where most glass shops are found, were $16.10. Glaziers covered by union contracts generally earn more than their nonunion counterparts. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced glaziers and increase as they gain experience in the field. Because glaziers can lose time due to weather conditions and fluctuations in constmction activity, their overall earnings may be lower than their hourly wages suggest. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 519 Some glaziers employed in construction are members of the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of constmction materials and tech niques to install glass. Other constmction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; sheet metal workers; and painters and paperhangers. Other related occupations include automotive body and related repairers who install broken or damaged glass on vehicles that they repair. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier apprenticeships or work op portunities, contact local glazing or general contractors, a local of the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, a local joint union-management apprenticeship agency, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: ► International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New YorkAve. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iupat.org For information concerning training for glaziers, contact: >■ National Glass Association, Education and Training Department, 8200 Greensboro Dr., Suite 302, McLean, VA 22102-3881. Internet: http://www.glass.org > Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Depart ment, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: www.trytools.org Hazardous Materials Removal Workers __________ (0*NET 47-4041.00) Significant Points • • • Working conditions can be hazardous, and the use of protective clothing often is required. Formal education beyond high school is not required, but a training program leading to a Federal license is mandatory. Excellent job opportunities are expected. Nature of the Work Increased public awareness and Federal and State regulations are resulting in the removal of hazardous materials from buildings, facilities, and the environment to prevent further contamination of natural resources and to promote public health and safety. Hazardous materials removal workers identify, remove, package, transport, and dispose of various hazardous materials, including asbestos, lead, and radioactive and nuclear materials. They also respond to emergencies where harmful substances are present. The removal of hazardous materials, or “hazmats,” from public places and the environment also is called abatement, remediation, and decontamination. Hazardous materials removal workers use a variety of tools and equipment, depending on the work at hand. Equipment ranges from brooms to personal protective suits that completely isolate workers from the hazardous material. The equipment required varies with the threat of contamination and can include disposable or reusable coveralls, gloves, hardhats, shoe covers, safety glasses or goggles, 520 Occupational Outlook Handbook chemical-resistant clothing, face shields, and devices to protect one’s hearing. Most workers also are required to wear respirators while working, to protect them from airborne particles. The respirators range from simple versions that cover only the mouth and nose to self-contained suits with their own air supply. Asbestos and lead are two of the most common contaminants that hazardous materials removal workers encounter. In the past, asbestos was used to fireproof roofing and flooring, for heat in sulation, and for a variety of other purposes. Today, asbestos is rarely used in buildings, but there still are structures that contain the material. Embedded in materials, asbestos is fairly harmless; airborne, however, it can cause several lung diseases, includ ing lung cancer and asbestosis. Similarly, lead was a common building component found in paint and plumbing fixtures and pipes until the late 1970s. Because lead is easily absorbed into the bloodstream, often from breathing lead dust or from eating chips of paint containing lead, it can cause serious health risks, especially in children. Due to these risks, it has become neces sary to remove lead-based products and asbestos from buildings and structures. Asbestos abatement workers and lead abatement workers remove asbestos, lead, and other materials from buildings scheduled to be renovated or demolished. Using a variety of hand and power tools, such as vacuums and scrapers, these workers remove the asbestos and lead from surfaces. A typical residential lead abatement project involves the use of a chemical to strip the lead-based paint from the walls of the home. Lead abatement workers apply the compound with a putty knife and allow it to dry. Then they scrape the hazard ous material into an impregnable container for transport and stor age. They also use sandblasters and high-pressure water sprayers to remove lead from large structures. The vacuums utilized by asbestos abatement workers have special, highly efficient filters designed to trap the asbestos, which later is disposed of or stored. During the abatement, special monitors measure the amount of asbestos and lead in the air, to protect the workers; in addition, lead abatement workers wear a personal air monitor that indicates the amount of lead to which a worker has been exposed. Workers also use monitoring devices to identify the asbestos, lead, and other materials that need to be removed from the surfaces of walls and structures. Transportation of hazardous materials is safer today than it was in the past, but accidents still occur. Emergency and disaster response workers clean up hazardous materials after train derailments and trucking accidents. These workers also are needed when an im mediate cleanup is required, as would be the case after an attack by biological or chemical weapons. Radioactive materials are classified as either high- or low-level wastes. High-level wastes are primarily nuclear-reactor fuels used to produce electricity. Low-level wastes include any radioactively contaminated protective clothing, tools, filters, medical equipment, and other items. Decontamination technicians perform duties similar to those of janitors and cleaners. They use brooms, mops, and other tools to clean exposed areas and remove exposed items for decon tamination or disposal. Some of these jobs are now being done by robots controlled by persons away from the contamination site. With experience, decontamination technicians can advance to radiation-protection technician jobs and use radiation survey meters to locate and evaluate materials, operate high-pressure cleaning equipment for decontamination, and package radioactive materials for transportation or disposal. Decommissioning and decontamination workers remove and treat radioactive materials generated by nuclear facilities and power plants. With a variety of handtools, they break down contaminated items such as “gloveboxes,” which are used to process radioac tive materials. At decommissioning sites, the workers clean and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis decontaminate the facility, as well as remove any radioactive or contaminated materials. Treatment, storage, and disposal workers transport and prepare materials for treatment or disposal. To ensure proper treatment of the materials, laws require these workers to be able to verify shipping manifests. At incinerator facilities, treatment, storage, and disposal workers transport materials from the customer or service center to the incinerator. At landfills, they follow a strict procedure for the processing and storage of hazardous materials. They organize and track the location of items in the landfill and may help change the state of a material from liquid to solid in preparation for its storage. These workers typically operate heavy machinery, such as forklifts, earthmoving machinery, and large trucks and rigs. Mold remediation is a new and growing part of the work of some hazardous materials removal workers. Some types of mold can cause allergic reactions, especially in people who are susceptible to them. Although mold is present in almost all structures, some mold—especially the types that cause allergic reactions—can infest a building to such a degree that extensive efforts must be taken to remove it safely. Mold typically grows in damp areas, in heating and air-conditioning ducts, within walls, and in attics and basements. Although some mold remediation work is undertaken by other construction workers, mold often must be removed by hazardous materials removal workers, who take special precautions to protect themselves and surrounding areas from being contaminated. Hazardous materials removal workers also may be required to construct scaffolding or erect containment areas prior to abatement or decontamination. In most cases, government regulation dictates that hazardous materials removal workers be closely supervised on the worksite. The standard usually is 1 supervisor to every 10 workers. The work is highly structured, sometimes planned years in advance, and team oriented. There is a great deal of cooperation among supervisors and workers. Because of the hazard presented by the materials being removed, work areas are restricted to licensed hazardous materials removal workers, thus minimizing exposure to the public. Working Conditions Hazardous materials removal workers function in a highly structured environment to minimize the danger they face. Each phase of an operation is planned in advance, and workers are trained to deal with safety breaches and hazardous situations. Crews and supervisors take every precaution to ensure that the worksite is safe. Whether they work with asbestos, mold, lead abatement or in radioactive decontamination, hazardous materials removal workers must stand, stoop, and kneel for long periods. Some must wear fully enclosed personal protective suits for several hours at a time; these suits may be hot and uncomfortable and may cause some individuals to experience claustrophobia. Hazardous materials removal workers face different working conditions, depending on their area of expertise. Although many work a standard 40-hour week, overtime and shift work are common, especially in asbestos and lead abatement. Asbestos abatement and lead abatement workers are found primarily in structures such as office buildings and schools. Because they are under pressure to complete their work within certain deadlines, workers may experi ence fatigue. Completing projects frequently requires night and weekend work, because hazardous materials removal workers often work around the schedules of others. Treatment, storage, and dis posal workers are employed primarily at facilities such as landfills, incinerators, boilers, and industrial furnaces. These facilities often are located in remote areas, due to the kinds of work being done. As a result, workers employed by treatment, storage, or disposal facilities may commute long distances to their jobs. Construction Trades and Related Workers k jKK 521 discovered material, they cannot continue to work with it. Many experienced workers opt to take courses in additional disciplines to avoid this situation. Some employers prefer to hire workers licensed in multiple disciplines. For decommissioning and decontamination workers employed at nuclear facilities, training is more extensive. In addition to the standard 40-hour training course in asbestos, lead, and hazard ous waste, workers must take courses dealing with regulations governing nuclear materials and radiation safety. These courses add up to approximately 3 months of training, although most are not taken consecutively. Many agencies, organizations, and com panies throughout the country provide training programs that are approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Energy, and other regulatory bodies. Workers in all fields are required to take refresher courses every year in order to maintain their license. Workers must be able to perform basic mathematical conver sions and calculations, and should have good physical strength and manual dexterity. Because of the nature of the work and the time constraints sometimes involved, employers prefer people who are dependable, prompt, and detail-oriented. Because much of the work is done in buildings, a background in construction is helpful. Employment Hazardous materials removal workers held about 38,000 jobs in 2004. About 8 in 10 were employed in waste management and remediation services. About 1 in 20 were employed in construc tion, primarily in asbestos abatement and lead abatement. A small number worked at nuclear and electric plants as decommissioning and decontamination workers and radiation safety and decontami nation technicians. Hazardous materials removal workers need a license to work in this occupation. Decommissioning and decontamination workers, decontami nation technicians, and radiation protection technicians work at nuclear facilities and electric power plants. Like treatment, storage, and disposal facilities, these sites often are far from urban areas. Workers, who often perform jobs in cramped conditions, may need to use sharp tools to dismantle contaminated objects. A hazardous materials removal worker must have great self-control and a level head to cope with the daily stress associated with handling hazard ous materials. Hazardous materials removal workers may be required to travel outside their normal working areas in order to respond to emergen cies, the cleanup of which sometimes take several days or weeks to complete. During the cleanup, workers may be away from home for the entire time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No formal education beyond a high school diploma is required for a person to become a hazardous materials removal worker. Federal regulations require an individual to have a license to work in the occupation, although, at present, there are few laws regulating mold removal. Most employers provide technical training on the job, but a formal 32- to 40-hour training program must be completed if one is to be licensed as an asbestos abatement and lead abatement worker or a treatment, storage, and disposal worker. The program covers health hazards, personal protective equipment and clothing, site safety, recognition and identification of hazards, and decontamina tion. In some cases, workers discover one hazardous material while abating another. If they are not licensed to work with the newly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for hazardous materials removal workers. The occupation is characterized by a relatively high rate of turnover, resulting in a number of job openings each year stemming from experienced workers leaving the occupation. In addition, many potential workers are not attracted to this occupation, because they may prefer work that is less strenuous and has safer working conditions. Experienced workers will have especially favorable opportuni ties, particularly in the private sector, as more State and local governments contract out hazardous materials removal work to private companies. Employment of hazardous materials removal workers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, reflecting increasing concern for a safe and clean environment. Special-trade contractors will have strong demand for the largest segment of these workers, namely, asbestos abate ment and lead abatement workers; lead abatement should offer particularly good opportunities. Mold remediation is a growing part of the occupation at the present time, but it is unclear whether the growth will continue as builders find ways to prevent moisture from entering homes. Employment of decontamination technicians, radiation safety technicians, and decommissioning and decontamination workers is expected to grow in response to increased pressure for safer and cleaner nuclear and electric generator facilities. Renewed interest in nuclear power production could lead to the construction of additional facilities. However, the number of older closed facilities that need decommissioning may continue to grow due to Federal legislation. These workers are less affected by economic fluctuations because the facilities in which they work must operate, regardless of the state of the economy. 522 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Median hourly earnings of hazardous materials removal workers were $16.02 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.52 and $22.27 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.48 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.25 per hour. The median hourly earnings in remediation and other waste management services, the largest industry employing hazardous materials removal workers in May 2004, were $15.46. According to the limited data available, treatment, storage, and disposal workers usually earn slightly more than asbestos abatement and lead abatement workers. Decontamination and decommission ing workers and radiation protection technicians, though constituting the smallest group, tend to earn the highest wages. Related Occupations Asbestos abatement workers and lead abatement workers share skills with other construction trades workers, including painters and paperhangers; insulation workers; and sheet metal workers. Treatment, storage, and disposal workers, decommissioning and decontamination workers, and decontamination and radiation safety technicians work closely with plant and system operators, such as power-plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers and water and wastewater treatment plant operators. Police officers and firefighters also respond to emergencies and often are the first ones to respond to incidents where hazardous materials may be present. Sources of Additional Information For more information on hazardous materials removal workers that work in the construction industry, including information on training, contact; >- Laborers-AGC Education and Training Fund, 37 Deerfield Rd., P.O. Box 37, Pomfret, CT 06259. Internet: http://www.laborerslearn.org >- Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, 9602 M. L. King Jr. Hwy., Lanham, MD 20706 Internet: http://www.insulators.org Insulation Workers (0*NET 47-2131.00,47-2132.00) When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insulation onto a wire mesh that provides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and that adds strength to the finished surface. Workers may then install drywall or apply a final coat of plaster for a finished appearance. In attics or exterior walls of uninsulated buildings, workers may blow in loose-fill insulation. A helper feeds a machine with fiber glass, cellulose, or rock-wool insulation, while another worker blows the insulation with a compressor hose into the space being filled. In new construction or on major renovations, insulation workers staple fiberglass or rock-wool batts to exterior walls and ceilings before drywall, paneling, orplaster walls are put in place. In making major renovations to old buildings or when putting new insulation around pipes and industrial machinery, insulation workers often must first remove the old insulation. In the past, asbestos—now known to cause cancer in humans—was used extensively in walls and ceilings and to cover pipes, boilers, and various industrial equipment. Because of this danger, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations require that asbestos be removed before a building undergoes major renovations or is demolished. When asbestos is present, specially trained workers must remove the asbestos before insulation workers can install the new insulating materials. (See the statement on hazard ous materials removal workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Insulation workers use common handtools—trowels, brushes, knives, scissors, saws, pliers, and stapling guns. They may use power saws to cut insulating materials, welding machines to join sheet metal or secure clamps, and compressors to blow or spray insulation. Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors in residential and industrial settings. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either stand ing, bending, or kneeling. They also work from ladders or in confined spaces. Their work usually requires more coordination than strength. In industrial settings insulation workers often must insulate pipes and vessels with temperatures that may cause bums. Minute particles from insulation materials, especially when blown, can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Workers must follow strict safety guidelines Significant Points • Workers must follow strict safety guidelines to protect themselves from insulating irritants. • Most insulation workers learn their work informally on the job; others complete formal apprenticeship pro grams. Job opportunities in the occupation are expected to be excellent. • Nature of the Work Properly insulated buildings reduce energy consumption by keeping heat in during the winter and out in the summer. Refrigerated storage rooms, vats, tanks, vessels, boilers, and steam and hot-water pipes also are insulated to prevent the wasteful loss of heat. Insulation workers install the materials used to insulate buildings and equipment. Insulation workers cement, staple, wire, tape, or spray insulation. When covering a steampipe, for example, insulation workers measure and cut sections of insulation to the proper length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the material, and slip it over the pipe. They fasten the insulation with adhesive, staples, tape, or wire bands. Sometimes, they wrap a cover of aluminum, plastic, or canvas over the insulation and cement or band the cover in place. Insulation workers may screw on sheet metal around insulated pipes to protect the insulation from weather conditions or physical abuse. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mm uauwn Insulation materials can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system, requiring insulation workers to wear masks and other protective gear. Construction Trades and Related Workers to protect themselves from insulating irritants. They keep work areas well ventilated; wear protective suits, masks, and respirators; and take decontamination showers when necessary. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers learn their trade informally on the job, although some complete formal apprenticeship programs. For entrylevel jobs, insulation contractors prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop mathematics, science, sheet metal layout, woodworking, and general construction provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking apprenticeship positions should have a high school diploma or its equivalent and be at least 18 years old. Trainees who learn on the job receive instruction and supervision from experienced insulation workers. Trainees begin with simple tasks, such as carrying insulation or holding material while it is fastened in place. On-the-job training can take up to 2 years, depending on the nature of the work. Installing insulation in homes generally requires less training than does learning to apply insulation in commercial and industrial settings. As they gain experience, trainees receive less su pervision, more responsibility, and higher pay. A certification program has been developed by insulation contractor organizations to help all workers prove their skills and knowledge. Certification is currently limited to residential installation. Workers need at least six months of experience before they can complete certification. Certification in industrial settings is being developed Trainees in formal apprenticeship programs receive indepth in struction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship programs may be provided by a joint committee of local insulation contractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, to which some insulation workers belong. Programs normally consist of 4 years of on-the-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and trainees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate their knowledge of the trade. Skilled insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop superintendent, or insulation contract estimator, or they may set up their own insulation business. Employment Insulation workers held about 61,000 jobs in 2004. The construction industry employed 4 out of 5 workers; most worked for building finish ing contractors. Small numbers of insulation workers held jobs in the Federal Government, in wholesale trade, and in shipbuilding and other manufacturing industries that have extensive installations for power, heating, and cooling. In less populated areas, carpenters, heating and air conditioning installers or drywall installers may do insulation work. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for insulation workers. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as insulation workers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. In addition, openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. In addition to the regular need to replace workers, some new jobs will arise as employment of insulation workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. In contrast to other construction workers, insulation workers work mainly on new construction, which is expected to moderate some over the next decade. Growth also will be limited by the increased efficiency of these workers and installation techniques, such as blow-in and spray-in insulation, which allows more work to be done in a shorter time and with fewer people. Insulation also is Digitized forincreasingly FRASER being installed by other workers in other occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 523 Some demand for insulation workers will be spurred by the continuing need for energy efficient buildings, which will generate work in existing structures as well as new construction. Insulation workers in the construction industry may experience pe riods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construc tion projects and the cyclical nature of construction activity. Workers employed to perform industrial plant maintenance generally have more stable employment because maintenance and repair must be done on a continuing basis. Most insulation is applied after buildings are enclosed, so weather conditions have less effect on the employment of insulation workers than on that of some other construction occupations. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of insulation workers, floor, ceiling, and wall were $14.57. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 10.63 and $20.20. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.53, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.35. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of insulation workers, mechanical were $ 16.03. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.16 and $21.15. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.82, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.85. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of insulation workers in May 2004 were: Insulation workers, mechanical Building equipment contractors................................................ $15.66 Building finishing contractors................................................... 15.55 Insulation workers, floor, ceiling, and wall Building finishing contractors................................................... 13.95 Union workers tend to earn more than nonunion workers. Ap prentices start at about one-half of the journey worker’s wage. Insulation workers doing commercial and industrial work earn substantially more than those working in residential construction, which does not require as much skill. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine their knowledge of insulation materials with the skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Workers in occupations involving similar skills include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; roofers; and sheet metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about training programs or other work opportunities in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor, the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency, or one of the following organizations: >- National Insulation Association, 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 222, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.insulation.org >- Insulation Contractors Association of America, 1321 Duke St., Suite 303, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.insulate.org Painters and Paperhangers (0*NET 47-2141.00, 47-2142.00) Significant Points • • • Employment prospects should be excellent due to the expected job growth, coupled with the large numbers of workers who retire or leave the occupation for other jobs. Most workers learn informally on the job as helpers, but training experts recommend completion of an ap prenticeship program. Nearly one-half of all painters and paperhangers are self-employed. 524 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Paint and wall coverings make surfaces clean, attractive, and bright. In addition, paints and other sealers protect exterior surfaces from wear caused by exposure to the weather. Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to build ings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account durability, ease of handling, method of application, and customers’ wishes. Painters first prepare the surfaces to be covered, so that the paint will adhere properly. This may require removing the old coat of paint by strip ping, sanding, wire brushing, burning, or water and abrasive blasting. Painters also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to prepare the surface for the finish coat. Painters also mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint composition and color harmony. In large paint shops or hardware stores, these functions are automated. There are several ways to apply paint and similar coverings. Painters must be able to choose the right paint applicator for each job, depending on the surface to be covered, the characteristics of the finish, and other factors. Some jobs need only a good bristle brush with a soft, tapered edge; others require a dip or fountain pressure roller; still others can best be done using a paint sprayer. Many jobs need several types of applicators. The right tools for each job not only expedite the painter’s work but also produce the most attractive surface. When working on tall buildings, painters erect scaffolding, including “swing stages,” scaffolds suspended by ropes, or cables attached to roof hooks. When painting steeples and other conical structures, they use a bosun’s chair, a swing-like device. Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall cover ings made of paper, vinyl, or fabric. They first prepare the surface to be covered by applying “sizing,” which seals the surface and makes the covering adhere better. When redecorating, they may first remove the old covering by soaking, steaming, or applying solvents. When necessary, they patch holes and take care of other imperfections before hanging the new wall covering. After the surface has been prepared, paperhangers must prepare the paste or other adhesive. Then, they measure the area to be cov ered, check the covering for Haws, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, and closely examine the pattern in order to match it when the strips are hung. Much of this process can now be handled by specialized equipment. The next step is to brush or roll the adhesive onto the back of the covering, if needed, and to then place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure the pattern is matched, the strips are hung straight, and the Most painters start out as helpers and learn on the job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis edges are butted together to make tight, closed seams. Finally, paperhangers smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles, trim the top and bottom with a razor knife, and wipe off any excess adhesive. Working Conditions Most painters and paperhangers work 40 hours a week or less; about one-fourth have variable schedules or work part time. Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods, often working from scaf folding and ladders. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These workers must have stamina, because much of the work is done with their arms raised overhead. Painters often work outdoors but seldom in wet, cold, or inclement weather. Some painting jobs can leave a worker covered with paint. Painters and paperhangers sometimes work with materials that are hazardous or toxic, such as when they are required to remove lead-based paints. In the most dangerous situations, painters work in a sealed self-contained suit to prevent inhalation of or contact with hazardous materials. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging is learned mostly through on-the-job training and by working as a helper to an experienced painter. However, there are a number of formal and informal training pro grams that provide more thorough instruction and a better career foundation. In general, the more formal the training received the more likely the individual will enter the profession at a higher level. Besides apprenticeships, some workers gain skills by attending technical schools that offer training prior to employment. These schools can take about a year to complete. Others receive training through local vocational high schools. Applicants should have good manual dexterity and color sense. There are limited opportunities for informal training for paperhangers because there are fewer paperhangers and helpers are usually not required. If available, apprenticeships are usually the best way to enter the profession. They generally provide a mixture of classroom instruction and on-the-job training. Apprenticeships for painters and paperhang ers consist of 2 to 4 years of on-the-job training, supplemented by 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent, with courses in mathematics, usually is required to enter an apprenticeship program. Apprentices receive instruction in color harmony, use and care of tools and equipment, surface preparation, application techniques, paint mixing and matching, characteristics of different finishes, blueprint reading, wood finishing, and safety. Whether a painter learns the trade through a formal apprentice ship or informally as a helper, on-the-job instruction covers similar skill areas. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do simple painting and surface preparation tasks while they learn about paint and painting equip ment. As they gain experience, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint and wall coverings efficiently and neatly. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost-estimating techniques. In addition to learning craft skills, painters must become familiar with safety and health regulations so that their work complies with the law. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or estimat ing jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many establish their own painting and decorating businesses. For those who would like to advance, it is increasingly important to be able to communicate in both English and Spanish in order to relay instructions and safety precautions to workers with limited English skills; Spanish speaking workers make up a large part of the construction workforce in many Construction Trades and Related Workers areas. Painting contractors need good English skills in order to deal with clients and subcontractors. 525 Some painters and paperhangers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Some maintenance painters are members of other unions. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 486,000 jobs in 2004; most were painters. Around one-third of painters and paperhangers work for painting and wall covering contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restoration, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings—such as apart ment complexes—employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, factories, and government agencies. Self-employed independent painting contractors accounted for nearly one-half of all painters and paperhangers, significantly greater than the one in five of construction trades workers in general. Job Outlook Job prospects should be excellent because each year thousands of paint ers retire or leave forjobs in other occupations. There are no strict train ing requirements for entry into these jobs, so many people with limited skills work as painters or helpers for a short time and then move on to other types of work. Many fewer openings will arise for paperhangers because the number of these jobs is comparatively small. In addition to the need to replace experienced workers who leave, new jobs will be created. Employment of painters is ex pected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014, reflecting increases in the level of new construc tion and in the stock of buildings and other structures that require maintenance and renovation. The relatively short life of exterior paints as well as changing color trends will stir demand for paint ers. Painting is labor-intensive and not susceptible to technologi cal changes that might make workers more productive and slow employment growth. Paperhangers should see slower than average employment growth as easy application materials and reduced demand for paperhanging services limits growth. Jobseekers considering these occupations should expect some pe riods of unemployment, especially until they gain experience. Many construction projects are of short duration, and construction activity is cyclical and seasonal in nature. Remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects, however, often provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new construction activity declines. The most versatile painters and skilled paperhangers generally are best able to keep working steadily during downturns in the economy. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of painters, construction and maintenance, were $14.55. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.59 and $19.04. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.47, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.11. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of painters in May 2004 were as follows: Local government........................................................................... $18.36 Residential building construction................................................... 15.09 Nonresidential building construction.............................................. 14.97 Building finishing contractors......................................................... 14.44 Employment services...................................................................... 11.31 In May 2004, median earnings for paperhangers were $15.73. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.23 and $20.71. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.57, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.58. Earnings for painters may be reduced on occasion because of bad weather and the short-term nature of many construction jobs. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent ofFRASER the rate for experienced workers and increase periodically. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Painters and paperhangers apply various coverings to decorate and protect wood, dry wall, metal, and other surfaces. Other construction occupations in which workers do finishing work include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceil ing tile installers, and tapers; painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contractors, local trade organizations, a local of the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or an office of the State apprenticeship agency or em ployment service. For information about the work of painters and paperhangers and training opportunities, contact: >• International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iupat.org >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Depart ment, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.trytools.org > National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org > Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, 11960 Westline Industrial Drive, Suite 201, St. Louis, MO 63146-3209. Internet: http://www.pdca.org Pipelayers, Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters (0*NET 47-215 LOO, 47-2152.01, 47-2152.02,47-2152.03) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be excellent because not enough people are seeking training. • Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters make up one of the largest and highest paid construction oc cupations. Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with plumbers, who come to their home to unclog a drain or install an appliance. In addition to these ac tivities, however, pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters install, maintain, and repair many different types of pipe systems. For example, some systems move water to a municipal water treat ment plant and then to residential, commercial, and public build ings. Other systems dispose of waste, provide gas to stoves and furnaces, or provide for heating and cooling needs. Pipe systems in powerplants carry the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also arc used in manufacturing plants to move material through the production process. Specialized piping systems are very important in both pharmaceutical and computer-chip manufacturing. Although pipelaying, plumbing, pipefitting, and steamfitting some times are considered a single trade, workers generally specialize in one of five areas. Pipelayers lay clay, concrete, plastic, or cast-iron pipe for drains, sewers, water mains, and oil or gas lines. Before laying the pipe, pipelayers prepare and grade the trenches either manually or with machines. After laying the pipe, they weld, glue, cement or 526 Occupational Outlook Handbook otherwise join the pieces together. Plumbers install and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and com mercial and industrial buildings. Plumbers also install plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, showers, sinks, and toilets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters install and repair both high- and low-pressure pipe systems used in manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in the heating and cooling of buildings. They also install automatic controls that are increasingly being used to regulate these systems. Some pipefitters specialize in only one type of system. Steamfitters install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters use many differ ent materials and construction techniques, depending on the type of project. Residential water systems, for example, incorporate copper, steel, and plastic pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two plumbers. Municipal sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast-iron pipes; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters must be able to follow building plans or blueprints and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of their trade. Computers and specialized software are used to create blueprints and plan layouts. When construction plumbers install piping in a new house, for example, they work from blueprints or drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appliances. Recently, plumbers have become more involved in the design process. Their knowledge of codes and the operation of plumbing systems can cut costs. They first lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material. Then they measure and mark areas in which pipes will be installed and connected. Construction plumbers also check for obstructions such as electrical wiring and, if necessary, plan the pipe installation around the problem. Sometimes, plumbers have to cut holes in walls, ceilings, and floors of a house. For some systems, they may hang steel supports from ceiling joists to hold the pipe in place. To assemble a system, plumbers—using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bending machines—cut and bend lengths of pipe. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings, using methods that depend on the type of pipe used. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections and fittings with adhesives. For copper pipe, they slide a fitting over the end of the pipe and solder it in place with a torch. After the piping is in place in the house, plumbers install the fixtures and appliances and connect the system to the outside water or sewer lines. Finally, using pressure gauges, they check the system to ensure that the plumbing works properly. . ifif! Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters make up one of the largest and highest paid construction occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Pipefitters and steamfitters most often work in industrial and power plants. Plumbers work in commercial and residential settings where water and septic systems need to be installed and maintained. Pipelayers work outdoors, sometime in remote areas, as they build the pipelines that connect sources of oil, gas, and chemicals with the users of these materials. Sprinklerfitters work mostly in multistory buildings that require the use of sprinkler systems. Because pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters fre quently must lift heavy pipes, stand for long periods, and sometimes work in uncomfortable or cramped positions, they need physical strength as well as stamina. They also may have to work outdoors in inclement weather. In addition, they are subject to possible falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and bums from hot pipes or soldering equipment. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters engaged in con struction generally work a standard 40-hour week; those involved in maintaining pipe systems, including those who provide maintenance services under contract, may have to work evening or weekend shifts, as well as be on call. These maintenance workers may spend quite a bit of time traveling to and from worksites. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters enter into the pro fession in a variety of ways. Most residential and industrial plumbers get their training in career and technical schools and community col leges and from on-the-job training. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters who work mainly for commercial enterprises are usually trained through formal apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeship programs generally provide the most compre hensive training available for these jobs. They are administered by either union locals and their affiliated companies or by nonunion contractor organizations. Organizations that sponsor apprenticeships include: the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada; local employers of either the Mechanical Contractors As sociation of America, the National Association of Plumbing-Heat ing-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Association; the Associated Builders and Contractors; the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors; the American Fire Sprinkler Association, or the Home Builders Institute of the National Associa tion of Home Builders. Apprenticeships—both union and nonunion—consist of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours per year of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills, such as identifying grades and types of pipe, using the tools of the trade, and safely unloading materials. As apprentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and how to install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade. Although most pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are trained through apprentice ship, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Applicants for union or nonunion apprentice jobs must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship committees may require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Armed Forces training in pipelaying, plumbing, and pipefitting is considered very good preparation. In fact, persons with this background may be given credit for previous experience when en tering a civilian apprenticeship program. Secondary or postsecondary courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, computers, and physics also are good preparation. Construction Trades and Related Workers Although there are no uniform national licensing requirements, most communities require plumbers to be licensed. Licensing require ments vary from area to area, but most localities require workers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes. With additional training, some pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters become supervisors for mechanical and plumb ing contractors. Others, especially plumbers, go into business for themselves, often starting as a self-employed plumber working from home. Some eventually become owners of businesses employing many workers and may spend most of their time as managers rather than as plumbers. Others move into closely related areas such as construction management or building inspection. Employment Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters constitute one of the largest construction occupations, holding about 561,000 jobs in 2004. About 1 in 2 worked for plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors engaged in new construction, repair, modernization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, commercial, and government employers. For example, pipefitters were employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum and chemical industries, in which manufacturing operations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. More than 1 in 10 pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters were self-employed. Almost 1 in 3 pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters belonged to a union. Jobs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are distributed across the country in about the same proportion as the general population. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent, as demand for skilled pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters is expected to outpace the supply of workers trained in this craft. Many employers report diffi culty finding potential workers with the right qualifications. In addition, many people currently working in these trades are expected to retire over the next 10 years, which will create additional job openings. Employment of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Demand for plumbers will stem from new construction and building renovation. Bath remodeling, in particular, is expected to continue to grow and create more jobs forplumbers. In addition, repair and maintenance of existing residential systems will keep plumbers employed. Demand for pipefitters and steamfitters will be driven by maintenance activities for places having extensive systems of pipes, such as powerplants, water and wastewater treat ment plants, office buildings, and factories. Growth of pipelayer jobs will stem from the building of new water and sewer lines and pipelines to new oil and gas fields. Demand for sprinklerfitters will increase due to changes to State and local rules for fire protection in homes and businesses. Traditionally, many organizations with extensive pipe systems have employed their own plumbers or pipefitters to maintain equip ment and keep systems running smoothly. But, to reduce labor costs, many of these firms no longer employ full-time, in-house plumbers or pipefitters. Instead, when they need a plumber, they rely on workers provided under service contracts by plumbing and pipefitting contractors. Construction projects generally provide only temporary employ ment. When a project ends, some pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters may be unemployed until they can begin work on a new project, although most companies are trying to limit these periods unemployment in order to retain workers. In addition, the jobs Digitized forofFRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 527 of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are generally less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than jobs in other construction trades. Even when construction activity declines, main tenance, rehabilitation, and replacement of existing piping systems, as well as the increasing installation of fire sprinkler systems, provide many jobs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Earnings Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are among the highest paid construction occupations. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of pipelayers were $13.68. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.05 and $18.69. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.19, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.07. Also in May 2004, median hourly earnings of plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters were $19.85. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.01 and $26.67. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.62, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.72. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of plumb ers, pipefitters, and steamfitters in May 2004 were as follows: Natural gas distribution................................................................... $23.86 Nonresidential building construction............................................. 21.55 Building equipment contractors..................................................... 19.85 Utility system construction............................................................. 18.29 Local government........................................................................... 16.30 Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfit ters. Wages increase periodically as skills improve. After an initial waiting period, apprentices receive the same benefits as experienced pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Many pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are mem bers of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechani cal systems in buildings are boilermakers; electricians; elevator installers and repairers; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwrights; millwrights; sheet metal workers; and stationary engineers and boiler operators. Other related occupations include constmction managers and construction and building inspectors. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in pipelaying, plumbing, pipefitting, and steamfitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; a local or State chapter of the National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors; a local chapter of the Mechanical Contractors Association; a local chapter of the United Association of Journey men and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada; or the nearest office of your State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information about apprenticeship opportunities for pipelay ers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, contact: >- United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting industry, 901 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.ua.org For more information about training programs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, contact: >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Depart ment, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.trytools.org 528 Occupational Outlook Handbook >■ Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org For general information about the work of pipelayers, plumbers, and pipefitters, contact: >• Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850. Internet: http://www.mcaa.org ► Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors—National Association, 180 S. Washington St, Falls Church, VA 22040. Internet: http://www.phccweb.org >• National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org For general information about the work of sprinklerfitters, contact: >- American Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc., 9696 Skillman St., Suite 300, Dallas, TX 75243-8264. Internet: http://www.flresprinkler.org ► National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000, Patterson, NY 12563. Internet: http://www.nfsa.org Plasterers and Stucco Masons (0*NET 47-2161.00) Significant Points • Plastering is physically demanding. • Plastering is learned on the job, either through a formal apprenticeship program or by working as a helper. • Job opportunities are expected to be good, particularly in the South and Southwest. Nature of the Work Plastering—one of the oldest crafts in the building trades—remains popular due to the relatively low cost of the material and overall durability of work. Plasterers apply plaster to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces. They also apply plaster veneer over drywall to create smooth or textured abrasion-resistant finishes. In addition, plasterers install prefabricated exterior insulation systems over existing walls—for good insulation and interesting architectural effects—and cast orna mental designs in plaster. Stucco masons apply durable plasters, such as polymer-based acrylic finishes and stucco, to exterior surfaces. Plasterers and stucco masons should not be confused with drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers—discussed elsewhere in the Handbook—who use drywall instead of plaster when erecting interior walls and ceilings. Plasterers can plaster either solid surfaces, such as concrete block, or supportive wire mesh called lath. When plasterers work with inte rior surfaces, such as concrete block and concrete, they first apply a brown coat of gypsum plaster that provides a base, which is followed by a second, or finish, coat—also called “white coat”—made of a lime-based plaster. When plastering metal lath foundations, they apply a preparatory, or “scratch,” coat with a trowel. They spread this rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, plasterers scratch its surface with a rake-like tool to produce ridges, so that the subsequent brown coat will bond tightly. Helpers prepare a thick, smooth plaster for the brown coat. Plasterers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface, then finish by smoothing it to an even, level surface. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mixture of lime, plaster of paris, and water. They quickly apply this to the brown coat us ing a “hawk”—a light, metal plate with a handle—trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, durable finish. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. This “thin-coaf ’ or gypsum veneer plaster is made https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of lime and plaster of paris and is mixed with water at the jobsite This plaster provides a smooth, durable, abrasion-resistant finish on interior masonry surfaces, special gypsum baseboard, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent. Plasterers create decorative interior surfaces as well. One way that they do this is by pressing a brush or trowel firmly against a wet plaster surface and using a circular hand motion to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, stucco masons usually apply stucco—a mixture of Portland cement, lime, and sand—over cement, concrete, masonry, or lath. Stucco may also be applied directly to a wire lath with a scratch coat, followed by a brown coat and then a finish coat. Stucco masons may also embed marble or gravel chips into the finish coat to achieve a pebblelike, decorative finish. When required, plasterers apply insulation to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with rigid foam insula tion board and reinforcing mesh, and then trowel on a polymer-based or polymer-modified base coat. They may apply an additional coat of this material with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they may mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an architect’s blueprint, plasterers pour or spray a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and put it in place, ac cording to the plan. Working Conditions Most plastering jobs are indoors; however, plasterers and stucco masons work outside when applying stucco or exterior wall insulation and ex terior decorative finish systems. Exterior work can be greatly impacted by inclement weather as stucco must be applied when the weather permits. Plasterers work on scaffolds high above the ground. Plastering is physically demanding, requiring considerable stand ing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty, soiling shoes and clothing, and can irritate the skin and eyes, unless the proper personal protective equipment is used. 5 - - SHI Plastering—one of the oldest crafts in the building trades—remains popular due to the relatively low cost of the material and its overall durability. Construction Trades and Related Workers Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Plasterers and stucco masons learn their trade through formal and informal training programs. Most people learn this trade informally by starting out as helpers for experienced plasterers and stucco ma sons. Between 2 and 3 years of on-the-job training supplemented by formal classroom training may be required to become a skilled plasterer and stucco mason. • Preparation for a career as a plasterer or stucco mason can begin in high school, where classes in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and general shop are recommended. After high school, there are a number of different avenues that one can take to obtain the necessary training. The most common way is to obtain a job with a contractor who will provide on-the-job training. Entry-level workers generally start as helpers, assisting more experienced workers. They may start by carrying materials, setting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Later, they learn to apply the scratch, brown, and finish coats and may also learn to replicate plaster decorations for restoration work. Employers may enroll helpers in an employer-provided training program or send the employee to a trade or vocational school, or community college to receive further classroom training. Although most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering, apprenticeships for this occupation are few. Appren ticeship programs, sponsored by local joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of classroom instruction in draft ing, blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout work. In the classroom, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster designs. On the job, they learn about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plastering, blueprint reading, and safety. They also learn how to use various tools, such as hand and powered trowels, floats, brushes, straight edges, power tools, plaster-mixing machines, and piston-type pumps. Some apprenticeship programs allow individuals to obtain training in related occupations, such as cement masonry and bricklaying. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs normally must be at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and have good manual dexterity. Applicants who have a high school education are pre ferred. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background. With additional training and experience, plasterers and stucco masons may advance to positions as supervisors, superintendents, or estimators for plastering contractors. Many become self-employed contractors. Others become building inspectors. Employment Plasterers and stucco masons held about 59,000 jobs in 2004. Most plasterers and stucco masons work on new construction sites. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plasterers and stucco ma sons are employed in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior stucco with decorative finishes is very popular. Most plasterers and stucco masons work for independent con tractors. About 1 out of every 20 plasterers and stucco masons is self-employed. Job Outlook Job opportunities for plasterers and stucco masons are expected to be good through 2014. Many potential workers choose not to enter this occupation because they prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Most job openings will be the result of plasterers and stucco masons transferring to other occupations or leaving the labor force. The best employment opportunities should continue to be in Florida, California, and theFRASER Southwest, where exterior plaster and decorative finishes are Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 529 expected to remain popular. Plastering in the Northeast continues to remain in demand, especially in restoration. Employment of plasterers and stucco masons is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. In past years, employment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plasterers is expected to grow as a result of the appreciation for the durability and attractiveness that troweled finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering—or veneering—in particular is gaining wide acceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durability, quality of finish, and sound-proofing and fire-retarding qualities, although the increased use of fire sprinklers will reduce the demand for fire-resistant plaster work. Prefabricated wall systems and new polymer-based or polymer-modified acrylic exterior insulating finishes also are gaining popularity, particularly in the South and Southwest regions of the country. This is not only because of their durability, attractiveness, and insulating properties, but also because of their relatively low cost. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plastcrwork in old structures and to create special architectural effects, such as curved surfaces, which are not practical with drywall materials. Most plasterers and stucco masons work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic condi tions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades because most work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers and stucco masons may lose time because plastering materi als cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of plasterers and stucco ma sons were $15.60. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.27 and $20.32. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.80, and the top 10 percent earned more than $26.84. The median hourly earnings in the largest industries employing plasterers and stucco masons in May 2004 were $15.75 in build ing finishing contractors, and $14.62 in foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experi enced plasterers and stucco masons. Annual earnings for plaster ers and stucco masons and apprentices can be less than the hourly rate would indicate, because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity can limit work hours. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as their primary tool include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; cement ma sons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, con tact local plastering contractors, locals of the unions mentioned below, local joint union-management apprenticeship committees, or the nearest office of your State apprenticeship agency or employment service. For general information about the work of plasterers and stucco masons, contact: >• Association of Wall and Ceiling Industries International, 803 West Broad St., Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.awci.org For information about plasterers, contact: >- Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300, Laurel, MD 20707. Internet: http://www.opcmia.org For information on the training of plasterers and stucco masons, contact: ► International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, International Masonry Institute, The James Brice House, 42 East St., Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org 530 Occupational Outlook Handbook Roofers (0*NET 47-2181.00) Significant Points • • • Most roofers acquire their skills informally on the job; some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship pro grams. Job openings for roofers should be plentiful because the work is hot, strenuous, and dirty, causing many in dividuals to leave for jobs in other construction trades. Demand for roofers is less susceptible to downturns in the economy than demand for other construction trades because most roofing work consists of repair and reroofing. Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To protect buildings and their contents from water damage, roofers repair and install roofs made of tar or asphalt and gravel; rub ber or thermoplastic; metal; or shingles made of asphalt, slate, fiberglass, wood, tile, or other material. Repair and reroofing— replacing old roofs on existing buildings—makes up the majority of work for these workers. There are two types of roofs—low- and steep-sloped. Roofs considered low-slope rise 4 inches per horizontal foot or less and steep-slope roofs increase more than 4 inches per horizontal foot. Most commercial, industrial, and apartment buildings have low-slop ing roofs. Most houses have steep-sloped roofs. Some roofers work on both types; others specialize. Most low-slope roofs are covered with several layers of materi als. Roofers first put a layer of insulation on the roof deck. Over the insulation, they then spread a coat of molten bitumen, a tarlike substance. Next, they install partially overlapping layers of roofing felt—a fabric saturated in bitumen—over the surface. Roofers use a mop to spread hot bitumen over the surface and under the next layer. This seals the seams and makes the surface watertight. Roofers repeat these steps to build up the desired number of layers, called “plies.” The top layer either is glazed to make a smooth finish or has gravel embedded in the hot bitumen to create a rough surface. An increasing number of low-slope roofs are covered with a single-ply membrane of waterproof rubber or thermoplastic compounds. Roofers roll these sheets over the roof’s insula tion and seal the seams. Adhesive, mechanical fasteners, or stone ballast hold the sheets in place. The building must be of sufficient strength to hold the ballast. A small, but growing number of flat-roofed buildings are now having “green” roofs installed. A “green” roof begins with a single or multi-ply waterproof system. After it is proven to be leak free, a root barrier is placed onto it, and then layers of soil, in which trees and grass are planted. Roofers are generally responsible for making sure the roof is watertight and can withstand the weight and water needs of the plantings. Most residential steep-slope roofs are covered with shingles. To apply shingles, roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt lengthwise over the entire roof. Then, starting from the bottom edge, they staple or nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. Workers measure and cut the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roof surfaces and to fit around vent pipes and chim neys. Wherever two roof surfaces intersect, or shingles reach a vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail flashing-strips of metal or shingle over the joints to make them watertight. Finally, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis slgjl 1BBMB Starting from the bottom edge, roofers staple or nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. roofers cover exposed nailheads with roofing cement or caulking to prevent water leakage. Roofers who use tile, metal shingles, or shakes follow a similar process. Because of their expertise in waterproofing roofs, some roofers also waterproof and dampproof masonry and concrete walls and floors, including foundations. To prepare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer and chisel away rough spots, or remove them with a rubbing brick, before applying a coat of liquid waterproofing compound. They also may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproofing material, or attach waterproofing membrane to surfaces. When dampproofing, they usually spray a bitumen-based coating on interior or exterior surfaces. Roofers also install equipment that requires cutting through roofs, such as ventilation ducts and attic fans. Working Conditions Roofing work is strenuous. It involves heavy lifting, as well as climbing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when making repairs. However, they rarely work in very cold weather as ice can be treacherous. In northern States, roofing work is generally not performed during winter months. Workers risk slips or falls from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, or bums from hot bitumen, but safety precautions, if followed, can eliminate most accidents. In addition, roofs can become extremely hot during the summer, causing heat-related illnesses. Construction Trades and Related Workers Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most roofers acquire their skills informally by working as helpers for experienced roofers and by taking some employer-provided classes. Safety training is one of the first classes that a worker takes. Trainees start by carrying equipment and material, and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months, trainees are taught to measure, cut, and fit roofing materials and, later, to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. Because some roofing materials are used infrequently, it can take several years to get experience working on all the various types of roofing applications. Some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs administered by local union-management committees represent ing roofing contractors and locals of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers. The apprenticeship program generally consists of a minimum of 2,000 hours of on-the-job training annually, plus a minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction a year in subjects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-the-job training for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, ex cept that the apprenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and waterproof walls. Good physical condition and good balance are essential for roofers, along with no fear of heights. A high school education, or its equivalent, is helpful, as are courses in mechanical drawing and basic mathemat ics. Most apprentices must be at least 18 years old. Experience with metal-working is helpful for workers who install metal roofing. Roofers may advance to supervisor or estimator for a roofing contractor, or become contractors themselves. Employment 531 acquire the skills of the trade. Earnings for roofers are reduced on occasion because poor weather limits the time they can work. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers. Related Occupations Roofers use shingles, bitumen and gravel, single-ply plastic or rubber sheets, or other materials to waterproof building surfaces. Work ers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special materials for protection and decoration include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; plasterers and stucco masons; and sheet metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or job opportunities in roofing, contact local roofing contractors, a local chapter of the roofers union, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of your State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact: ► National Roofing Contractors Association, 10255 W. Higgins Rd„ Suite 600, Rosemont, IL 60018-5607. Internet: http://www.nrca.net >- United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers, 1660 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Sheet Metal Workers Roofers held about 162,000 jobs in 2004. Almost all wage and sal ary roofers worked for roofing contractors. About 1 out of every 4 roofers was self-employed. Many self-employed roofers specialized in residential work. (0*NET 47-2211.00) Job Outlook • Nearly two-thirds of the jobs are found in the construc tion industry; about one quarter are in manufacturing. • Apprenticeship programs lasting 4 or 5 years are con sidered the best training. • Job opportunities in construction should be good. Job opportunities for roofers should be good through the year 2014, primarily because of the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. The proportion of roofers who leave the occupa tion each year is higher than in most construction trades—roof ing work is hot, strenuous, and dirty, and a significant number of workers treat roofing as a temporary job until something better comes along. Some roofers leave the occupation to go into other construction trades. Employment of roofers is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations through 2014. Roofs deteriorate faster and are more susceptible to weather damage than most other parts of buildings and periodically need to be repaired or replaced. Roofing has a much higher proportion of repair and replacement work than most other construction occupations. As a result, demand for roofers is less susceptible to downturns in the economy than demand for other construction trades. In addition to repair and reroofing work on the growing stock of buildings, new construction of industrial, commercial, and residential buildings will add to the demand for roofers. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer when most roofing is done. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of roofers were $14.83. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.54 and $19.80. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.41, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.59. The median hourly earnings of roofers in the foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors industry were $ 14.90 in May 2004. Apprentices usually start at about 40 percent to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced roofers and receive periodic raises as they https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points Nature of the Work Sheet metal workers make, install, and maintain heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning duct systems; roofs; siding; rain gutters; down spouts; skylights; restaurant equipment; outdoor signs; railroad cars; tailgates; customized precision equipment; and many other products made from metal sheets. They also may work with fiberglass and plastic materials. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installation, or maintenance, most do all three jobs. Sheet metal workers do both construction-related sheet metal work and mass production of sheet metal products in manufacturing. Sheet metal workers first study plans and specifications to de termine the kind and quantity of materials they will need. They then measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make ductwork, countertops, and other custom products. In an increasing number of shops, sheet metal workers use computerized metalworking equipment. This enables them to perform their tasks more quickly and to experiment with different layouts to find the one that results in the least waste of material. They cut, drill, and form parts with computer-controlled saws, lasers, shears, and presses. In shops without computerized equipment, and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheet metal workers make the required calculations and use tapes, rulers, and other measur ing devices for layout work. They then cut or stamp the parts on machine tools. 532 Occupational Outlook Handbook Before assembling pieces, sheet metal workers check each part for accuracy using measuring instruments such as calipers and micrometers and, if necessary, finish it by using hand, rotary, or squaring shears and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, workers fasten seams and joints together with welds, bolts, cement, rivets, solder, specially formed sheet metal drive clips, or other con necting devices. They then take the parts to the construction site, where they further assemble the pieces as they install them. These workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. They also use shears, hammers, punches, and drills to make parts at the worksite or to alter parts made in the shop. Some jobs are done completely at the jobsite. When installing a metal roof, for example, sheet metal workers measure and cut the roofing panels that are needed to complete the job. They secure the first panel in place and interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of the first. Then, they nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, the workers fasten machine-made molding at joints, along comers, and around windows and doors for a neat, finished effect. In addition to installation, some sheet metal workers specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-conditioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Properly installed duct sys tems are a key component to heating, ventilation, and air-condition- ing (HVAC) systems, which causes duct installers to sometimes be referred to as HVAC technicians. A growing activity for sheet metal workers is building commissioning, which is a complete mechanical inspection of a building’s HVAC, water, and lighting systems. Sheet metal workers in manufacturing plants make sheet metal parts for products such as aircraft or industrial equipment. Although some of the fabrication techniques used in large-scale manufacturing are similar to those used in smaller shops, the work may be highly automated and repetitive. Sheet metal workers doing such work may be responsible for reprogramming the computer control systems of the equipment they operate. Working Conditions Sheet metal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabricate sheet metal products work in shops that are well-lighted and well-ventilated. However, they stand for long periods and lift heavy materials and finished pieces. Sheet metal workers must fol low safety practices because working around high-speed machines can be dangerous. They also are subject to cuts from sharp metal, burns from soldering and welding, and falls from ladders and scaf folds. They are often required to wear safety glasses and must not wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could easily be caught in a machine. They may work at a variety of different production stations to reduce the repetitiveness of the work. Those performing installation work do considerable bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quar ters or in awkward positions. Although duct systems and kitchen equipment are installed indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gutters involves much outdoor work, requiring sheet metal workers to be exposed to various kinds of weather. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement j Sheet metal workers make products mainlyfor the construction and manufacturing industries. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sheet metal workers learn their trade through both formal and informal training programs. To become a skilled sheet metal worker usually takes between 4 and 5 years of both classroom and on-the-job training. While there are a number of different ways to obtain this training, generally the more formalized the training received by an individual, the more thoroughly skilled become, and the more are likely to be in demand by employers. For some, this training can begin in a high school, where classes in English, algebra, geometry, physics, mechanical drawing and blueprint reading, and general shop are recommended. After high school, there are a number of different avenues that one can take to obtain the necessary training. One of the ways is to obtain a job with a contractor who will then provide training on the job. Entry-level workers generally start as helpers, assisting more experienced workers. Most begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they learn about materials and tools and their uses. Later, they learn to operate machines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the jobsite to learn installation. Employers may send the employee to courses at a trade or vocational school or community college to receive further formal training. Helpers may be promoted to the journey level if they show the requisite knowledge and skills. Most sheet metal workers in large-scale manufacturing receive on-the-job training, with additional class work or in-house training as necessary. The training needed to become proficient in manufacturing takes less time than the training for construction. Some employers, particularly large nonresidential construction contractors with union membership, offer formal apprenticeships. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years old and meet local requirements. The length of the program, usually 4 to 5 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. Apprentice ship programs provide comprehensive instruction in both sheet metal Construction Trades and Related Workers fabrication and installation. They may be administered by local joint committees composed of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International As sociation and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association. On the job, apprentices learn the basics of pattern layout and how to cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin by learn ing to install and maintain basic ductwork and gradually advance to more difficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, commercial kitchens, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and other nonmetallic materials. Some workers may focus on exterior or architectural sheet metal installation. In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting, plan and specification reading, trigonometry and geometry applicable to layout work, the use of computerized equipment, welding, and the principles of heating, air conditioning, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the program. In addition, apprentices learn the relationship between sheet metal work and other construction work. Sheet metal workers need to be in good physical condition and have mechanical and mathematical aptitude as well as good reading skills. Some additional skills needed are good eye-hand coordination, spatial and form perception, and manual dexterity also are important. Courses in algebra, trigonometry, geometry, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background for learning the trade, as does related work experience obtained in the Armed Services. It is important for experienced sheet metal workers to keep abreast of new technological developments, such as the use of computerized layout and laser-cutting machines. Workers often take additional training, provided by the union or by their employer, to improve existing skills or to acquire new ones. Sheet metal workers in construction may advance to supervisory jobs. Some of these workers take additional training in welding and do more specialized work. Workers who perform building and system testing are able to move into construction and building inspection. Others go into the contracting business for themselves. Because a sheet metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting business is more expen sive to start than other types of construction contracting. Sheet metal workers in manufacturing may advance to positions as supervisors or quality inspectors. Some of these workers may move into other management positions. Employment Sheet metal workers held about 198,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly twothirds of all sheet metal workers were found in the construction industry. Of those employed in construction, almost two-thirds worked forplumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; most of the rest worked for roofing and sheet metal contractors. Some worked for other special trade contractors and for general contrac tors engaged in residential and commercial building. One-quarter of all sheet metal workers work outside of construction and are found in manufacturing industries, such as the fabricated metal products, machinery, and aerospace products and parts industries. Some sheet metal workers work for the Federal Government. Compared with workers in most construction craft occupations, relatively few sheet metal workers are self-employed. 533 a number of manufacturing plants that employ sheet metal workers are moving to lower wage parts of the country or abroad and the ones that remain are becoming more productive. Employment of sheet metal workers is expected to increase as fast as the average, reflecting growth in the number of industrial, commercial, and residential structures being built. The need to install energy-efficient air-conditioning, heating, and ventila tion systems in older buildings as well as perform other types of renovation and maintenance work also should boost employment. In addition, the popularity of decorative sheet metal products and increased architectural restoration are expected to add to the demand for sheet metal workers. Sheet metal workers in construction may experience periods of unemployment, particularly when construction projects end and economic conditions dampen construction activity. Never theless, employment of sheet metal workers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than is the employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment—which is less affected by economic fluctuations than is new construction—makes up a large part of the work done by sheet metal workers. Installation of new air conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings continues during construction slumps, as individuals and businesses adopt more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. In addition, a large proportion of sheet metal installation and maintenance is done indoors, so sheet metal workers usually lose less worktime due to bad weather than other construction workers do. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of sheet metal workers were $ 17.09. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.49 and $23.89. The lowest 10 percent of all sheet metal workers earned less than $9.80, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.78. The median hourly earnings of the largest industries employing sheet metal workers in May 2004 were as follows: Federal executive branch and United States Postal Service ......... $20.75 Building equipment contractors..................................................... 18.04 Building finishing contractors......................................................... 17.41 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors............... 15.34 Architectural and structural metals manufacturing........................ 15.14 Apprentices normally start at about 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. As apprentices acquire more skills throughout the course of their training, they receive periodic in creases until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. In addition, union workers in some areas receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or shortened workweeks. Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheet metal products, sheet metal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction materi als and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include assemblers and fabricators; machin ists; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and tool and die makers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowledge include glaziers and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be good for sheet metal workers in the construction industry, reflecting both employment growth and openings arising each year as experienced sheet metal workers leave the occupation. Opportunities should be particularly good for individuals who acquire apprenticeship training or who are certified welders. Job prospects in manufacturing will not be as good because https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For more information about apprenticeships or other work oppor tunities, contact local sheet metal contractors or heating, refrigera tion, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers International Association; a local of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association; a local joint 534 Occupational Outlook Handbook union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of your Stale employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general and training information about sheet metal workers, contact: >- International Training Institute for the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Industry, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.sheetmetal-iti.org >- National Center for Construction Education and Research, RO. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org ► Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors’ National Associa tion, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 20151-1209. Internet: http://www.smacna.org >- Sheet Metal Workers International Association, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.smwia.org Structural and Reinforcing Iron and Metal Workers (0*NET 47-2171.00, 47-2221.00) Significant Points • Earnings of structural iron and steel workers are among the highest of all construction trades. • Most employers recommend completion of a 3- or 4year apprenticeship. • Workers need to be in good physical condition and not have a fear of heights. Nature of the Work Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers place and install iron or steel girders, columns, and other construction materials to form buildings, bridges, and other structures. They also position and secure steel bars or mesh in concrete forms in order to reinforce the concrete used in highways, buildings, bridges, tunnels, and other structures. In addition, they repair and renovate older buildings and structures. Even though the primary metal involved in this work is steel, these workers often are known as ironworkers. Some ironworkers fabricate structural metal in fabricating shops, which are usually located away from the construction site. These workers are covered in the statement on as semblers and fabricators found elsewhere in the Handbook. Before construction can begin, ironworkers must erect steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move stmctural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, lumber, and other mate rials and equipment around the construction site. Once this job has been completed, workers begin to connect steel columns, beams, and girders according to blueprints and instructions from supervisors and superintendents. Stmctural steel, reinforcing rods, and ornamental iron generally come to the construction site ready for erection—cut to the proper size, with holes drilled for bolts and numbered for assembly. Ironworkers at the construction site unload and stack the prefabri cated steel so that it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, ironworkers attach cables (slings) to the steel and to the crane or derrick. One worker directs the hoist operator with hand signals while another worker holds a rope (tag line) attached to the steel to prevent it from swinging. The crane or derrick hoists steel into place in the framework, whereupon two connectors position the steel with con necting bars and spud wrenches. Workers using driftpins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle—align the holes in the steel with the holes in the framework. Before the bolts are permanently tightened, ironworkers check vertical and horizontal alignment with plumb bobs, laser equipment, transits, or levels; then they bolt or weld the piece permanently in place. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Reinforcing iron and rebar workers set reinforcing bars (often called rebar) in the forms that hold concrete, following blueprints showing the location, size, and number of bars. They then fasten the bars together by tying wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, ironworkers place spacers under the rebar to hold the bars off the deck. Although these materials usually arrive ready to use, ironworkers occasionally must cut bars with metal shears or acetylene torches, bend them by hand or machine, or weld them with arc-welding equipment. Some concrete is reinforced with welded wire fabric. Using hooked rods, workers cut and fit the fabric, and while a concrete crew places the concrete, ironworkers properly position the fabric into the concrete. Post-tensioning is another technique used in reinforcing concrete. In this technique, workers substitute cables for reinforcing bars. When the concrete is poured, the ends of the cables are left exposed. After the concrete cures, ironworkers tighten the cables with jacking equipment specially designed for the purpose. Post-tensioning allows designers to create larger open areas in a build ing, because supports can be placed further apart. This technique is commonly employed in parking garages and arenas. Ornamental ironworkers install stairs, handrails, curtain walls (the nonstructural walls and window frames of many large buildings), and other miscellaneous metal after the structure of the building has been completed. As they hoist pieces into position, ornamental ironworkers make sure that the pieces are properly fitted and aligned before bolting or welding them for a secure fit. Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers usually work outside in all kinds of weather. However, those who work at great heights do not work during wet, icy, or extremely windy conditions. Because the danger of injuries due to falls is great, ironworkers use safety devices such as safety harnesses, scaffolding, and nets to reduce risk. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers recommend a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship consisting of on-the-job training and evening classroom instruction as the best way to learn this trade. Apprenticeship programs are administered by lllllfl 1111111 : Because the danger offalls is great, ironworkers use safety devices such as safety belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce risk. Construction Trades and Related Workers committees made up of representatives of local unions of the Interna tional Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental and Reinforcing Iron Workers or the local chapters of contractors’ associations. Ironworkers must be at least 18 years old. A high school diploma is preferred by employers and local apprenticeship committees. High school courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, English, and welding are considered helpful. Because materials used in iron working are heavy and bulky, ironworkers must be in good physical condition. They also need good agility, balance, eyesight, and depth perception to work safely at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Ironworkers should not be afraid of heights or suffer from dizziness. In the classroom, apprentices study blueprint reading; mathemat ics, the basics of structural erecting, rigging, reinforcing, welding, assembling, and safety training. Apprentices also study the care and safe use of tools and materials. On the job, apprentices work in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materials at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane, connecting structural steel, and welding. Some ironworkers learn the trade informally on the job, without completing an apprenticeship. These workers generally do not receive classroom training, although some large contractors have extensive training programs. On-the-job trainees usually begin by assisting experienced ironworkers on simple jobs, such as carrying various materials. With experience, trainees perform more difficult tasks, such as cutting and fitting different parts; however, learning through work experience alone may not provide training as com plete as an apprenticeship program, and it usually takes longer. Some experienced workers are promoted to supervisor. Others may go into the contracting business for themselves. The ability to com municate in both English and Spanish will improve opportunities for advancement. Employment Ironworkers held about 106,000jobs in 2004. Structural iron and steel workers held about 73,000 jobs in 2004, while reinforcing iron and rebar workers held about 34,000 jobs. More than 4 out of 5 worked in construction, with nearly half working for foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors. Most of the remaining ironwork ers worked for contractors specializing in the construction of homes; factories; commercial buildings; religious structures; schools; bridges and tunnels; and water, sewer, communications, and power lines. Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas, where the bulk of commercial and industrial construction takes place. 535 than elsewhere as buildings and roads are constructed to meet the needs of the people. Job openings for ironworkers usually are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction activity increases. Workers who are willing to relocate are often able to find work in another area. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of structural iron and steel workers in all industries were $20.40. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.84 and $27.21. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 11.25, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.53. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of reinforcing iron and rebar workers in all industries were $16.90. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.45 and $25.94. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.03, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.59. Median hourly earnings of structural iron and steel workers in May 2004 in foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors were $21.81and in nonresidential building construction, $17.47. Reinforc ing iron and rebar workers earned median hourly earnings of $ 16.52 in foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors in May 2004. About half of the workers in this trade are members of the International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers. According to the union, average hourly earnings, including benefits, for structural and reinforcing metal workers who belonged to a union and worked full time were slightly higher than the hourly earnings of nonunion workers. Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers in New York, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and other large cities received the highest wages. Apprentices generally start at about 50 percent to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced journey workers. Throughout the course of the apprenticeship program, as they acquire the skills of the trade, they receive periodic increases until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. Earnings for ironworkers may be reduced on occasion because work can be limited by bad weather, the short-term nature of con struction jobs, and economic downturns. Related Occupations Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers play an essential role in erecting buildings, bridges, highways, power lines, and other structures. Others who work on these construction jobs include assem blers and fabricators; boilermakers; civil engineers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; construc tion managers; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Job Outlook Sources of Additional Information Employment of structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2014, largely on the basis of projected growth in nonresidential and heavy construction. The rehabilitation, maintenance, and replace ment of a growing number of older buildings, powerplants, highways, and bridges is expected to create employment opportunities. State and federal legislatures continue to support and fund the building of roads, which will secure jobs for the near future. In addition to new jobs that arise, many job openings will result from the need to replace experienced ironworkers who leave the occupation or retire. In most areas job opportunities should be good for those with the right qualifications, although the number of job openings can fluctuate from year to year with economic conditions and the level of construction activity. During economic downturns, ironworkers can experience periods of unemployment. Similarly, job opportunities for ironworkers may vary widely by geographic area. Population growth in the South and West should create more job opportunities For more information on apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local general contractors; a local of the International Associa tion of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers Union; a local ironworkers’joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a local or State chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors or the Associated General Contractors; or the nearest of fice of your State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For apprenticeship information, contact >- International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforc ing Iron Workers, Apprenticeship Department, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http//www.ironworkers.org For general information about ironworkers, contact either of the following sources: > Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Depart ment, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http/Avww.trytools.org >- Associated General Contractors ofAmerica, Inc., 2300 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 400., Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.agc.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Electrical and Electronic Equipment Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Bench technicians work in repair shops located in stores, factories, Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers (0*NET 49-2011.01, 49-2011.02,49-2011.03) Significant Points • Workers qualify for these jobs by receiving training in electronics from associate degree programs, the mili tary, vocational schools, equipment manufacturers, or employers. • Job growth reflects the increasing dependence of busi nesses and individuals on computers and other sophis ticated office machines. • Job prospects will be best for applicants with knowl edge of electronics as well as repair experience. Nature of the Work Computer repairers, also known as computer service technicians or data processing equipment repairers, service mainframe, server, and personal computers; printers; and disc drives. These workers perform primarily hands-on repair, maintenance, and installation of computers and related equipment. Workers who provide technical assistance, in person or by telephone, to computer system users are known as com puter support specialists or computer support technicians. (See the statement on computer support specialists and systems administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Automated teller machines (ATMs) allow customers to carry out bank transactions without the assistance of a teller. ATMs now also provide a growing variety of other services, including stamp, phone card, and ticket sales. Automated teller machine servicers repair and service these machines. Office machine and cash register servicers work on photocopiers, cash registers, mail-processing equipment, and fax machines. Newer models of office machinery include computerized components that allow them to function more effectively than earlier models. To install large equipment, such as mainframe computers and ATMs, repairers connect the equipment to power sources and com munication lines that allow the transmission of information over computer networks. For example, when an ATM dispenses cash, it transmits the withdrawal information to the customer’s bank. Work ers also may install operating software and peripheral equipment, checking that all components are configured to function together cor rectly. The installation of personal computers and other small office machines is less complex and may be handled by the purchaser. When equipment breaks down, many repairers travel to custom ers’ workplaces or other locations to make the necessary repairs. These workers, known as field technicians, often have assigned areas in which they perform preventive maintenance on a regular basis. Digitized536 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or service centers. In small companies, repairers may work both in repair shops and at customer locations. Computer repairers usually replace subsystems instead of repairing them. Replacement is common because subsystems are inexpensive and businesses are reluctant to shut down their computers for time-consuming repairs. Subsystems commonly replaced by computer repairers include video cards, which trans mit signals from the computer to the monitor; hard drives, which store data; and network cards, which allow communication over the network. Defective modules may be given to bench techni cians, who use software programs to diagnose the problem and who may repair the modules, if possible. When ATMs malfunction, computer networks recognize the problem and alert repairers. Common problems include worn magnetic heads on card readers, which prevent the equipment from recognizing customers’ bankcards, and “pick failures,” which prevent the equipment from dispensing the correct amount of cash. Field technicians travel to the locations of ATMs and usually repair equipment by removing and replacing defective components. Bro ken components arc taken to a repair shop, where bench technicians make the necessary repairs. Field technicians perform routine maintenance on a regular basis, replacing worn parts and running diagnostic tests to ensure that the equipment functions properly. Office machine repairers usually work on machinery at the customer’s workplace; alternatively, if the machines are small enough, customers may bring them to a repair shop for mainte nance. Common malfunctions include paper misfeeds caused by worn or dirty parts, and poor-quality copy resulting from problems with lamps, lenses, or mirrors. These malfunctions usually can be resolved simply by cleaning the relevant components. Breakdowns ! ;; *7 Hi mM-m. Computer repairers repair, maintain, and install computers and related equipment. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations also may result from the failure of commonly used parts. For ex ample, heavy use of a photocopier may wear down the printhead, which applies ink to the final copy. In such cases, the repairer usually replaces the part instead of repairing it. Workers use a variety of tools for diagnostic tests and repair. To diagnose malfunctions, they use multimeters to measure voltage, current, resistance, and other electrical properties; signal generators to provide test signals; and oscilloscopes to monitor equipment sig nals. To diagnose computerized equipment, repairers use software programs. To repair or adjust equipment, workers use handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches. Working Conditions Repairers usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings. Because computers and office machines are sensitive to extreme temperatures and to humidity, repair shops usually are air-conditioned and well ventilated. Field repairers must travel frequently to various loca tions to install, maintain, or repair customers’ equipment. ATM repairers may have to perform their jobs in small, confined spaces that house the equipment. Because computers and ATMs are critical for many organizations to function efficiently, data processing equipment repairers and ATM field technicians often work around the clock. Their schedules may include evening, weekend, and holiday shifts, sometimes assigned on the basis of seniority. Office machine and cash register servicers usually work regular business hours because the equipment they repair is not as critical. Although their job is not strenuous, repairers must lift equipment and work in a variety of postures. Repairers of computer monitors need to discharge voltage from the equipment to avoid electrocution. Workers may have to wear protective goggles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of electronics is necessary for employment as a com puter, automated teller, or office machine repairer. Employers prefer workers who are certified as repairers or who have training in electronics from associate degree programs, the military, vocational schools, or equipment manufacturers. Employers generally provide some training to new repairers on specific equipment; however, workers are expected to arrive on the job with a basic understanding of equipment repair. Employers may send experienced workers to training sessions to keep up with changes in technology and service procedures. Most office machine and ATM repairer positions require an as sociate degree in electronics. A basic understanding of mechanical equipment also is important, because many of the parts that fail in office machines and ATMs, such as paper loaders, are mechanical. Entry-level employees at large companies normally receive on-thejob training lasting several months. Such training may include a week of classroom instruction, followed by a period of 2 weeks to several months assisting an experienced repairer. Field technicians work closely with customers and must have good communications skills and a neat appearance. Employers normally require that field technicians have a driver’s license. Various organizations offer certification. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying examinations corresponding to their level of training and experience. Newly hired computer repairers may work on personal comput ers or peripheral equipment. With experience, they can advance to positions maintaining more sophisticated systems, such as network ing equipment and servers. Field repairers of ATMs may advance to bench technician positions responsible for more complex repairs. Experienced workers may become specialists who help other repairers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 537 diagnose difficult problems or who work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Experienced workers also may move into management positions responsible for supervising other repairers. Because of their familiarity with equipment, experienced repair ers may move into customer service or sales positions. Some expe rienced workers open their own repair shops or become wholesalers or retailers of electronic equipment. Employment Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers held about 168,000 jobs in 2004. Wholesale trade establishments employed about 35 percent of the workers in this occupation; most of these establishments were wholesalers of professional and commercial equipment and supplies. Many workers also were employed in elec tronics, appliance, and office supply stores. Others worked in elec tronic and precision equipment repair shops and computer systems design firms. A small number found employment with computer and peripheral equipment manufacturers, government agencies, and Internet service providers. About 15 percent of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers were self-employed, which is more than twice the proportion for all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Job Outlook Employment of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Limited job growth will be driven by the increasing dependence of business and individuals on computers and other sophisticated office machines. The need to maintain this equipment will create new jobs for repairers. In addition, openings will result from the need to replace repairers who retire or transfer to new occupations. Job prospects will be best for applicants with knowledge of elec tronics as well as repair experience. Although computer equipment continues to become less expensive and more reliable, malfunctions still occur and can cause severe problems for users, most of whom lack the knowledge to make repairs. Computers are critical to most businesses today and will become even more so to companies that do business on the Internet and to individuals that bank, pay bills, or make purchases online. People also are becoming increasingly reliant on ATMs. Besides offering bank and retail transactions, ATMs provide an increasing number of other services, such as employee information processing and distribution of government payments. Improvements in ATM design have increased reliability and simplified repair tasks, reduc ing the number and extent of repairs. However, opportunities for ATM repairers should still be available arising primarily from the need to replace workers who leave the specialty, rather than from employment growth. Conventional office machines, such as calculators, are inexpen sive, and often are replaced instead of repaired. However, digital copiers and other, newer office machines are more costly and com plex. This equipment often is computerized, designed to work on a network, and capable of performing multiple functions. The growing need for repairers to service such sophisticated equipment should result in job opportunities for office machine repairers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers were $16.90 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.11 and $21.36. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.31, and the highest 10 percent earned more than 538 Occupational Outlook Handbook $26.28. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers in May 2004 are shown below: Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers................................................... $ 18.51 Computer systems design and related services............................... 18.08 Office supplies, stationery, and gift stores...................................... 15.69 Electronic and precision equipment repair and maintenance........ 14.95 Electronics and appliance stores..................................................... 14.04 Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance work ers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and certification, contact: >- ACES International, 5241 Princess Anne Rd., Suite 110, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.acesinternational.org >- Electronics Technicians Association International, 5 Depot St., Greencastle, IN 46135. >■ International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107-4527. Internet: http://www.iscet.org Electrical and Electronics Installers and Repairers (0*NET 49-2092.01,49-2092.02, 49-2092.03, 49-2092.04, 49-2092.05, 49-2092.06,49-2093.00, 49-2094.00,49-2095.00, 49-2096.00) Significant Points • Knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics is necessary for employment; many applicants complete 1 to 2 years at vocational schools and community col leges, although some less skilled repairers may have only a high school diploma. • Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average, but prospects vary by occupational specialty. • Job opportunities will be best for applicants with a thorough knowledge of electrical and electronic equip ment as well as repair experience. Nature of the Work Businesses and other organizations depend on complex electronic equipment for a variety of functions. Industrial controls automati cally monitor and direct production processes on the factory floor. Transmitters and antennae provide communication links for many organizations. Electric power companies use electronic equipment to operate and control generating plants, substations, and monitoring equipment. The Federal Government uses radar and missile control systems to provide for the national defense and to direct commer cial air traffic. These complex pieces of electronic equipment are installed, maintained, and repaired by electrical and electronics installers and repairers. Electrical equipment and electronic equipment are two distinct types of industrial equipment, although much equipment contains https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis both electrical and electronic components. In general, electrical portions provide the power for the equipment, while electronic com ponents control the device, although many types of equipment still are controlled with electrical devices. Electronic sensors monitor the equipment and the manufacturing process, providing feedback to the programmable logic control (PLC), which controls the equip ment. The PLC processes the information provided by the sensors and makes adjustments to optimize output. To adjust the output, the PLC sends signals to the electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic devices that power the machine—changing feed rates, pressures, and other variables in the manufacturing process. Many installers and repair ers, known as field technicians, travel to factories or other locations to repair equipment. These workers often have assigned areas in which they perform preventive maintenance on a regular basis. When equipment breaks down, field technicians go to a customer’s site to repair the equipment. Bench technicians work in repair shops located in factories and service centers, fixing components that cannot be repaired on the factory floor. Some industrial electronic equipment is self-monitoring and alerts repairers to malfunctions. When equipment breaks down, repairers first check for common causes of trouble, such as loose connections or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to schematics and manufacturers’ specifications that show connections and provide instructions on how to locate problems. Automated electronic control systems are increasing in complexity, making diagnosis more challenging. With these systems, repairers use software programs and testing equip ment to diagnose malfunctions. Among their diagnostic tools are multimeters, which measure voltage, current, and resistance, and advanced multimeters, which measure capacitance, inductance, and current gain of transistors. Repairers also use signal genera tors, which provide test signals, and oscilloscopes, which display signals graphically. Finally, repairers use handtools such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches to replace faulty parts and adjust equipment. Because repairing components is a complex activity and factories cannot allow production equipment to stand idle, repairers on the factory floor usually remove and replace defective units, such as circuit boards, instead of fixing them. Defective units are discarded or returned to the manufacturer or a specialized shop for repair. Bench technicians at these locations have the training, tools, and parts needed to thoroughly diagnose and repair circuit boards or other complex components. These workers also locate and repair circuit defects, such as poorly soldered joints, blown fuses, or mal functioning transistors. Electrical and electronics installers often fit older manufacturing equipment with new automated control devices. Older manufactur ing machines are frequently in good working order but are limited by inefficient control systems for which replacement parts are no longer available. Installers replace old electronic control units with new PLCs. Setting up and installing a new PLC involves connect ing it to different sensors and electrically powered devices (electric motors, switches, and pumps) and writing a computer program to operate the PLC. Electronics installers coordinate their efforts with those of other workers who are installing and maintaining equip ment. (See the statement on industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transporta tion equipment install, adjust, or maintain mobile electronic com munication equipment, including sound, sonar, security, navigation, and surveillance systems on trains, watercraft, or other vehicles. Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay inspect, test, maintain, or repair electrical equipment used in generating stations, substations, and in-service relays. These work Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations ers may be known as powerhouse electricians, relay technicians, or power transformer repairers. Electric motor, power tool, and related repairers—such as armature winders, generator mechanics, and electric golf cart repairers—specialize in installing, maintaining, and repairing electric motors, wiring, or switches. Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles have a significantly different job. They install, diagnose, and repair communication, sound, security, and navigation equipment in motor vehicles. Most installation work involves either new alarm or sound systems. New sound systems vary significantly in cost and complexity of installation. Replacing a head unit (radio) with a new CD player is simple, requiring the removal of a few screws and the connection of a few wires. Installing a new sound system with a subwoofer, amplifier, and fuses is far more complicated. The installer builds a fiberglass or wood box designed to hold the subwoofer and to fit inside the unique dimensions of the automobile. Installing sound-deadening material, which often is necessary with more powerful speakers, requires an installer to remove many parts of a car (for example, seats, carpeting, or interiors of doors), add sound-absorbing material in empty spaces, and reinstall the interior parts. The installer also runs new speaker and electrical cables. The new system may require additional fuses, a new electrical line to be run from the battery through a newly drilled hole in the firewall into the interior of the vehicle, or an additional or more powerful alternator or battery. Motor vehicle installers and repairers work with an increasingly complex range of electronic equipment, including DVD players, satellite navigation equipment, passive security systems, and active security systems. Working Conditions Many electrical and electronics installers and repairers work on factory floors, where they are subject to noise, dirt, vibration, and heat. Bench technicians work primarily in repair shops, where the surroundings are relatively quiet, comfortable, and well lighted. Installers and repairers may have to do heavy lifting and work in a variety of positions. They must follow safety guidelines and often wear protective goggles and hardhats. When working on ladders or on elevated equipment, repairers must wear harnesses to avoid falls. am , • \J : ,,V \ Irfiyil M ■ Many electrical and electronics installers and repairers diagnose, install, and repair equipment in motor vehicles. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 539 Before repairing a piece of machinery, these workers must follow procedures to ensure that others cannot start the equipment during the repair process. They also must take precautions against electric shock by locking off power to the unit under repair. Motor vehicle electronic equipment installers and repairers nor mally work indoors in well-ventilated and well-lighted repair shops. Minor cuts and bruises are common, but serious accidents usually are avoided when safety practices are observed. TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics is necessary for employment. Many applicants gain this knowledge through programs lasting 1 to 2 years at vocational schools or community colleges, although some less skilled repairers may have only a high school diploma. Entry-level repairers may work closely with more experienced technicians who provide technical guidance. Installers and repairers should have good eyesight and color perception to work with the intricate components used in electronic equipment. Field technicians work closely with customers and should have good communication skills and a neat appearance. Employers also may require that field technicians have a driver’s license. Various organizations offer certification. Repairers may specialize ■—in industrial electronics, for example. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying exams corresponding to their level of training and experience. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become specialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose difficult problems. Workers with leadership ability may become supervisors of other repairers. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops. Employment Electrical and electronics installers and repairers held about 158,000 jobs in 2004. The following tabulation breaks down their employ ment by occupational specialty: Electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment.......................................................... Electric motor, power tool, and related repairers......................... Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay.......................................... Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles.... Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transportation equipment.......................................................... 72,000 28,000 21,000 19,000 18,000 Many repairers worked for utilities; building equipment con tractors; machinery and equipment repair shops; wholesalers; the Federal Government; retailers of automotive parts and accessories; rail transportation companies; and manufacturers of electrical, electronic, and transportation equipment. Job Outlook Job opportunities should be best for applicants with a thorough knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics as well as with repair experience. Overall employment of electrical and electronics installers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations during the 2004—14 period, but prospects vary by occupational specialty. In addition to employment growth, the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force will result in many job openings. Average employment growth is projected for electrical and electronics installers and repairers of commercial and industrial equipment. This equipment will become more sophisticated and 540 Occupational Outlook Handbook will be used more frequently as businesses strive to lower costs by increasing and improving automation. Companies will install electronic controls, robots, sensors, and other equipment to auto mate processes such as assembly and testing. As prices decline, applications will be found across a number of industries, including services, utilities, and construction, as well as manufacturing. Im proved reliability of equipment should not constrain employment growth, however: companies increasingly will rely on repairers because malfunctions that idle commercial and industrial equipment will continue to be costly. Employment of motor vehicle electronic equipment installers and repairers also is expected to grow about as fast as the average. How ever, as motor vehicle manufacturers install more and better sound, security, entertainment, and navigation systems in new vehicles, and as newer electronic systems require progressively less maintenance, employment growth for aftermarket electronic equipment installers will be limited. Employment of electric motor, power tool, and related repairers is expected to grow more slowly than average. Improvements in electrical and electronic equipment design should limit job growth by simplifying repair tasks. The design of more parts that are easily disposable will further reduce employment growth. Employment of electrical and electronic installers and repair ers of transportation equipment is also expected to grow more slowly than the average because of declining industry employ ment in railroad rolling stock manufacturing and shipbuilding and boatbuilding. Employment of electrical and electronics installers and re pairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay is expected to decline slightly. Consolidation and privatization in utilities industries should improve productivity, reducing employment. Newer equip ment will be more reliable and easier to repair, further limiting employment. Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, transportation equipment were $19.25 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.06 and $23.57. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.86, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.70. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who install and repair electronic equip ment include broadcast and sound technicians and radio operators; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers also install, main tain, and repair industrial machinery. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and certification, contact any of the fol lowing organizations: >- ACES International, 5241 Princess Anne Rd., Suite 110, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.acesintemational.org >■ Electronics Technicians Association International, 5 Depot St., Greencastle, IN 46135. ► International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107- 4527. Internet: http://www.iscet.org Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Installers and Repairers (0*NET 49-2097.00) Significant Points • Employers prefer applicants who have basic knowl edge and skills in electronics; many applicants gain these skills at vocational training programs and com munity colleges. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations because it often is cheaper to replace equipment than to repair it. • Job opportunities will be best for applicants with knowledge of electronics and with related hands-on experience. Earnings Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, com mercial and industrial equipment were $20.48 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.04 and $25.07. The low est 10 percent earned less than $12.55, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.68. In May 2004, median hourly earnings were $23.79 in the Federal Government and $17.82 in building equipment contractors, the industries employing the largest numbers of electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment. Median hourly earnings of electric motor, power tool, and related repairers were $15.54 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.12 and $19.71. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.48, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.90. In May 2004, median hourly earnings were $15.02 in commercial and indus trial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance, the industry employing the largest number of electronic motor, power tool, and related repairers. Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay were $25.86 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $22.47 and $29.73. The low est 10 percent earned less than $18.01, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.82. In May 2004, median hourly earnings were $26.37 in electric power generation, transmission, and dis tribution—the industry employing the largest number of these repairers. Median hourly earnings of electronics installers and repairers, mo tor vehicles were $ 12.79 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.27 and $16.55. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.85, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.02. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers, also called service technicians, repair a variety of equipment, includ ing televisions and radios, stereo components, video and audio disc players, video cameras, and video recorders. They also install and repair home security systems, intercom equipment, satellite televi sion dishes, and home theater systems, which consist of large-screen televisions and sophisticated surround-sound audio components. Customers usually bring small, portable equipment to repair shops for servicing. Repairers at these locations, known as bench technicians, are equipped with a full array of electronic tools and parts. When larger, less mobile equipment breaks down, customers may pay repairers to come to their homes. These repairers, known as field technicians, travel with a limited set of tools and parts, and attempt to complete the repair at the customer’s location. If the job is complex, technicians may bring defective components back to the shop for thorough diagnosis and repair. When equipment breaks down, repairers check for common causes of trouble, such as dirty or defective components. Many Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations repairs consist simply of cleaning and lubricating equipment. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to sche matics and manufacturers’ specifications that provide instructions on how to locate problems. Repairers use a variety of test equipment to diagnose and identify malfunctions. Multimeters detect short circuits, failed capacitors, and blown fuses by measuring voltage, current, and resistance. Color-bar and dot generators provide on screen test patterns, signal generators test signals, and oscilloscopes and digital storage scopes measure complex waveforms produced by electronic equipment. Repairs may involve removing and replacing a failed capacitor, transistor, or fuse. Repairers use handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches, to replace faulty parts. They also make adjustments to equipment, such as focusing and converging the picture of a television set or balancing the audio on a surround-sound system. Improvements in technology have miniaturized and digitized many audio and video recording devices. Miniaturization has made repair work significantly more difficult because both the components and the acceptable tolerances are smaller. For example, an analog video camera operates at 1,800 revolutions per minute (rpm), while a digital video camera may operate at 9,000 rpm. Also, components now are mounted on the surface of circuit boards, instead of plugged into slots, requiring more precise soldering when a new part is in stalled. Improved technologies have lowered the price of electronic home entertainment equipment to the point where customers often replace broken equipment instead of repairing it. 541 and community colleges. Training programs should include both hands-on experience and theoretical education in digital consumer electronics. Entry-level repairers may work closely with more ex perienced technicians, who provide technical guidance. Field technicians work closely with customers and must have good communication skills and a neat appearance. Employers also may require that field technicians have a driver’s license. Various organizations offer certification for electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers. Repairers may specialize in a variety of skill areas, including consumer electron ics. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying exams corresponding to their level of training and experience. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become specialists or troubleshooters, helping other repairers to diagnose difficult problems. Workers with leadership ability may become supervisors of other repairers. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops. Employment Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repair ers held about 47,000 jobs in 2004. Most repairers worked in electronics and appliance stores that sell and service electronic home entertainment products or in electronic and precision equip ment repair and maintenance shops. About 1 electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers in 3 were selfemployed, more than 4 times the proportion for all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Working Conditions Most repairers work in well-lighted electrical repair shops. Field technicians, however, spend much time traveling in service vehicles and working in customers’ residences. Repairers may have to work in a variety of positions and carry heavy equipment. Although the work of repairers is comparatively safe, they must take precautions against minor burns and electric shock. Because television monitors carry high voltage even when they are turned off, repairers need to discharge the voltage before servicing such equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants who have basic knowledge and skills in electronics. Applicants should be familiar with schematics and have some hands-on experience repairing electronic equipment. Many applicants gain these skills at vocational training programs Job Outlook Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than average through 2014, due to decreased demand for repair work. Nevertheless, job openings will come about because of employment growth; some openings will also result from the need to replace workers who retire or who transfer to higher paying jobs in other occupations requiring electronics experience. Opportunities will be best for applicants with knowledge of electronics and with related hands-on experience. The need for repairers is expected to grow slowly because home entertainment equipment is less expensive than in the past. As technological developments have lowered the price and improved the reliability of equipment, the demand for repair services has decreased. When malfunctions do occur, it often is cheaper for consumers to replace equipment rather than to pay for repairs. Employment growth will be spurred somewhat by the introduction of sophisticated digital equipment, such as DVDs, high-definition digital televisions, and digital camcorders. So long as the price of such equipment remains high, purchasers will be willing to hire re pairers when malfunctions occur. There also will be demand to install sophisticated home entertainment systems, such as home theaters. Earnings ii ,> Many electronic home entertainment equipment installers and are self-employed. Digitized repairers for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median hourly earnings of electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers were $13.44 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.39 and $17.10. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.17, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.36. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers were $12.86 in electronics and appliance stores and $12.28 in electronic and preci sion equipment repair and maintenance. Related Occupations Other workers who repair and maintain electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators; 542 Occupational Outlook Handbook computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; and radio and telecommu nications equipment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and certification, contact: >■ ACES International, 5241 Princess Anne Rd., Suite 110, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.acesinternational.org >■ Electronics Technicians Association International, 5 Depot St., Greencastle, IN 46135. >- International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107-4527. Internet: http://www.iscet.org Radio and Telecommunications Equipment Installers and Repairers (0*NET 49-2021.00, 49-2022.01, 49-2022.02, 49-2022.03, 49-2022.04, 49-2022.05) Significant Points • Employment is projected to decline. • Job opportunities will vary by specialty; for example, good opportunities should be available for central office and PBX installers and repairers experienced in current technology, while station installers and repairers can expect keen competition. • Applicants with computer skills and postsecondary electronics training should have the best opportunities. • Weekend and holiday hours are common; repairers may be on call around the clock in case of emergencies. Nature of the Work Telephones and radios depend on a variety of equipment to transmit communications signals. From electronic switches that route tele phone signals to their destinations to radio transmitters and receivers that relay signals from wireless phones, the workers who set up and maintain this sophisticated equipment are called radio and telecom munications equipment installers and repairers. These workers no longer just work on equipment that transmits voice signals, but also transmissions such as data, graphics, and video. Central office installers set up switches, cables, and other equip ment in central offices. These locations are the hubs of a telecom munications network—they contain the switches and routers that direct packets of information to their destinations. Although most telephone lines connecting houses to central offices and switching stations are still copper, the lines connecting these central hubs are fiber optic. Fiber optic lines have led to a revolution in switching equipment. The greatly increased transmission capacity of each line has allowed a few fiber optic lines to replace many copper lines. Packet switching equipment is evolving rapidly, ever increasing the amount of information that a single fiber optic line can carry. These switches and routers have the ability to transmit, process, amplify, and direct a massive amount of information. Installing and maintain ing this equipment requires a high level of technical knowledge. The increasing reliability of telephone switches and routers has simplified maintenance. New self-monitoring telephone switches alert repairers to malfunctions. Some switches allow repairers to diagnose and correct problems from remote locations. When faced with a malfunction, the repairer may refer to manufacturers’ manuals that maintenance instructions. Digitized forprovide FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis When problems with telecommunications equipment arise, telecommunications equipment repairers diagnose the source of the problem by testing each of the different parts of the equipment, which requires an understanding of how the software and hardware interact. Repairers often use spectrum and/or network analyzers to locate the problem. A network analyzer sends a signal through the equipment to detect any distortion in the signal. The nature of the signal distortion often directs the repairer to the source of the problem. To fix the equipment, repairers may use small handtools, including pliers and screwdrivers, to remove and replace defective components such as circuit boards or wiring. Newer equipment is easier to repair because whole boards and parts are designed to be quickly removed and replaced. Repairers also may install updated software or programs that maintain existing software. Cable television companies employ technicians to install and maintain their distribution centers, called head ends. Their work is similar to central office installers. PBX installers and repairers set up private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards, which relay incoming, outgoing, and inter office calls within a single location or organization. To install switches and switchboards, installers first connect the equipment to power lines and communications cables and install frames and supports. They test the connections to ensure that adequate power is available and that the communication links function. They also install equipment such as power systems, alarms, and telephone sets. New switches and switchboards are computerized; workers install software or program the equipment to provide specific features. For example, as a cost-cutting feature, an installer may program a PBX switchboard to route calls over different lines at different times of the day. However, other workers, such as com puter support specialists generally handle complex programming. (The work of computer support specialists is described in the Handbook statement on computer support specialists and systems administrators.) Finally, the installer performs tests to verify that the newly installed equipment functions properly. If a problem arises, PBX repairers determine whether it is located within the PBX system or originates in the telephone lines maintained by the local phone company. Due to rapidly developing technologies, PBX installers must adapt and learn new technologies. Instead of installing PBX sys tems, companies are choosing to install voice-over Internet protocol (VoIP) systems. VoIP systems operate like a PBX system, but they use a company’s computer wiring to run Internet access, network applications, and telephone communications. Specialized phones have their own Internet protocol (IP) addresses. The phones can be plugged into any port in the system and still use the same number. Station installers and repairers, telephone—commonly known as telephone installers and repairers or telecommunications service technicians—install and repair telephone wiring and equipment on customers’ premises. They install telephone or digital subscriber line (DSL) service by connecting customers’ telephone wires to outside service lines. These lines run on telephone poles or in underground conduits. The installer may climb poles or ladders to make the connections. Once the connection is made, the line is tested. When a maintenance problem occurs, repairers test the cus tomers’ lines to determine if the problem is located in the customers’ premises or in the outside service lines. When onsite procedures fail to resolve installation or maintenance problems, repairers may request support from their technical service center. Line installers and repairers, covered elsewhere in the Handbook, install the wires and cables that connect customers with central offices. Radio mechanics install and maintain radio transmitting and receiving equipment. This includes stationary equipment mount ed on transmission towers and mobile equipment, such as radio Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations communications systems in service and emergency vehicles. Radio mechanics do not work on cellular communications towers and equipment. Newer radio equipment is self-monitoring and may alert mechanics to potential malfunctions. When malfunc tions occur, these mechanics examine equipment for damaged components and loose or broken wires. They use electrical measuring instruments to monitor signal strength, transmission capacity, interference, and signal delay, as well as handtools to replace defective components and parts and to adjust equipment so that it performs within required specifications. Working Conditions Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings, such as a telephone company’s central office, a customer’s location, or an electronic repair shop or service center. Telephone installers and repairers work on rooftops, ladders, and telephone poles. Tele phone, PBX, and VoIP installers must travel to a customer’s location. Radio mechanics may maintain equipment located on the tops of transmissions towers. While working outdoors, these workers are subject to a variety of weather conditions. Nearly all radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers work full time. Many work regular business hours to meet the demand for repair services during the workday. Schedules are more irregular at companies that need repair services 24 hours a day or where installation and maintenance must take place after business hours. At these locations, mechanics work a variety of shifts, including weekend and holiday hours. Repairers may be on call around the clock, in case of emergencies, and may have to work overtime. The work of most repairers involves lifting, reaching, stoop ing, crouching, and crawling. Adherence to safety precautions is important in order to guard against work hazards. These hazards include falls, minor burns, electrical shock, and contact with hazardous materials. 543 by many employers. Some equipment repairers begin working in telecommunications companies as line installers or telephone installers, before moving up to the job of central office installer and other more complex work. Newly hired repairers usually receive some training from their employers. This may include formal classroom training in electron ics, communications systems, or software and informal hands-on training assisting an experienced repairer. Large companies may send repairers to outside training sessions to keep them informed about new equipment and service procedures. As networks have become more sophisticated—often including equipment from a variety of companies—the knowledge needed for installation and maintenance also has increased. Telecommunications equipment companies provide much of the training on specific equipment. With the rapid advances in switches, routers, and other equipment, repairers need to continu ally take courses and work to obtain manufacturers’ certifications on the latest technology. Repairers must be able to distinguish colors, because wires are color-coded, and they must be able to hear distinctions in the various tones on a telephone system. For positions that require climbing poles and towers, workers must be in good physical shape. Repair ers who handle assignments alone at a customer’s site must be able to work without close supervision. For workers who frequently contact customers, a pleasant personality, neat appearance, and good communications skills also are important. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become specialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose difficult problems, or may work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Because of their familiarity with equipment, repairers are particularly well qualified to become manufacturers’ sales workers. Workers with leadership ability also may become maintenance supervisors or service managers. Some experienced workers open their own repair services or shops, or become wholesalers or retailers of electronic equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers seek applicants with postsecondary training in elec tronics and a familiarity with computers. Training sources include 2-year and 4-year college programs in electronics or communica tions, trade schools, and equipment and software manufacturers. Military experience with communications equipment is valued ;gr I Radio and telecommunications equipment installers often use computers to diagnose problems with telecommunications switching Digitizedequipment. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers held about 222,000 jobs in 2004. About 215,000 were telecommu nications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers, mostly working in the telecommunications industry, and the rest were radio mechanics. Radio mechanics worked in electronic and precision equipment repair and maintenance, telecommunications, electronics and appliance stores, and many other industries. Job Outlook Employment of radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers is expected to decline through 2014. Although the need for installation work will remain as companies seek to up grade their telecommunications networks, there will be a declining need for maintenance work—performed by telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers—because of increasingly reliable self-monitoring and self-diagnosing equip ment and because installation of higher capacity equipment will reduce the amount of equipment needed. The replacement of two-way radio systems with wireless systems, especially in service vehicles, will eliminate the need in many companies for onsite radio mechanics. The increased reliability of wireless equipment and the use of self-monitoring systems also will continue to lessen the need for radio mechanics. Applicants with computer skills and postsecondary electronics training should have the best op portunities for radio and telecommunications equipment installer and repairer jobs. 544 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job opportunities will vary by specialty. For example, good oppor tunities should be available for central office and PBX installers and repairers experienced in current technology, as the growing popularity of VoIP, expanded multimedia offerings such as video on demand, and other telecommunications services continue to place additional demand on telecommunications networks. These new services require high data transfer rates, which can be achieved only by installing new optical switching and routing equipment. Extending high-speed communica tions from central offices to customers also will require the installation of more advanced switching and routing equipment. Whereas increased reliability and automation of switching equipment will limit opportuni ties, these effects will be somewhat offset by the demand for installation and upgrading of switching equipment. Station installers and repairers can expect keen competition. Prewired buildings and the increasing reliability of telephone equipment will reduce the need for installation and maintenance of customers’ telephones. Upgrading internal lines in businesses and the wiring of new homes and businesses with fiber optic lines should offset some of these losses. As cellular telephones have increased in popularity, the number of pay phones is declining, which also will adversely affect employment of station installers and repairers as pay phone installation and maintenance is one of their major functions. Earnings In May 2004, median hourly earnings of telecommunications equip ment installers and repairers, except line installers were $23.96. The middle 50 percent earned between $19.46 and $27.07. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $ 14.65, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $30.85. The median hourly earnings of these workers in the wired telecommunications carriers (telephone) industry were $24.92 in May 2004. Median hourly earnings of radio mechanics in May 2004 were $ 17.65. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.59 and $21.90. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $10.42, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $27.62. Related Occupations Related occupations that involve work with electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio op erators; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and electrical and electronics installers and repairers. Line installers and repairers also set up and install telecommunications equipment. Engineering technicians also may repair electronic equipment as part of their duties. Sources of Additional Information For information on career and training opportunities, contact: >- International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th St. NW, Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. >■ Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. For information on training and professional certifications for those already employed by cable telecommunications firms, con tact: > Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers, Certification Department, 140 Phillips Rd., Exton, PA 19341-1318. Internet: http://www.scte.org Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft and Avionics Equipment Mechanics and Service Technicians (Q*NET 49-2091.00,49-3011.01,49-3011.02, 49-3011.03) Significant Points • Most workers learn their job in 1 of about 170 schools certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). • Job opportunities should be excellent for persons who have completed an aircraft mechanic training program, but keen competition is likely for the best paying airline jobs. • Job opportunities are likely to be the best at small com muter and regional airlines, at FAA repair stations, and in general aviation. Nature of the Work To keep aircraft in peak operating condition, aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians perform scheduled maintenance, make repairs, and complete inspections required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Many aircraft mechanics, also called airframe mechanics, power plant mechanics, and avionics technicians, specialize in preventive https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis maintenance. They inspect aircraft engines, landing gear, instru ments, pressurized sections, accessories—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-conditioning systems, for example—and other parts of the aircraft, and do the necessary maintenance and replacement of parts. They also maintain records related to the maintenance performed on the aircraft. Mechanics and technicians conduct inspections following a schedule based on the number of hours the aircraft has flown, calendar days since the last inspection, cycles of operation, or a combination of these factors. In large, sophisticated planes equipped with aircraft monitoring systems, mechanics can gather valuable diagnostic information from electronic boxes and consoles that monitor the aircraft’s basic operations. In planes of all sorts, aircraft mechanics examine engines by working through specially designed openings while standing on ladders or scaffolds or by using hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After taking an engine apart, mechanics use precision instruments to measure parts for wear and use x-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. They repair or replace worn or defective parts. Mechanics also may repair sheet metal or composite surfaces; measure the tension of control cables; and check for corrosion, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage, wings, and tail. After completing all repairs, they must test the equipment to ensure that it works properly. Mechanics specializing in repair work rely on the pilot’s descrip tion of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft’s Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may troubleshoot the electrical system, using electrical test equipment to make sure that no wires are broken or shorted out, and replace any defective electrical or electronic components. Mechanics work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. Some mechanics work on one or many different types of aircraft, such as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, and helicopters. Others specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine, hydraulics, or electrical system. Airframe mechanics are authorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instru ments, power plants, and propellers. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and do limited work on propellers. Combination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics—called A&P mechanics—work on all parts of the plane except the instruments. Most mechanics working on civilian aircraft today are A&P me chanics. In small, independent repair shops, mechanics usually inspect and repair many different types of aircraft. Avionics systems are now an integral part of aircraft design and have vastly increased aircraft capability. Avionics technicians repair and maintain components used for aircraft navigation and radio communications, weather radar systems, and other instru ments and computers that control flight, engine, and other primary functions. These duties may require additional licenses, such as a radiotelephone license issued by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Because of the increasing use of technology, more time is spent repairing electronic systems, such as computer ized controls. Technicians also may be required to analyze and develop solutions to complex electronic problems. Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or in other indoor areas. When hangars are full or when repairs must be made quickly, they can work outdoors, sometimes in unpleasant weather. Mechanics often work under time pressure to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from inconveniencing customers. At the same time, mechanics have a tremendous responsibility to maintain safety standards, and this can cause the job to be stressful. Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull objects weighing more than 70 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward posi tions and occasionally must work in precarious positions, such as on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibration are common when engines are being tested, so ear protection is necessary. Aircraft mechanics 1 / Many aircraft mechanics specialize in preventive maintenance by inspecting aircraft engines, landing gear, instruments, pressurized sections, accessories, and other parts of the aircraft. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 545 usually work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock. Overtime work is frequent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are certified by the FAA as an “airframe mechanic” or a “powerplant mechanic.” Me chanics who also have an inspector’s authorization can certify work completed by other mechanics and perform required inspections. Uncertified mechanics are supervised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe or powerplant certificate. For a combined A&P certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both engines and airframes is required. Completion of a program at an FAA-certified mechanic school can substitute for the work experience requirement. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certificate. To obtain an inspector’s authorization, a mechanic must have held an A&P certificate for at least 3 years, with 24 months of hands on experience. Most airlines require that mechanics have a high school diploma and an A&P certificate. Although a few people become mechanics through on-the-job training, most learn their job in 1 of about 170 trade schools certi fied by the FAA. About one-third of these schools award 2-year and 4-year degrees in avionics, aviation technology, or aviation maintenance management. FAA standards established by law require that certified me chanic schools offer students a minimum of 1,900 actual class hours. Coursework in schools normally lasts from 18 to 24 months and provides training with the tools and equipment used on the job. Aircraft trade schools are placing more emphasis on technologies such as turbine engines, composite materials—including graphite, fiberglass, and boron—and aviation electronics, which are increas ingly being used in the construction of new aircraft. Additionally, employers prefer mechanics who can perform a variety of tasks. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the FAA certificate. With additional study, they may pass the certify ing exam. In general, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most Armed Forces mechanics have to complete the entire training program, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military experience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider applicants with formal training to be the most desirable applicants. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, com puter science, and mechanical drawing are helpful because they demonstrate many of the principles involved in the operation of aircraft, and knowledge of these principles is often necessary to make repairs. Courses that develop writing skills also are important because mechanics are often required to submit reports. FAA regulations require current work experience to keep the A&P certificate valid. Applicants must have at least 1,000 hours of work experience in the previous 24 months or take a refresher course. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, more em ployers are requiring mechanics to take ongoing training to update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft maintenance necessitate a strong background in electronics—both for acquiring and for retaining jobs in this field. FAA certification standards also make ongoing training mandatory. Every 24 months, mechanics are required to take at least 16 hours of training to keep their certificate. Many mechanics take courses offered by manufacturers or employ ers, usually through outside contractors. Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thorough work that requires a high degree of mechanical aptitude. Employers seek 546 Occupational Outlook Handbook applicants who are self-motivated, hard working, enthusiastic, and able to diagnose and solve complex mechanical problems. Agility is important for the reaching and climbing necessary to do the job. Because they may work on the tops of wings and fuselages on large jet planes, aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of heights. Advances in computer technology, aircraft systems, and the materials used to manufacture airplanes have made mechanics’jobs more highly technical. Aircraft mechanics must possess the skills necessary to troubleshoot and diagnose complex aircraft systems. They also must continually update their skills with and knowledge of new technology and advances in aircraft technology. As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they may advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, or shop supervi sor positions. Opportunities are best for those who have an aircraft inspector’s authorization. In the airlines, where promotion often is determined by examination, supervisors sometimes advance to ex ecutive positions. Those with broad experience in maintenance and overhaul might become inspectors with the FAA. With additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance facilities. Mechanics learn many different skills in their training that can be applied to other jobs, and some transfer to other skilled repairer occupations or electronics technician jobs. Mechanics with the necessary pilot licenses and flying experience may take the FAA examination for the position of flight engineer, with opportunities to become pilots. Employment Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians held about 142,000jobs in 2004; about 5 in 6 of these workers was an aircraft mechanic and service technician. More than half of aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians worked for air transportation companies. About 18 percent worked for the Federal Government, and about 14 percent worked for aerospace products and parts manufacturing firms. Most of the rest worked for companies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Few mechanics and technicians were self-employed. Most airline mechanics and service technicians work at major airports near large cities. Civilian mechanics employed by the U.S. Armed Forces work at military installations. Mechanics who work for aerospace manufacturing firms typically are located in Califor nia or in Washington State. Others work for the FAA, many at the facilities in Oklahoma City, Atlantic City, Wichita, or Washington, DC. Mechanics for independent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country. per year. In addition, others will leave to work in related fields, such as automobile repair, as their skills are largely transferable to other maintenance and repair occupations. Also contributing to favorable future job opportunities for mechanics is the long-term trend toward fewer students entering technical schools to learn skilled mainte nance and repair trades. Many of the students who have the ability and aptitude to work on planes are choosing to go to college, work in computer-related fields, or go into other repair and maintenance occupations with better working conditions. If the trend continues, the supply of trained aviation mechanics will not be able to keep up with the needs of the air transportation industry. Job opportunities are likely to be the best at small commuter and regional airlines, at FAA repair stations, and in general aviation. Commuter and regional airlines are the fastest growing segment of the air transportation industry, but wages in these companies tend to be lower than those in the major airlines, so they attract fewer job applicants. Also, some jobs will become available as experienced mechanics leave for higher paying jobs with the major airlines or transfer to another occupation. At the same time, general aviation air craft are becoming increasingly sophisticated, boosting the demand for qualified mechanics. Mechanics will face more competition for jobs with large airlines because the high wages and travel benefits that these jobs offer generally attract more qualified applicants than there are openings. Also, there is an increasing trend for large airlines to outsource aircraft and avionics equipment mechanic jobs overseas; however, most airline companies prefer maintenance work done on aircraft be performed in the U.S. because of safety and regulation issues of overseas contractors. In spite of these factors, job opportunities with the airlines are expected to be better than they have been in the past. But, in general, prospects will be best for applicants with experience. Mechanics who keep abreast of technological advances in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. Also, mechan ics who are mobile and willing to relocate to smaller rural areas will have better job opportunities. The number of job openings for aircraft mechanics in the Federal Government should decline as the government increasingly contracts out service and repair functions to private repair companies. Job opportunities for avionics technicians who are prepared to master the intricacies of the aircraft and work with A&P mechan ics are expected to be good. Technicians who are cross-trained and able to work with complex aircraft systems should have the best job prospects. Additionally, technicians with licensing that enables them to work on the airplane, either removing or reinstalling equipment, are expected to be in especially high demand. Job Outlook Opportunities for aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians should be excellent for who have completed aircraft mechanic training programs. Employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014, and large numbers of additional job openings should arise from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire. Reduced passenger traffic—resulting from a weak economy and the events of September 11,2001—forced airlines to cut back flights and take aircraft out of service. However, over the next decade pas senger traffic is expected to increase as the result of an expanding economy and a growing population, and the need for aircraft mechan ics and service technicians will grow accordingly. Furthermore, if the number of graduates from aircraft mechanic training programs continues to fall short of employer needs, opportunities for graduates of mechanic training programs should be excellent. Most job openings for aircraft mechanics through the year 2014 will stem from replacement needs. Many mechanics are expected to retire over the next decade and create several thousand job openings https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median hourly earnings of aircraft mechanics and service technicians were about $21.77 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between$17.82and$27.18. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13.99, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.84. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of aircraft mechanics and service technicians in May 2004 were: Scheduled air transportation........................................................... $27.37 Federal Government........................................................................ 21.67 Nonscheduled air transportation..................................................... 20.88 Aerospace product and parts manufacturing................................... 20.60 Support activities for air transportation.......................................... 18.70 Median hourly earnings of avionics technicians were about $21.30 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $18.12 and $25.12. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14.63, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.85. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Mechanics who work on jets for the major airlines generally earn more than those working on other aircraft. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced-fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. About 4 in 10 aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians are members of unions or covered by union agreements. The principal unions are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, and the Transport Workers Union of America. Some mechanics are represented by the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are electricians, electrical and electronics install ers and repairers, and elevator installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs with a particular airline can be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For general information about aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians, contact: >- Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, 717 Princess St., Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.pama.org For information on jobs in a particular area, contact employers at local airports or local offices of the State employment service. Information on obtaining positions as aircraft and avionics equip ment mechanics and service technicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tolllfee, and charges may result. Automotive Body and Related Repairers ____ (0*NET 49-3021.00,49-3022.00) Significant Points • To become a fully skilled automotive body repairer, formal training followed by on-the-job instruction is recommended because repair of newer automobiles require more advanced skills to fix their new technolo gies and new body materials. • Repairers need good reading ability and basic math ematics and computer skills in order to follow instruc tions and diagrams in print and computer-based techni cal manuals. 547 Automotive body repairers use special equipment to restore damaged metal frames and body sections. Repairers chain or clamp frames and sections to alignment machines that use hydraulic pres sure to align damaged components. “Unibody” vehicles—designs built without frames—must be restored to precise factory specifica tions for the vehicle to operate correctly. To do so, repairers use benchmark systems to make accurate measurements of how much each section is out of alignment, and hydraulic machinery to return the vehicle to its original shape. Body repairers remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic metal-cutting gun or by other means, and then weld in replacement sections. Repairers pull out less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar or knock them out with handtools or pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small dents and creases in the metal by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. Repairers also remove very small pits and dimples with pick hammers and punches in a process called metal finishing. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents that cannot be worked out of plastic or metal panels. On metal panels, they file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and clean the surface with a media blaster before repainting the damaged portion of the vehicle. Body repairers also repair or replace the plastic body parts that are increasingly being used on new-model vehicles. They remove damaged panels and identify the type and properties of the plastic used on the vehicle. With most types of plastic, repairers can apply heat from a hot-air welding gun or by immersion in hot water and press the softened panel back into its original shape by hand. They replace plastic parts that are badly damaged or very difficult to repair. A few body repairers specialize in repairing fiberglass car bodies. The advent of assembly-line repairs in large shops enables the establishment to move away from the one-vehicle, one-repairer method to a team approach that allows body repairers to specialize in one type of repair, such as straightening frames, repairing doors and fenders, or painting and refinishing. In most shops, automotive paint ers do the painting. (These workers are discussed in the section on painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance elsewhere in the Handbook.) However, in small shops, workers often do both body repairing and painting. Some body repairers specialize in installing and repairing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Automotive glass installers and repairers remove broken, cracked, or pitted windshields and window glass. Glass installers apply a moisture-proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place the Nature of the Work While running errands or driving to and from work, we sometimes observe traffic accidents. Most of the vehicle damage resulting from these collisions can be repaired and the vehicle refinished to once again look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers, also often called collision repair technicians, straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace cmmpled parts that cannot be fixed. They repair all types of vehicles, and although some work on large trucks, buses, or tractor-trailers, most work on cars and small trucks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis : After a collision, automotive body repairers straighten, align, buff, or otherwise finish damaged parts. 548 Occupational Outlook Handbook glass in the vehicle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the windshield or window to make it secure and weatherproof. Body repair work has variety and challenges: each damaged vehicle presents a different problem. Using their broad knowledge of automotive construction and repair techniques, repairers must develop appropriate methods for each job. They usually work alone, with only general directions from supervisors. In some shops, help ers or apprentices assist experienced repairers. Working Conditions Most automotive body repairers work a standard 40-hour week, although some, including the self-employed, work more than 40 hours a week. Repairers work indoors in body shops that are noisy with the clatters of hammers against metal and the whine of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated, in order to disperse dust and paint fumes. Body repairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, burns from torches and heated metal, injuries from power tools, and fumes from paint. However, serious accidents usually are avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities strongly recommend that persons seeking automotive body repair and related jobs complete a formal training program in automotive body repair or refinishing. Programs are offered in high school or in postsecondary vocational schools and community colleges, but these programs provide only a portion of the training needed to become fully skilled. Most new repairers receive primarily on-the-job training, supplemented with short-term training sessions given by vehicle, parts, and equipment manufacturers, when available. Training is necessary because advances in technology have greatly changed the structure, components, and materials used in automobiles. As a result, proficiency in new repair techniques is necessary. For example, the bodies of automobiles are usually a combination of materials—traditional steel, aluminum, and a grow ing variety of metal alloys and plastics. Each of these materials or composites requires the use of somewhat different techniques to reshape parts and smooth out dents and small pits. Fully skilled automotive body repairers must have good read ing ability and basic mathematics and computer skills. Restoring unibody automobiles to their original form requires body repairers to follow instructions and diagrams in technical manuals in order to make precise three-dimensional measurements of the position of one body section relative to another. New repairers begin by assisting experienced body repairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts, sanding body panels, and installing repaired parts. Novices learn to remove small dents and to make other minor repairs. They then progress to more difficult tasks, such as straightening body parts and returning them to their correct alignment. Generally, to become skilled in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), although voluntary, is the recognized industry credential for automotive body repairers. Repairers may take from one to four ASE Master Collision Repair and Refinish Exams. Repairers who pass at least one exam and have 2 years of hands-on work experience earn ASE certification. The completion of a post secondary program in automotive body repair may be substituted for 1 year of work experience. Those who pass all four exams become ASE Master Collision Repair and Refinish Technicians. Automo tive body repairers must retake the examination at least every 5 years to retain their certification. While the ASE designations are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the most widely recognized, many vehicle manufacturers and paint manufacturers also have product certification programs available for body repairers. Continuing education is required throughout a career in automo tive body repair. Automotive parts, body materials, and electronics continue to change and to become more complex and technologically advanced. To keep up with the technological advances, repairers must continue to gain new skills, read technical manuals, and attend seminars and classes. Many companies within the automotive body repair industry provide ongoing training for workers. As beginners increase their skills, learn new techniques, and complete work more rapidly, their pay increases. An experienced automotive body repairer with managerial ability may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers even open their own body repair shops. Others become automobile damage appraisers for insurance companies. Employment Automotive body and related repairers held about 223,000 jobs in 2004; about 1 in 10 specialized in automotive glass installation and repair. Most repairers worked for automotive repair and maintenance shops or automobile dealers. Others worked for organizations that maintain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies. A small number worked for wholesalers of motor vehicles, parts, and supplies. More than 1 automotive body repairer in 5 was selfemployed, more than double the proportion for all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Job Outlook Employment of automotive body repairers is expected to grow as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2014. The need to replace experienced repairers who transfer to other occupations or who retire or stop working for other reasons will account for the majority of job openings. Opportunities will be best for persons with formal training in automotive body repair and refinishing. Those without formal training in automotive body refinishing or collision repair will face competition for these jobs. Demand for qualified body repairers will increase as the number of motor vehicles in operation continues to grow in line with the Nation’s population. With each rise in the number of motor vehicles in use, the number of vehicles damaged in accidents also will grow. New automobile designs increasingly have body parts made of steel alloys, aluminum, and plastics—materials that are more difficult to work with than are traditional steel body parts. In addition, new automotive designs of lighter weight are prone to greater collision damage than are older, heavier designs, so more time is consumed in repair. However, increasing demand due to growth in the number of vehicles in operation will be somewhat tempered by improvements in the quality of vehicles and technological innovations that enhance safety and reduce the likelihood of accidents. Also, more body parts are simply being replaced rather than repaired. Larger shops also are instituting productivity enhancements, such as employing a team approach to repairs to decrease repair time and expand their volume of work. In addition, demand for automotive body repair services will be constrained as more vehicles are declared a total loss after accidents. In many such cases, the vehicles are not repaired because of the high cost of replacing the increasingly complex parts and electronic components and fixing the extensive damage that results when airbags deploy. Employment growth will continue to be concentrated in automotive body, paint, interior, and glass repair shops. Automobile dealers will employ a smaller portion of this occupation as the equipment needed for collision repair becomes more specialized and expensive to operate and maintain. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Experienced body repairers are rarely laid off during a general slowdown in the economy. Automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions because major body damage must be repaired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operat ing condition. However, repair of minor dents and crumpled fenders often can be deferred when drivers’ budgets become tight. Earnings Median hourly earnings of automotive body and related repair ers, including incentive pay, were $16.68 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.55 and $22.04 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.42, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.45 an hour. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of automotive body and related repairers were $17.73 in automobile dealers and $16.44 in automotive repair and maintenance. Median hourly earnings of automotive glass installers and repair ers, including incentive pay, were $13.45 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.36 and $17.04 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.53, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.63 an hour. Median hourly earnings in automotive repair and maintenance shops, the industry employing most automo tive glass installers and repairers, were $13.43. The majority of body repairers employed by independent repair shops and automotive dealers are paid on an incentive basis. Under this method, body repairers are paid a predetermined amount for various tasks, and earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee workers a minimum weekly salary. Body repairers who work for trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Helpers and trainees typically earn from 30 percent to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to be paid on an incentive basis. Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles often involves working on me chanical components, as well as vehicle bodies. Automotive body repairers often work closely with individuals in several related oc cupations, including automotive service technicians and mechanics, diesel service technicians and mechanics, auto damage insurance appraisers, and painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance. Sources of Additional Information Additional details about work opportunities may be obtained from automotive body repair shops, automobile dealers, or local offices of your State employment service. State employment service offices also are a source of information about training programs. For general information about automotive body repairer careers, contact any of the following sources: ► Automotive Service Association, P.O. Box 929, Bedford, Texas 76095 0929. Internet: http://www.asashop.org ► National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.nada.org ► Inter-Industry Conference On Auto Collision Repair Education Founda tion (I-CAR), 5125 Trillium Blvd., Hoffman Estates, IL 60192. Telephone (tollfree): 800-422-7872. ► Automotive Jobs Today, 8400 Westpark Drive, MS #2, McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.autojobstoday.org For general information about careers in automotive glass installa tion and repair, contact: ► National Glass Association. 8200 Greensboro Drive, Suite 302, McLean, VA 22102-3881. Internet: http://www.glass.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 549 For information on how to become a certified automotive body repairer, write to: ► National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE„ Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org For a directory of certified automotive body repairer programs, contact: ► National Automotive Technician Education Foundation, 101 Blue Seal Dr., SE„ Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.natef.org For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer training programs in automotive body repair, contact: ► Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Tech nology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http :l/www.accsct.org Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics ______ (0*NET 49-3023.01, 49-3023.02) Significant Points • Formal automotive technician training is the best prepa ration for these challenging technology-based jobs. • Opportunities should be very good for automotive service technicians and mechanics with diagnostic and problem-solving skills, knowledge of electronics and mathematics, and mechanical aptitude. • Automotive service technicians and mechanics must continually adapt to changing technology and repair techniques as vehicle components and systems become increasingly sophisticated. Nature of the Work Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the impor tance of the jobs of automotive service technicians and mechanics. The ability to diagnose the source of a problem quickly and ac curately requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automobiles. Many technicians consider diagnosing hard-to-find troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. The work of automotive service technicians and mechanics has evolved from mechanical repair to a high technology job. Asa result, these workers are now usually called “technicians” in automotive services and the term “mechanic” is falling into disuse. Today, integrated electronic systems and complex computers run vehicles and measure their performance while on the road. Technicians must have an increasingly broad base of knowledge about how vehicles’ complex components work and interact, as well as the ability to work with electronic diagnostic equipment and computer-based technical reference materials. Automotive service technicians use their high-tech skills to inspect, maintain, and repair automobiles and light trucks that run on gasoline, ethanol and other alternative fuels, such as electric ity. The increasing sophistication of automotive technology now requires workers who can use computerized shop equipment and work with electronic components while maintaining their skills with traditional hand tools. (Service technicians who work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and equipment are discussed in the Handbook section on diesel service technicians and mechanics. Motorcycle technicians—who repair and service motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and, occasionally, small all-terrain ve hicles—are discussed in the Handbook section on small engine mechanics.) 550 Occupational Outlook Handbook When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, technicians first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a large shop, from the repair service estimator or service advisor who wrote the repair order. To locate the problem, technicians use a diagnostic approach. First, they test to see whether components and systems are proper and secure. Then, they isolate the components or systems that could not logically be the cause of the problem. For example, if an air-conditioner malfunctions, the technician’s diagnostic approach can pinpoint a problem as simple as a low coolant level or as complex as a bad drive-train connection that has shorted out the air conditioner. Technicians may have to test drive the vehicle or use a variety of test ing equipment, such as onboard and hand-held diagnostic computers or compression gauges, to identify the source of the problem. These tests may indicate whether a component is salvageable or whether a new one is required to get the vehicle back in working order. During routine service inspections, technicians test and lubricate engines and other major components. In some cases, the technician may repair or replace worn parts before they cause breakdowns that could damage critical components of the vehicle. Technicians usu ally follow a checklist to ensure that they examine every critical part. Belts, hoses, plugs, brake and fuel systems, and other potentially troublesome items are among those closely watched. Service technicians use a variety of tools in their work—power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools like lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems, and jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines. They also use common hand tools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, to work on small parts and in hard-to-reach places. Computers also have become commonplace in modem repair shops. Service technicians compare the readouts from computerized diagnostic testing devices with the benchmarked standards given by the manufacturer of the components being tested. Deviations outside of acceptable levels are an indication to the technician that further attention to an area is necessary. A shop’s computerized system provides automatic updates to technical manuals and unlim ited access to manufacturers’ service information, technical service bulletins, and other databases that allow technicians to keep current on problem spots and to learn new procedures. Automotive service technicians in large shops have increasingly become specialized. For example, transmission technicians and re builders work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of transmissions. Extensive knowledge of computer controls, the ability to diagnose electrical and hydraulic problems, and other specialized skills are needed to work on these complex components, which employ some of the most sophisticated technology used in vehicles. Tuneup technicians adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They often use electronic testing equipment to isolate and adjust malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions control systems. Automotive air-conditioning repairers install and repair air-condi tioners and service their components, such as compressors, condensers, and controls. These workers require special training in Federal and State regulations governing the handling and disposal of refrigerants. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some technicians specialize in both brake and front-end work. Even though electronics and electronic systems in automobiles were a specialty in the past, electronics are now so common that it is essential for all types of service technicians to be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service technicians can specialize in several types of automotive repair, including brake repair. Working Conditions Nearly half of automotive service technicians work more than 40 hours a week. Some may also work evenings and weekends to satisfy customer service needs. Generally, service technicians work indoors in well-ventilated and -lighted repair shops. How ever, some shops are drafty and noisy. Although some problems can be fixed with simple computerized adjustments, technicians frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common, but technicians can usually avoid serious accidents if the shop is kept clean and orderly, and safety practices are observed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities strongly recommend that persons seeking automotive service technician and mechanic jobs complete a formal training program in high school, or in a postsecondary vocational school or community college. However, some service technicians still learn the trade solely by assisting and learning from experienced workers. Courses in automotive repair, elec tronics, physics, chemistry, English, computers, and mathematics provide a good educational background for a career as a service technician. High school programs, while an asset, vary greatly in scope. Some aim to equip graduates with enough skills to get a job as a technician’s helper or trainee technician. Other programs offer only an introduction to automotive technology and service for the future consumer or hobbyist. Some of the more extensive programs par ticipate in Automotive Youth Education Service (AYES), which has about 500 participating schools and more than 4000 participating dealers. Students who complete these programs receive an AYES certification and upon high school graduation are better prepared to enter entry-level technician positions, or to advance their technical education. Postsecondary automotive technician training programs vary greatly in format, but normally provide intensive career preparation through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on prac tice. Some trade and technical school programs provide concentrated training for 6 months to a year, depending on how many hours the student attends each week, and award a certificate. Community college programs normally award an associate degree or certificate and usually spread the training over 2 years by supplementing the automotive training with instruction in English, basic mathematics, Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations computers, and other subjects. Some students earn repair certificates in one particular skill and opt to leave the program to begin their career before graduation. Recently, some programs have added to their curriculums training on employability skills such as customer service and stress management. Employers find that these skills help technicians handle the additional responsibilities of dealing with the customers and parts vendors. The various automobile manufacturers and their participating deal ers sponsor 2-year associate degree programs at postsecondary schools across the Nation. The Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT) currently certifies a number of automotive and diesel technology schools. Schools update their curriculums frequently to reflect changing technology and equipment. Students in these programs typically spend alternate 6- to 12-week periods attending classes full time and working full time in the service departments of sponsoring dealers. At these dealerships, students get practical experience while assigned to an experienced worker who provides hands-on instruction and timesaving tips. The ASE certification is a nationally recognized standard for programs offered by high schools, postsecondary trade schools, technical institutes, and community colleges that train automobile service technicians. Some automotive manufacturers provide ASEcertified instruction programs with service equipment and currentmodel cars on which students practice new skills and learn the latest automotive technology. While ASE certification is voluntary, it does signify that the program meets uniform standards for instructional facilities, equipment, staff credentials, and curriculum. To ensure that programs keep up with ever-changing technology, repair tech niques, and ASE standards, the certified programs are subjected to periodic compliance reviews and mandatory recertification, as are the ASE standards themselves. In 2004, about 2000 high school and postsecondary automotive service technician training programs had been certified by ASE. For trainee automotive service technician jobs, employers look for people with strong communication and analytical skills. Techni cians need good reading, mathematics, and computer skills to study technical manuals and to keep abreast of new technology and learn new service and repair procedures and specifications. Trainees also must possess mechanical aptitude and knowledge of how automo biles work. Most employers regard the successful completion of a vocational training program in automotive service technology as the best preparation for trainee positions. Experience working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby also is valuable. Because of the complexity of new vehicles, a growing number of employers require completion of high school and additional post secondary training. Many new cars have several onboard computers, operating every thing from the engine to the radio. Engine controls and dashboard instruments were among the first components to use electronics, but today most automotive systems, such as braking, transmission, and steering systems, are controlled primarily by computers and electronic components. Some of the more advanced vehicles have global positioning systems, Internet access, and other high-tech features integrated into the functions of the vehicle. The training in electronics is vital because electrical components, or a series of related components, account for nearly all malfunctions in modem vehicles. In addition to electronics and computers, automotive service technicians will have to learn and understand the science behind the alternate-fuel vehicles that have begun to enter the market. The fuel for these vehicles will come from the dehydrogenization of water, electric fuel cells, natural gas, solar power, and other non-petroleum-based sources. Hybrid vehicles, for example, use the energy from braking to recharge batteries that power an electric motor, which supplements https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 551 a gasoline engine. As vehicles with these new technologies become more common, technicians will need additional training to learn the science and engineering that makes them possible. Currently, the manufacturers of these alternate-fuel vehicles are providing the neces sary training. However, as the warrantees begin to expire, technicians in all industries will need to be trained to service these vehicles. As the number of these automobiles on the road increases, some technicians will likely specialize in the service and repair of these vehicles. Those new to automotive service usually start as trainee techni cians, technicians’ helpers, or lubrication workers, and gradually ac quire and practice their skills by working with experienced mechanics and technicians. With a few months’ experience, beginners perform many routine service tasks and make simple repairs. While some graduates of postsecondary automotive training programs are often able to earn promotion to the journey level after only a few months on the job, it typically takes 2 to 5 years of experience to become a journey level service technician, who is expected to quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. An additional 1 to 2 years of experience familiarizes technicians with all types of repairs. Complex specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training and experience. In contrast, brake specialists may learn their jobs in considerably less time because they do not need a complete knowledge of automotive repair. At work, the most important possessions of technicians are their hand tools. Technicians usually provide their own tools, and many experienced workers have thousands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, engine analyz ers, and other diagnostic equipment, but technicians accumulate hand tools with experience. Some formal training programs have alliances with tool manufacturers that help entry-level technicians accumulate tools during their training period. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive service technicians to manufacturer training centers to learn to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components, such as electronic fuel injection or air-conditioners. Motor vehicle dealers and other automotive service providers also may send prom ising beginners to manufacturer-sponsored technician training pro grams; most employers periodically send experienced technicians to manufacturer-sponsored technician training programs for additional training to maintain or upgrade employees’ skills and thus increase the employees’ value to the employer. Factory representatives also visit many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) has become a standard credential for au tomotive service technicians. Certification is available in 1 or more of 8 different areas of automotive service, such as electrical systems, engine repair, brake systems, suspension and steering, and heating and air-conditioning. For certification in each area, technicians must have at least 2 years of experience and pass the examination. Completion of an automotive training program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. For ASE certification as a master automobile technician, technicians must be certified in all eight areas. Technicians must retake each examination once every 5 years to maintain their certifications. Experienced technicians who have leadership ability sometimes advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Those who work well with customers may become automotive repair service estima tors. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops. Employment Automotive service technicians and mechanics held about 803,000 jobs in 2004. The majority worked for automotive repair and maintenance shops, automobile dealers, and retailers and wholesal ers of automotive parts, accessories, and supplies. Others found 552 Occupational Outlook Handbook employment in gasoline stations; home and auto supply stores; auto motive equipment rental and leasing companies; Federal, State, and local governments; and other organizations. More than 16 percent of service technicians were self-employed, more than twice the propor tion for all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Some automotive service technicians are members of labor unions such as the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters. Job Outlook Job opportunities in this occupation are expected to be very good for persons who complete automotive training programs in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community colleges as employers report difficulty in finding workers with the right skills. Persons with good diagnostic and problem-solving abilities, and whose training includes basic electronics and computer courses, should have the best opportunities. For well-prepared people with a technical background, automotive service technician careers offer an excellent opportunity for good pay and the satisfaction of highly skilled work with vehicles incorporating the latest in advanced technology. However, persons without formal automotive training are likely to face competition for entry-level jobs. Employment of automotive service technicians and mechanics is expected to increase as fast as the average through the year 2014. Over the 2004-14 period, demand for technicians will grow as the number of vehicles in operation increases, reflecting continued growth in the number of multi-car families. Growth in demand will be offset somewhat by slowing population growth and the continu ing increase in the quality and durability of automobiles, which will require less frequent service. Additional job openings will be due to the need to replace a growing number of retiring technicians, who tend to be the most experienced workers. Most persons who enter the occupation can expect steady work, even through downturns in the economy. While car owners may postpone maintenance and repair on their vehicles when their budgets become strained, and employers of automotive technicians may cut back hiring new workers, changes in economic conditions generally have minor effects on the automotive service and repair business. Employment growth will continue to be concentrated in automo bile dealerships and independent automotive repair shops. Many new jobs also will be created in small retail operations that offer after-warranty repairs, such as oil changes, brake repair, air-condi tioner service, and other minor repairs generally taking less than 4 hours to complete. Employment of automotive service technicians and mechanics in gasoline service stations will continue to decline, as fewer stations offer repair services. Related Occupations Other workers who repair and service motor vehicles include au tomotive body and related repairers, diesel service technicians and mechanics, and small engine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local automobile dealers and repair shops or local offices of the State employment service. The State employment service also may have information about training programs. A list of certified automotive service technician training programs can be obtained from: ► National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 101 Blue Seal Dr., SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.natef.org For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer programs in automotive service technician training, contact: ► Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Tech nology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org Information on automobile manufacturer-sponsored programs in automotive service technology can be obtained from: >- Automotive Youth Educational Systems (AYES), 100 W. Big Beaver, Suite 300, Troy, MI 48084. Internet: http://www.ayes.org Information on how to become a certified automotive service technician is available from: ► National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org For general information about a career as an automotive service technician, contact: ► National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.nada.org >• Automotive Retailing Today, 8400 Westpark Dr., MS #2, McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.autoretailing.org ► Automotive Jobs Today, 8400 Westpark Dr., MS #2, McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.autojobstoday.org >- Career Voyages, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http://www.careervoyages.gov/automotive-main.cfm Earnings Median hourly earnings of automotive service technicians and mechanics, including commission, were $15.60 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.31 and $20.75 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.70, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.22 per hour. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of service technicians in May 2004 were as follows: Local government......................................................................... $38,160 Automobile dealers......................................................................... 38,060 Automotive repair and maintenance............................................. 28,810 Gasoline stations............................................................................. 28,030 Automotive parts, accessories,and tire stores............................... 27,180 Many experienced technicians employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earn ings depend on the amount of work completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned technicians a minimum weekly salary. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Diesel Service Technicians and Mechanics (0*NET 49-3031.00) Significant Points • A career as a diesel service technician or mechanic can offer relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. • Opportunities are expected to be very good for persons who complete formal training programs. • National certification is the recognized standard of achievement for diesel service technicians and mechanics. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Nature of the Work The diesel engine is the workhorse powering the Nation’s trucks and buses because it delivers more power, is more efficient, and is more durable than its gasoline-burning counterpart. Diesel-powered engines also are becoming more prevalent in light vehicles, including passenger vehicles, pickups, and other work trucks. Diesel service technicians and mechanics, which includes bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists, repair and main tain the diesel engines that power transportation equipment such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomotives. Some diesel technicians and mechanics also work on heavy vehicles and mobile equip ment, including bulldozers, cranes, road graders, farm tractors, and combines. Other technicians repair diesel-powered passenger automobiles, light trucks, or boats. (For information on technicians and mechanics working primarily on gasoline-powered automobiles, heavy vehicles, mobile equipment, or boats, see the Handbook sections on automotive, heavy vehicle, and mobile equipment; and small engine service mechanics. Technicians who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles spend most of their time doing preventive maintenance, to ensure that equipment will operate safely. These workers also elimi nate unnecessary wear on, and damage to, parts that could result in costly breakdowns. During a routine maintenance check on a vehicle, technicians follow a checklist that includes inspecting brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. Fol lowing inspection, technicians repair or adjust parts that do not work properly or remove and replace parts that cannot be fixed. Increasingly, technicians must be versatile, in order to adapt to customers’ needs and new technologies. It is common for technicians to handle all kinds of repairs, from working on a vehicle’s electri cal system one day to doing major engine repairs the next. Diesel maintenance is becoming increasingly complex, as more electronic components are used to control the operation of an engine. For example, microprocessors now regulate and manage fuel timing, increasing the engine’s efficiency. Also, new emissions standards are requiring mechanics to retrofit engines to comply with pollu tion regulations. In modem shops, diesel service technicians use hand-held or laptop computers to diagnose problems and adjust engine functions. Because of continual advances in automotive technology, technicians must regularly learn new techniques to repair vehicles. Diesel service technicians use a variety of tools in their work, including power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches, to remove Diesel technicians perform regular maintenance on engine parts to prevent unnecessary wear and save money on costly repairs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 553 bolts quickly; machine tools, such as lathes and grinding machines, to rebuild brakes; welding and flame-cutting equipment, to remove and repair exhaust systems; and jacks and hoists, to lift and move large parts. Common handtools—screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches—are used to work on small parts and get at hard-toreach places. Diesel service technicians and mechanics also use a variety of computerized testing equipment to pinpoint and analyze malfunctions in electrical systems and engines. In large shops, technicians generally receive their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers. Most supervisors and managers are experienced technicians who also assist in diagnosing problems and maintaining quality standards. Technicians may work as a team or be assisted by an apprentice or helper when doing heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions. Working Conditions Diesel technicians usually work indoors, although they occasionally make repairs to vehicles on the road. Diesel technicians may lift heavy parts and tools, handle greasy and dirty parts, and stand or lie in awkward positions to repair vehicles and equipment. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common, although serious accidents can usually be avoided if the shop is kept clean and orderly and if safety procedures are followed. Technicians normally work in well-lighted, heated, and ventilated areas; however, some shops are drafty and noisy. Many employers provide lockers and shower facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many persons qualify for diesel service technician and mechanic jobs through years of on-the-job training, authorities on diesel engines recommend the completion of a formal diesel engine training program. Employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs because those workers often have a head start in training and are able to advance quickly to the journey level of diesel service. Many community colleges and trade and vocational schools of fer programs in diesel repair. These programs, lasting 6 months to 2 years, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. Programs vary in the degree of hands-on training they provide on equipment. Some offer about 30 hours per week on equipment, whereas others offer more lab or classroom instruction. Training provides a foundation in the latest diesel technology and instruction in the service and repair of the vehicles and equipment that techni cians will encounter on the job. Training programs also improve the skills needed to interpret technical manuals and to communicate with coworkers and customers. In addition to the hands-on aspects of the training, many institutions teach communication skills, cus tomer service, basic understanding of physics, and logical thought. Increasingly, employers work closely with representatives of training programs, providing instructors with the latest equipment, techniques, and tools and offering jobs to graduates. Whereas most employers prefer to hire persons who have com pleted formal training programs, some technicians and mechan ics continue to learn their skills on the job. Unskilled beginners generally are assigned tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling and lubricating vehicles, and driving vehicles into and out of the shop. Beginners usually are promoted to trainee positions as they gain experience and as vacancies become available. In some shops, beginners with experience in automobile service start as trainee technicians. After a few months’ experience, most trainees can perform routine service tasks and make minor repairs. These workers advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability and competence. After technicians master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related components, such as brakes, transmissions, 554 Occupational Outlook Handbook and electrical systems. Generally, technicians with at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience will qualify as journey-level diesel technicians. The completion of a formal training program speeds advancement to the journey level. For unskilled entry-level jobs, employers usually look for appli cants who have mechanical aptitude and strong problem-solving skills and who are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Nearly all employers require the completion of high school. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, English, mathematics, and physics provide a strong educational background for a career as a diesel service technician or mechanic. Technicians need a State commercial driver’s license to test-drive trucks or buses on public roads. Many companies also require applicants to pass a drug test. Practical experience in au tomobile repair at an automotive service station, in the Armed Forces, or as a hobby is valuable as well. Employers often send experienced technicians and mechanics to special training classes conducted by manufacturers and vendors, in which workers learn the latest technology and repair techniques. Technicians constantly receive updated technical manuals and in structions outlining changes in techniques and standards for repair. It is essential for technicians to read, interpret, and comprehend service manuals in order to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is the recognized industry credential for diesel service technicians and mechanics. Diesel service technicians may be certified as master medium/heavy truck technicians, master school bus technicians, or master truck equipment technicians. They may also be ASE-certified in specific areas of truck repair, such as gasoline engines, drivetrains, brakes, suspension and steering, electrical and electronic systems, or preventive maintenance and inspection. For certification in each area, a technician must pass one or more of the ASE-administered exams and present proof of 2 years of relevant hands-on work experience. Two years of relevant formal training from a high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college program may be substituted for up to 1 year of the work experience requirement. To remain certified, technicians must be retested every 5 years. Retesting ensures that service technicians and mechanics keep up with changing technology. The most important work possessions of technicians and me chanics are their handtools. Technicians usually provide their own tools, and many experienced workers have thousands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equip ment, but individual workers ordinarily accumulate their own hand tools with experience. Experienced diesel service technicians and mechanics with lead ership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Technicians and mechanics with sales ability sometimes become sales representatives. Some open their own repair shops. Employment Diesel service technicians and mechanics held about 270,000 jobs in 2004. They were employed by almost every industry; in particular, those that use trucks, buses, and equipment to haul, deliver, and transport materials, goods, and people. The largest employer, the truck transportation industry, employed nearly one out of six diesel service technicians and mechanics. Slightly fewer were employed by local governments, mainly to repair school buses, waste removal trucks, and road equipment. About 1 out 10 was employed by automotive and commercial equipment repair and maintenance facilities. The rest were employed throughout the economy, including construction, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and automotive leasing. A relatively small number https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis were self-employed. Nearly every section of the country employs diesel service technicians and mechanics, although most work in towns and cities where trucking companies, bus lines, and other fleet owners have large operations. Job Outlook Employment of diesel service technicians and mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Besides openings resulting from employment growth, opportunities will be created by the need to replace workers who retire or transfer to other occupations. Employment of diesel service technicians and mechanics is expected to grow as freight transportation by truck increases. Addi tional trucks will be needed to keep pace with the increasing volume of freight shipped nationwide. Trucks also serve as intermediaries for other forms of transportation, such as rail and air. Due to the greater durability and economy of the diesel engine relative to the gasoline engine, the number of buses, trucks, and passenger vehicles that are powered by diesel engines is expected to increase. While diesel engines are a more efficient and powerful option, diesel engines tend to produce more pollutants than gasoline-pow ered engines. As governments have applied emissions-lowering standards to diesel engines, many older diesel engines must be retrofitted to comply. These new emissions control systems, such as emissions filters and catalysts, may create additional jobs for diesel service technicians and mechanics. Careers as diesel service technicians attract many because they offer relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. Opportunities should be very good for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics at community and junior colleges or vocational and technical schools. Applicants without formal training may face stiffer competition for entry-level jobs. Most persons entering this occupation can expect relatively steady work, because changes in economic conditions have less of an effect on the diesel repair business than on other sectors of the economy. During a downturn in the economy, however, some employers may lay off workers or be reluctant to hire new workers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists, including incentive pay, were $17.20 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.73 and $21.13 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.19, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.67 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists in May 2004 were as follows; Local government, excluding schools............................................. Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts and supplies merchant wholesalers................................................... Automotive repair and maintenance............................................... General freight trucking.................................................................. Elementary and secondary schools................................................... $20.18 17.97 16.65 16.33 15.73 Because many experienced technicians employed by truck fleet dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed. Beginners usually earn from 50 to 75 percent of the rate of skilled workers and receive increases as they become more skilled. The majority of service technicians work a standard 40-hour week, although some work longer hours, particularly if they are selfemployed. A growing number of shops have expanded their hours, either to perform repairs and routine service in a more timely fashion Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations or as a convenience to customers. Those technicians employed by truck and bus firms providing service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends, usually at a higher rate of pay than those working traditional hours. Many diesel service technicians and mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Diesel service technicians and mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equipment. Related technician and mechanic occupations include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians, automotive service technicians and mechan ics, heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics, and small engine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for diesel service techni cians and mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or buslines; locals of the unions previously mentioned; and local offices of your State employment service. Local State employment service offices also may have in formation about training programs. State boards of postsecondary career schools have information on licensed schools with training programs for diesel service technicians and mechanics. For general information about a career as a diesel service techni cian or mechanic, write: ► Association of Diesel Specialists, 10 Laboratory Dr., PO Box 13966, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. Internet: http://www.diesel.org Information on how to become a certified diesel technician of medium to heavy-duty vehicles or a certified bus technician is avail able from: >- National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE, Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel service technicians and mechan ics, contact: >• Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Tech nology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org > National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 101 Blue Seal Dr., SE„ Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.natef.org Heavy Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Service Technicians and Mechanics (0*NET 49-3041.00, 49-3042.00, 49-3043.00) Significant Points • Opportunities should be good for persons with formal postsecondary training in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics, especially if they also have training in basic electronics and hydraulics. • This occupation offers relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. • Skill in using computerized diagnostic equipment is important in this occupation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 555 Nature of the Work Heavy vehicles and mobile equipment are indispensable to many industrial activities, from construction to railroads. Various types of equipment move materials, till land, lift beams, and dig earth to pave the way for development and production. Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics repair and maintain engines and hydraulic, transmission, and electrical systems power ing farm machinery, cranes, bulldozers, and railcars, for example. (For more detailed information on service technicians specializing in diesel engines, see the section on diesel service technicians and mechanics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Service technicians perform routine maintenance checks on diesel engines and on fuel, brake, and transmission systems to ensure peak performance, safety, and longevity of the equipment. Maintenance checks and comments from equipment operators usually alert techni cians to problems. With many types of modem heavy and mobile equipment, technicians can plug diagnostic computers into onboard computers to diagnose a component needing adjustment or repair. After locating the problem, these technicians rely on their training and experience to use the best possible technique to solve the problem. If necessary, they may partially dismantle the component to examine parts for damage or excessive wear. Then, using hand-held tools, they repair, replace, clean, and lubricate parts as necessary. In some cases, techni cians calibrate systems by typing codes into the onboard computer. After reassembling the component and testing it for safety, they put it back into the equipment and return the equipment to the field. Many types of heavy and mobile equipment use hydraulics, to raise and lower movable parts. When hydraulic components malfunction, technicians examine them for fluid leaks, ruptured hoses, or worn gas kets on fluid reservoirs. Occasionally, the equipment requires extensive repairs, as when a defective hydraulic pump needs replacing. In addition to conducting routine maintenance checks, service technicians perform a variety of other repairs. They diagnose elec trical problems and adjust or replace defective components. They also disassemble and repair undercarriages and track assemblies. Occasionally, technicians weld broken equipment frames and struc tural parts, using electric or gas welders. It is common for technicians in large shops to specialize in one or two types of repair. For example, a shop may have individual specialists in major engine repair, transmission work, electrical systems, and suspension or brake systems. Technicians in smaller shops, on the other hand, generally perform multiple functions. The technology used in heavy equipment is becoming more sophisticated with the increased use of electronic and computer-con trolled components that ran much of the equipment’s functions. These onboard computers are accessed using other computers and electronic devices that are manipulated by the technician. As a result, techni cians need training in electronics and the use of hand-held diagnostic computers to make engine adjustments and diagnose problems. Service technicians use a variety of tools in their work: power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools, like lathes and grinding machines, to rebuild brakes; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Service technicians also use common handtools—screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches—to work on small parts and to get at hard-to-reach places. They may use a variety of computerized testing equipment to pinpoint and ana lyze malfunctions in electrical systems and other essential systems. Tachometers and dynamometers, for example, serve to locate engine malfunctions. Service technicians also use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters when working on electrical systems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics and service technicians keep construction and surface mining equipment, such as bulldozers, cranes, crawlers, draglines, graders, excavators, and other equipment, 556 Occupational Outlook Handbook in working order. Typically, these workers are employed by equip ment wholesale distribution and leasing firms, large construction and mining companies, local and Federal governments, and other organi zations operating and maintaining heavy machinery and equipment fleets. Service technicians employed by the Federal Government may work on tanks and other armored equipment. Farm equipment mechanics service, maintain, and repair farm equipment, as well as smaller lawn and garden tractors sold to suburban homeowners. What typically was a general repairer’s job around the farm has evolved into a specialized technical career. Farmers have increasingly turned to farm equipment dealers to ser vice and repair their equipment because the machinery has grown in complexity. Modem equipment uses more computers, electronics and hydraulics, making it difficult to perform repairs without some specialized training. Railcar repairers specialize in servicing railroad locomotives and other rolling stock, streetcars and subway cars, or mine cars. Most work for railroads, public and private transit companies, and railcar manufacturers. Working Conditions Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians usually work indoors, although if repairs are needed urgently, or the machin ery cannot be moved to a shop, many technicians make repairs at the worksite. To repair vehicles and equipment, technicians often lift heavy parts and tools, handle greasy and dirty parts, and stand or lie in awkward positions. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common; serious accidents normally are avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and when safety practices are observed. Technicians usually work in well-lighted, heated, and ventilated areas. However, some shops are drafty and noisy. Many employers provide uniforms, locker rooms, and shower facilities. When heavy or mobile equipment breaks down at a construction site, it may be too difficult or expensive to bring into a repair shop, so the shop will send a field service technician to the site to make repairs. Field service technicians work outdoors and spend much of their time away from the shop. Generally, the more experienced . iiiliiii ■: Si a ■ ■: *; ’f ; On-the-job repairs are usually done by the most experienced heavy vehicle technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis service technicians specialize in field service. They usually drive trucks specially equipped with replacement parts and tools. On occasion, they must travel many miles to reach disabled machinery. Field technicians normally earn a higher wage than their counter parts, because they are required to make on-the-spot decisions that are necessary to serve their customers. The hours of work for farm equipment mechanics vary according to the season of the year. During the busy planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In slow winter months, however, mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many persons qualify for service technician jobs through years of on-the-job training, but most employers prefer that applicants complete a formal diesel or heavy equipment mechanic training program after graduating from high school. They seek persons with mechanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamentals of diesel engines, transmissions, electrical systems, computers, and hydraulics. In addition, the constant change in equipment technol ogy makes it necessary for technicians to be flexible and have the capacity to learn new skills quickly. Many community colleges and vocational schools offer programs in diesel technology. Some tailor programs to heavy equipment mechanics. These programs educate the student in the basics of analytical and diagnostic techniques, electronics, and hydraulics. The increased use of electronics and computers makes training in the fundamentals of electronics essential for new heavy and mobile equipment mechanics. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a cer tificate of completion, whereas others lead to an associate degree in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. These programs not only provide a foundation in the components of diesel and heavy equip ment technology, but also enable trainee technicians to advance to the journey, or experienced worker, level sooner than would otherwise be possible. A combination of formal and on-the-job training prepares trainee technicians with the knowledge to service and repair equipment typically seen by a shop. After a few months’ experience, most beginners perform routine service tasks and make minor repairs. As they prove their ability and competence, they advance to harder jobs. After trainees master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related components, such as brakes, trans missions, and electrical systems. Generally, a service technician with at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience is accepted as fully qualified. Many employers send trainee technicians to training sessions conducted by heavy equipment manufacturers. The sessions, which typically last up to 1 week, provide intensive instruction in the repair of the manufacturer’s equipment. Some sessions focus on particular components found in the equipment, such as diesel engines, transmissions, axles, and electrical systems. Other sessions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawler-loaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may periodically attend additional training sessions. When appropriate, experienced technicians attend training sessions to gain familiarity with new technology or equipment. High school courses in automobile repair, physics, chemistry, and mathematics provide a strong foundation for a career as a service technician or mechanic. It is also essential for technicians to be able to read and interpret service manuals in order to keep abreast of en gineering changes. Experience working on diesel engines and heavy equipment acquired in the Armed Forces is valuable as well. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automo tive Service Excellence is the recognized industry credential for Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians, who may be certified as a master medium/heavy truck technician or in a specific area of heavy-duty equipment repair, such as brakes, gasoline engines, diesel engines, drivetrains, electrical systems, or suspension and steering. For certification in each area, technicians must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years’ experience. High school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year’s experience. To remain certified, technicians must be retested every 5 years. Retesting ensures that service technicians keep up with chang ing technology. However, ASE currently offers no certification programs for more advanced heavy vehicle and mobile equip ment repair specialties. The most important work possessions of technicians are their handtools. Service technicians typically buy their own handtools, and many experienced technicians have thousands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish ex pensive power tools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment, but handtools are normally accumulated with experience. Experienced technicians may advance to field service jobs, wherein they have a greater opportunity to tackle problems inde pendently and earn additional pay. Field positions may require a commercial driver’s license and a clean driving record. Technicians with leadership ability may become shop supervisors or service managers. Some technicians open their own repair shops or invest in a franchise. Employment Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and me chanics held about 178,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 125,000 were mobile heavy equipment mechanics, 33,000 were farm equip ment mechanics, and 20,000 were railcar repairers. About 30 percent were employed by machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers. More than 13 percent worked in construction, primarily for specialty trade contractors and highway, street, and bridge con struction companies; another 12 percent were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Other service technicians worked in agriculture; mining; rail transportation and support activities; and commercial and industrial machinery and equipment rental, leasing, and repair. A small number repaired equipment for machinery and railroad rolling stock manufacturers or lawn and garden equipment and supplies stores. Less than 4 percent of service technicians were self-employed. Nearly every section of the country employs heavy and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics, although most work in towns and cities where equipment dealers, equipment rental and leasing companies, and construction companies have repair facilities. Job Outlook Opportunities for heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service tech nicians and mechanics should be good for those who have completed formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. Persons without formal training are expected to encounter growing difficulty entering these jobs. Employment of heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics is expected to grow slower than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced repairers who retire. Employers report difficulty finding candidates with formal postsecondary training to fill available service technician Digitized positions, for FRASERbecause many young people with mechanic training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 557 and experience opt to take jobs as automotive service technicians, diesel service technicians, or industrial machinery repairers—jobs that offer more openings and a wider variety of locations in which to work. Faster employment growth is expected for mobile heavy equip ment mechanics than for farm equipment mechanics or railcar repairers. Increasing numbers of heavy duty and mobile equip ment service technicians will be required to support growth in the construction industry, equipment dealers, and rental and leasing companies. Because of the nature of construction activity, demand for service technicians follows the Nation’s economic cycle. As the economy expands, construction activity increases, resulting in the use of more mobile heavy equipment to grade construction sites, excavate basements, and lay water and sewer lines. The increased use of such equipment increases the need for periodic service and repair. In addition, the construction and repair of highways and bridges requires more technicians to service equipment. As equip ment becomes more complicated, repairs increasingly must be made by specially trained technicians. Job openings for farm equipment mechanics and railcar repairers are expected to arise mostly because of replacement needs. Construction and mining are particularly sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity; therefore, heavy and mobile equipment may be idled during downturns. In addition, winter is traditionally the slow season for construction and farming activity, particularly in cold regions. During periods when equipment is used less, few technicians may be needed, and employers may be reluctant to hire inexperienced workers. However, employ ers usually try to retain experienced workers during these slow periods. Earnings Median hourly earnings of mobile heavy equipment mechan ics were $18.34 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.96 and $21.75. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.11, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.27. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of mobile heavy equipment mechanics in May 2004 were as follows: Federal Government........................................................................ $20.41 Local government........................................................................... 19.22 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers.......... 18.49 Other specialty trade contractors................................................... 17.81 Highway, street, and bridge construction....................................... 17.79 Median hourly earnings of farm equipment mechanics were $13.40 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.77 and $16.34. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.08, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.40. In May 2004, median hourly earnings were $13.66 in machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers, the industry employing the largest number of farm equipment mechanics. Median hourly earnings of railcar repairers were $19.48 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.12 and $21.76. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.07, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.52. In May 2004, median hourly earnings were $20.38 in rail transportation, the industry employing the largest number of railcar repairers. Many heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics are members of unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, the International Union of Operating Engineers, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. 558 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Workers in related repair occupations include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians; automotive service technicians and mechanics; diesel service technicians and mechanics; industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers; and small engine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about job openings for heavy vehicle and mobile equip ment service technicians and mechanics may be obtained from local heavy and mobile equipment dealers and distributors, construction contractors, and government agencies. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information on job openings and training programs. For general information about a career as a heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technician or mechanic, contact: >- The AED Foundation (Associated Equipment Dealers affiliate), 615 W. 22nd St., Oak Brook, IL 60523. Internet: http://www.aednet.org/aed_foundation A list of certified diesel service technician training programs can be obtained from: ► National Automotive Technician Education Foundation (NATEF), 101 Blue Seal Dr., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.natef.org Information on certification as a heavy-duty diesel service techni cian is available from: ► National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org Small Engine Mechanics (Q*NET 49-3051.00, 49-3052.00, 49-3053.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations, and persons with formal training as a mechanic should enjoy good job prospects. • Use of motorcycles, motorboats, and outdoor power equipment is seasonal in many areas, so mechanics may service other types of equipment or work reduced hours in the winter. may work on propellers, steering mechanisms, marine plumbing, and other boat equipment. Outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics service and repair outdoor power equipment, such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, edge trimmers, and chain saws. They also may occasionally work on portable generators and gocarts. In addition, small engine mechanics in certain parts of the country may work on snowblowers and snowmobiles, but demand for this type of repair is both seasonal and regional. . Like large engines, small engines require periodic service to minimize the chance of breakdowns and to keep them operating at peak performance. During routine equipment maintenance, mechanics follow a checklist that includes the inspection and cleaning of brakes, electrical systems, fuel injection systems, plugs, carburetors, and other parts. Following inspection, mechanics usually repair or adjust parts that do not work properly or replace unfixable parts. Routine maintenance is normally a major part of the mechanic’s work. When a piece of equipment breaks down, mechanics use various techniques to diagnose the source and extent of the problem. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the ability to diagnose mechanical, fuel, and electrical problems and to make repairs in a minimal amount of time. Quick and accurate diagnosis requires problem solving ability and a thorough knowledge of the equipment’s operation. In larger repair shops, mechanics may use special computerized diagnostic testing equipment as a preliminary tool in analyzing equipment. This computerized equipment provides a systematic performance report of various components to compare against nor mal ratings. After pinpointing the problem, the mechanic makes the needed adjustments, repairs, or replacements. Some jobs require minor adjustments or the replacement of a single item, while a complete engine overhaul requires a number of hours to disas semble the engine and replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Small engine mechanics use common handtools, such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers. They also utilize power tools, The Nature of the Work Small engines powering motorcycles, motorboats, and outdoor power equipment share many characteristics with their larger counterparts, including breakdowns. Small engine mechanics repair and service power equipment ranging from racing motor cycles to chain saws. Mechanics usually specialize in the service and repair of one type of equipment, although they may work on closely related products. Motorcycle mechanics repair and overhaul motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, dirt bikes, and all-terrain vehicles. Besides repair ing engines, they may work on transmissions, brakes, and ignition systems and make minor body repairs. Mechanics often service just a few makes and models of motorcycles, because most work for dealers that service only the products they sell. Motorboat mechanics, or marine equipment mechanics, repair and adjust the electrical and mechanical equipment of inboard and outboard boat engines. Most small boats have portable outboard engines that are removed and brought into the repair shop. Larger craft, such as cabin cruisers and commercial fishing boats, are powered by diesel or gasoline inboard or inboard-outboard engines, which are removed only for major overhauls. Most of these repairs are performed at the docks or marinas. Motorboat mechanics also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis IflOVVfWflf ■'<384fB90 >. , i, .iti Routine maintenance is a major part of a small engine mechanic’s job. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations such as drills and grinders, when customized repairs warrant their use. Computerized engine analyzers, compression gauges, am meters and voltmeters, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts and tune engines. Some highly skilled me chanics use specialized components and the latest computerized equipment to customize and tune motorcycles and motorboats for racing. Working Conditions Small engine mechanics usually work in repair shops that are well lighted and ventilated, but are sometimes noisy when engines are tested. Motorboat mechanics may work outdoors at docks or marinas, as well as in all weather conditions, when making repairs aboard boats. They may work in cramped or awkward positions to reach a boat’s engine. During the winter months in the northern United States, mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week, because the amount of repair and service work declines when lawnmowers, motorboats, and motorcycles are not in use. Many mechanics work only during the busy spring and summer seasons. How ever, many schedule time-consuming engine overhauls or work on snowmobiles and snowblowers during winter downtime. Mechanics may work considerably more than 40 hours a week when demand is strong. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Due to the increasing complexity of motorcycles and motorboats, most employers prefer to hire mechanics who have graduated from formal training programs for small engine mechanics. Because the number of these specialized postsecondary programs is limited, most mechanics learn their skills on the job or while working in related occupations. For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with mechanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamentals of small two- and four-stroke engines. Many trainees develop an interest in mechanics and acquire some basic skills through work ing on automobiles, motorcycles, motorboats, or outdoor power equipment as a hobby. Others may be introduced to mechanics through vocational automotive training in high school or one of many postsecondary institutions. Trainees learn routine service tasks under the guidance of experi enced mechanics by replacing ignition points and spark plugs or by taking apart, assembling, and testing new equipment. As they gain experience and proficiency, trainees progress to more difficult tasks, such as advanced computerized diagnosis and engine overhauls. Anywhere from 3 to 5 years of on-the-job training may be necessary before a novice worker becomes competent in all aspects of the repair of motorcycle and motorboat engines. Employers often send mechanics and trainees to special courses conducted by motorcycle, motorboat, and outdoor power equip ment manufacturers or distributors. These courses, which last as long as 2 weeks, upgrade workers’ skills and provide information on repairing new models. They also may be used as a refresher for employees. They are usually a prerequisite for any mechanic who performs warranty work for manufacturers or insurance companies. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for trainee mechanic positions, but will accept applicants with less education if they possess adequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Many equipment dealers employ students part time and during the sum mer to help assemble new equipment and perform minor repairs. Helpful high school courses include small engine repair, automobile mechanics, science, and business arithmetic. Knowledge of basic electronics is essential for small engine mechanics, because electronic components control an engine’s https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 559 performance, the vehicle’s instrument displays, and a variety of other functions of motorcycles, motorboats, and outdoor power equipment. The most important work possessions of mechanics are their handtools. Mechanics usually provide their own tools, and many experienced mechanics have invested thousands of dollars in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment, but mechanics accumulate handtools with experience. The skills used as a small engine mechanic generally transfer to other occupations, such as automobile, diesel, or heavy vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics. Experienced mechanics with leader ship ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager jobs. Mechanics with sales ability sometimes become sales representatives or open their own repair shops. Employment Small engine mechanics held about 73,000jobs in 2004. Motorcycle mechanics held around 19,000 jobs. Motorboat mechanics held ap proximately 23,000 and outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics about 31,000. Almost half worked for other motor vehicle dealers, an industry that includes retail dealers of motorcycles, boats, and miscellaneous vehicles; or for retail hardware, lawn, and garden stores. Most of the remainder were employed by independent repair shops, marinas and boatyards, equipment rental companies, wholesale distributors, and landscaping services. About 20 percent were self-employed, compared to about 7 percent of workers in all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Job Outlook Employment of small engine mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Most of the job openings are expected to be due to the need to replace many experienced small engine mechanics that are expected to transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job prospects should be especially favorable for persons who complete mechanic training programs. Motorcycle usage should continue to be popular with persons between 18 and 24 years, an age group that historically has had the greatest proportion of motorcycle enthusiasts. Motorcycles also are becoming increasingly popular with persons over the age of 40. Traditionally, this group has more disposable income to spend on recreational equipment such as motorcycles and motorboats. Over the next decade, more people will be entering the 40-andolder age group, the group responsible for the largest segment of marine craft purchases. These potential buyers will help expand the market for motorboats, while maintaining the demand for qualified mechanics. The construction of new single-family houses will result in an increase in the lawn and garden equipment in operation, increas ing the need for mechanics. However, equipment growth will be slowed by trends toward smaller lawns and the contracting out of maintenance to lawn service firms. Small engine mechanics’ growth will also be tempered by the tendency of many consumers to dispose of and replace relatively inexpensive items rather than have them repaired. Employers will increasingly prefer mechanics to have knowledge of both two- and four-stroke engines, as well as other emissionsreducing technology, as the government increases regulation over the emissions produced by small engines. While advancements in technology will lengthen the interval between checkups, the need for qualified mechanics to perform services on motorcycles, motorboats, and lawn and garden equipment will increase. 560 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Median hourly earnings of motorcycle mechanics were $13.70 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.58 and $17.53. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.48, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $21.95. Median hourly earnings in May 2004 in other motor vehicle dealers, the industry employing the largest number of motorcycle mechanics, were $13.60. Median hourly earnings of motorboat mechanics were $14.74. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.46 and $18.11. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.21, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.90. Median hourly earnings in May 2004 in other motor vehicle dealers, the industry employing the largest number of motorboat mechanics, were $14.29. Median hourly earnings of outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics were $11.98 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.44 and $15.25. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.53, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.19. Median hourly earnings in lawn and garden equipment and supplies stores, the industry employing the largest number of outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics, were $11.40. Small engine mechanics tend to receive few benefits in small shops, but those employed in larger shops often receive paid vaca tions, sick leave, and health insurance. Some employers also pay for work-related training and provide uniforms. Related Occupations Mechanics and repairers who work on mobile equipment other than small engines include automotive service technicians and mechanics, diesel service technicians and mechanics, and heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local motorcycle, motorboat, and lawn and garden equipment dealers, boatyards, and marinas. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information about employment and training opportunities. For a list of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer programs in small engine servicing and repair, contact: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Tech nology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org Other Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Coin, Vending, and Amusement Machine Servicers and Repairers (0*NET 49-9091.00) Significant Points • Most workers in this occupation learn their skills on the job. • Opportunities should be especially good for persons with some knowledge of electronics. Nature of the Work Coin, vending, and amusement machines are a familiar sight in offices, schools, arcades, and casinos. These machines give out change, test our gaming skills, and dispense refreshments nearly everywhere we turn. Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repair ers install, service, and stock such machines and keep them in good working order. Vending machine servicers, often called route drivers, visit ma chines that dispense soft drinks, candy and snacks, and other items. They collect money from the coin and cash-operated machines, restock merchandise, and change labels to indicate new selections. They also keep the machines clean and appealing. Vending machine repairers, often called mechanics or technicians, make sure that the machines operate correctly. When checking complicated electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dispensers, they ascertain whether the machines mix drinks properly and whether the refrigeration and heating units work correctly. If the machines are not in good working order, the mechanics repair them. On the relatively simple gravity-operated machines, repairers check the keypads, motors, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin, bill, and change-making mechanisms. When installing machines, vending machine repairers make the necessary water and electrical connections and check the machines https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for proper operation. They also make sure that the installation complies with local plumbing and electrical codes. Because many vending machines dispense food, these workers, along with vending machine servicers, must comply with State and local public health and sanitation standards. Amusement machine servicers and repairers work on jukeboxes, video games, pinball machines, and slot machines. They make sure that the various levers, joysticks, and mechanisms function properly, so that the games remain fair and the jukebox selections are accurate. They update selections, repair or replace malfunctioning parts, and rebuild existing equipment. Those who work in the gaming industry must adhere to strict guidelines, because Federal and State agencies regulate many gaming machines. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is a major job of repairers. For example, they periodically clean refrig eration condensers, lubricate mechanical parts, and adjust machines so that they perform properly. If a machine breaks down, vending and amusement machine repairers inspect it for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism or bill validator, and leaks. When servicing electronic machines, repairers test them with hand-held diagnostic computers that determine the extent and location of any problem. Repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component to fix the problem. However, if the problem cannot be readily located, these workers refer to technical manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices, such as electrical circuit testers, to find defective parts. Repairers decide whether they must replace a part and whether they can fix the malfunction onsite or whether they have to send the machine to the repair shop. In the repair shop, vending and amusement machine repairers use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills, as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equipment. They also use ordinary repair tools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches. Vending machine servicers and repairers employed by small companies may both fill and fix machines on a regular basis. These Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 0 »0 <>r' I Some vending machine repairers work in repair shops, while others repair machines on site. combination servicers-repairers stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and repair machines when necessary. Servicers and repairers also do some paperwork, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, ordering parts, and keep ing daily records of merchandise distributed and money collected. However, new machines with computerized inventory controls reduce the paperwork that a servicer must complete. 561 with, and receiving instruction from experienced repairers. Employ ers normally hire high school graduates, and give preference to those with high school or vocational school courses in electricity, refrig eration, and machine repair. Employers usually require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through work experience or by scoring well on mechanical-aptitude tests. Because coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers sometimes handle thousands of dollars in merchandise and cash, employers try to hire persons who are trustworthy and have no criminal records. Also, the ability to deal tactfully with people is important, because the servicers and repairers play a significant role in relaying customers’ requests and concerns. A driver’s li cense and a good driving record are essential for most vending and amusement machine servicer and repairer jobs. Some employers require their servicers to be bonded. Electronics have become more prevalent in vending and amuse ment machines and employers will increasingly prefer applicants who have training in electronics. Technologically advanced ma chines with features such as multilevel pricing, inventory control, and scrolling messages use electronics and microchip computers extensively. Some vocational high schools and junior colleges offer 1- to 2-year training programs in basic electronics. Beginners start training with simple jobs, such as cleaning or stocking machines. They then learn to rebuild machines by removing defective parts and repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines. Next, they accompany an experienced repairer on service calls and, finally, make visits on their own. This learning process takes from 6 months to 2 years, depending on the individual’s abilities, previous education, types of machines serviced, and quality of instruction. The National Automatic Merchandising Association has a self study technician training program for vending machine repairers. Manuals give instruction in subjects such as customer relations, safety, electronics, and reading schematics. Upon completion of the program, repairers must pass a written test to become certified as a technician or journeyman. To learn about new machines, repairers and servicers sometimes attend training sessions sponsored by manufacturers and distribu tors that may last from a few days to several weeks. Both trainees and experienced workers sometimes take evening courses in basic electricity, electronics, microwave ovens, refrigeration, and other related subjects to stay on top of new techniques and equipment. Skilled servicers and repairers may be promoted to supervisory jobs or go into business for themselves. Employment Working Conditions Some vending and amusement machine repairers work primarily in company repair shops that generally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate workspace. Others many spend substantial time on the road, visiting machines wherever they have been placed. Repairers generally work a total of 40 hours a week. However, vending and amusement machines operate around the clock, so repairers may be on call to work at night and on weekends and holidays. Repair work is relatively safe, although servicers and repairers must take care to avoid hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and other metal objects. They also must follow safe work procedures, especially when moving heavy vending and amusement machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers learn their skills on the job. New workers are trained Digitized informally for FRASERon the job to fill and fix machines by observing, working https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers held about 46,000 jobs in 2004. Most repairers work for vending machine operators that sell food and other items through machines. Others work for beverage manufacturing companies that have their own machines. A growing number of servicers and repairers work for amusement, gambling, and recreation establishments that own video games, pinball machines, jukeboxes, slot machines, and similar types of amusement equipment. Although vending and amusement machine servicers and repairers are employed through out the country, most are located in areas with large populations and, thus, many vending and amusement machines. Job Outlook Employment of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. However, opportunities should be good for persons with some formal training in electron ics, which can include high school or equivalent classes in basic 562 Occupational Outlook Handbook mechanics, electronics, circuitry, or diagnostics. Job openings for coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers will arise mostly from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Establishments are likely to install additional vending machines in industrial plants, hospitals, stores, schools and prisons to meet the public demand for inexpensive snacks and other food items. The range of products dispensed by the machines is expected to increase, as vending machines continue to become increasingly automated and begin to incorporate microwave ovens, minirefrig erators, and freezers. In addition casinos and other amusement establishments are becoming an increasing source of entertain ment. State and multi-State lotteries are increasingly using coinoperated machines to sell scratch-off tickets in grocery stores and other public places. Although the number of vending machines in use is expected to increase, improved technology in newer machines will moderate employment growth because these machines require less mainte nance than do older ones. The new machines also need restocking less often, and they contain computers that record sales and inven tory data, reducing the amount of time-consuming paperwork that otherwise would have to be filled out. The Internet is beginning to play a large role in the monitoring of vending machines from remote locations. In addition, some new machines use wireless data transmitters to signal the vending machine company when the machine needs restocking or repairing. This allows servicers and repairers to be dispatched only when needed, instead of having to check each machine on a regular schedule. Earnings Median hourly earnings of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers were $13.47 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.70 and $16.68 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.74an hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.51 an hour. Median hourly earnings were $12.66 in vending machine operators, the industry employing the largest number of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers in May 2004. Typically, States with some form of legalized gaming have the highest wages. Most coin, vending, and amusement machine ser vicers and repairers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for night work and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays than for regular hours. Some vending machine repairers and servicers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with electrical and electronic components include electrical and electronics installers and re pairers; electronic home-entertainment equipment installers and repairers; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; and home appliance repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities in this field can be obtained from lo cal vending machine firms and local offices of your State employment service. For general information on vending machine servicing and repair, contact: >■ National Automatic Merchandising Association, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 3500, Chicago, IL 60606-3102. Internet: http://www.vending.org >- Vending Times, 1375 Broadway, New York, NY 10018. ► Automatic Merchandiser Vending Group, Cygnus Business Media, P.O. Box 1233 Janesville Ave., Fort Atkinson, WI53538-0803. Digitized for803, FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers (0*NET 49-9021.01,49-9021.02) Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow faster than average. • Job prospects are expected to be excellent, particularly for those with training from an accredited technical school or with formal apprenticeship training. • Obtaining certification through one of several organiza tions is increasingly recommended by employers and may increase advancement opportunities. Nature of the Work Heating and air-conditioning systems control the temperature, humidity, and the total air quality in residential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings. Refrigeration systems make it pos sible to store and transport food, medicine, and other perishable items. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers—also called technicians—install, maintain, and repair such systems. Because heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems often are referred to as HVACR systems, these workers also may be called HVACR technicians. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems consist of many mechanical, electrical, and electronic components, such as mo tors, compressors, pumps, fans, ducts, pipes, thermostats, and switches. In central forced air heating systems, for example, a furnace heats air that is distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Technicians must be able to maintain, diagnose, and correct problems throughout the entire system. To do this, they adjust system controls to recommended settings and test the performance of the entire system using special tools and test equipment. Technicians often specialize in either installation or maintenance and repair, although they are trained to do both. They also may specialize in doing heating work or air-conditioning or refrigeration work. Some specialize in one type of equipment—-for example, hydronics (water-based heating systems), solar panels, or commercial refrigeration. Technicians also try to sell service contracts to their clients. Service contracts provide for regular maintenance of the heating and cooling systems and they help to reduce the seasonal fluctuations of this type of work. Technicians follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multiple-fuel heating systems and air conditioning systems. After putting the equipment in place, they install fuel and water supply lines, air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They may connect electrical wiring and controls and check the unit for proper operation. To ensure the proper func tioning of the system, furnace installers often use combustion test equipment, such as carbon dioxide testers, carbon monoxide testers, combustion analyzers and oxygen testers. After a furnace or air-conditioning unit has been installed, techni cians often perform routine maintenance and repair work to keep the systems operating efficiently. They may adjust burners and blowers and check for leaks. If the system is not operating properly, they check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls or other parts to diagnose and then correct the problem. During the summer, when the heating system is not being used, heating equipment technicians do maintenance work, such as replac Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations ing filters, ducts, and other parts of the system that may accumulate dust and impurities during the operating season. During the winter, air-conditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do required maintenance, such as overhauling compressors. Refrigeration mechanics install, service, and repair industrial and commercial refrigerating systems and a variety of refrigera tion equipment. They follow blueprints, design specifications, and manufacturers’ instructions to install motors, compressors, condensing units, evaporators, piping, and other components. They connect this equipment to the ductwork, refrigerant lines, and elec trical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant, check it for proper operation, and program control systems. When air-conditioning and refrigeration technicians service equipment, they must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), hy drofluorocarbon (FfFC), and other refrigerants used in air-condition ing and refrigeration systems. The release of these refrigerants can be harmful to the environment. Technicians conserve the refrigerant by making sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover it by venting the refrigerant into proper cylinders; they recycle it for reuse with special filter-dryers; or they insure that the refrigerant is properly disposed. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are adept at using a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, i«« .1 * 563 measurement gauges, and acetylene torches, to work with refrig erant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check airflow, refrigerant pressure, electrical circuits, burners, and other components. Other craftworkers sometimes install or repair cooling and heating systems. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, ductwork might be done by sheet metal workers and duct installers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condensers, and other components by pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Home appliance repairers usually service room air-conditioners and household refrigerators. (Additional information about each of these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers work in homes, retail establishments, hospitals, office buildings, and factories—anywhere there is climate-control equipment. They may be assigned to specific job sites at the beginning of each day, or may be dispatched to a variety of locations if they are making service calls. Technicians may work outside in cold or hot weather or in buildings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equipment is broken. In addition, technicians might have to work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, bums, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Appropriate safety equipment is necessary when handling refriger ants because contact can cause skin damage, frostbite, or blindness. Inhalation of refrigerants when working in confined spaces also is a possible hazard. The majority of mechanics and installers work at least a 40-hour week. During peak seasons they often work overtime or irregular hours. Maintenance workers, including those who provide mainte nance services under contract, often work evening or weekend shifts and are on call. Most employers try to provide a full workweek year-round by scheduling both installation and maintenance work, and many manufacturers and contractors now provide or even require service contracts. In most shops that service both heating and air conditioning equipment, employment is stable throughout the year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Heating and air-conditioning mechanics often work evenings and weekends, and can be on call if an emergency arises. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because of the increasing sophistication of heating, air-condition ing, and refrigeration systems, employers prefer to hire those with technical school training or those who have completed an apprentice ship. Some mechanics and installers, however, still learn the trade informally on the job. Many secondary and postsecondary technical and trade schools, junior and community colleges, and the U.S. Armed Forces offer 6-month to 2-year programs in heating, air-conditioning, and refrig eration. Students study theory, design, and equipment construction, as well as electronics. They also learn the basics of installation, maintenance, and repair. There are three accrediting agencies that have set academic standards for HVACR programs. These accredit ing bodies are HVAC Excellence, the National Center for Construc tion Education and Research (NCCER) and the Partnership for Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Accreditation (PHARA). After completing these programs, new technicians generally need between an additional 6 months and 2 years of field experience before they can be considered proficient. Apprenticeship programs frequently are run by joint committees representing local chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contractors 564 Occupational Outlook Handbook of America, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors—National Association, and locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association or the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Other apprenticeship programs are sponsored by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Associa tion of Home Builders. Formal apprenticeship programs normally last 3 to 5 years and combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Classes include subjects such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and the theory and design of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems. Applicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or equivalent. Math and reading skills are essential. After completing an apprenticeship program, technicians are considered skilled trades workers and capable of working alone. These programs are also a pathway to certification and in some cases college credits. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by as sisting experienced technicians. They may begin by performing simple tasks such as carrying materials, insulating refrigerant lines, or cleaning furnaces. In time, they move on to more difficult tasks, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, applied physics and chemistry, electronics, blueprint reading, and computer applications provide a good background for those interested in entering this occupation. Some knowledge of plumbing or electrical work also is helpful. A basic understanding of electronics is becoming more important because of the increasing use of this technology in equip ment controls. Because technicians frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, especially when dealing with an aggravated customer. They also should be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. All technicians who purchase or work with refrigerants must be certified in their proper handling. To become certified to purchase and handle refrigerants, technicians must pass a written examination specific to the type of work in which they specialize. The three pos sible areas of certification are: Type I—servicing small appliances, Type II—high-pressure refrigerants, and Type III—low-pressure refrigerants. Exams are administered by organizations approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, such as trade schools, unions, contractor associations, or building groups. Several organizations have begun to offer basic self-study, class room, and Internet courses for individuals with limited experience. In addition to understanding how systems work, technicians also must learn about refrigerant products and the legislation and regulations that govern their use. Throughout the learning process, job candidates may have to take a number of tests that measure their skills in the field. For those with less than 1 year of experience and taking classes, the industry has developed a series of exams to test basic competency in residential heating and cooling, light commercial heating and cooling, and commercial refrigeration. These are referred to as “Entry-level” certification exams and are commonly conducted at both second ary and postsecondary technical and trade schools. For HVACR technicians who have at least one year of experience performing installations and 2 years of experience performing maintenance and repair, they can take a number of different tests to certify their competency in working with more specific types of equipment, such as oil-burning furnaces. The tests are offered through Refrig eration Service Engineers Society (RSES), HVAC Excellence, The Carbon Monoxide Safety Association (COSA), Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Safety Coalition, and North American Technician https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Excellence, Inc. (NATE), among others. Passing these tests and obtaining certification is increasingly recommended by employers and may increase advancement opportunities. Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some technicians, however, may advance to positions as supervisor or service manager. Others may move into areas such as sales and marketing. Still others may become building superintendents, cost estimators, or, with the necessary certification, teachers. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contract ing business. Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and in stallers held about 270,000 jobs in 2004; almost half worked for plumbing, heating, and air conditioning contractors. The remainder was employed in a variety of industries throughout the country, reflecting a widespread dependence on climate-control systems. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, refrigeration and air-condition ing service and repair shops, schools, and stores that sell heating and air-conditioning systems. Local governments, the Federal Government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems employed others. About 15 percent of mechanics and installers were self-employed. Job Outlook Job prospects for heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration me chanics and installers are expected to be excellent, particularly for those with training from an accredited technical school or with formal apprenticeship training, and especially in the fastest growing areas of the country. A growing number of retirements of highly skilled technicians are expected to generate many job openings. In addition, employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion mechanics and installers is projected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. As the population and stock of buildings grows, so does the demand for residential, commercial, and industrial climate-control systems. The increased complexity of HVACR systems, increasing the possibil ity that equipment may malfunction, also will create opportunities for service technicians. Technicians who specialize in installation work may experience periods of unemployment when the level of new construction activity declines, but maintenance and repair work usually remains relatively stable. People and businesses depend on their climate-control systems and must keep them in good working order, regardless of economic conditions. Concern for the environment has prompted the development of new energy-saving heating and air-conditioning systems. An empha sis on better energy management should lead to the replacement of older systems and the installation of newer, more efficient systems in existing homes and buildings. Also, demand for maintenance and service work should increase as businesses and homeowners strive to keep increasingly complex systems operating at peak efficiency. Regulations prohibiting the discharge and production of CFC and HCFC refrigerants should continue to result in the need to replace many existing air conditioning systems or modify them to use new environmentally safe refrigerants. The pace of replacement in the commercial and industrial sectors will quicken if Congress or indi vidual States cut the time needed to fully depreciate the cost of new HVACR systems, which is being considered. A growing focus on improving indoor air quality, as well as the increasing use of refrigerated equipment by a growing number of stores and gasoline stations that sell food, also should contribute to the creation of more jobs for heating, air-conditioning, and refrig eration technicians. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Earnings Median hourly earnings of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion mechanics and installers were $17.43 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.51 and $22.21 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.88, and the top 10 percent earned more than $27.11. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers in May 2004 were: Hardware and plumbing and heating equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers................................................... $ 19.51 Direct selling establishments.......................................................... 17.81 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 17.56 Commercial and industrial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance..... 17.52 Building equipment contractors...................................................... 16.80 Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers enjoy a variety of employer-sponsored benefits. In addi tion to typical benefits such as health insurance and pension plans, some employers pay for work-related training and provide uniforms, company vans, and tools. About 16 percent of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are members of a union. The unions to which the greatest numbers of mechanics and installers belong are the Sheet Metal Workers International Association and the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and install ers work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical motors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills include boilermakers; home appliance repairers; electricians; sheet metal workers; and pipelayers, plumbers, pipefit ters, and steamfitters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about opportunities for training, certification, and employment in this trade, contact local vocational and technical schools; local heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration contrac tors; a local of the unions or organizations previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information on career opportunities, training, and technician certification, contact: ► Air-Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA), 2800 Shirlington Rd., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22206. Internet: http://www.acca.org >- Refrigeration Service Engineers Society (RSES), 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016-3552. Internet: http://www.rses.org >- Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors (PHCC), 180 S. Washington, St., P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.phccweb.org ► Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Associa tion, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 20151-1209. Internet: http://www.smacna.org ► HVAC Excellence, P.O. Box 491, Mt. Prospect, IL 60056. Internet: http://www.hvacexcellence.org >- North American Technician Excellence (NATE), 4100 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 210, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.natex.org >- Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 4100 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 200, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.coolcareers.org or Digitizedhttp://www.ari.org for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 565 ► Carbon Monoxide Safety Association, P.O. Box 669, Eastlake, CO 80614. Internet: http://www.cosafety.org >- National Occupational Competency Testing Institute. Internet: http://www.nocti.org >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Depart ment, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http//www.trytools.org >■ Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20005-2800. Internet: http://www.hbi.org >• Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850-4329. Internet: http://www.mcaa.org >- National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32601. Internet: http://www.nccer.org Home Appliance Repairers (0*NET 49-9031.01, 49-9031.02) Significant Points • Good job prospects are expected, with job openings continuing to outnumber jobseekers. • Individuals with formal training in appliance repair and electronics should have the best opportunities. • Overall employment is projected to grow more slowly than average, reflecting average growth among wage and salary workers and a decline among self-employed repairers. • Repairers of small household appliances usually are trained on the job, whereas repairers of large household appliances often are trained in a formal trade school, in a community college, or directly from the appliance manufacturer. Nature of the Work Anyone whose washer, dryer, or refrigerator has ever broken knows the importance of a dependable repair person. Home appliance repairers, often called service technicians, keep home appliances working and help prevent unwanted breakdowns. Some repair ers work specifically on small appliances such as microwaves and vacuum cleaners; others specialize in major appliances such as refrigerators, dishwashers, washers, and dryers. Home appliance repairers visually inspect appliances and check for unusual noises, excessive vibration, leakage of fluid, or loose parts to determine why the appliances fail to operate properly. They use service manuals, troubleshooting guides, and experience to diagnose particularly difficult problems. Repairers disassemble the appliance to examine its internal parts for signs of wear or cor rosion. They follow wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters to check electrical systems for shorts and faulty connections. After identifying problems, home appliance repairers replace or repair defective belts, motors, heating elements, switches, gears, or other items. They tighten, align, clean, and lubricate parts as nec essary. Repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, wrenches, files, and pliers, as well as soldering guns and special tools designed for particular appliances. When repairing appliances with electronic parts, they may replace circuit boards or other electronic components. When repairing refrigerators and window air-conditioners, repairers must take care to conserve, recover, and recycle chloro fluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refriger ants used in the cooling systems, as is required by law. Repairers 566 Occupational Outlook Handbook conserve the refrigerant by making sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover the refrigerant by venting it into proper cylinders; and they recycle the refrigerant with special filter-dry ers so that it can be used again. Federal regulations also require that home appliance repairers document the capture and disposal of refrigerants. Home appliance repairers generally install household durable goods such as refrigerators, washing machines, and cooking prod ucts. They may have to install pipes in a customer’s home to connect the appliances to the gas line. They measure, lay out, cut, thread, and connect pipe to a feeder line and then to the appliance. They may have to saw holes in walls or floors and hang steel supports from beams or joists in order to hold gas pipes in place. Once the gas line is in place, they turn on the gas and check for leaks. Gas appliance repairers check the heating unit and replace tubing, ther mocouples, thermostats, valves, and indicator spindles. They also answer emergency calls about gas leaks. Repairers also answer customers’ questions about the care and use of appliances. For example, they demonstrate how to load automatic washing machines, arrange dishes in dishwashers, or sharpen chain saws to maximize their performance. Repairers write up estimates of the cost of repairs for custom ers, keep records of parts used and hours worked, prepare bills, and collect payments. Self-employed repairers also deal with the original appliance manufacturers to recoup monetary claims for work performed on appliances still under warranty. Working Conditions Home appliance repairers who handle portable appliances usually work in repair shops that generally are quiet and adequately lighted and ventilated. Those who repair major appliances usually make service calls to customers’ homes. They carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck or van on their service calls. Repairers may spend several hours a day driving to and from appointments and emergency calls. They may work in clean, comfortable rooms such as kitchens, but they also may work in damp, dirty, or dusty areas of homes. Repairers sometimes work in cramped and uncomfortable positions when they are replacing parts in hard-to-reach areas of appliances. Repairer jobs generally are not hazardous, but workers must exercise care and follow safety precautions to avoid electrical shocks and prevent injuries when lifting and moving large appliances. When repairing gas appliances and microwave ovens, repairers must be aware of the dangers of gas and radio-frequency energy leaks. . . . On-the-job repairs are usually done by the most experienced heavy vehicle technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Home appliance repairers usually work with little or no direct supervision, a feature of the job that is appealing to many people. Many home appliance repairers work a standard 40-hour week, but may work overtime and weekend hours in the summer months, when they are in high demand to fix air-conditioners and refrigerators. Some repairers work early morning, evening, and weekend shifts and may remain on call in case of an emergency. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally require a high school diploma for home appliance repairer jobs. Once employed, repairers of small appliances usually are trained on the job, whereas repairers of large household appliances often are trained in a formal trade school, in a community college, or directly from the appliance manufacturer. Mechanical and electrical aptitudes are desirable, and those who work in customers’ homes must be courteous and tactful. Employers prefer to hire people with formal training in appli ance repair and electronics. Many repairers complete 1- or 2-year formal training programs in appliance repair and related subjects in high schools, private vocational schools, and community colleges. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are becoming increas ingly important as more manufacturers install circuit boards and other electronic control systems in home appliances. Whether their basic skills are developed through formal training or on the job, trainees usually receive additional training from their employer and from manufacturers. In shops that fix portable appli ances, they work on a single type of appliance, such as a vacuum cleaner, until they master its repair. Then they move on to others, until they can repair all those handled by the shop. In companies that repair major appliances, beginners assist experienced repairers on service visits. They also may study on their own. They learn to read schematic drawings, analyze problems, determine whether to repair or replace parts, and follow proper safety procedures. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be needed for a technician to become skilled in all aspects of repair. Some appliance manufacturers and department store chains have formal training programs that include home study and shop classes, in which trainees work with demonstration appliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemental instruction through 2- or 3-week seminars conducted by appliance manufactur ers. Experienced repairers also often attend training classes and study service manuals. Repairers authorized for warranty work by manufacturers are required to attend periodic training sessions. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has mandated that all repairers who buy or work with refrigerants be certified in the proper handling of refrigerants. In order to become certified, a technician must pass a written examination. Exams are administered by EPA-approved organizations, such as trade schools, unions, and employer associations. There also are EPA-approved take-home certification exams. Although no formal training is required for certification, many of these organizations offer training programs designed to prepare workers for the certification examination. In addition to earning the certification required by the EPA, home appliance repairers may exhibit their competence by passing one of several certification examinations offered by various organizations. Although voluntary, such certifications can be helpful when seeking employment. The National Appliance Service Technician Certifica tion (NASTeC), which is administered by the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians (ISCET), requires repairers to pass a comprehensive examination that tests their competence in the diagno sis, repair, and maintenance of major home appliances. Examinations are given in three specialty areas of appliance repair: refrigeration and air-conditioning; cooking; and laundry and dishwashing. Although the NASTeC credential does not expire, continuing education classes Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations are available so that repairers can keep abreast of technological changes. The Professional Service Association (PSA) administers a similar certification program. Those who pass the PSA examination earn the Certified Appliance Professional (CAP) designation, which is valid for 4 years. If CAP-certified repairers complete at least 15 credit hours of instruction each year during the 4 years, they need not take the examination to become recertified. Otherwise, they must take the examination again to become recertified. Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service manager. Some repairers advance to managerial positions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Preference is given to those who demonstrate technical competence and show an ability to get along with other workers and customers. Experienced repairers who have sufficient funds and knowledge of small-business management may open their own repair shops. 567 Earnings of home appliance repairers vary with the skill level required to fix equipment, the geographic location, and the type of equipment repaired. Because many repairers receive a commission along with their salary, earnings increase with the number of jobs a repairer can complete in a day. Many larger dealers, manufacturers, and service stores offer typical benefits such as health insurance coverage, sick leave, and retirement and pension programs. Some home appliance repairers belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who repair electrical and electronic equipment in clude electrical and electronics installers and repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; small-engine mechanics; coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers; and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechan ics and installers. Employment Home appliance repairers held 50,000 jobs in 2004. About 42 per cent of salaried repairers worked in retail trade establishments such as department stores and electronics and appliance stores. About 20 percent of repairers are self-employed. Almost every community in the country employs home appliance repairers; a high concentration of jobs is found in more populated areas. Job Outlook Good job prospects are expected, with job openings continuing to outnumber jobseekers. Many prospective workers may choose not to enter this occupation, because they prefer work that is less strenuous and that is performed under more comfortable working conditions. Individuals with formal training in appliance repair and electronics should have the best opportunities. Overall employment of home appliance repairers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Slower-than-average employment growth is expected among wage and salary workers, while the number of self-employed home appliance repairers is projected to decline. The number of home appliances in use is expected to increase with growth in the numbers of households and businesses. Appliances also are becoming more technologically advanced and will increasingly require a skilled technician to diagnose and fix problems. In recent years, consumers have tended to purchase new appliances when exist ing warranties expire rather repair old appliances. However, over the next decade, as more consumers purchase higher priced appliances designed to have much longer lives, they will be more likely to use repair services than to purchase new appliances. Employment is rela tively steady during economic downturns because there is still demand for appliance repair services. In addition to new jobs created over the 2004-14 period, openings will arise as home appliance repairers retire or transfer to other occupations. Jobs are expected to be increasingly concentrated in larger companies as the number of smaller shops and family-owned busi nesses declines. However, repairers who maintain strong industry relationships may still go into business for themselves. Earnings Median annual earnings, including commissions, of home appli ance repairers were $ 32,180 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,510 and $41,090 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,890, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,760 a year. Median annual earnings of home appliance repairers in May 2004 were $30,840 in electronics and appliance stores and $33,790 in personal and household goods repair and maintenance. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For general information about the work of home appliance repairers, contact any of the following organizations: >• North American Retail Dealers Association, 10 E. 22nd St., Suite 310, Lombard, IL 60148. >■ National Appliance Service Association, RO. Box 2514, Kokomo, IN 46904. >■ United Servicers Association, Inc., P.O. Box 31006, Albuquerque, NM 87190. For information on the National Appliance Service Technician Certifica tion program, contact: >- International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107. Internet: http://www.iscet.org For information on the Certified Appliance Professional program, contact: ► Professional Service Association, 71 Columbia St., Cohoes, NY 12047. Industrial Machinery Mechanics and Maintenance Workers (Q*NET 49-9041.00,49-9043.00) Significant Points • Highly skilled mechanics usually learn their trade through a 4-year apprenticeship program, while lower skilled maintenance workers receive short-term on-thejob training. • Employment is projected to grow more slowly than av erage, but applicants with broad skills in machine repair and maintenance should have favorable job prospects. • Unlike some manufacturing occupations, these workers usually are not affected by changes in production. Nature of the Work A wide range of employees is required to keep sophisticated industrial machinery mnning smoothly—from highly skilled industrial machin ery mechanics to lower skilled machinery maintenance workers who perform routine tasks. Their work is vital to the success of industrial facilities, not only because an idle machine will delay production, but also because a machine that is not properly repaired and maintained may damage the machine, the final product or injure an operator. The most basic tasks in this process are performed by machinery maintenance workers. These employees are responsible for cleaning and lubricating machinery, performing basic diagnostic tests, checking 568 Occupational Outlook Handbook performance, and testing damaged machine parts to determine whether major repairs are necessary. In carrying out these tasks, maintenance workers must follow machine specifications and adhere to mainte nance schedules. Maintenance workers may perform minor repairs, but major repairs are generally left to machinery mechanics. Industrial machinery mechanics, also called industrial machinery repairers or maintenance machinists, are highly skilled workers who maintain and repair machinery in a plant or factory. To do this effectively, they must be able to detect minor problems and correct them before they become major problems. Machinery mechanics use their understanding of the equipment, technical manuals, and careful observation to discover the cause. For example, after hearing a vibration from a machine, the mechanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or some other problem. Computerized diagnostic systems and vibration analysis techniques are aiding in determining the problem, but mechanics still need years of training and experience. After diagnosing the problem, the industrial machinery mechanic disassembles the equipment to repair or replace the necessary parts. When repairing electronically controlled machinery, mechanics may work closely with electronic repairers or electricians who maintain the machine’s electronic parts. (Statements on electrical and electronic installers and repairers, as well as electricians, appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Increasingly, mechanics need electronic and computer skills in order to repair sophisticated equipment on their own. Once a repair is made, mechanics perform tests to ensure that the machine is running smoothly. Primary responsibilities of industrial machinery mechanics include repair, preventive maintenance, and installation of new machinery. For example, they adjust and calibrate automated manufacturing equipment, such as industrial robots. As plants retool and invest in new equipment, they increasingly rely on mechanics to properly situate and install the machinery. In many plants, this has traditionally been the job of millwrights, but mechanics are increasingly called upon to carry out this task. (See the statement on millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial machinery mechanics and machinery maintenance work ers use a variety of tools to perform repairs and preventive maintenance. They may use a screwdriver and wrench to adjust a motor, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. When replacements for broken or defective parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, mechanics may sketch a part to be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Mechanics use catalogs to order replacement parts and often follow blueprints, technical manuals, and engineering specifications to maintain and fix equipment. By keeping complete and up-to-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service equipment before factory production is interrupted. Working Conditions In production facilities, these workers are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts, bruises, and strains. They also may work in awkward positions, including on top of ladders or in cramped con ditions under large machinery, which exposes them to additional hazards. They often use protective equipment such as hardhats, safety glasses, steel-tipped shoes, hearing protectors, and belts. Because factories and other facilities cannot afford to have in dustrial machinery out of service for long periods, mechanics may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs. Overtime is common among industrial machinery mechanics; about 30 percent work over 40 hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machinery maintenance workers typically receive short-term onthe-job training in order to perform routine tasks, such as setting https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ) ; vt ■ill HI 'j: ; An industrial machinery mechanic adjusts a belt to reduce friction. up, cleaning, lubricating, and starting machinery. This training may be offered by experienced workers, professional trainers, or product representatives. Industrial machinery mechanics, on the other hand, often learn their trade through 4-year apprenticeship programs that combine classroom instruction with on-the-job-training. These programs usually are sponsored by a local trade union. Other mechanics start as helpers and learn the skills of the trade informally or by taking courses offered by machinery manufacturers and community colleges. Mechanics learn from experienced repairers how to operate, disassemble, repair, and assemble machinery. Classroom instruction focuses on subjects such as shop mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, electronics, and computer training. Employers prefer to hire those who have completed high school or technical school, and have taken courses in mechanical drawing, mathematics, blueprint reading, computers, and electronics. Me chanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important characteristics for workers in this trade. Good reading comprehension is also necessary to understand the technical manuals of a wide range of machines. And, in general, good physical conditioning and agility are necessary because repairers sometimes have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equipment. Opportunities for advancement vary by specialty. Machinery maintenance workers may gain additional skills to make more complex Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations repairs to machinery or work as supervisors. Industrial machinery mechanics also may advance either by working with more complicated equipment or by becoming supervisors. The most highly skilled repair ers can be promoted to master mechanic or can become millwrights. Employment Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers held about 306,000jobs in 2004. Of these, 220,000 were held by the more highly skilled industrial machinery mechanics, while machinery maintenance workers accounted for 86,000 jobs. Two out of three workers were employed in the manufacturing sector, in industries such as food processing, textile mills, chemicals, fabricated metal products, motor vehicles, and primary metals. Others worked for government agencies, public utilities, mining companies, and other establishments in which industrial machinery is used. 569 these workers include the United Steelworkers of America; the United Auto Workers; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America; and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers-Communications Workers of America. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve repairing and maintaining machinery include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service techni cians; automotive service technicians and mechanics; diesel service technicians and mechanics; elevator installers and repairers; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics; machinists; maintenance and repair workers, general; millwrights; and small engine mechanics. Job Outlook Employment of industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all oc cupations through 2014. Nevertheless, applicants with broad skills in machine repair and maintenance should have favorable job prospects. Many mechanics are expected to retire in coming years, and employers have reported difficulty in recruiting young workers with the necessary skills to be industrial machinery mechanics. Most job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupa tions or who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. As more firms introduce automated production equipment, these work ers will be needed to ensure that these machines are properly maintained and consistently in operation. However, many new machines are capable of self-diagnosis, increasing their reliability and somewhat reducing the need for repairers. Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers are not usually affected by changes in production. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, mechanics often are retained to do major overhaul jobs and to keep expensive machinery in working order. Although these workers may face layoffs or a reduced workweek when economic conditions are particularly severe, they usually are less affected than other workers because machines have to be maintained regardless of production level. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and apprenticeship opportunities may be obtained from local employers, from local offices of the State employment service, or from: >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 6801 Placid St., Las Vegas, NV 89119. Internet: http://www.carpenters.org >- National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org Line Installers and Repairers (C)*NET 49-9051.00,49-9052.00) Significant Points • Line installers and repairers work outdoors; conditions can be hazardous. • Employers prefer applicants with knowledge of electricity and electronics obtained through experience or classroom training. • Overall employment is projected to increase more slowly than average, although a growing number of retirements should create very good job opportunities, especially for electrical powerline installers and repairers. • Earnings are higher than in most other occupations that do not require postsecondary education. Earnings Median hourly earnings of industrial machinery mechanics were $18.78 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.09 and $22.95. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.14, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.59. Machinery maintenance workers earned less than the higher skilled industrial machinery mechanics. Median hourly earnings of machinery maintenance workers were $15.79 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.21 and $20.18. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.60, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.59. Earnings vary by industry and geographic region. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of industrial machinery mechanics in May 2004 are: Electric power generation, transmission and distribution.............. $25.78 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing................................................. 21.79 Plastics product manufacturing....................................................... 18.04 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers.......... 17.74 Commercial and industrial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance..... 16.93 About 25 percent of industrial machinery mechanics and main tenance workers are union members. Labor unions that represent https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Vast networks of wires and cables provide customers with electri cal power and communications services. Networks of electrical power lines deliver electricity from generating plants to customers. Communications networks of telephone and cable television lines provide voice, video, and other communications services. These networks are constructed and maintained by electrical powerline installers and repairers and telecommunications line installers and repairers. While the work performed by telecommunications and electrical powerline installers is quite similar, they are two distinct occupa tions. Working with powerlines requires specialized knowledge of transformers, electrical power distribution systems, and substations. Working with telecommunications lines requires specialized knowl edge of fiber optics and telecommunications switches and routers. While both powerline and telecommunications line installers have specialized knowledge, the procedures for installing both kinds of lines are quite similar. 570 Occupational Outlook Handbook All line installers, or line erectors, install new lines by construct ing utility poles, towers, and underground trenches to carry the wires and cables. Line erectors use a variety of construction equipment, including digger derricks, trenchers, cable plows, and borers. Digger derricks are trucks equipped with augers and cranes; workers use augers to dig holes in the ground, and cranes are used to set utility poles in place. Trenchers and cable plows are used to cut openings in the earth for the laying of underground cables. Borers, which tunnel under the earth, are used to install tubes for the wire without opening a trench in the soil. When construction is complete, line installers string cable along the poles, towers, tunnels, and trenches. While working on poles and towers, installers first use truck-mounted buckets to reach the top of the structure or physically climb the pole or tower. Next, they pull up cable from large reels mounted on trucks. The line is then set in place and pulled so that it has the correct amount of tension. Finally, line installers attach the cable to the structure using hand and hydraulic tools. When working with electrical power lines, installers bolt or clamp insulators onto the poles before attaching the cable. Underground cable is laid directly in a trench, pulled through a tun nel, or strung through a conduit running through a trench. Other installation duties include setting up service for customers and installing network equipment. To set up service, line installers string cable between the customers’ premises and the lines running on poles or towers or in trenches. They install wiring to houses and check the connection for proper voltage readings. Line installers also may install a variety of equipment. Workers on telephone and cable television lines install amplifiers and repeaters that maintain the strength of communications transmissions. Workers on electri cal powerlines install and replace transformers, circuitbreakers, switches, fuses, and other equipment to control and direct the electrical current. In addition to installation, line installers and repairers also are responsible for maintenance of electrical, telecommunications, and cable television lines. Workers periodically travel in trucks, helicop ters, and airplanes to visually inspect the wires and cables. Sensitive monitoring equipment can automatically detect malfunctions on the network, such as loss of current flow. When line repairers identify a problem, they travel to the location of the malfunction and repair or replace defective cables or equipment. Bad weather or natural disasters can cause extensive damage to networks. Line installers and repairers must respond quickly to these emergencies to restore critical utility and communications services. This can often involve working outdoors in adverse weather conditions. Installation and repair work may require splicing, or joining together, separate pieces of cable. Each cable contains numerous individual wires; splicing the cables together requires that each wire in one piece of cable be joined to another wire in the matching piece. Line installers splice cables using small handtools, epoxy, or mechanical equipment. At each splice, they place insulation over the conductor and seal the splice with moistureproof covering. At some companies, cable splicing technicians perform splices on larger lines. Communications networks are transitioning to fiber optic cables instead of conventional wire or metal cables. Fiber optic cables are made of hair-thin strands of glass, which convey pulses of light. These cables carry much more information at higher speeds than conventional cables. The higher transmission capacity of fiber optic cable has allowed communication networks to offer upgraded ser vices, such as high-speed Internet access. Splicing fiber optic cable requires specialized equipment that carefully slices, matches, and aligns individual glass fibers. The fibers are joined by either electrical fusion (welding) or a mechanical fixture and gel (glue). More newly constructed buildings are being wired with fiber optic lines. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' - 9 , Line installers use safety equipment to prevent falls. Working Conditions Line installers and repairers must climb and maintain their balance while working on poles and towers. They lift equipment and work in a variety of positions, such as stooping or kneeling. Their work often requires that they drive utility vehicles, travel long distances, and work outdoors under a variety of weather conditions. Many line installers and repairers work a 40-hour week; however, emergencies may require overtime work. For example, when severe weather damages electrical and communications lines, line installers and repairers may work long and irregular hours to restore service. Line installers and repairers encounter serious hazards on their jobs and must follow safety procedures to minimize potential danger. They wear safety equipment when entering utility holes and test for the presence of gas before going underground. Electric powerline workers have the more hazardous jobs. High-voltage powerlines can cause electrocution, and line installers and repairers must consequently use electrically insulated protective devices and tools when working with live cables. Powerlines are typically higher than telephone and cable television lines, increasing the risk of severe injury due to falls. To prevent these injuries, line installers and repairers must use fallprotection equipment when working on poles or towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers of line installers and repairers usually require applicants to have at least a high school diploma. They also strongly prefer applicants with a technical knowledge of electricity or electronics, or experience obtained through vocational/technical programs, com munity colleges, or the Armed Forces. Programs in telecommunica tions, electronics, or electricity are offered by many community or technical colleges. These programs often are operated with assistance from local employers and unions. Some schools, working with local companies, offer 1 -year certificate programs that emphasize hands-on field work. More advanced 2-year associate degree programs provide students with a broader knowledge of telecommunications and electri cal utilities technology through courses in electricity, electronics, fiber optics, and microwave transmission. Graduates of these programs often get preferential treatment in the hiring process. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Prospective employees also should possess a basic knowledge of algebra and trigonometry, and have mechanical ability. Customer service and interpersonal skills also are important, especially for those dealing with customers. Because the work entails lifting heavy objects (many employers require applicants to be able to lift at least 50 pounds), climbing, and other physical activity, applicants should have stamina, strength, and coordination, and must be unafraid of heights. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires and cables may be colorcoded. A good driving record is important because workers often hold commercial driver’s licenses and operate company-owned vehicles. Line installers and repairers receive most of their training on the job. Electrical line installers and repairers often must complete formal apprenticeships or other employer training programs. These programs, which can last up to 5 years, combine on-the-job train ing with formal classroom courses and are sometimes administered jointly by the employer and the union representing the workers. The unions include the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Communications Workers of America, and the Utility Workers Union of America. Government safety regulations strictly define the training and education requirements for apprentice electrical line installers. Line installers and repairers working for telephone and cable television companies receive several years of on-the-job training. They also may attend training or take online courses provided by equipment manufacturers, schools, unions, or industry training organizations. The Society of Cable Television Engineers (SCTE) provides certification programs for line installers and repairers. Ap plicants for certification must be employed in the cable television industry and attend training sessions at local SCTE chapters. Entry-level line installers may be hired as ground workers, help ers, or tree trimmers, who clear branches from telephone and power lines. These workers may advance to positions stringing cable and performing service installations. With experience, they may advance to more sophisticated maintenance and repair positions responsible for increasingly larger portions of the network. Promotion to su pervisory or training positions also is possible, but more advanced supervisory positions often require a college diploma. Employment Line installers and repairers held about 251,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 147,000 were telecommunications line installers and repairers; the remainder were electrical powerline installers and repairers. Nearly all line installers and repairers worked for telecommunications, construction, or electric power generation, transmission, and distribution companies. Approximately 4,800 line installers and repairers were self-employed. Many of these were contractors employed by the telecommunications companies to handle customer service problems and installations. Job Outlook Overall employment of line installers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. However, because many line installers and repairers are nearing retirement, job opportunities for new workers in this field should be very good, particularly for electrical powerline install ers. Some companies are expanding their hiring in anticipation of increased retirements. Employment of telecommunications line installers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Much of their work will involve replacing old wiring with fiber optic cable and ex panding their networks to provide customers with high-speed access to data, video, and graphics. Line installers and repairers will be needed to constmct and maintain the networks. However, the increasing use of wireless systems, increasingly reliable lines, and improved speeds https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 571 of data transmission over existing lines will limit employment growth. The number of households with wired telephone service is declin ing because of the increasing use of wireless telephones. Wireless networks do not require as many technicians to maintain and expand their systems, a characteristic that will reduce job growth. Satellite television providers are also providing strong competition. As wireless systems offer higher-speed Internet access, the number of households with wired phone or cable TV should decline further. Very little employment growth is expected among electrical pow erline installers and repairers. Despite consistently rising demand for electricity, industry deregulation is pushing companies to cut costs and maintenance, which tends to reduce employment. Most new jobs are expected to arise in the construction industry. Earnings Earnings for line installers and repairers are higher than those in most other occupations that do not require postsecondary education. Me dian hourly earnings for electrical powerline installers and repairers were $23.61 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $18.00 and $27.64. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13.31, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.54. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electrical powerline installers and repairers in May 2004 are shown below: Electric power generation, transmission and distribution.............. $24.96 Wired telecommunications carriers............................................... 24.15 Local government .......................................................................... 22.25 Utility system construction............................................................. 18.01 Building equipment contractors..................................................... 15.77 Median hourly earnings for telecommunications line installers and repairers were $19.39 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.98 and $25.10. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.96, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.56. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of telecommunications line installers and repairers in May 2004 are shown below: Wired telecommunications carriers............................................... $24.80 Cable and other subscription programming................................... 17.36 Cable and other program distribution............................................ 16.58 Building equipment contractors..................................................... 15.76 Utility system construction............................................................. 14.53 Most line installers and repairers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers of America, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, and the Utility Workers Union of America. For these workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one job level to the next. Related Occupations Other workers who install and repair electrical and electronic equip ment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators, electricians, and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the telephone, cable television, or electrical power companies in your community. For general information and some educational resources on line installer and repairer jobs, write to: > Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. >- International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. 572 Occupational Outlook Handbook Maintenance and Repair Workers, General_______________________ (0*NET 49-9042.00) Significant Points • General maintenance and repair workers are employed in almost every industry. • Many workers learn their skills informally on the job; others learn by working as helpers to other repairers or to construction workers such as carpenters, electricians, or machinery repairers. • Job opportunities should be favorable, with many openings occurring as a result of turnover in this large occupation. Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work, such as plumbing or carpentry. General maintenance and repair workers, however, have skills in many different crafts. They repair and maintain ma chines, mechanical equipment, and buildings and work on plumbing, electrical, and air-conditioning and heating systems. They build partitions, make plaster or drywall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, woodwork, and other parts of building structures. They also maintain and repair specialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospitals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include troubleshooting and fixing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-conditioning motors, and unclogging drains. New buildings sometimes have computercontrolled systems that allow maintenance workers to make adjust ments in building settings and monitor for problems from a central location. For example, they can remotely control light sensors that turn off lights automatically after a set amount of time or identify a broken ventilation fan that needs to be replaced. General maintenance and repair workers inspect and diagnose problems and determine the best way to correct them, frequently checking blueprints, repair manuals, and parts catalogs. They obtain supplies and repair parts from distributors or storerooms. Using common hand and power tools such as screwdrivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers, as well as specialized equipment and electronic testing devices, these workers replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjustments to correct malfunctioning equipment and machines. General maintenance and repair workers also perform routine preventive maintenance and ensure that machines continue to run smoothly, building systems operate efficiently, and the physical condition of buildings does not deteriorate. Following a checklist, they may inspect drives, motors, and belts, check fluid levels, replace filters, and perform other maintenance actions. Maintenance and repair workers keep records of their work. Employees in small establishments, where they are often the only maintenance worker, make all repairs, except for very large or difficult jobs. In larger establishments, their duties may be limited to the general maintenance of everything in a workshop or a particular area. Working Conditions General maintenance and repair workers often carry out several dif ferent tasks in a single day, at any number of locations. They may work inside of a single building or in several different buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis General maintenance and repair workers ensure that building equipment functions properly. in uncomfortably hot or cold environments, in awkward and cramped positions, or on ladders. They are subject to electrical shock, bums, falls, cuts, and bruises. Most general maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work evening, night, or weekend shifts or are on call for emergency repairs. Those employed in small establishments often operate with only limited supervision. Those working in larger establishments fre quently are under the direct supervision of an experienced worker. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many general maintenance and repair workers learn their skills informally on the job. They start as helpers, watching and learn ing from skilled maintenance workers. Helpers begin by doing simple jobs, such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing lightbulbs, and progress to more difficult tasks, such as overhauling machinery or building walls. Some learn their skills by working as helpers to other repair or construction workers, including carpenters, electri cians, or machinery repairers. Necessary skills also can be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-the-job training or school, or a combination of both, to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Be cause a growing number of new buildings rely on computers to control various of their systems, general maintenance and repair workers may need basic computer skills, such as how to log onto a central computer system and navigate through a series of menus. Usually, companies that install computer-controlled equipment provide on-site training for general maintenance and repair workers. Graduation from high school is preferred for entry into this occu pation. High school courses in mechanical drawing, electricity, wood working, blueprint reading, science, mathematics, and computers are useful. Mechanical aptitude, the ability to use shop mathematics, and manual dexterity are important. Good health is necessary because the job involves much walking, standing, reaching, and heavy lifting. Difficult jobs require problem-solving ability, and many positions require the ability to work without direct supervision. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Many general maintenance and repair workers in large organiza tions advance to maintenance supervisor or become a craftworker such as an electrician, a heating and air-conditioning mechanic, or a plumber. Within small organizations, promotion opportunities are limited. Employment General maintenance and repair workers held 1.3 million jobs in 2004. They were employed in almost every industry. Around 1 in 5 worked in manufacturing industries, almost evenly distributed through all sectors, while about 1 in 6 worked for different govern ment bodies. Others worked for wholesale and retail firms and for real estate firms that operate office and apartment buildings. Job Outlook Job opportunities should be favorable, especially for those with experience in maintenance or related fields. General mainte nance and repair is a large occupation with significant turnover. Additionally, many job openings are expected to result from the retirement of many experienced maintenance workers over the next decade. Employment of general maintenance and repair workers is ex pected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through 2014. Employment is related to the number of buildings—for example, office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospi tals, hotels, and factories—and the amount of equipment needing maintenance and repair. However, as machinery becomes more advanced and requires less maintenance, the need for general maintenance and repair workers diminishes. Also, as more build ings are controlled by computers, buildings can be monitored more efficiently. Earnings Median hourly earnings of general maintenance and repair work ers were $14.76 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.11 and $19.17. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.70, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.40. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of general maintenance and repair workers in May 2004 are shown in the following tabulation: Local government........................................................................... $15.70 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 14.93 Activities related to real estate........................................................ 12.71 Lessors of real estate....................................................................... 11.96 Traveler accommodation................................................................. 11.19 Some general maintenance and repair workers are members of unions, including the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees and the United Auto Workers. Related Occupations Some duties of general maintenance and repair workers are similar to those of carpenters; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; electricians; and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics. Other duties are similar to those of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers; electrical and electron ics installers and repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and radio and telecommunications equip ment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local and local offices of the State Employment Service. Digitizedemployers for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 573 Millwrights (Q*NET 49-9044.00) Significant Points • Training through apprenticeship programs, or through community colleges coupled with on-the-job training, generally lasts 4 years. 9 Despite projected slower-than-average employment growth, skilled applicants should have good job opportunities. 9 About 54 percent of millwrights belong to labor unions, one of the highest rates of membership in the economy. Nature of the Work Millwrights install, repair, replace, and dismantle the machinery and heavy equipment used in many industries. About half of all millwrights work in a variety of manufacturing industries; another third work for construction builders and contractors. The wide range of facilities and the development of new technologies require millwrights to continually update their skills—from blueprint read ing and pouring concrete for machinery to set on to diagnosing and solving mechanical problems. The millwright’s responsibilities begin when machinery arrives at the jobsite. New equipment must be unloaded, inspected, and moved into position. To lift and move light machinery, millwrights use rig ging and hoisting devices, such as pulleys and cables. With heavier equipment, they may require the assistance of hydraulic lift-truck or crane operators to position the machinery. Because millwrights often decide which device to use for moving machinery, they must know the load-bearing properties of rope, cables, hoists, and cranes. Millwrights consult with production managers and others to determine the optimal placement of machines in a plant. When this placement requires building a new foundation, millwrights either prepare the foundation themselves or supervise its construction. As a result, they must know how to read blueprints and work with a variety of building materials. To assemble machinery, millwrights fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach motors, and connect belts, according to the manufac turer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and alignment are important in the assembly process, so millwrights measure angles, material thickness, and small distances with tools such as squares, calipers, and micrometers. When a high level of precision is required, devices such as lasers and ultrasonic measuring and alignment tools may be used. Millwrights also work with hand and power tools, such as cutting torches, welding machines, hydraulic torque wrenches, hydraulic stud tensioners, soldering guns, and with metalworking equipment, including lathes and grinding machines. In addition to installing and dismantling machinery, many mill wrights work with mechanics and maintenance workers to repair and maintain equipment. This includes preventive maintenance, such as lubrication and fixing or replacing worn parts. (For further information on machinery maintenance, see the section on industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwrights, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Increasingly sophisticated automation means more compli cated machines for millwrights to install and maintain, requiring millwrights to specialize in certain machines or brand names. For example, millwrights install and maintain turbines in power plants that can weigh hundreds of tons and contain thousands 574 Occupational Outlook Handbook i such as carpentry, welding, and sheet-metal work. Millwright apprentices attend about one week of classes every three months. Classroom instruction covers mathematics, blueprint reading, hydraulics, electricity, computers, electronics, and instruction in specific machinery. Employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma or equivalency and some vocational training or experience. .Courses in science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, computers, and machine shop practice are useful. Millwrights are expected to keep their skills up-to-date and may need additional training on technological advances, such as laser shaft alignment and vibration analysis. Because millwrights assemble and disassemble complicated machinery, mechanical aptitude is very important. Strength and agility also are necessary for lifting and climbing. Millwrights need good interpersonal and communication skills to work as part of a team and to effectively give detailed instructions to others. Advancement for millwrights usually takes the form of higher wages. Some advance to the position of supervisor or superinten dent, while others may become self-employed contractors. Employment Millwrights assemble and maintain complex industrial machinery. of parts. This machinery requires special care and knowledge, so millwrights receive additional training and are required to be certified by the manufacturer of the turbine. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by industry. Millwrights employed in manufacturing often work in a typical shop setting and use protective equipment to avoid common hazards. For example, protective devices, such as safety belts, protective glasses, and hardhats may be worn to prevent injuries from falling objects or machinery. Those employed in construction may work outdoors in difficult weather conditions. Advances in some equipment, such as hydraulic wrenches and hydraulic stud tensioners, have made the work safer and elimi nated the need for millwrights to use a sledge hammer to pound bolts into position. Other equipment has reduced the amount of heavy lifting and other strenuous tasks that would often cause injuries in the past. Millwrights work independently or as part of a team. Their tasks must be performed quickly and precisely, because disabled machin ery costs a company time and money. Many millwrights work over time; about 4 in 10 millwrights report working more than 40 hours during a typical week. During power outages or other emergencies, millwrights are often assigned overtime and shift work. Millwrights that work at construction sites may have to travel long distances to reach different worksites. For example, millwrights who specialize in turbine installation travel to wherever new power plants are being built. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Millwrights normally receive training through 4- to 5-year appren ticeship programs that combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction, or through community college programs coupled with informal on-the-job training. These programs include training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing machinery. Trainees also may work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Millwrights held about 59,000 jobs in 2004. Most work in manu facturing, primarily in durable goods industries, such as motor vehicle and parts manufacturing and iron and steel mills. About 1 in 3 millwrights are employed in construction, where most work for contracting firms. Although millwrights work in every State, employment is concentrated in heavily industrialized areas. Job Outlook Employment of millwrights is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Because millwrights will always be needed to maintain and repair existing machinery, dismantle old machinery, and install new equipment, skilled applicants should have good job opportunities. Prospects will be best for millwrights with training in installing newer production technologies. In addition to employment growth, many job openings for these workers will stem from the need to replace experienced millwrights who transfer to other occupations or retire. Employment of millwrights has historically been cyclical, rising and falling in line with investments in automation in the Nation’s factories and production facilities. To remain competi tive in coming years, firms will continue to require the services of millwrights to dismantle old equipment and install new hightechnology machinery. Additionally, as the services sector of the economy grows, there is an increasing number of companies in this sector employing new technology to make them more ef ficient, which will likely offset the loss of manufacturing work. Warehouse and distribution companies, for example, are deploying highly automated conveyor systems which are being maintained by millwrights. Employment growth from new automation will be dampened somewhat by foreign competition and the introduc tion of new technologies, such as hydraulic torque wrenches, ultrasonic measuring tools, and laser shaft alignment, which allow fewer millwrights to perform more work. In addition, the demand for millwrights may be adversely affected as lower paid workers, such as electronics technicians and industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers, assume some installation and maintenance duties. Earnings Median hourly earnings of millwrights were $21.02 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.53 and $27.07. The low est 10 percent earned less than $13.02, and the highest 10 percent Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations earned more than $32.17. Earnings vary by industry and geographic location. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of millwrights in May 2004 were as follows: Motor vehicle parts manufacturing................................................. $28.76 Building equipment contractors...................................................... 19.88 About 54 percent of millwrights belong to labor unions, one of the highest rates of membership in the economy. Related Occupations To set up machinery for use in a plant, millwrights must know how to use hoisting devices and how to assemble, disassemble, and sometimes repair machinery. Other workers with similar job duties include industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwrights; tool and die makers; aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians; structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers; assemblers and fabricators; and heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service tech nicians and mechanics. Millwrights also machine parts and operate computer-controlled machine tools like machinists and computer control machine tool programmers and operators. Millwrights often use welding and soldering to assemble and repair machines like welding, soldering and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information , For further information on apprenticeship programs, write to the Apprenticeship Council of your State’s labor department, local of fices of your State employment service, or local firms that employ millwrights. In addition, you may contact: >• United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 6801 Placid St., Las Vegas, NV 89119. Internet: http://www.carpenters.org > Associated General Contractors of America, 333 John Carlyle St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.agc.org ► Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Dept., 2300 Wilson Blvd., Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.trytools.org >- National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org Precision instrument and Equipment Repairers (0*NET 49-9061.00, 49-9062.00, 49-9063.01,49-9063.02,49-9063.03, 49-9063.04, 49-9064.00, 49-9069.99) Significant Points • Training requirements include a high school diploma and, in most cases, postsecondary education, coupled with significant on-the-job training. • Good opportunities are expected for most types of jobs. • Overall employment is expected to grow about as fast as average, but projected growth varies by detailed occupation. • About 1 out of 6 are self-employed. Nature of the Work Repairing and maintaining watches, cameras, musical instruments, medical equipment, and other precision instruments requires a high level of skill and attention to detail. For example, some devices con tiny gears that must be manufactured to within one one-hundredth Digitizedtain for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 575 of a millimeter of design specifications, and other devices contain sophisticated electronic controls. Camera and photographic equipment repairers work through a series of steps in fixing a camera. The first step is determining whether a repair should be attempted, because many inexpensive cameras cost more to repair than to replace. Of the problems for which repair seems worthwhile, the most complicated or expensive are referred back to the manufacturer or to a large repair center. If the repairers decide to proceed with the job themselves, they diagnose the problem, often by disassembling numerous small parts in order to reach the source. They then make needed adjust ments or replace a defective part. Many problems are caused by the electronic circuits used in cameras, and fixing these circuits requires an understanding of electronics. Camera repairers also maintain cameras by removing and replacing broken or worn parts and cleaning and lubricating gears and springs. Because many of the components involved are extremely small, repairers must have a great deal of manual dexterity. Frequently, older camera parts are no longer available, requiring repairers to build replacement parts or to strip junked cameras. When machining new parts, workers often use a small lathe, a grinding wheel, and other metalworking tools. Repairs on digital cameras are similar to those on conventional cameras, but because digital cameras have no film to wind, they have fewer moving parts. Digital cameras rely on software, so any repair to the lens requires that it be calibrated with the use of software and by connecting the camera to a personal computer. Watch and clock repairers work almost exclusively on expensive and antique timepieces, because moderately priced timepieces are cheaper to replace than to repair. Electrically powered clocks and quartz watches and clocks function with almost no moving parts, limiting necessary maintenance to replacing the battery. Many ex pensive timepieces still employ old-style mechanical movements and a manual or automatic winding mechanism. This type of timepiece must be regularly adjusted and maintained. Repair and maintenance work on a mechanical timepiece requires using handtools to disas semble many fine gears and components. Each part is inspected for signs of wear. Some gears or springs may need to be replaced or machined. Exterior portions of the watch may require polishing and buffing. Specialized machines are used to clean all of the parts with ultrasonic waves and a series of baths in cleaning agents. Reas sembling a watch requires lubricating key parts. As with older cameras, replacement parts are frequently unavail able for antique watches or clocks. In such cases, watch repairers must machine their own parts. They employ small lathes and other machines in creating tiny parts. Musical instrument repairers and tuners combine their love of music with a highly skilled craft. Often referred to as technicians, these artisans work in four specialties: Band instruments, pianos and organs, violins, and guitars. (Repairers and tuners who work on electronic organs are discussed in the Handbook statement on electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers.) Band instrument repairers, brass and wind instrument repairers, and percussion instrument repairers focus on woodwind, brass, reed, and percussion instruments damaged through deterioration or by ac cident. They move mechanical parts or play scales to find problems. They may unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, worn cork pads, and pistons and remove soldered parts by means of gas torches. Using filling techniques or a mallet, they repair dents in metal and wood. These repairers use gas torches, grinding wheels, lathes, shears, mallets, and small handtools and are skilled in metalworking and woodworking. Percussion instrument repairers often must install new drumheads, which formerly were cut from animal skin, but now are made exclusively from Mylar® and other synthetic materials. 576 Occupational Outlook Handbook Violin and guitar repairers adjust and repair stringed instru ments. Some repairers work on both stringed and band instru ments. Initially, repairers play and inspect the instrument to find any defects. They replace or repair cracked or broken sections and damaged parts. They also restring the instruments and repair damage to their finish. Because the specifications of all types of instruments vary greatly, custom parts machining is considered an essential skill. Piano tuners and repairers use similar techniques, skills, and tools. Most workers in this group are piano tuners, tuning and making minor repairs. Tuning involves tightening and loosening different strings to achieve the proper tone or pitch. Because pianos are dif ficult to transport, tuners normally make house calls. Some repair ers specialize in restoring older pianos. Restoration is complicated work, often involving replacing many of the parts, which number more than 12,000 in some pianos. With proper maintenance and restoration, pianos often survive more than 100 years. Pipe organ repairers do work similar to that of piano repairers, but on a larger scale. In addition, they assemble new organs. Because pipe organs are too large to transport, they must be assembled onsite. Even with repairers working in teams or with assistants, the organ assembly process can take several weeks or even months, depending upon the size of the organ. Medical equipment repairers and other precision instrument and equipment repairers maintain, adjust, calibrate, and repair electron ic, electromechanical, and hydraulic equipment. They use various tools, including multimeters, specialized software, and computers designed to communicate with specific pieces of hardware. Among their specialized tools is equipment designed to simulate water or air pressure. These repairers use handtools, soldering irons, and other electronic tools to repair and adjust equipment. Faulty circuit boards and other parts are normally removed and replaced. Medical equipment repairers and other precision instrument repairers must maintain careful, detailed logs of all maintenance and repair that they perform on each piece of equipment they work with. Medical equipment repairers, often called biomedical equipment technicians, work on medical equipment such as defibrillators, heart monitors, medical imaging equipment (x rays, CAT scanners, and ultrasound equipment), voice-controlled operating tables, and electric wheelchairs. Other precision instrument and equipment repairers service, repair, and replace a wide range of equipment associated with automated or instrument-controlled manufacturing processes. A precision instrument repairer working at an electric powerplant, for example, would repair and maintain instruments that monitor the operation of the plant, such as pressure and temperature gauges. Replacement parts are not always available, so repairers sometimes machine or fabricate a new part. Preventive maintenance involves regular lubrication, cleaning, and adjustment of many measuring devices. Increasingly, it also involves solving computer software problems as more control devices, such as valves, are controlled by or linked to computer networks. To adjust a control device, a technician may need to connect a laptop computer to the control device’s computer and make adjustments through changes to the software commands. Working Conditions Camera, watch, and musical instrument repairers work under fairly similar solitary, low-stress conditions with minimal supervision. A quiet, well-lighted workshop or repair shop is typical, while a few of these repairers travel to the instrument being repaired, such as a piano, an organ, or a grandfather clock. Often, these workers can adjust thenschedules, allowing for second jobs as needed. Musical instrument repairer jobs are attractive to many professional musicians because https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to- Ife Watch repairers use fine motor skills to perform detailed work. the flexible hours common to repair work allow musicians to do the work while still maintaining a regular performing schedule. Medical equipment and precision instrument and equipment repairers normally work daytime hours, but are often expected to be on call. Still, like other hospital and factory employees, some repairers work irregular hours. Precision instrument repairers work under a wide array of conditions, from hot, dirty, noisy factories, to air-conditioned workshops, to the outdoors on fieldwork. Attention to safety is essential, as the work sometimes involves dangerous machinery or toxic chemicals. Due to the individualized nature of the work, supervision is fairly minimal. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers require at least a high school diploma for beginning precision instrument and equipment repairers. Many employers prefer applicants with some postsecondary education. Much training takes place on the job. The ability to read and understand technical manuals is important. Necessary physical qualities include good fine-motor skills and acute vision. Also, precision equipment re pairers must be able to pay close attention to details, enjoy problem solving, and have the desire to disassemble machines to see how they work. Most precision equipment repairers must be able to work alone with minimal supervision. The educational background required for camera and photographic equipment repairers varies, but some knowledge of electronics is necessary. A number of workers complete postsecondary training, such as an associate degree, in electronics. The job requires the ability to read electronic schematic diagrams and comprehend other technical information, in addition to manual dexterity. New em ployees are trained on the job in two stages over about a year. First, they learn to repair a single product over a couple of weeks. Then, they learn to repair other products and refine their skills for 6-12 months while working under the close supervision of an experienced repairer. Finally, repairers continually teach themselves through studying manuals and attending manufacturer-sponsored seminars on the specifics of new models. Training also varies for watch and clock repairers. Several associations, including the American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute and the National Association of Watch and Clock Collec tors, offer certifications. Some certifications can be completed in a few months; others require simply passing an examination; the most demanding certifications require 3,000 hours, taken over 2 years, of classroom time in technical institutes or colleges. Those who have earned the most demanding certifications are usually the most sought after by employers. Clock repairers generally require less training than do watch repairers, because watches have smaller components and require greater precision. Some repairers opt to learn through assisting a master watch repairer. Nevertheless, developing profi ciency in watch or clock repair requires several years of education and experience. For musical instrument repairers and tuners, employers prefer people with post-high school training in music repair technology. According to a Piano Technicians Guild membership survey, the overwhelming majority of respondents had completed at least some college work; most had a bachelor’s or higher degree, although not always in music repair technology. Almost all repairers have a strong musical background; many are musicians themselves. Also, a basic ability to play the instruments being repaired is normally required. Courses in instrument repair are offered only at a few technical schools and colleges. Correspondence courses are common for piano tuners. Graduates of these programs normally receive additional training on the job, working with an experienced repairer. Many musical instrument repairers and tuners begin learning their trade on the job as assistants or apprentices. Trainees perform a variety of tasks around the shop. Full qualification usually requires 2 to 5 years of training and practice. Musical instrument repair and tuning requires good manual dexterity, an “ear” for pitch and tone, and good hand-eye coordination. While piano tuning requires good hearing, it can be performed by the blind. Medical equipment repairers’ training includes on-the-job training, manufacturer training classes, and associate degree programs. While an associate degree in electronics or medical technology is normally required, training varies by specialty. For those with a background in electronics, on-the-job training is more common for workers repairing less critical equipment, such as hospital beds or electric wheelchairs. An associate or even a bachelor’s degree, often in medical technology or engi neering, and a passing grade on a certification exam is likely to be required of persons repairing more critical equipment, such as CAT scanners and defibrillators. Some repairers are trained in the military. New repairers begin by observing and assisting an experienced worker over a period of 3 to 6 months, learning a single piece of equipment at a time. Gradually, they begin working independently, while still under close supervision. Biomedical equipment repairers are constantly learning new technologies and equipment through seminars, self-study, and certification exams. Educational requirements for other precision instrument and equipment repair jobs also vary, but include a high school diploma, with a focus on mathematics and science courses. Because repair ers need to understand blueprints, electrical schematic diagrams, and electrical, hydraulic, and electromechanical systems, most employers require an associate or sometimes a bachelor’s degree in instrumentation and control, electronics, or a related engineering field. In addition to formal education, a year or two of on-the-job training is required before a repairer is considered fully qualified. Many instrument and equipment repairers begin by working in a factory in another capacity, such as repairing electrical equipment. As companies seek to improve efficiency, other types of repair workers are trained to repair precision measuring equipment. Some advancement opportunities exist, but many supervisory positions require a bachelor’s degree. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 577 Employment Precision instrument and equipment repairers held 62,000 jobs in 2004. Employment was distributed among the detailed occupations as follows: Medical equipment repairers........................................................... 29,000 Precision instrument and equipment repairers, all other................ 17,000 Musical instrument repairers and tuners........................................ 6,100 Camera and photographic equipment repairers............................. 5,100 Watch repairers............................................................................... 4,300 Medical equipment repairers often work for hospitals or whole sale equipment suppliers, while those in the occupation “all other precision instrument repairers” frequently work for manufacturing companies and wholesalers of durable goods. About 1 out of 6 preci sion instrument and equipment repairers was self-employed—they may own jewelry, camera, medical equipment, or music stores. Job Outlook • Good opportunities are expected for most types of precision instru ment and equipment repairer jobs. Overall employment growth is projected to be about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004—14 period; however, projected growth varies by detailed occupation. Job growth among medical equipment repairers should be about as fast as the average for all occupations over the projection period. The rapidly expanding healthcare industry and elderly population should spark demand for increasingly sophisticated medical equip ment and, in turn, create good employment opportunities in this occupation. By contrast, employment of musical instrument repairers is ex pected to increase more slowly than the average. Replacement needs are expected to provide the most job opportunities as many repairers and tuners retire. School budget cuts to music programs—specifi cally, stringed-instrument programs—should hurt the outlook for musical repairers. With fewer new musicians, there will be a slump in instrument rentals, purchases, and repairs. Because training in the repair of musical instruments is difficult to obtain—there are only a few schools that offer training programs, and few experienced workers are willing to take on apprentices—opportunities should be good for those who receive training. Schools report that their graduates easily find employment. Employment of camera and photographic equipment repairers is expected to decline. The popularity of inexpensive cameras adverse ly affects employment in this occupation, as most point-and-shoot cameras are cheaper to replace than repair. When a camera breaks, not only is replacing the camera often not much more expensive than repairing it, but the new model is also far more advanced than the old one. However, consumers are spending more on high-end digital cameras than they did on conventional cameras in the past, which should make repairing the cameras more economical. Employment of watch repairers is expected to increase more slowly than the average. Over the past few decades, changes in technology, including the invention of digital and quartz watches that need few repairs, caused a significant decline in the demand for watch repair ers. In recent years, this trend was somewhat reversed, as the growing popularity of expensive mechanical watches increased the need for these repairers. Nonetheless, few new repairers entered the field. Thus, the small number of entrants, coupled with the fact that a large proportion of watch and clock repairers are approaching retirement age, should result in very good job opportunities in this field. The projected slower-than-average employment growth of other precision instrument and equipment repairers reflects the expected lack of employment growth in manufacturing and other industries 578 Occupational Outlook Handbook in which they are employed. Nevertheless, good employment op portunities are expected for these workers due to the relatively small number of people entering the occupation and the need to replace repairers who retire. Earnings The following tabulation shows median hourly earnings for various precision instrument and equipment repairers in May 2004: Precision instrument and equipment repairers, all other................ $21.25 Medical equipment repairers........................................................... 17.90 Camera and photographic equipment repairers.............................. 15.54 Watch repairers............................................................................... 13.87 Musical instrument repairers and tuners......................................... 13.47 Earnings ranged from less than $7.94 for the lowest 10 percent of musical instrument repairers and tuners to more than $32.32 for the highest 10 percent in the occupation “all other precision instrument and equipment repairers.” Earnings within the different occupations vary significantly, de pending upon skill levels. For example, a lesser skilled watch and clock repairer may simply change batteries and replace worn wrist straps, while a highly skilled watch and clock repairer with years of training and experience may rebuild and replace worn parts. Related Occupations Many precision instrument and equipment repairers work with preci sion mechanical and electronic equipment. Other workers who repair precision mechanical and electronic equipment include computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers and coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers. Other workers who make precision items include dental laboratory technicians and ophthalmic laboratory technicians. Some precision instrument and equipment repairers work with a wide array of industrial equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Their work environment and responsibilities are similar to those of industrial machinery installation, maintenance, and repair workers. Much of the work of watch repairers is similar to that of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers. Camera repairers’ work is similar to that of electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; both occupations work with consumer electronics that are based around a circuit board, but that also involve numerous moving mechanical parts. Sources of Additional Information For more information about camera repair careers, contact: > National Association of Photographic Equipment Technicians (NAPET), 3000 Picture PL, Jackson, MI 49201. For information on musical instrument repair, including schools offering training, contact: >■ National Association of Professional Band Instrument Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51, Normal, IL 61761. Internet: http://www.napbirt.org For additional information on piano tuning and repairwork, contact: > Piano Technicians Guild, 4444 Forest Ave., Kansas City, MO 66106. Internet: http://www.ptg.org For information about training, mentoring programs, employers, and schools with programs in precision instrumentation, automation, and control, contact: >- ISA-The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, 67 Alexan der Dr, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. Internet: http://www.isa.org For information about watch and clock repair and a list of schools with related programs of study, contact: >- American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute (AWI), 701 Enterprise Dr., Harrison, OH 45030-1696. Internet: http://www.awi-net.org For information about medical equipment technicians and a list of schools with related programs of study, contact: > Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), 1110 North Glebe Rd., Arlington, VA 22201-4795. Internet: http://www.aami.org Production Occupations Assemblers and Fabricators (0*NET 51-2011.01, 51-2011.02, 51-2011.03, 51-2021.00, 51-2022.00, 51 -2023.00, 51 -2031.00, 51 -2041.01,51 -2041.02, 51 -2091.00, 51 2092.00, 51-2093.00,51-2099.99) Significant Points • More than half of all assemblers are team assemblers. • Work areas may be noisy, and many assemblers may have to sit or stand for long periods. • A high school diploma is preferred for most positions, but specialized training is required for some assembly jobs. Nature of the Work Assemblers and fabricators play an important role in the manufac turing process. They are responsible for putting together finished and semifinished goods, assembling the pieces of components of a product and then joining the components into a whole product. The products they produce range from entire airplanes to intricate timing devices. They fabricate and assemble household appliances, automobiles and automobile engines and parts, as well as computers and other electronic devices. Assemblers begin by reading detailed schematics or blue prints that show how to assemble complex machines. After determining how parts should connect, they often need to use hand or power tools to trim, shim, cut, and make other adjustments to make components fit together and align properly. Once the parts are properly aligned, they connect parts with bolts and screws or by welding or soldering pieces together. Careful quality control is important throughout the assembly process, so assemblers look for both mistakes in the as sembly process and faulty components. They try to help fix problems before more defective products are produced. Changes in technology have transformed the manufacturing and assembly process. Automated manufacturing systems now use robots, computers, programmable motion control devices, and various sens ing technologies. These systems change the way in which goods are made and affect the jobs of those who make them. The more advanced assemblers must be able to work with these new technologies and be comfortable using them to produce goods. Manufacturing techniques are evolving away from traditional assembly line systems towards “lean” manufacturing systems, which is causing the nature of assemblers’ work to change. Lean manufacturing involves using teams of workers within “cells” to produce entire products or components. Team assemblers perform all of the assembly tasks assigned to their teams, rotating through the different tasks, rather than specializing in a single task as would be done on an assembly line. The team also may decide how the work is to be assigned and how different tasks are to be performed. This worker flexibility helps companies to cover for absent work ers, improves productivity, and increases their ability to respond to changes in demand by shifting labor from one product line to another. For example, if demand for a product drops, companies may reduce the number of workers involved, while individual work ers perform more stages of the assembly process. Some aspects of lean production, such as rotating tasks and seeking worker input on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis improving the assembly process, are common to all assembly and fabrication occupations. Although more than half of all assemblers and fabricators are classified as “team assemblers,” others specialize in producing one type of product or perform the same or similar functions throughout the assembly process. These workers are classified according to the type of products they assemble or produce. Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers build products such as electric motors, batter ies, computers, electronic control devices and sensing equipment. Electromechanical equipment assemblers assemble and modify elec tromechanical devices such as household appliances, dynamometers, actuators, or vending machines. Coil winders, tapers, andfinishers wind wire coil used in resistors, transformers, generators, and electric motors. Engine and other machine assemblers constmct, assemble, or rebuild engines and turbines, and machines used in almost all manufacturing industries, including agriculture, construction, min ing, rolling mills, and textile, paper, and food processing. Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers assemble, fit, fasten and install parts of airplanes, space vehicles, or missiles, such as the tails and wings, landing gear, and heating and ventilation systems. Structural metal fabricators and fitters cut, align, and fit together structural metal parts according to detailed specifications prior to welding or riveting. Fiberglass laminators andfabricators create products made of fiberglass, mainly boat decks and hulls and automobile body parts. Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators perform precision assembling or adjusting of timing devices within very narrow tolerances. Involving assemblers and fabricators in product development has become more common. Designers and engineers consult manufac turing workers during the design stage to improve product reliability and manufacturing efficiency. For example, an assembler may tell a designer that the dash of a new car design will be too difficult to install quickly and consistently. The designer could then redesign the dash to make it easier to install. Some experienced assemblers work with designers and engineers to build prototypes or test products. These assemblers read and interpret complex engineering specifications from text, drawings, and computer-aided drafting systems. They also may use a variety of tools and precision measuring instruments. Working Conditions The working conditions for assemblers and fabricators vary from plant to plant and from industry to industry. They may even vary within a plant. One consistent trend is increasingly improving working condi tions. Many physically difficult tasks, such as manually tightening massive bolts or moving heavy parts in position, have been made much easier through the use hydraulic and electromechanical equipment. Most factories today are generally clean, well-lit, and well-ventilated, and depending on what type of work is being performed, they may also need to be dirt and dust-free. Electronic and electromechanical assemblers particularly must work in environments free of dust that could affect the operation of the products they build. Some assemblers may also come into contact with potentially harmful chemicals or fumes, but ventilation systems and other safety precautions normally minimize any harmful effects. Other assemblers may come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. 579 580 Occupational Outlook Handbook 3 out of 4, were found in manufacturing. In addition, 9 percent of workers were employed by employment services firms, mostly as temporary workers. In all likelihood, many of these temporary workers were assigned to manufacturing plants. Wholesale and retail trade firms employed the next highest number of assemblers and fabricators. Team assemblers, the largest specialty, accounted for 62 percent of assembler and fabricator jobs. The distribution of employment among the various types of assemblers was as follows: Electronics assemblers work in a clean, well-lighted environment. Most full-time assemblers work a 40-hour week, although over time and shift work is fairly common in some industries. Work sched ules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New assemblers and fabricators are normally considered entry-level employees. The ability to do accurate work at a rapid pace and to follow detailed instructions are key job requirements. A high school diploma is preferred for most positions. Following detailed assembly instructions requires basic reading skills, although many instructions rely on pictures and diagrams. Applicants need specialized training for some assembly jobs. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical, electronic, or aircraft assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Other positions require only onthe-job training, sometimes including employer-sponsored classroom instruction, in the broad range of assembly duties that employees may be required to perform. Many new assemblers are hired as temporary workers, often through employment services firms. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, is required for assemblers and fabricators who work with small parts. Plants that make elec trical and electronic products may test applicants for color vision, because many of their products contain many differently colored wires. Manual dexterity and the ability to carry out complex, repeti tive tasks quickly and methodically also are important. As assemblers and fabricators become more experienced, they may progress to jobs that require greater skill and be given more re sponsibility. Experienced assemblers may become product repairers if they have learned the many assembly operations and understand the construction of a product. These workers fix assembled articles that operators or inspectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also can advance to quality control jobs or be promoted to supervisor. Experienced assemblers and fabricators also may become members of research and development teams, working with engineers and other project designers to design, develop, and build prototypes, and test new product models. In some companies, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades, such as machinist. Those with a background in math, science, and computers may advance to become programmers or operators of more highly auto mated production equipment. Employment Assemblers and fabricators held nearly 2 million jobs in 2004. They were found in almost every industry, but the vast majority, nearly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Team assemblers........................................................................ 1,200,000 All other assemblers and fabricators.......................................... 268,000 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers........................ 221,000 Structural metal fabricators and fitters....................................... 90,000 Electromechanical equipment assemblers................................. 52,000 Engine and other machine assemblers....................................... 46,000 Fiberglass laminators and fabricators........................................ 31,000 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers............................................. 28,000 Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers... 19,000 Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators............... 3,300 Within the manufacturing sector, assembly of transportation equipment, such as aircraft, autos, trucks, and buses, accounted for 19 percent of all jobs. Assembly of computers and electronic products accounted for another 11 percent of all jobs. Other indus tries that employ many assemblers and fabricators were machinery manufacturing (heating and air-conditioning equipment; agriculture, construction, and mining machinery; and engine, turbine, and power transmission equipment); electrical equipment, appliance, and com ponent manufacturing (lighting, household appliances, and electrical equipment); and fabricated metal products. The following tabulation shows wage and salary employment in manufacturing industries employing the most assemblers and fabricators in 2004. Transportation equipment manufacturing................................... Computer and electronic product manufacturing....................... Machinery manufacturing........................................................... Fabricated metal product manufacturing.................................... Electrical equipment, appliance, and component manufacturing 387,000 225,000 193,000 143,000 139,000 Job Outlook Employment of assemblers and fabricators is expected to grow more slowly than average through the year 2014, reflecting growth in mainly nonmanufacturing industries. The largest increase in the number of assemblers and fabricators is projected to be in the employment services industry, which supplies temporary workers to the various industries. Temporary workers are gaining in importance in the manufacturing sector and elsewhere as companies strive for a more flexible workforce to meet the fluctuations in the market. There will also be more jobs for assemblers and fabricators in the wholesale and retail sectors of the economy. As more goods come unassembled from foreign countries to save on shipping costs, it is increasingly up to wholesalers and retailers to provide assembly of products to their customers. Within the manufacturing sector, employment of assemblers and fabricators is expected to grow mainly in motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts manufacturing, furniture manufacturing, and food processing due to increasing sales of these products. In many other manufacturing industries, assemblers and fabricators have been negatively affected by increasing automation, improving productiv ity, and the shift of assembly to countries with lower labor costs. In addition to new jobs stemming from growth in this occupation, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers leaving this large occupational group. Production Occupations The effects of automation will be felt more among some types of assemblers and fabricators than among others. Automated manu facturing systems are expensive, and a large volume of repetitive work is required to justify their purchase. Also, where the assembly parts involved are irregular in size or location, new technology only now is beginning to make inroads. For example, much assembly in the aerospace industry is done in hard-to-reach locations—inside airplane fuselages or gear boxes, for example—which are unsuited to robots; as a result, aircraft assemblers will not be easily replaced by automated processes. The use of team production techniques has been a success in the manufacturing sector, boosting productivity and improving the quality of goods. Workers collaborate to decide how to best perform assem bly tasks. Team assemblers are often consulted during the design phase of production, to make sure that the product is easy to assemble. Through continued efforts to improve the assembly process, most manufacturing companies have significantly reduced the amount of labor needed to assemble a product. By boosting productivity, com panies are better able to compete with low wage companies. Thus, while the number of assemblers overall will decline in manufacturing, the number of team assemblers will remain stable. Many producers have sent their assembly functions to countries where labor costs are lower. Decisions by American corporations to move assembly to other nations should limit employment growth for assemblers in some industries, but a free trade environment also may lead to growth in the export of goods assembled in the United States. Earnings Earnings vary by industry, geographic region, skill, educational level, and complexity of the machinery operated. Median hourly earnings of team assemblers were $11.42 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.12 and $14.60. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.56, and the highest 10 percent earned $18.80. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the larg est numbers of team assemblers in May 2004 are shown below; $22.45 12.91 10.90 10.54 8.66 Motor vehicle manufacturing......... Motor vehicle parts manufacturing. Other wood product manufacturing Plastics product manufacturing...... Employment services..................... Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronic equipment assemblers were $ 11.68 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned 581 between $9.54 and $14.84. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.01, and the highest lOpercent earned more than$18.64. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the larg est numbers of electrical and electronic equipment assemblers in May 2004 are shown below: Computer and peripheral equipment manufacturing................. Navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments manufacturing.................................................... Electrical equipment manufacturing.......................................... Communications equipment manufacturing.............................. Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing $12.80 12.61 12.55 11.61 11.02 In May 2004, other assemblers and fabricators had the following median hourly earnings: Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers Engine and other machine assemblers................................... Structural metal fabricators and fitters................................... Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators............ Electromechanical equipment assemblers............................. Coil winders, tapers, and finishers......................................... Fiberglass laminators and fabricators.................................... Assemblers and fabricators, all other..................................... $17.79 16.73 14.34 13.76 12.71 12.24 12.18 11.90 Many assemblers and fabricators are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve operating machines and tools and assembling products include welding, soldering, and brazing work ers; and machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic. Assemblers and fabricators also are responsible for some quality control and product testing, as is the case for inspectors, testers, sort ers, samplers, and weighers. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is avail able from local offices of the State employment service and from locals of the unions mentioned earlier. Food Processing Occupations (0*NET 51-3011.01, 51-3011.02, 51-3021.00, 51-3022.00, 51-3023.00, 51-3091.00, 51-3092.00, 51-3093.00) Significant Points • Most employees in manual food-processing jobs re quire little or no training prior to being hired. • As more jobs involving cutting and processing meat shift from retail stores to food-processing plants, job growth will be concentrated among lesser skilled work ers, who are employed primarily in manufacturing. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Food processing occupations include many different types of work ers who process raw food products into the finished goods sold by grocers or wholesalers, restaurants, or institutional food services. These workers perform a variety of tasks and are responsible for producing many of the food products found in every household. Butchers as well as meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers are employed at different stages in the process by which animal carcasses are converted into manageable pieces of meat, known as boxed meat, that are suitable for sale to wholesalers and retailers. Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers commonly work in animal slaughtering and processing plants, while butchers and meatcutters usually are 582 Occupational Outlook Handbook employed in retail establishments. As a result, the nature of these jobs varies significantly. In animal slaughtering and processing plants, slaughterers and meatpackers slaughter cattle, hogs, goats, and sheep and cut the carcasses into large wholesale cuts, such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks, to facilitate the handling, distribution, and marketing of meat. In some of these plants, slaughterers and meatpackers also further process the large parts into cuts that are ready for retail use. These workers also produce hamburger meat and meat trimmings, which are used to prepare sausages, luncheon meats, and other fabricated meat products. Slaughterers and meatpackers usually work on as sembly lines, with each individual responsible for only a few of the many cuts needed to process a carcass. Depending on the type of cut, these workers use knives; cleavers; meat saws; bandsaws; or other potentially dangerous equipment. In grocery stores, wholesale establishments that supply meat to restaurants, and institutional food service facilities, butchers and meatcutters separate wholesale cuts of meat into retail cuts or in dividually sized servings. These workers cut meat into steaks and chops, shape and tie roasts, and grind beef for sale as chopped meat. Boneless cuts are prepared with the use of knives, slicers, or power cutters, while bandsaws are required to carve bone-in pieces of meat. Butchers and meatcutters in retail food stores also may weigh, wrap, and label the cuts of meat; arrange them in refrigerated cases for dis play; and prepare special cuts to fill unique orders by customers. Poultry cutters and trimmers slaughter and cut up chickens, turkeys, and other types of poultry. Although the poultry process ing industry is becoming increasingly automated, many jobs, such as trimming, packing, and deboning, are still done manually. As in the animal slaughtering and processing industry, most poultry cutters and trimmers perform routine cuts on poultry as it moves along production lines. Unlike some of the other occupations just listed, fish cutters and trimmers, also called fish cleaners, are likely to be employed in both manufacturing and retail establishments. These workers primarily scale, cut, and dress fish by removing the head, scales, and other ined ible portions and cutting the fish into steaks or fillets. In retail markets, these workers may also wait on customers and clean fish to order. Meat, poultry, andfish cutters and trimmers also prepare readyto-heat foods. This preparation often entails filleting meat or fish; cutting it into bite-sized pieces; preparing and adding vegetables; and applying sauces, marinades, or breading. 'HOB A. jgjp Food processing occupations include many different types of workers, such as butchers and meatcutters, who process raw food into finished goods. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bakers mix and bake ingredients in accordance with recipes to produce varying quantities of breads, pastries, and other baked goods. Bakers commonly are employed in grocery stores and specialty shops, and produce small quantities of breads, pastries, and other baked goods for consumption on premises or for sale as specialty baked goods. In manufacturing, bakers produce goods in large quantities, using high-volume mixing machines, ovens, and other equipment. Goods produced in large quantities usu ally are available for sale through distributors, grocery stores, or manufacturers’ outlets. Others in food processing occupations include food batchmakers, who set up and operate equipment that mixes, blends, or cooks ingredients used in the manufacture of food products, according to formulas or recipes \food cooking machine operators and tenders, who operate or tend to cooking equipment, such as steam-cooking vats, deep-fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers to prepare food products, such as meat, sugar, cheese, and grain; and food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders, who use equipment to reduce the moisture content of food or tobacco products or to process food in preparation for canning. Some of the machines that are used include hearth ovens, kiln driers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by type and size of establishment. In animal slaughtering and processing plants and large retail food establishments, butchers and meatcutters work in large meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail markets, the butcher or fish cleaner may work in a cramped space behind the meat or fish counter. To prevent viral and bacterial infections, work areas must be kept clean and sanitary. Butchers and meatcutters, poultry and fish cutters and trimmers, and slaughters and meatpackers often work in cold, damp rooms. The work areas are refrigerated to prevent meat from spoiling and are damp because meat cutting generates large amounts of blood, condensation, and fat. Cool, damp floors increase the likelihood of slips and falls. In addition, cool temperatures, long periods of standing, and repetitious physical tasks make the work tiring. As a result, butchers as well as meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers are more susceptible to injury than are most other workers. Injuries include cuts and occasional amputations, which occur when knives, cleavers, or power tools are used improperly. Also, repetitive slicing and lifting often lead to cumulative trauma in juries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. To reduce the incidence of cumulative trauma injuries, some employers have reduced employee workloads, added prescribed rest periods, redesigned jobs and tools, and promoted increased awareness of early warning signs so that steps can be taken to prevent further injury. Never theless, workers in the occupation still face the serious threat of disabling injuries. Most traditional bakers work in bakeries, cake shops, hot-bread shops, hotels, restaurants, and cafeterias, and in the bakery depart ments of supermarkets. Bakers may work under hot and noisy conditions. Also, bakers typically work under strict order deadlines and critical time-sensitive baking requirements, both of which can induce stress. Bakers usually work in shifts and may work early mornings, evenings, weekends, and holidays. While many bakers often work as part of a team, they also may work alone when bak ing particular items. These workers may supervise assistants and teach apprentices and trainees. Bakers in retail establishments may be required to serve customers. Production Occupations Other food processing workers—such as food batchmakers; food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders; and food cooking machine operators and tenders—typi cally work in production areas that are specially designed for food preservation or processing. Food batchmakers, in particular, work in kitchen-type, assembly-line production facilities. Because this work involves food, work areas must meet governmental sanitary regulations. The ovens, as well as the motors of blenders, mixers, and other equipment, often make work areas very warm and noisy. There are some hazards, such as bums, created by the equipment that these workers use. Food batchmakers; food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators; and food cooking machine operators and tenders spend a great deal of time on their feet and generally work a regular 40-hour week that may include evening and night shifts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training varies widely among food processing occupations. However, most manual food processing workers require little or no training prior to being hired. Most butchers as well as poultry and fish cutters and trimmers acquire their skills on the job through formal and informal training programs. The length of training varies significantly. Simple cutting operations require a few days to learn, while more complicated tasks, such as eviscerating slaughtered animals, generally require several months to learn. The training period for highly skilled butchers at the retail level may be 1 or 2 years. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing less difficult jobs, such as making simple cuts or removing bones. Under the guid ance of experienced workers, trainees learn the proper use and care of tools and equipment and how to prepare various cuts of meat. After demonstrating skill with various meatcutting tools, trainees learn to divide carcasses into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual portions. Trainees also may learn to roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those employed in retail food establishments often are taught operations, such as inventory control, meat buying, and recordkeeping. In addition, growing concern about food-borne pathogens in meats has led employers to offer numerous safety seminars and extensive training in food safety to employees. Skills that are important to meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers include manual dexterity, good depth perception, color discrimination, and good hand-eye coordination. Physical strength often is needed to lift and move heavy pieces of meat. Butchers and fish cleaners who wait on customers should have a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to com municate clearly. In some States, a health certificate is required for employment. Bakers often start as apprentices or trainees. Apprentice bakers usually start in craft bakeries, while trainees usually begin in store bakeries, such as those in supermarkets. Bakers need to be skilled in baking, icing, and decorating. They also need to be able to fol low instructions, have an eye for detail, and communicate well with others. Knowledge of bakery products and ingredients, as well as mechanical mixing and baking equipment, is important. Many ap prentice bakers participate in correspondence study and may work towards a certificate in baking. Working as a baker’s assistant or at other activities that involve handling food also is a useful tool for training. The complexity of the skills required for certification as a baker often is underestimated. Bakers need to know about ap plied chemistry; ingredients and nutrition; government health and sanitation regulations; business concepts; and production processes, including how to operate and maintain machinery. Modem food https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 583 plants typically use high-speed automated equipment that often is operated by computers. Food machine operators and tenders usually are trained on the job. They learn to run the different types of equipment by watching and helping other workers. Training can last anywhere from a month to a year, depending on the complexity of the tasks and the number of products involved. A degree in the appropri ate area—dairy processing for those working in dairy product operations, for example—is helpful for advancement to a lead worker or a supervisory role. Most food batchmakers participate in on-the-job training, usually from about a month to a year. Some food batchmakers learn their trade through an approved apprenticeship program. Food processing workers in retail or wholesale establishments may progress to supervisory jobs, such as department managers or team leaders in supermarkets. A few of these workers may become buyers for wholesalers or supermarket chains. Some food processing workers go on to open their own markets or bakeries. In processing plants, workers may advance to supervisory posi tions or become team leaders. Employment Food processing workers held 725,000 jobs in 2004. Employment among the various types of food processing occupations was dis tributed as follows: Bakers......................................................................................... 166,000 Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers.............................. 140,000 Slaughterers and meat packers............. 136,000 Butchers and meat cutters .......................................................... 134,000 Food batchmakers ........................................................................ 87,000 Food cooking machine operators and tenders................................ 43,000 Food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders................................................................ 18,000 Thirty-five percent of all food processing workers were employed in animal slaughtering and processing plants. Another 23 percent were employed at grocery stores. Most of the remainder worked in other food manufacturing industries. Butchers, meatcutters, and bakers are employed in almost every city and town in the Nation, while most other food processing jobs are concentrated in communi ties with food-processing plants. Job Outlook Overall employment in the food processing occupations is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Increasingly, cheaper meat imports from abroad will have a negative effect on domestic employment in many food processing occupations. As more jobs involving cutting and processing meat shift from retail stores to food-processing plants, job growth will be concentrated among lesser skilled workers, who are employed primarily in manufacturing. Nevertheless, job opportunities should be available at all levels of the occupation due to the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation’s population grows, the demand for meat, poultry, and seafood should continue to increase. Successful marketing by the poultry industry is likely to increase demand for chicken and ready-to-heat products. Similarly, the development of prepared food products that are lower in fat and more nutritious promises to stimulate the consumption of red meat. The trend toward preparing meat in containers at the processing level also should contribute to demand for animal slaughterers and meatpackers. 584 Occupational Outlook Handbook Lesser skilled meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers—who work primarily in animal slaughtering and processing plants—should experience average employment growth. With the growing popular ity of labor-intensive, ready-to-heat poultry products, demand for poultry workers should remain firm. Fish cutters also will be in demand, as the task of preparing ready-to-heat fish goods gradually shifts from retail stores to processing plants. Also, advances in fish farming, or “aquaculture,” should help meet the growing demand for fish and produce opportunities for fish cutters. Employment of more highly skilled butchers and meatcutters, who work primarily in retail stores, is expected to grow more slowly than average. Automation and the consolidation of the animal slaughter ing and processing industries are enabling employers to transfer employment from higher paid butchers to lower wage slaughterers and meatpackers in meatpacking plants. At present, most red meat arrives at grocery stores partially cut up, but a growing share of meat is being delivered prepackaged, with additional fat removed, to wholesalers and retailers. This trend is resulting in less work and, thus, fewer jobs for retail butchers. While high-volume production equipment limits the demand for bakers in manufacturing, overall employment of bakers is expected to increase about as fast as average due to growing numbers of large wholesale bakers in stores, specialty shops, and traditional bakeries. In addition to the growing numbers of cookie, muffin, and cinnamon roll bakeries, the numbers of specialty bread and bagel shops have been growing, spurring demand for bread and pastry bakers. Employment of food batchmakers, food cooking machine opera tors and tenders, and food and tobacco cooking and roasting machine operators and tenders, is expected to grow more slowly than aver age. As more of this work is being done at the manufacturing level rather than at the retail level, potential employment gains will be offset by productivity gains from automated cooking and roasting equipment. Earnings Earnings vary by industry, skill, geographic region, and educational level. Median annual earnings of butchers and meatcutters were $25,890 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,780 and $34,260. The highest 10 percent earned more than $41,980 annually, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,920. Butchers and meatcutters employed at the retail level typically earn more than those in manufacturing. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of butchers and meatcutters in May 2004 were as follows: Other general merchandise stores................................................. $31,900 Grocery stores............................................................................... 27,030 Specialty food stores..................................................................... 22,010 Animal slaughtering and processing............................................. 21,440 Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers typically earn less than butchers and meatcutters. In May 2004, median annual earnings for these lower skilled workers were $18,900. The middle 50 per cent earned between $16,240 and $22,360. The highest 10 percent earned more than $27,430, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,410. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers in May 2004 are shown in the following tabulation: Grocery and related product wholesalers...................................... $20,790 Grocery stores............................................................................... 20,650 Animal slaughtering and processing............................................. 18,660 Seafood product preparation and packaging................................ 18,040 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual earnings of bakers were $21,330 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,070 and $27,210. The highest 10 percent earned more than $34,410, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,680. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of bakers in May 2004 are given in the following tabulation: Other general merchandise stores................................................. $23,390 Bakeries and tortilla manufacturing.............................................. 22,170 Grocery stores............................................................................... 21,340 Full-service restaurants................................................................. 19,980 Limited-service eating places....................................................... 18,690 Median annual earnings of food batchmakers were $22,090 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,010 and $28,790. The highest 10 percent earned more than $35,540, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,370. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of food batchmakers in May 2004 are presented in the following tabulation: Dairy product manufacturing........................................................ $26,550 Other food manufacturing............................................................. 23,970 Fruit and vegetable preserving and specialty food manufacturing 23,230 Sugar and confectionery product manufacturing......................... 21,420 Bakeries and tortilla manufacturing.............................................. 20,890 In May 2004, median annual earnings for slaughterers and meatpackers were $20,860. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $18,120 and $23,920. The highest 10 percent earned more than $27,910, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,520. Median annual earnings in animal slaughtering and processing, the industry employing the largest number of slaughterers and meatpackers, were $20,900 in May 2004. Median annual earnings for food cooking machine operators and tenders were $20,850 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,680 and $26,670. The highest 10 percent earned more than $33,780, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,930. Median annual earnings in fruit and vegetable pre serving and specialty food manufacturing, the industry employing the largest number of food cooking machine operators and tenders, were $24,370 in May 2004. In May 2004, median annual earnings for food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders were $23,840. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,600 and $30,590. The highest 10 percent earned more than $37,000, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,000. Food processing workers generally received typical benefits, including pension plans for union members or those employed by grocery stores. However, poultry workers rarely earned substantial benefits. In 2004, 21 percent of all food processing workers were union members or were covered by a union contract. Many food processing workers are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Food processing workers must be skilled at both hand and machine work and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques that are involved in handling and preparing food. Other occupations that require similar skills and knowledge include chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for food processing occupations. Production Occupations 585 Metal Workers and Plastic Workers Computer Control Programmers and Operators _________ _________ (Q*NET 51-4011.01, 51-4012.00) Significant Points • Manufacturing industries employ almost all of these workers. • Workers learn in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in secondary, vocational, or post secondary schools; many entrants have previously worked as machinists or machine setters, operators, and tenders. • Despite the projected decline in employment, job opportunities should be good, as employers are ex pected to continue to have difficulty finding qualified workers. Nature of the Work Computer control programmers and operators use computer numeri cally controlled (CNC) machines to cut and shape precision products, such as automobile parts, machine parts, and compressors. CNC machines include machining tools such as lathes, multiaxis spindles, milling machines, laser cutting, water jet cutting, and wire electrical discharge machines (EDM), but the functions formerly performed by human operators are performed by a computer-control module. CNC machines cut away material from a solid block of metal, plastic, or glass—known as a workpiece—to form a finished part. Computer control programmers and operators normally produce large quantities of one part, although they may produce small batches or one-of-a-kind items. They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals and their skill with CNC programming to design and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Before CNC programmers—also referred to as numerical tool and process control programmers—machine a part, they must carefully plan and prepare the operation. First, these workers review three dimensional computer aided/automated design (CAD) blueprints of the part. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job and plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations. Next, CNC programmers turn the planned machining opera tions into a set of instructions. These instructions are translated into a computer aided/automated manufacturing (CAM) program containing a set of commands for the machine to follow. These commands normally are a series of numbers (hence, numerical control) that describes where cuts should occur, what type of cut should be used, and the speed of the cut. CNC programmers and operators check new programs to ensure that the machinery will function properly and that the output will meet specifica tions. Because a problem with the program could damage costly machinery and cutting tools or simply waste valuable time and materials, computer simulations may be used to check the program instead of a trial run. If errors are found, the program must be changed and retested until the problem is resolved. In https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis addition, growing connectivity between CAD/CAM software and CNC machine tools is raising productivity by automatically translating designs into instructions for the computer control ler on the machine tool. These new CAM technologies enable programs to be easily modified for use on other jobs with similar specifications. After the programming work is completed, CNC operators—also referred to as computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic—perform the necessary machining operations. The CNC operators transfer the commands from the server to the CNC control module using a computer network link or floppy disk. Many advanced control modules are conversational, meaning that they ask the operator a series of questions about the nature of the task. CNC operators position the metal stock on the CNC machine tool—spindle, lathe, milling machine, or other—set the controls, and let the computer make the cuts. Heavier objects may be loaded with the assistance of other workers, autoloaders, a crane, or a forklift. During the machining process, computer-control opera tors constantly check to see if any problems exist. Machine tools have unique characteristics, which can be problematic. During a machining operation, the operator modifies the cutting program to account for any problems encountered. Operators who make these adjustments need a basic knowledge of CNC programming. Unique, modified CNC programs are saved for every different machine that performs a task. In order to boost productivity, manufacturers increasing prefer workers who can quickly adapt to new technology and perform a wide range of tasks. As a result, CNC operators often are required to perform many of the basic skills of a machinist and a CNC program mer. However, some manufacturers simply need CNC operators to be “button-pushers.” They primarily start and stop machines, load cutting programs, and load and unload parts and tools. Regardless of skill level, all CNC operators detect some problems by listening for specific sounds—for example, a dull cutting tool that needs changing or excessive vibration. Machine tools rotate at high speeds, which can create problems with harmonic vibrations in the workpiece. Vibrations cause the machine tools to make minor cutting errors, hurting the quality of the product. Operators listen for vibrations and then adjust the cutting speed to compensate. In older, slower machine tools, the cutting speed would be reduced to eliminate the vibrations, but the amount of time needed to fin ish the product would increase as a result. In newer, high-speed CNC machines, increasing the cutting speed normally eliminates the vibrations and reduces production time. CNC operators also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled, because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat. Since CNC machines can operate with limited input from the operator, a single operator may monitor several machines simultane ously. Typically, an operator might monitor two machines cutting relatively simple parts cut from softer materials, while devoting most of his or her attention to a third machine cutting a much more difficult part cut from a hard metal, such as stainless steel. Opera tors are often expected to carefully schedule their work so that all of the machines are always operating. Working Conditions Most machine shops are clean, well lit, and ventilated. Most modem CNC machines are partially or totally enclosed, minimizing the 586 Occupational Outlook Handbook H• Computer control operators load programs into a machine. exposure of workers to noise, debris, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Nevertheless, working around ma chine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to dampen machinery noise. They also must exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lubricants. The job requires stamina because operators stand most of the day and, at times, may need to lift moderately heavy workpieces. Numerical tool and process control programmers work on desktop computers in offices that typically are near, but separate from, the shop floor. These work areas usually are clean, well lit, and free of machine noise. Numerical tool and process control programmers occasionally need to enter the shop floor to monitor CNC machin ing operations. On the shop floor, CNC programmers encounter the same hazards and exercise the same safety precautions as do CNC operators. Most computer control programmers and operators work a 40hour week. CNC operators increasingly work evening and weekend shifts as companies justify investments in more expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. Overtime is common during peak production periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer control programmers and operators train in various ways—in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in secondary, vocational, or postsecondary schools. In general, the more skills needed for the job, the more education and train ing that is needed to qualify. For example, a growing number of computer control programmers and the more skilled operators are receiving their formal training from community or techni cal colleges. For some specialized types of programming, such as that needed to produce complex parts for the aerospace or shipbuilding industries, employers may prefer individuals with a degree in engineering. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Less-skilled CNC operators (button-pushers) may need only a couple of weeks of on-the-job training. Employers prefer to hire workers who have a basic knowledge of computers and electronics and experience with machine tools. In fact, many entrants to these occupations have previously worked as machinists or machine setters, operators, and tenders. Due to a shortage of applicants with the appropriate training, many employ ers are providing introductory courses in operating metalworking machines, safety, and blueprint reading. Persons interested in becoming computer control programmers or operators should be mechanically inclined and able to work independently and do highly accurate work. High school or vocational school courses in mathemat ics (trigonometry and algebra), blueprint reading, computer programming, metalworking, and drafting are recommended. Apprenticeship programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn fil ing, handtapping, and dowel fitting, as well as the operation of various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, programming, blueprint reading, CAD software, safety, and shop practices. Skilled computer control programmers and operators need an understanding of the machining process, includ ing the complex physics that occur at the cutting point. Thus, most training programs teach CNC operators and programmers to perform operations on manual machines prior to operating CNC machines. To boost the skill level of all metalworkers and to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges have recently begun implementing curriculums in corporating national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curriculum and passing a performance requirement and written exam, trainees are granted a NIMS credential that provides formal recognition of competency in a metalworking field. Completion of a formal certification program provides expanded career op portunities. Classroom training includes an introduction to computer numeri cal control, the basics of programming, and more complex topics, such as computer-aided manufacturing. Trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of an experienced programmer. Al though machinery manufacturers are trying to standardize program ming languages, there are numerous languages in use. Because of this, computer control programmers and operators should be able to learn new programming languages. As new automation is introduced, computer control pro grammers and operators normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training usually is provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local techni cal school. Many employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses. Computer control programmers and operators can advance in several ways. Experienced CNC operators may become CNC pro grammers, and some are promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops. Employment Computer control programmers and operators held about 143,000 jobs in 2004, mostly working in machine shops, plastics products manufacturing, machinery manufacturing, or transportation equip ment manufacturing making mostly aerospace and automobile parts. Although computer control programmers and operators work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in the areas where manufacturing is concentrated. Production Occupations Job Outlook Computer control programmers and operators should have good job opportunities, despite the projected decline in employment. Due to the limited number of people entering training programs, employers are expected to continue to have difficulty finding workers with the necessary skills and knowledge. Employment of both computer-controlled machine tool operators and numerical tool and process control programmers is expected to decline through 2014. While CNC machine tools will be increasingly used, advances in CNC machine tools and manufacturing technology will further automate the production process, boosting CNC operator productivity and limiting employment. The demand for computer control programmers also will be negatively affected by the increas ing use of software (CAD/CAM) that automatically translates part and product designs into CNC machine tool instructions. Employment levels of computer control programmers and opera tors are influenced by economic cycles—as the demand for machined goods falls, programmers and operators involved in production may be laid off or forced to work fewer hours. Earnings Median hourly earnings of computer-controlled machine tool opera tors, metal and plastic, were $14.75 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.65 and $18.21. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $9.47, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $21.67. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, in May 2004 were: Metalworking machinery manufacturing........................................ $16.34 Other fabricated metal product manufacturing.............................. 15.62 Machine shops; turned product; and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing..................................................................... 14.73 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing................................................. 13.55 Plastics product manufacturing........................................................ 11.78 Median hourly earnings of numerical tool and process control pro grammers were $19.31 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.67 and $24.00. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.89, while the top 10 percent earned more than $28.89. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to computer control programmers and operators are other metal and plastic working occupations, which include machinists; tool and die makers; machine setters, operators, and ten ders—metal and plastic; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Numerical tool and process control programmers apply their knowledge of machining operations, metals, blueprints, and machine programming to write programs that ran machine tools. Computer programmers also write detailed programs to meet precise specifications. Sources of Additional Information For general information about computer control programmers and operators, contact: >• Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org For a list of training centers and apprenticeship programs, contact: >- National Tooling and Metalworking Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org For general occupational information, including a list of training programs, contact: >- Precision Metalforming Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 587 Machinists (Q*NET 51-4041.00) Significant Points • • • Machinists learn in apprenticeship programs, informal ly on the job, and in vocational schools or community or technical colleges. Many entrants previously have worked as machine set ters, operators, or tenders. Job opportunities are expected to be good. Nature of the Work Machinists use machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and machining centers, to produce precision metal parts. Although they may produce large quantities of one part, precision machinists often produce small batches or one-of-a-kind items. They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals and their skill with machine tools to plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Before they machine a part, machinists must carefully plan and prepare the operation. These workers first review electronic or written blueprints or specifications for a job. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece (the piece of steel, aluminum, titanium, plastic, silicon or any other material that is being shaped), how fast to feed the workpiece into the machine, and how much material to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job, plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations, and mark the workpiece to show where cuts should be made. After this layout work is completed, machinists perform the nec essary machining operations. They position the workpiece on the machine tool—drill press, lathe, milling machine, or other type of machine—set the controls, and make the cuts. During the machin ing process, they must constantly monitor the feed rate and speed of the machine. Machinists also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled, because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat. The temperature of the workpiece is a key concern because most metals expand when heated; machinists must adjust the size of their cuts relative to the temperature. Some rare but increasingly popular metals, such as titanium, are machined at extremely high temperatures. Machinists detect some problems by listening for specific sounds—for example, a dull cutting tool or excessive vibration. Dull cutting tools are removed and replaced. Cutting speeds are adjusted to compensate for harmonic vibrations, which can decrease the accuracy of cuts, particularly on newer high-speed spindles and lathes. After the work is completed, machinists use both simple and highly sophisticated measuring tools to check the accuracy of their work against blueprints. Some machinists, often called production machinists, may pro duce large quantities of one part, especially parts requiring the use of complex operations and great precision. Many modem machine tools are computer numerically controlled (CNC). CNC machines, following a computer program, control the cutting tool speed, change dull tools, and perform all of the necessary cuts to create a part. Frequently, machinists work with computer control programmers to determine how the automated equipment will cut a part. (See the statement on computer control programmers and operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) The programmer may determine the path of the cut, while the machinist determines the type of cutting tool, the speed of the cutting tool, and the feed rate. Because most machinists train 588 Occupational Outlook Handbook in CNC programming, they may write basic programs themselves and often set offsets (modify programs) in response to problems en countered during test runs. After the production process is designed, relatively simple and repetitive operations normally are performed by machine setters, operators, and tenders. (See the statement on machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some manufacturing techniques employ automated parts loaders, automatic tool changers, and computer controls, allowing machine tools to operate without anyone present. One production machin ist, working 8 hours a day, might monitor equipment, replace worn cutting tools, check the accuracy of parts being produced, adjust offsets, and perform other tasks on several CNC machines that op erate 24 hours a day (lights-out manufacturing). During lights-out manufacturing, a factory may need only a few machinists to monitor the entire factory. Other machinists do maintenance work—repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. To repair a broken part, main tenance machinists may refer to blueprints and perform the same machining operations that were needed to create the original part. Because the technology of machining is changing rapidly, ma chinists must learn to operate a wide range of machines. Along with operating machines that use metal cutting tools to shape workpieces, machinists operate machines that cut with lasers, water jets, or elec trified wires. While some of the computer controls may be similar, machinists must understand the unique cutting properties of these different machines. As engineers create new types of machine tools and new materials to machine, machinists must constantly learn new machining properties and techniques. Working Conditions Today, most machine shops are relatively clean, well lit, and ventilated. Many computer-controlled machines are partially or totally enclosed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, debris, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machin ing. Nevertheless, working around machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Machinists wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to dampen machinery noise. They also must exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lubricants, although many common water-based lubricants present little hazard. The job requires stamina, because machinists stand most of the day and, at times, may need to lift moderately heavy workpieces. Modem factories extensively employ autoloaders and overhead cranes, reducing heavy lifting. Many machinists work a 40-hour week. Evening and weekend shifts are becoming more common as companies justify investments in more expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. How ever, this trend is somewhat offset by the increasing use of lights-out manufacturing and the use of machine operators for less desirable shifts. Overtime is common during peak production periods. "framing, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machinists train in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in vocational schools, or community or technical colleges. Experience with machine tools is helpful. In fact, many entrants previously have worked as machine setters, operators, or tenders. Persons interested in becoming machinists should be mechanically inclined, have good problem-solving abilities, be able to work independently, and be able to do highly accurate work (tolerances may reach 1/10,000th of an inch) that requires concentration and physical effort. High school or vocational school courses in mathematics (espe cially trigonometry), blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting are highly recommended. Apprenticeship programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction lasting up to 4 years. In shop training, apprentices work almost full time, and are supervised by an experienced machinist while learning to operate various ma chine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, materials science, blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, and quality and safety practices. In addition, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, training in the operation and programming of CNC machine tools has become essential. Appren ticeship classes are often taught in cooperation with local community or vocational colleges. A growing number of machinists learn the trade through 2-year associate degree programs at community or technical colleges. Graduates of these programs still need significant on-the-job experience before they are fully qualified. To boost the skill level of machinists and to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges are implementing curriculums that incorporate national skills stan dards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curriculum and passing a perfor mance requirement and written exam, trainees are granted a NIMS credential, which provides formal recognition of competency in a metalworking field. Completing a recognized certification program provides a machinist with better career opportunities. As new automation is introduced, machinists normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training usually is provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local technical school. Some employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses. Machinists can advance in several ways. Experienced machin ists may become CNC programmers, tool and die makers, or mold makers, or be promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops. Employment Machinists held about 370,000 jobs in 2004. Most machinists work in small machining shops or in manufacturing industries, such as ma chinery manufacturing and transportation equipment manufacturing (motor vehicle parts and aerospace products and parts). Maintenance machinists work in most industries that use production machinery. Job Outlook Machinists use computer controlled machine tools to make parts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Despite relatively slow employment growth, job opportunities for machinists should continue to be good. Many young people with the necessary educational and personal qualifications needed to obtain machining skills often prefer to attend college or may not wish to enter Production Occupations production occupations. Therefore, the number of workers obtaining the skills and knowledge necessary to fill machinist jobs is expected to be less than the number of job openings arising each year from the need to replace experienced machinists who transfer to other occupa tions or retire, and from job growth. Employment of machinists is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period because of rising productivity among these workers and strong foreign com petition. Machinists will become more efficient as a result of the expanded use of and improvements in technologies such as CNC machine tools, autoloaders, and high-speed machining. This allows fewer machinists to accomplish the same amount of work previously performed by more workers. Technology is not expected to affect the employment of machinists as significantly as that of most other production occupations, however, because machinists monitor and maintain many automated systems. Due to modem production techniques, employers prefer workers, such as machinists, who have a wide range of skills and are capable of performing almost any task in a machine shop. Employment levels in this occupation are influenced by eco nomic cycles—as the demand for machined goods falls, machinists involved in production may be laid off or forced to work fewer hours. Employment of machinists involved in plant maintenance, however, often is more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equipment remain critical to manufacturing operations, even when production levels fall. Earnings Median hourly earnings of machinists were $16.33 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.84 and $20.33. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.08, while the top 10 percent earned more than $24.34. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest number of machinists in May 2004 were: Aerospace product and parts manufacturing..................................... $17.78 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing......................................................17.46 Metalworking machinery manufacturing.............................................17.06 Machine shops; turned product; and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing.......................................................................... 15.87 Employment services........................................................................... 11.09 Apprentices earn much less than machinists, but earnings increase quickly as they improve their skills. Also most employers pay for apprentices’ training classes. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to that of machinist are other ma chining occupations, which include tool and die makers; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and computer con trol programmers and operators. Another occupation that requires precision and skill in working with metal is welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about machinists, contact: >- Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org For a list of training centers and apprenticeship programs, contact: >- National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org For general occupational information and a list of training pro grams, contact: ► Precision Metalforming Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 589 Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders—Metal and Plastic (0*NET 51 -4021.00, 51 -4022.00,51 -4023.00, 51 -4031.01,51 -4031.02, 51-4031.03,51-4031.04, 51-4032.00, 51-4033.01,51-4033.02,51-4034.00, 51 -4035.00, 51 -4051.00, 51 -4052.00, 51 -4061.00,51 -4062.00, 51-4071.00, 51-4072.01,51-4072.02,51-4072.03,51-4072.04,51-4072.05, 51-4081.01, 51-4081.02,51-4191.01,51-4191.02,51-4191.03, 51-4192.00, 51-4193.01, 51-4193.02,51-4193.03, 51-4193.04, 51-4194.00, 51-4199.99) Significant Points • Manufacturing industries employ 10 out of 11 workers. • A few weeks of on-the-job training is sufficient for most workers to learn basic machine operations, but a year or more is required to become a highly skilled operator or setter. Employment in most machine setter, operator, and tender occupations will decline over the 2004-14 period as a result of productivity improvements and competition for jobs from abroad. • Nature of the Work Consider the parts of a toaster, such as the metal or plastic housing or the lever that lowers the toast. These parts, and many other metal and plastic products, are produced by machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic. In fact, machine tool operators in the metalworking and plastics industries play a major role in producing most of the consumer products on which we rely daily. In general, these workers can be separated into two groups—those who set up machines for operation and those who tend the machines during production. Setup workers prepare the machines prior to production and may adjust the machinery during its operation. Operators and tenders primarily monitor the machinery during its operation, sometimes loading or unloading the machine or making minor adjustments to the controls. Many workers both set up and operate equipment. Because the setup process requires an under standing of the entire production process, setters usually have more training and are more highly skilled than those who simply operate or tend machinery. As new automation simplifies the setup process, however, less skilled workers also are increasingly able to set up machines for operation. Setters, operators, and tenders usually are identified by the type of machine with which they work. Some examples of specific titles are drilling- and boring-machine toolsetters, milling- and planingmachine tenders, and lathe- and turning-machine tool operators. Job duties usually vary with the size of the firm and the type of machine being operated. Although some workers specialize in one or two types of machinery, many are trained to set up or operate a variety of machines. Increasing automation allows machine setters to operate multiple machines simultaneously. In addition, newer production techniques, such as team-oriented “lean” manufacturing, require machine operators to rotate between different machines. Rotating assignments result in more varied work, but also require workers to have a wider range of skills. Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal set up and tend machines that cut and form all types of metal parts. Setup workers plan and set up the sequence of operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. Often this involves loading a computer program with instructions into the machine’s computer controls. On all machines, including those with computer controls, setup workers respond to prob lems during operation by adjusting the speed, feed and other variables, choosing the proper coolants and lubricants, and selecting the instm- 590 Occupational Outlook Handbook merits or tools for each operation. Using micrometers, gauges, and other precision measuring instruments, they also may compare the completed work with the tolerance limits stated in the specifications. Although there are many different types of metalworking machine tools that require specific knowledge and skills, most operators per form similar tasks. Whether tending grinding machines that remove excess material from the surface of machined products or presses that extrude metal through a die to form wire, operators usually perform simple, repetitive operations that can be learned quickly. Typically, these workers place metal stock in a machine on which the operating specifications have already been set. They may watch one or more machines and make minor adjustments according to their instructions. Regardless of the type of machine they operate, machine tenders usually depend on skilled setup workers for major adjustments when the machines are not functioning properly. Machine setters, operators, and tenders—plastic set up and tend machines that transform plastic compounds—chemical-based prod ucts that can be produced in powder, pellet, or syrup form—into a wide variety of consumer goods such as toys, tubing, and auto parts. These products are manufactured by various methods, of which injection molding is the most common. The injection-molding machine heats and liquefies a plastic compound and forces it into a mold. After the part has cooled and hardened, the mold opens and the part is released. Many common kitchen products are produced with this method. To produce long parts such as pipes or window frames, an extruding ma chine usually is employed. These machines force a plastic compound through a die that contains an opening with the desired shape of the final product. Blow molding is another common plasticsworking tech nique. Blow-molding machines force hot air into a mold that contains a plastic tube. As the air moves into the mold, the tube is inflated to the shape of the mold, and a plastic container is formed. The familiar 2-liter soft-drink bottles are produced by this method. Workers in three distinct specialties-setters, operators, and ten ders—operate injection-molding machines. Most other types of plastic machines function in a similar manner. A typical injection-molding machine may have 25 different controls that can be adjusted. Setters or technicians set up the machines prior to their operation. These workers % » • j » • i .9 ■» • t :»»»«** fl V?, I A machine operator monitors a cutting and grinding machine. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are responsible for repairing any major problem. Operators monitor the many gauges on injection-molding machines, adjusting different inputs, pressures, and speeds to maintain quality. Tenders remove the cooled plastic from the mold, loading the product into boxes. Working Conditions Most machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic work in areas that are clean, well lit, and well ventilated. Never theless, many operators require stamina, because they are on their feet much of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Also, these workers operate powerful, high-speed machines that can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Most operators wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses and earplugs, to protect against flying particles of metal or plastic and against noise from the machines. However, many modern machines are enclosed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, dust, and lubricants used during machining. Other required safety equipment varies by work setting and machine. For example, those in the plastics industry who work near materials that emit dangerous fumes or dust must wear face masks or self-contained breathing apparatus. Most workers in the occupation put in a 40-hour week, but over time is common during periods of increased production. Because many metalworking and plastics working shops operate more than one shift daily, some operators work nights and weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic learn their skills on the job. Trainees begin by observing and assisting experienced workers, sometimes in formal training programs. Under supervision, they may start as tenders, supplying materials, starting and stopping the machine, or removing finished products from it. Then they advance to the more difficult tasks performed by operators, such as adjusting feed speeds, changing cutting tools, or inspecting a finished product for de fects. Eventually, they become responsible for their own machines. The complexity of the equipment largely determines the time required to become an operator. Most operators learn the basic machine operations and functions in a few weeks, but they may need a year or more to become skilled operators or to advance to the more highly skilled job of setter. Although many operators learn on the job, some community colleges and other educational institu tions offer courses and certifications in operating metal and plastics machines. In addition to providing on-the-job training, some em ployers send promising machine tenders to operator classes. Other employers prefer to hire workers who have completed, or currently are enrolled in, a training program. Setters or technicians normally need a thorough knowledge of the machinery and of the products being manufactured, because they often plan the sequence of work, make the first production run, and determine which adjustments need to be made. Strong analytical abilities are particularly important for this job. Some companies have formal training programs for operators and setters; often, the programs combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. Although no special education is required for many jobs in the oc cupation, employers prefer to hire applicants with good basic skills. Many require employees to have a high school education and to read, write, and speak English. Because machinery is becoming more com plex and shop-floor organization is changing, employers increasingly look for persons with good communication and interpersonal skills. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and experience working with machinery also are helpful. Those interested in becoming machine setters, operators, and tenders can improve their employment opportuni ties by completing high school courses in shop and blueprint reading and by gaining a working knowledge of the properties of metals and Production Occupations plastics. A solid math background, including courses in algebra, geom etry, trigonometry, and basic statistics, also is useful. With increasing automation, experience with computers also .is helpful. Job opportunities and advancement can be enhanced as well by be coming certified in a particular machining skill. The National Institute for Metalworking Skills has developed standards for machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal. After taking a course approved by the organization and passing a written exam and performance requirement, the worker is issued a credential that signifies competence in a specific machining operation. The Society of Plastics Industry, the national trade association representing plastics manufacturers, also certifies workers in that industry. To achieve machine-operator certification, 2 years of experience operating a plastics-processing machine is recommended, and one must pass a computer-based exam. Advancement for operators usually takes the form of higher pay, although there are some limited opportunities for operators to advance to new positions as well. For example, they can become multiple-machine operators, setup operators, or trainees for the more highly skilled position of machinist, tool and die maker, or computer-control programmer or operator. (See the statements on machinists, computer control programmers and operators, and tool and die makers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some setup workers may advance to supervisory positions. Employment Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic held about 1.1 million jobs in 2004. Approximately 10 of 11 jobs were found in manufacturing, primarily in fabricated metal product manufac turing, plastics and rubber products manufacturing, primary metal manufacturing, machinery manufacturing, and motor vehicle parts manufacturing. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment of machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic by detailed occupation. Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic........................................................ 251,000 Molding, coremaking, and casting machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic........................................................ 157,000 Grinding, lapping, polishing, and buffing machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic..................................... 101,000 Multiple machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................. 97,000 Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................. 89,000 Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................. 71,000 Metal workers and plastic workers, all other.................................... 55,000 Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................. 42,000 Plating and coating machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................. 40,000 Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................................................ 38,000 Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................................................ 37,000 Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................. 31,000 Heat treating equipment setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................. 26,000 Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners................................................... 21,000 Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders................................... 17,000 Foundry mold and coremakers............................................................. 17,000 Powers and casters, metal..................................*.................................. 14,000 Lay-out workers, metal and plastic..................................................... 11,000 Model makers, metal and plastic........................................................ 8,100 Patternmakers, metal and plastic.......................................................... 6,000 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 591 Job Outlook Overall employment in the various machine setter, operator, and tender occupations is expected to decline over the 2004-14 period. In general, employment of these workers will be affected by technological advances, changing demand for the goods they produce, foreign competition, and the reorganization of production processes. Despite the overall employment decline, a large number of machine setter, operator, and tender jobs will become available due to an expected surge in retirements as some baby boomers become eligible for retirement by the end of the decade. One of the most important factors influencing employment change in this occupation is the implementation of labor-saving machinery. In order to remain competitive by improving qual ity and lowering production costs, many firms are adopting new technologies, such as computer-controlled machine tools and robots. Computer-controlled equipment allows operators to tend a greater number of machines simultaneously and often makes setup easier, thereby reducing the amount of time setup workers spend on each machine. Robots are being used to load and unload parts from machines. The lower skilled manual machine tool operators and tenders are more likely to be eliminated by these new technologies, because the functions they perform are more easily automated. The demand for machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic largely mirrors the demand for the parts they produce. The consumption of plastic products has grown as they have been substituted for metal goods in many consumer and manufactured products in recent years. The process is likely to continue and should result in stronger demand for machine operators in plastics than in metal. Both the plastics and metal industries, however, face stiff foreign competition that is limiting the demand for domesti cally produced parts. One way in which larger U.S. producers have responded to this competition is by moving production operations to other countries where labor costs are lower. These moves are likely to continue and will further reduce employment opportunities for many machine operators, setters, and tenders— metal and plastic in the United States. Another way domestic manufacturers compete with low-wage foreign competition is by increasing their use of automated systems, which can make manufacturing establishments more competitive by improving their productivity. However, increased automation also limits employment growth. Workers with a thorough background in machine operations, exposure to a variety of machines, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be best able to adjust to the changing environment. In addition, new shop-floor arrange ments will reward workers with good basic mathematics and reading skills, good communication skills, and the ability and willingness to learn new tasks. As workers adapt to team-oriented production methods, those who can operate multiple machines will have the best job opportunities. Earnings Earnings for machine operators can vary by size of the company, union or nonunion status, industry, and skill level and experi ence of the operator. Also, temporary employees, who are being hired in greater numbers, usually get paid less than companyemployed workers. The median hourly earnings in May 2004 for a variety of machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic were: 592 Occupational Outlook Handbook Model makers, metal and plastic........................................................... $21.28 Patternmakers, metal and plastic............................................................ 17.86 Metal workers and plastic workers, all other...................................... 16.15 Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders..................................... 15.74 Lay-out workers, metal and plastic........................................................ 15.65 Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................... 15.04 Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................... 14.91 Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners..................................................... 14.52 Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic 14.33 Heat treating equipment setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................... 14.26 Multiple machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................... 14.06 Pourers and casters, metal........................................................................ 13.92 Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................... 13.69 Foundry mold and coremakers................................................................ 13.37 Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic 13.22 Grinding, lapping, polishing, and buffing machine tool setters, 13.19 operators, and tenders, metal and plastic....................................... Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................... 13.18 Plating and coating machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................... 12.96 Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and 12.45 tenders, metal and plastic................................................................... Molding, coremaking, and casting machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic....................................... 11.63 Related Occupations Workers in occupations closely related to machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic include machinists; tool and die makers; as semblers and fabricators; computer control programmers and operators; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Often, machine operators are responsible for checking the quality of parts being produced, work similar to that of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about metal machine setters, operators, and tenders, contact: >- National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org >- Precision Metalforming Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org >- Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org For information on schools and employers with training programs in plastics, contact: ► Society of Plastics Industry, 1667 K St. NW„ Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.plasticsindustry.org Tool and Die Makers (0*NET 51-4111.00) Significant Points • Most tool and die makers train for 4 or 5 years in ap prenticeships or postsecondary programs; employers typically recommend apprenticeship training. • Employment is projected to decline because of strong foreign competition and advancements in automation. • Excellent job opportunities are expected; employers in certain parts of the country report difficulty attracting applicants. Digitized forwell-trained FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Tool and die makers are among the most highly skilled workers in manufacturing. These workers produce tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices that enable machines to manufacture a variety of products we use daily—from clothing and furniture to heavy equipment and parts for aircraft. Toolmakers craft precision tools and machines that are used to cut, shape, and form metal and other materials. They also produce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled) and gauges and other measuring devices. Die makers construct metal forms (dies) that are used to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for molding plastics, ceramics, and composite materials. Some tool and die makers craft prototypes of parts, and then, working with engineers and designers, determine how best to manufacture the part. In ad dition to developing, designing, and producing new tools and dies, these workers also may repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures. To perform these functions, tool and die makers employ many types of machine tools and precision measuring instruments. They also must be familiar with the machining properties, such as hardness and heat tolerance, of a wide variety of common metals, alloys, plastics, ceramics, and other composite mate rials. As a result, tool and die makers are knowledgeable in machining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading. In fact, tool and die makers often are considered highly specialized machinists. The main difference between tool and die makers and machinists is that machinists normally make a single part during the production process, while tool and die makers make parts and assemble and adjust machines used in the production process. (See the statement on machinists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Traditionally, tool and die makers, working from blueprints, first must plan the sequence of operations necessary to manufacture the tool or die. Next, they measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. At this point, tool and die makers cut, drill, or bore the part as required, check ing to ensure that the final product meets specifications. Finally, these workers assemble the parts and perform finishing jobs such as filing, grinding, and polishing surfaces. While manual machin ing has declined, companies still employ it for some simple and low-quantity parts. Most tool and die makers today use computer-aided design (CAD) to develop products and parts. Specifications entered into computer programs can be used to electronically develop blueprints for the required tools and dies. Numerical tool and process control programmers use computer-aided design or computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) programs to convert electronic drawings into CAM-based computer programs that contain instructions for a sequence of cutting tool operations. (See the statement on computer-control programmers and opera tors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Once these programs are devel oped, computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines follow the set of instructions contained in the program to produce the part. Computer-controlled machine tool operators or machinists normally operate CNC machines; however, tool and die makers are trained in both operating CNC machines and writing CNC programs, and they may perform either task. CNC programs are stored electronically for future use, saving time and increasing worker productivity. After machining the parts, tool and die makers carefully check the accuracy of the parts using many tools, including coordinate measuring machines (CMM), which use software and sensor arms Production Occupations - ;; jrt'tfitW A tool and die maker operates a manual lathe. to compare the dimensions of the part to electronic blueprints. Next, they assemble the different parts into a functioning machine. They file, grind, shim, and adjust the different parts to properly fit them together. Finally, the tool and die makers set up a test run using the tools or dies they have made to make sure that the manufactured parts meet specifications. If problems occur, they compensate by adjusting the tools or dies. Working Conditions Tool and die makers usually work in toolrooms. These areas are quieter than the production floor because there are fewer machines in use at one time. They also are generally kept clean and cool to minimize heat-related expansion of metal workpieces and to accommodate the growing number of computer-operated machines. To minimize the exposure of workers to moving parts, machines have guards and shields. Most computer-controlled machines are totally enclosed, minimizing the exposure of work ers to noise, dust, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Tool and die makers also must follow safety rules and wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal, earplugs to protect against noise, and gloves and masks to reduce exposure to hazardous lubricants and cleaners. These workers also need stamina be cause they often spend much of the day on their feet and may do moderately heavy lifting. Companies employing tool and die makers have traditionally operated only one shift per day. Overtime and weekend work are common, especially during peak production periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most tool and die makers learn their trade through 4 or 5 years of education and training in formal apprenticeships or postsecondary programs. Apprenticeship programs include a mix of classroom instruction and on-the-job-training. According to most employ ers these apprenticeship programs are the best way to learn all aspects of tool and die making. A number of tool and die makers receive most of their formal classroom training from community and technical colleges, often in conjunction with an apprentice ship program. Traditional apprenticeship programs allowed workers to advance by completing a set number of hours of on-the-jobtraining and successfully completing specific courses. The National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS) is developing standards that would replace the required number of hours Digitizednew for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 593 with competency-based tests. Whether competency tests will change the length of the traditional training process will prob ably depend upon the apprentice’s prior experience, dedication, and natural ability. However, the required training courses for a journeyman tool and die maker will continue to take 4-5 years to complete. Even after completing the apprenticeship, tool and die makers still need years of experience to become highly skilled. Most specialize in making certain types of tools, molds, or dies. Tool and die maker trainees learn to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, wire electrical discharge machines, and other machine tools. They also learn to use handtools for fitting and assembling gauges, and other mechanical and metal-forming equipment. In addition, they study metalworking processes, such as heat treating and plating. Classroom training usually consists of tool designing, tool programming, blueprint reading, and, if needed, mathematics courses, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and basic statistics. Tool and die makers increas ingly must have good computer skills to work with CAD/CAM technology, CNC machine tools, and computerized measuring machines. Workers who become tool and die makers without com pleting formal apprenticeships generally acquire their skills through a combination of informal on-the-job training and classroom instruction at a vocational school or community college. They often begin as machine operators and gradually take on more difficult assignments. Many machinists become tool and die makers. Because tools and dies must meet strict specifications—preci sion to one ten-thousandth of an inch is common—the work of tool and die makers requires skill with precision measuring devices and a high degree of patience and attention to detail. Good eyesight is essential. Persons entering this occupation also should be me chanically inclined, able to work and solve problems independently, have strong mathematical skills, and be capable of doing work that requires concentration and physical effort. Employers generally look for someone with a strong edu cational background as an indication that the person can more easily adapt to change, which is a constant in this occupation. As automation continues to change the way tools and dies are made, workers regularly need to update their skills in order to learn how to operate new equipment. Also, as materials such as alloys, ceramics, polymers, and plastics are increasingly used, tool and die makers need to learn new machining techniques to deal with the new materials. There are several ways for skilled workers to advance. Some move into supervisory and administrative positions in their firms or they may start their own shop. Others may take computer courses and become computer-controlled machine tool programmers. With a college degree, a tool and die maker can go into engineering or tool design. Employment Tool and die makers held about 103,000jobs in 2004. Most worked in industries that manufacture metalworking machinery, transporta tion equipment (such as motor vehicle parts and aerospace products), and fabricated metal products, as well as plastics product manufac turing. Although they are found throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Midwest, Northeast, and West, where many of the metalworking industries are located. Job Outlook Despite declining employment, excellent job opportunities are ex pected. Employers in certain parts of the country report difficulty 594 Occupational Outlook Handbook attracting qualified applicants. The number of workers receiving training in this occupation is expected to continue to be fewer than the number of openings created each year by tool and die makers who retire or transfer to other occupations. A major factor limiting the number of people entering the occupation is that many young people who have the educational and personal qualifications necessary to learn tool and die making may prefer to attend college or may not wish to enter production occupations. Employment of tool and die makers is projected to decline over the 2004-14 period because of strong foreign competition and advancements in automation, including CNC machine tools and computer-aided design, that should improve worker produc tivity. On the other hand, tool and die makers play a key role in building and maintaining advanced automated manufacturing equipment. As firms invest in new equipment, modify production techniques, and implement product design changes more rapidly, they will continue to rely heavily on skilled tool and die makers for retooling. Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Workers (O*NET51-4121.01, 51-4121.02, 51-4121.03,51-4121.04, 51-4121.05, 51-4122.01, 51-4122.02, 51-4122.03, 51-4122.04) Significant Points • More than 6 out of 10 jobs are found in manufacturing industries. • Training ranges from a few weeks of school or on-thejob training for low-skilled positions to several years of combined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs. • Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average. Job prospects should be excellent as employers report difficulty finding enough qualified people. • Earnings Median hourly earnings of tool and die makers were $20.55 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.70 and $25.93. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $13.57, while the top 10 percent earned more than $31.19. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of tool and die makers in May 2004 are: Motor vehicle parts manufacturing........................................................ $26.93 Plastics product manufacturing............................................................... 20.17 Forging and stamping............................................................................... 20.09 Metalworking machinery manufacturing............................................. 19.82 Machine shops; turned product; and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing............................................................................... 18.84 Apprentice’s pay is tied to their skill level. As they gain more skills and reach specific levels of performance and experience, their pay increases. Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to the work of tool and die makers are other machining occupations. These include machinists; computer control programmers and operators; and machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic. Another occupation that requires precision and skill in working with metal is welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Like tool and die makers, assemblers and fabricators assemble complex machinery. When measuring parts, tool and die makers use some of the same tools and equipment that inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers use in their jobs. Sources of Additional Information For career information and to have inquiries on training and employ ment referred to member companies, contact: >- Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org For lists of schools and employers with tool and die apprentice ship and training programs, contact: ► National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org For information on careers, education and training, earnings, and apprenticeship opportunities in metalworking, contact: ► Precision Metalforming Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. In this process, heat is applied to metal pieces, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used in shipbuilding, automobile manufacturing and re pair, aerospace applications, and thousands of other manufacturing activities. Welding also is used to join beams when constructing buildings, bridges, and other structures, and to join pipes in pipe lines, power plants, and refineries. Welders use many types of welding equipment set up in a variety of positions, such as flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead. They may perform manual welding, in which the work is entirely con trolled by the welder, or semiautomatic welding, in which the welder uses machinery, such as a wire feeder, to perform welding tasks. There are about 100 different types of welding. Arc welding is the most common type. Standard arc welding involves two large metal alligator clips that carry a strong electrical current. One clip is attached to any part of the workpiece being welded. The second clip is connected to a thin welding rod. When the rod touches the workpiece, a powerful electrical circuit is created. The massive heat created by the electrical current causes both the workpiece and the steel core of the rod to melt together, cooling quickly to form a solid bond. During welding, the flux that surrounds the rod’s core vaporizes, forming an inert gas that serves to protect the weld from atmospheric elements that might weaken it. Welding speed is important. Variations in speed can change the amount of flux applied, weakening the weld, or weakening the surrounding metal by increasing heat exposure. Two common but advanced types of arc welding are Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) and Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. TIG weld ing often is used with stainless steel or aluminum. While TIG uses welding rods, MIG uses a spool of continuously fed wire, which allows the welder to join longer stretches of metal without stopping to replace the rod. In TIG welding, the welder holds the welding rod in one hand and an electric torch in the other hand. The torch is used to simultaneously melt the rod and the work piece. In MIG welding, the welder holds the wire feeder, which functions like the alligator clip in arc welding. Instead of using gas flux surrounding the rod, TIG and MIG protect the initial weld from the environment by blowing inert gas onto the weld. Like arc welding, soldering and brazing use molten metal to join two pieces of metal. However, the metal added during the process has a Production Occupations melting point lower than that of the workpiece, so only the added metal is melted, not the workpiece. Soldering uses metals with a melting point below 800 degrees Fahrenheit; brazing uses metals with a higher melt ing point. Because soldering and brazing do not melt the workpiece, these processes normally do not create the distortions or weaknesses in the workpiece that can occur with welding. Soldering commonly is used to join electrical, electronic, and other small metal parts. Brazing produces a stronger joint than does soldering, and often is used to join metals other than steel, such as brass. Brazing can also be used to apply coatings to parts to reduce wear and protect against corrosion. Skilled welding, soldering, and brazing workers generally plan work from drawings or specifications or use their knowledge of fluxes and base metals to analyze the parts to be joined. These work ers then select and set up welding equipment, execute the planned welds, and examine welds to ensure that they meet standards or specifications. They are even examining the weld while they’re welding. By observing problems with the weld, they compensate by adjusting the speed, voltage, amperage, or feed of the rod. Highly skilled welders often are trained to work with a wide variety of ma terials in addition to steel, such as titanium, aluminum, or plastics. Some welders have more limited duties, however. They perform routine jobs that already have been planned and laid out and do not require extensive knowledge of welding techniques. Automated welding is used in an increasing number of production processes. In these instances, a machine or robot performs the weld ing tasks while monitored by a welding machine operator. Welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders follow specified layouts, work orders, or blueprints. Operators must load parts correctly and constantly monitor the machine to ensure that it produces the desired bond. The work of arc, plasma, and oxy-gas cutters is closely related to that of welders. However, instead ofjoining metals, cutters use the heat from an electric arc, a stream of ionized gas (plasma), or burning gases to cut and trim metal objects to specific dimensions. Cutters also dismantle large objects, such as ships, railroad cars, automobiles, buildings, or aircraft. Some operate and monitor cutting machines similar to those used by welding machine operators. Plasma cutting has been increasing in popularity because, unlike other methods, it can cut a wide variety of metals, including stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. Working Conditions Welding, soldering, and brazing workers often are exposed to a number of hazards, including the intense light created by the arc, poisonous fumes, and very hot materials. They wear safety shoes, 595 goggles, hoods with protective lenses, and other devices designed to prevent bums and eye injuries and to protect them from falling objects. They normally work in well-ventilated areas to limit their exposure to fumes. Automated welding, soldering, and brazing machine operators are not exposed to as many dangers, however, and a face shield or goggles usually provide adequate protection for these workers. Welders and cutters may work outdoors, often in inclement weather, or indoors, sometimes in a confined area designed to contain sparks and glare. Outdoors, they may work on a scaffold or platform high off the ground. In addition, they may be required to lift heavy objects and work in a variety of awkward positions, while bending, stooping, or standing to perform work overhead. Although about 52 percent of welders, solderers, and brazers work a 40-hour week, overtime is common, and some welders work up to 70 hours per week. Welders also may work in shifts as long as 12 hours. Some welders, solderers, brazers, and machine operators work in factories that operate around the clock, necessitating shift work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for welding, soldering, and brazing workers can range from a few weeks of school or on-the-job training for low-skilled positions to several years of combined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs. Formal training is available in high schools, vocational schools, and postsecondary institutions, such as vocational-technical institutes, community colleges, and private welding schools. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. While some employers provide basic training, they prefer to hire workers with experience or more formal training. Courses in blueprint reading, shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, and metallurgy are helpful. An understanding of electricity also is very helpful and knowledge of computers is gaining importance, especially for welding, soldering, and brazing machine operators, who are becoming more responsible for the programming of computer-controlled machines, including robots. Some welders become certified, a process whereby the employer sends a worker to an institution, such as an independent testing lab, equipment manufacturer, or technical school, to weld a test specimen according to specific codes and standards required by the employer. Testing procedures are based on the standards and codes set by industry associations with which the employer may be affiliated. If the welding inspector at the examining institution determines that the worker has performed according to the employer’s guidelines, the inspector will then certify that the welder being tested is able to work with a particular welding procedure. Welding, soldering, and brazing workers need good eyesight, hand-eye coordination, and manual dexterity. They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. In addition, welders increasingly need to be willing to receive training and perform tasks in other production jobs. Welders can advance to more skilled welding jobs with additional training and experience. For example, they may become welding technicians, supervisors, inspectors, or instructors. Some experi enced welders open their own repair shops. Employment SfilllS ____________ Eye protection is important during arc welding. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Welding, soldering, and brazing workers held about 429,000 jobs in 2004. Of these jobs, more than 6 of every 10 were found in manu facturing. Jobs were concentrated in fabricated metal product manu facturing, transportation equipment manufacturing (motor vehicle body and parts and ship and boat building), machinery manufacturing (agriculture, construction, and mining machinery), architectural and structural metals manufacturing, and construction. Most jobs for welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and 596 Occupational Outlook Handbook tenders were found in the same manufacturing industries as skilled welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Job Outlook Employment of welding, soldering, and brazing workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period. Despite this, job prospects should be excellent as employers report difficulty finding enough qualified people. In addition, many openings are expected to arise as a large number of workers retire over the next decade. The major factor affecting employment of welders is the health of the industries in which they work. The manufacturing sector, which employs the most welding, soldering, and brazing workers, is expected to continue to decline as more manufacturing moves overseas. Because almost every manufacturing industry uses welding at some stage of manufacturing or in the repair and maintenance of equipment, this overall decline will affect the demand for welders, although some industries will fare better than others. The construc tion industry is expected to have solid growth over the next decade and an increasing demand for welders. Government funding for shipbuilding as well as for infrastructure repairs and improvements are expected to generate additional welding jobs. Pressures to improve productivity and hold down labor costs are leading many companies to invest more in automation, especially computer-controlled and robotically controlled welding machinery. This will reduce the demand for some welders, solderers, and brazers because many repetitive jobs are being automated. The growing use of automation, however, should increase demand for welding, solder ing, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders. Welders working on construction projects or in equipment repair will not be affected by technology change to the same extent, because their jobs are often unique and not as easily automated. Despite slower-than-average job growth, technology is creating more uses for welding in the workplace and expanding employment opportu nities. For example, new ways are being developed to bond dissimilar materials and nonmetallic materials, such as plastics, composites, and new alloys. Also, laser beam and electron beam welding, new fluxes, and other new technologies and techniques are improving the results of weld ing, making it useful in a wider assortment of applications. Improvements in technology have also boosted welding productivity, making welding more competitive with other methods of joining materials. Earnings Median hourly earnings of welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers were $14.72 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.90 and $18.05. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $9.79, while the top 10 percent earned over $22.20. The range of earnings of welders reflects the wide range of skill levels. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers in May 2004 were: Motor vehicle parts manufacturing................................................. $ 16.47 Agriculture, construction, and mining machinery manufacturing.. 14.12 Architectural and structural metals manufacturing........................ 13.98 Commercial and industrial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance.................. 13.45 Motor vehicle body and trailer manufacturing.............................. 13.45 Median hourly earnings of welding, soldering, and brazing ma chine setters, operators, and tenders were $14.32 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.73 and $17.78. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $9.63, while the top 10 percent earned over $23.54. Median hourly earnings in motor vehicle parts manufacturing, the industry employing the largest numbers of weld ing machine operators in May 2004, were $15.43. Many welders belong to unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing, Pipefitting, Sprinkler Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America. Related Occupations Welding, soldering, and brazing workers are skilled metal workers. Other metal workers include machinists; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; computer control programmers and operators; tool and die makers; sheet metal workers; and boil ermakers. Assemblers and fabricators of electrical and electronic equipment often assemble parts using soldering. Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welding, soldering, and brazing workers, contact local employers, the local office of the State employment service, or schools providing weld ing, soldering, or brazing training. Information on careers and educational opportunities in welding is available from: >- American Welding Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. Internet: http://www.aws.org Printing Occupations Bookbinders and Bindery Workers (0*NET 51 -5011.01, 51 -5011.02, 51 -5012.00) Significant Points • Most bookbinders and bindery workers train on the job. • Employment is expected to decline, reflecting the use of more productive machinery and the growth of im ports of printed material that is already bound. • Opportunities for hand bookbinders are limited because only a small number of establishments do this highly work. Digitized forspecialized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The process of combining printed sheets into finished products such as books, magazines, catalogs, folders, directories is known as “binding.” Binding involves cutting, folding, gathering, gluing, stapling, stitching, trimming, sewing, wrapping, and other finish ing operations. Bindery workers set up, operate, and maintain the machines that perform these various tasks. Job duties depend on the kind of material being bound. In libraries where repair work on rare books is needed, bookbinders sew, stitch, or glue the assembled printed sheets, shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines, and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are created separately, and glued, pasted, or stitched onto the book bodies. The books then undergo a variety of finishing operations, often including wrapping in paper Production Occupations jackets. In establishments that print new books, this work is done mechanically. In firms that do edition binding, workers bind books produced in large numbers, or “runs.” A small number of bookbinders work in hand binder ies. These highly skilled workers design original or special bindings for limited editions, or restore and rebind rare books. Library binders repair books and provide other specialized binding services to libraries. Some types of binding and finishing jobs consist of only one step. Preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, for example, requires only folding. Binding of books and magazines, on the other hand, requires a number of steps. Workers first assemble the books and magazines from large, flat, printed sheets of paper. They then oper ate machines that first fold printed sheets into “signatures,” which are groups of pages arranged sequentially. They then assemble the signatures in sequence and join them by means of a saddle-stitch process or perfect binding (where no stitches are used). Bookbinders and bindery workers in small shops may perform many binding tasks, while those in large shops usually are as signed only one or a few operations, such as assembling sheets in a specified sequence, performing perfect binding, or operating laminating machinery. Others specialize as folder operators or cutter operators, and may perform adjustments and minor repairs to equipment as needed. Working Conditions Binderies often are noisy and jobs can be fairly strenuous, requiring considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. Binding often resembles an assembly line on which workers perform repetitive tasks. The jobs also may require stooping, kneeling, and crouching, but equipment is now widely available, such as scissor lifts, that minimize such activity out of concern for ergonomics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bookbinders and bindery workers learn the craft through on-thejob training. Inexperienced workers usually are assigned simple tasks such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding machines. They learn basic binding skills, including the characteristics of paper and how to cut large sheets of paper into different sizes with the least amount of waste. Usually, it takes 1 to 3 months to learn to operate the simpler machines but it can take up to 1 year to become completely familiar with more complex equipment, such as computerized binding machines. On letterpress equipment, as workers gain experience they advance to more difficult tasks, such as embossing and adding holograms. As workers advance, they learn to operate more types of equipment. A bindery worker uses a machine to install a plastic spine on a Digitizeddocument. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 597 Formal apprenticeships are not as common as they used to be, but still are offered by some employers. Apprenticeships provide a more structured program that enables workers to acquire the high levels of specialization and skill needed for some bindery jobs. High school students interested in bindery careers should take shop courses or attend a vocational-technical high school. Occupa tional skill centers also provide an introduction to a bindery career. To keep pace with changing technology, retraining is increasingly important for bindery workers. Students with computer skills and mechanical aptitude are especially in demand. Bindery workers need basic mathematics and language skills. Bindery work requires careful attention to detail; accuracy, patience, neatness, and good eyesight also are important. Manual dexterity is essential in order to count, insert, and fold. Mechanical aptitude is needed to operate the newer, more automated equipment. Artistic ability and imagination are necessary for hand bookbinding. Training in graphic communications also can be an asset. Vocational-technical institutes offer postsecondary programs in the graphic arts, as do some skill-updating or retraining programs and community colleges. Some updating and retraining programs require students to have bindery experience; other programs are made available by unions to their members. Four-year colleges also offer programs, but their emphasis is on preparing people for careers as graphic artists, educators, or managers in the graphic arts field. Without additional training, advancement opportunities outside of bindery work are limited. In large binderies, experienced bookbind ers or bindery workers may advance to supervisory positions. Employment In 2004, bookbinders and bindery workers held about 81,000 jobs, including 7,200 as skilled bookbinders and 74,000 as bindery work ers. More than 3 out of 4 bindery jobs are in commercial printing plants. Traditionally, the largest employers of bindery workers were bindery trade shops, which are companies that specialize in providing binding services for printers without binderies or whose printing production exceeds their binding capabilities. However, this type of binding is now being done increasingly in-house, and is now called in-line finishing. The publishing industry employed nearly 1 in 10 bindery workers and the advertising industry an additional number. About one in twenty work in the employment services industry, which supplies temporary workers to companies that need their services. Job Outlook Overall employment of bookbinders and bindery workers is ex pected to decline through 2014 as demand for printed material slows and productivity in printing and bindery operations increases. Contributing to this situation is the trend toward outsourcing of work to firms in foreign countries, where books and other materi als with long lead times can be produced more cheaply. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation, many of whom will be retiring in the next decade. Computers have caused binding to become increasingly au tomated. New computer-operated “in-line” equipment performs a number of operations in sequence, beginning with the presses’ output and ending with a finished product. Technological advances such as automatic tabbers, counters, palletizers, and joggers have reduced labor requirements and have induced printing companies to acquire in-house binding and finishing equipment and maintain a permanent staff to operate them. Growth in demand for specialized bindery workers who assist skilled bookbinders will be slowed as binding machinery continues 598 Occupational Outlook Handbook to become more efficient. New technology requires a considerable investment in capital expenditures and employee training, so com puter skills and mechanical aptitude are increasingly important for bindery workers. Because the number of establishments that do hand bookbind ing is small, opportunities for hand bookbinders will be limited. Though experienced workers will continue to have the best opportunities for these specialist jobs, the work done by hand bookbinders is being replaced by other activities in the bindingand-finishing field. Earnings Median hourly earnings of bookbinders were $13.71 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.22 and $18.14 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.67, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.50. Median hourly earnings of bindery workers were $11.31 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.92 and $15.06 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.38, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.30. Workers covered by union contracts usually had higher earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include prepress technicians and workers; printing machine operators; ma chine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and various other precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local printing industry associations, local bookbinding shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications Internationa] Union, or local offices of the State employment ser vice. For general information on bindery occupations, write to: > Bindery Industries Association, International, 100 Daingerfield Road, Alexandria, VA 22314. >- Graphic Communications Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 1900 L St. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-5007. Internet: http://www.gciu.org For information on careers and training programs in printing and the graphic arts, contact: >• Graphic Arts Education and Research Foundation, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191-5468. Internet: http://www.makeyourmark.org ► Printing Industries of America/Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. >• NPES The Association for Suppliers of Printing Publishing, and Convert ing Technologies, 1899 Preston White Dr.,Reston, VA20191-4367. Internet: http://www.npes.org/education/indtx.htmI Prepress Technicians and Workers (0*NET 51 -5021.00, 51 -5022.01,51 -5022.02, 51 -5022.03, 51 -5022.04, 51-5022.05, 51-5022.06, 51-5022.07, 51-5022.08, 51-5022.09, 51 5022.10, 51 -5022.11,51 -5022.12, 51 -5022.13) Significant Points • Most prepress technician jobs now require formal post secondary graphic communications training in the vari ous types of computer software used in digital imaging. • Employment is projected to decline as the increased use of computers in typesetting and page layout re fewer prepress technicians. Digitized forquires FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The printing process has three stages—prepress, press, and binding or postpress. In small print shops, job printers are usually respon sible for all three stages. They check proofs for errors and print clarity and correct mistakes, print the job, and attach each copy’s pages together. In most printing firms, however, each of the stages is the responsibility of a specialized group of workers. Prepress technicians and workers are responsible for the first stage, preparing the material for printing presses. They perform a variety of tasks involved with transforming text and pictures into finished pages and making printing plates of the pages. Advances in computer software and printing technology con tinue to change prepress work. Most customers today are able to provide printers with pages of material that look like the desired finished product they want printed and bound in volume. Using a process called “desktop publishing,” customers are increas ingly using their own computers to do much of the typesetting and page layout work formerly done by designers on artboards. Much of this work is now done by desktop publishers or graphic designers with knowledge of publishing software. (Sections on desktop publishers and graphic designers appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) It is increasingly common for prepress technicians or other printing workers to receive files from the customer on a computer disk or submitted electronically via e-mail or “file transfer protocol”, known as “ftp”, that contains typeset material already laid out in pages. Prepress work is now done with the use of digital imaging technology by prepress technicians known as “preflight techni cians” or production coordinators. Using this technology, these technicians take the electronic files received from customers, check it for completeness, and format it into pages using electronic page layout systems. Even though the pages may already be laid out, they still may have to be formatted to fit the dimensions of the paper stock to be used. When color printing is required, the technicians use digital color page-makeup systems to electronically produce an image of the printed pages, then use off-press color proofing systems to print a copy, or “proof,” of the pages as they will ap pear when printed. The technician then has the proofs delivered or mailed to the customer for a final check. Once the customer gives the “OK to print,” technicians use laser “imagesetters” to expose digital images of the pages directly onto thin aluminum printing plates. Platemakers for a long time used a photographic process to make printing plates. The flat, a layout sheet onto which a negative has been attached, was placed on top of a thin metal plate coated with a light-sensitive resin. Exposure to ultraviolet light activated the chemical in parts of the plate not protected by the film’s dark areas. The plate was then developed in a solution that removes the unexposed nonimage area, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate exposed to the light hardened and became water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text and images to be printed. Now, the printing industry has largely moved to technology known as “direct-to-plate”, by which the prepress technicians send the data directly to a plating system, by-passing the need for strip ping film onto a flat. During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal nonimage areas, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were exposed to light. Next, the plate comes in contact with a rub ber roller covered with oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text is transferred to paper. Production Occupations T/~- The job ofprepress technicians has become highly computerized. Working Conditions Prepress technicians and workers usually work in clean, air-condi tioned areas with little noise. Some workers may develop eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, or musculoskeletal problems such as backaches. Those platemakers who still work with toxic chemicals face the hazard of skin irritations. Workers are often subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Prepress employees usually work an 8-hour day. Some work ers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Digital imaging technology has largely replaced cold type print technology. Instead of painstakingly taping pieces of photographic negatives to flats, today’s prepress technicians use computer soft ware skills to electronically modify and lay out the material; in some cases, the first time the material appears on paper is when the final product rolls off the printing press. Traditionally, prepress technicians and workers started as helpers and were trained on the job, with some jobs requiring years of experience performing the detailed handwork to become skillful enough to perform even difficult tasks quickly. Today, persons seeking to enter prepress technician jobs require formal postsecondary graphic communica tions training in the various types of computer software used in digital imaging. Postsecondary graphic communications programs are avail able from a variety of sources. For beginners, 2-year associate degree programs offered by community and junior colleges and technical schools, and some 4-year bachelor’s degree programs in graphic design colleges teach the latest prepress skills and allow students to practice applying them. However, bachelor’s programs usually are intended for students who may eventually move into management positions in printing or design jobs. Community and junior colleges, 4-year colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, industry-sponsored update and retraining programs, and private trade and technical schools all also offer prepress-related courses for workers who do not wish to enroll in a degree program. Many workers with experience in other printing jobs take a few college graphic communica tions courses to upgrade their skills and qualify for prepress jobs. Prepress training designed to train skilled workers already employed in the printing industry also is offered through unions infor theFRASER printing industry. Many employers view individuals with Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 599 a combination of experience in the printing industry and formal training in the new digital technology as the best candidates for prepress jobs. The experience of these applicants in printing press operator or other jobs provides them with an understand ing of how printing plants operate, familiarizes them with basic prepress functions, and demonstrates their reliability and interest in advancing in the industry. Employers prefer workers with good communication skills, both oral and written, for prepress jobs. Prepress technicians and workers should be able to deal courteously with people because, when prepress problems arise, they sometimes have to contact the customer to resolve them. Also, in small shops, they may take customer orders. Persons interested in working for firms using advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers. Mathematical skills also are essential for operating many of the software packages used to run modern, computerized prepress equipment. At times, prepress personnel may have to perform computations in order to estimate job costs. Prepress technicians and workers need good manual dexter ity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, also are needed assets. Artistic ability is often a plus. Employers also seek persons who possess an even temperament and an ability to adapt, important qualities for workers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to use new software or operate new equipment. Employment Prepress technicians and workers overall held about 141,000 jobs in 2004. Of these, approximately 63,000 were employed as job printers; the remainder was employed as prepress technicians and other prepress workers. Most prepress jobs are found in the printing industry, while newspaper publishing employs the second largest number of prepress technicians and workers. The printing and publishing industries are two of the most geo graphically dispersed in the United States, and prepress jobs are found throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large metropolitan areas such as Chicago, Los Angeles-Long Beach, New York City, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Philadelphia, Boston, and Washington, DC. Job Outlook Overall employment of prepress technicians and workers is expected to decline through 2014. Demand for printed material should con tinue to grow, spurred by rising levels of personal income, increas ing school enrollments, higher levels of educational attainment, and expanding markets. But the use of computers and publishing software—often by the clients of the printing company—will result in rising productivity of prepress technicians. Computer software now allows office workers to specify text typeface and style, and to format pages at a desktop computer ter minal, shifting many prepress functions away from the traditional printing plants into advertising and public relations agencies, graphic design firms, and large corporations. Many companies are turning to in-house desktop publishing as page layout and graphic design capabilities of computer software have improved and become less expensive and more user-friendly. Some firms are finding it less costly to prepare their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. At newspapers, writ ers and editors also are doing more composition using publishing software. Rapid growth in the use of desktop publishing software already has eliminated most prepress typesetting and composition 600 Occupational Outlook Handbook technician jobs associated with the older technologies, such as cold-type. However, opportunities will be favorable for prepress technicians with strong computer skills, such as preflight techni cians, who are employed to check materials prepared by clients and adapt it for printing. In order to compete in the desktop publishing environment, commercial printing companies are adding desktop publishing and electronic prepress work to the list of services they provide. Electronic prepress technicians, digital proofers, platemakers, and graphic designers are using new equipment and ever-changing soft ware to design and layout publications and complete their printing more quickly. The increasing range of services offered by printing companies using new digital technologies mean that opportunities in prepress work will be best for those with computer backgrounds who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology or graphic communications. Workers with this background will be better able to adapt to the continuing evolution of publishing and printing technology. Earnings Median hourly earnings of prepress technicians and workers were $15.30 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.69 and $20.01 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.06, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.82 an hour. For job printers, median hourly earnings were $15.41 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.00 and $20.04 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.57, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.05 an hour. Median hourly earnings in commercial printing, the industry employing the largest number of prepress technicians and work ers, were $15.91 in May 2004, while the figure for these workers in the newspaper, periodical, and book publishing industry was $14.22 an hour. For job printers, median hourly earnings in com mercial printing in May 2004 were $15.67, while in the newspaper, periodical, and book publishing industry median hourly earnings were $15.63. Wage rates for prepress technicians and workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, size of firm, and union membership status. Related Occupations Prepress technicians and workers use artistic skills in their work. These skills also are essential for artists and related workers, graphic designers, and desktop publishers. Moreover, many of the skills used in Web site design also are employed in prepress technology. In addition to typesetters, other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards include data entry and information process ing workers. Prepress technicians* work also is tied in closely with that of printing machine operators, including job printers. Sources of Additional Information Details about training programs may be obtained from local employ ers such as newspapers and printing shops, or from local offices of the State employment service. For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to: >■ Graphic Arts Education and Research Foundation, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191-5468. Internet: http://www.makeyourmark.org ► Graphic Communications Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-5007. Internet: http://www.gciu.org >■ Printing Industries of America/Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, Run Rd„ Sewickley, PA 15143-2324. Digitized200 forDeer FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Printing Machine Operators (0*NET 51-5023.01, 51-5023.02, 51-5023.03, 51-5023.04, 51-5023.05, 51-5023.06, 51-5023.07, 51-5023.08, 51-5023.09) Significant Points • Most printing machine operators are trained on the job. • Those skilled in digital printing operations will have the best job opportunities as more printing firms convert to this printing process because of the rising demand for customized print jobs. • The expected retirements of skilled press operators will create openings for workers with the proper training. Nature of the Work Printing machine operators, also known as press operators, pre pare, operate, and maintain the printing presses in a pressroom. Duties of printing machine operators vary according to the type of press they operate—offset lithography, gravure, flexography, screen printing, letterpress, and digital. Offset lithography, which transfers an inked impression from a rubber-covered cylinder to paper or other material, is the dominant printing process. With gravure, the recesses on an etched plate or cylinder are inked and pressed to paper. Flexography is a form of rotary printing in which ink is applied to a surface by a flexible rubber print ing plate with a raised image area. Use of flexography should increase over the next decade, but letterpress, in which an inked, raised surface is pressed against paper, remains in existence only as specialty printing. In addition to the major printing processes, plateless or nonimpact processes are coming into general use. Plateless processes—including digital, electrostatic, and ink-jet printing—are used for copying, duplicating, and document and specialty printing, usually by quick and in-house printing shops, and increasingly by commercial printers for short-run jobs and variable data printing. To prepare presses for printing, machine operators install and adjust the printing plate, adjust pressure, ink the presses, load paper, and adjust the press to the paper size. Press operators ensure that paper and ink meet specifications, and adjust margins and the flow of ink to the inking rollers accordingly. They then feed paper through the press cylinders and adjust feed and tension controls. However, new technology becoming available skips these steps and sends the files directly to the press. While printing presses are running, press operators monitor their operation and keep the paper feeders well stocked. They make adjustments to correct uneven ink distribution, speed, and temperatures in the drying chamber, if the press has one. If paper jams or tears and the press stops, which can happen with some offset presses, operators quickly correct the problem to minimize downtime. Similarly, operators working with other high-speed presses constantly look for problems, making quick corrections to avoid expensive losses of paper and ink. Throughout the run, operators must regularly pull sheets to check for any printing imperfections, though much of this checking for quality is now being by done computers. In most shops, press operators also perform preventive mainte nance. They oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs. Machine operators ’ j obs differ from one shop to another because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Small commercial shops are operated by one person and tend to have relatively small presses, which print only one or two colors at a time. Operators Production Occupations mm Printing machine operators are increasingly using computers to operate printing presses. who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Large newspaper, magazine, and book printers use giant “in-line web” presses that require a crew of several press operators and press as sistants. These presses are fed paper in big rolls up to 50 inches or more in width. Presses print the paper on both sides; trim, assemble, score, and fold the pages; and count the finished sections as they come off the press. Most plants have or will soon have installed printing presses with computers and sophisticated instruments to control press operations, making it possible to set up for jobs in less time. Computers allow press operators to perform many of their tasks electronically. With this equipment, press operators monitor the printing process on a control panel or computer monitor, which allows them to adjust the press electronically. 601 instruction and some related classroom training or correspondence school courses. Apprenticeships used to be for a fixed period of time, but now completion is based on ability to demonstrate com petencies. In contrast, formal postsecondary programs in printing equip ment operation offered by technical and trade schools, community colleges, and universities are growing in importance. Some post secondary school programs require 2 years of study and award an associate degree. Postsecondary courses in printing are increasingly important because they provide the theoretical and technical knowl edge needed to operate advanced equipment. Persons who wish to become printing machine operators need mechanical aptitude to make press adjustments and repairs. Oral and writing skills also are required. Operators should possess the mathematical skills necessary to compute percentages, weights, and measures, and to calculate the amount of ink and paper needed to do a job. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, courses in chemistry, electronics, color theory, and phys ics are helpful. Technological changes have had a tremendous effect on the skills needed by printing machine operators. New presses now require operators to possess basic computer skills. Even experienced operators periodically receive retraining and skill updating. For example, printing plants that change from sheet-fed offset presses to digital presses have to retrain the entire press crew because skill requirements for the two types of presses are different. Printing machine operators may advance in pay and respon sibility by working on a more complex printing press. Through experience and demonstrated ability, for example, a one-color sheet-fed press operator may become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to pressroom supervisor and become responsible for an entire press crew. Press operators can also draw on their knowledge of press operations to become cost estimators, providing estimates of printing jobs to potential customers. Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically and mentally demanding, and sometimes tedious. Printing machine operators are on their feet most of the time. Often, operators work under pressure to meet deadlines. Most printing presses are capable of high printing speeds, and adjustments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas wear ear protectors. Work ing with press machinery can be hazardous, but accidents can be avoided when press operators follow safe work practices. The threat of accidents has decreased with newer computerized presses because operators make most adjustments from a control panel. Many press operators, particularly those who work for newspapers, work weekends, nights, and holidays. They also may work overtime to meet deadlines. Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job Outlook Although completion of a formal apprenticeship or a postsecondary program in printing equipment operation continues to be the best way to learn the trade, most printing machine operators are trained on the job while they work as assistants or helpers to experienced operators. Beginning press operators load, unload, and clean presses. With time and training, they may move up to become fully qualified press operators on the type of equipment on which they trained. Some operators gain experience on many kinds of printing presses during the course of their career. Apprenticeships for press operators, once the dominant method for preparing for this occupation, are becoming less prevalent. When are offered by the employer, they usually include on-the-job Digitizedthey for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Printing machine operators held about 191,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly half of all operator jobs were in the printing industry. Paper manufacturers and newspaper publishers were also large employers. Additional jobs were in the “in-plant” section of organizations and businesses that do their own printing—such as banks, insurance companies, government agencies, and universities. The printing and newspaper publishing industries are two of the most geographically dispersed in the United States, and press operators can find jobs throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large printing centers such as Chicago, Los Ange les-Long Beach, New York, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Philadelphia, Boston, and Washington, DC. Employment of printing machine operators is expected to grow more slowly than average through 2014 as the output of printed materials is expected to keep going up, but increasing automation of the printing industry and the outsourcing of production to foreign countries will moderate the increase. Looming retirements of printing machine operators and the need for workers trained on increasingly computer ized printing equipment will also create many job openings over the next decade, particularly for those persons who qualify for formal apprenticeship training or who complete postsecondary training programs in printing. Demand for books and magazines will increase as school enroll ments rise and information proliferates. Additional growth will also 602 Occupational Outlook Handbook come from the increasing ability of the printing industry to profitably print shorter runs—smaller quantities—which should widen the market for printed materials as production costs decline. However, small printing jobs will increasingly be run on sophisticated high speed digital printing equipment that requires a more complex set of operator skills, such as database management. Demand for commercial printing also will continue to be driven by increased expenditures for print advertising materials. New market research techniques are leading advertisers to increase spending on messages targeted to specific audiences, and should continue to require the printing of a wide variety of catalogs, direct mail enclosures, newspaper inserts, and other kinds of print adver tising. Newspaper printing also will continue to provide jobs. Employment will not grow in line with output, however, because increased use of new computerized printing equipment will require fewer operators. This will especially be true with the increasing automation of the large printing presses used in the newspaper industry. In addition, more companies are having their work printed out of the country when time sensitivity of the material is not an issue. Also, new business practices within the publishing industry, such as printing-on-demand and electronic publishing, will cut into the production of printed materials. Printing-on-demand refers to the printing of materials as they are requested by customers, in contrast to printing thousands of copies of a publication prior to purchase, many of which are subsequently discarded. Earnings Median hourly earnings of printing machine operators were $14.38 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.73 and $18.83 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.54, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.06 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of printing machine operators in May 2004 were: Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers................. $16.46 Converted paper product manufacturing........................................ 15.72 Printing and related support activities............................................. 15.16 Plastics product manufacturing....................................................... 13.76 Advertising and related services..................................................... 12.68 The basic wage rate for a printing machine operator depends on the geographic area in which the work is located and on the type of press being run: pay varies by the complexity of the press and its size. Workers covered by union contracts usually have higher earnings in the newspaper industry. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery include machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; bookbind ers and bindery workers; and various precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, local affiliates of Printing Industries of America/Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information about press operators, write to: ► Graphic Communications Conference of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-5007. Internet: http://www.gciu.org For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to: >• NPES The Association for Suppliers of Printing Publishing, and Convert ing Technologies, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA20191-4367. Internet: http://www.npes.org/education/index.html >- Printing Industry of America/Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. >- Graphic Arts Education and Research Foundation, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191-5468. Internet: http://www.makeyourmark.org Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations (0*NET 51 -6011.01, 51 -6011.02, 51 -6011.03, 51 -6021.01, 51 -6021.02, 51-6021.03, 51 -6031.01, 51 -6031.02, 51 -6041.00, 51 -6042.00, 51 6051.00, 51 -6052.01,51 -6052.02, 51 -6061.00, 51 -6062.00, 51 -6063.00, 51-6064.00, 51-6091.00, 51-6092.00, 51-6093.00, 51-6099.99) Significant Points • Most workers learn through on-the-job training. • This group ranks among the most rapidly declining occupations because of increases in imports, offshore assembly, productivity gains from automation, and new fabrics that do not need as much processing. • Earnings of most workers are low. Nature of the Work Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers produce fibers, cloth, and upholstery, and fashion them into a wide range of products that we use in our daily lives. Jobs range from those that involve computers, to those in which the worker operates large industrial machinery and smaller power equipment, to those that require substantial handwork. Textile machine setters, operators, and tenders. Textile machine setters, operators, and tenders run machines that make https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis textile products from fibers. Textiles are the basis of towels, bed linens, hosiery and socks, and nearly all clothing, but they also are a key ingredient in products ranging from roofing to tires. The first step in manufacturing textiles is preparing the natural or synthetic fibers. Extruding and forming machine op erators, synthetic and glass fibers, set up and operate machines that extrude or force liquid synthetic material such as rayon, fiberglass, or liquid polymers through small holes and draw out filaments. Other operators put natural fibers such as cotton, wool, flax, or hemp through carding and combing machines that clean and align them into short lengths collectively called “sliver.” In making sliver, operators may combine different types of natural fibers and synthetics filaments to give the product a desired texture, durability, or other characteristics. Textile winding, twisting, and drawing-out machine operators take the sliver and draw out, twist, and wind it to produce yarn, taking care to repair any breaks. Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators control machines that wash, bleach, or dye either yam or finished fabrics and other products. Textile knitting and weaving machine operators put the yam on machines that weave, knit, loop, or tuft it into a product. Woven fabrics are used to make apparel and other goods, whereas some knitted products (such as hosiery) and tufted products (such as carpeting) emerge in near-finished form. Different types of machines are used for these processes, but operators perform similar tasks, repairing breaks in the yam and monitoring the yam supply while tending many machines at once. Textile cutting machine operators trim the fabric into various widths and lengths, depending on its intended use. Apparel workers. Apparel workers cut fabric and other materials and sew it into clothing and related products. Workers in a variety of occupations fall under the heading of apparel workers. Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers make custom clothing and alter and repair garments for individuals. However, workers in most apparel occu pations are found in manufacturing, performing specialized tasks in the production of large numbers of garments that are shipped to retail establishments for sale. Fabric and apparel patternmakers convert a clothing designer’s original model of a garment into a pattern of separate parts that can be laid out on a length of fabric. After discussing the item with the designer, these skilled workers usually use a computer to outline the parts and draw in details to indicate the positions of pleats, but tonholes, and other features. (In the past, patternmakers laid out the parts on paper, using pencils and drafting instruments such as rulers.) Patternmakers then alter the size of the pieces in the pat tern to produce garments of various sizes, and they may mark the fabric to show the best layout of pattern pieces to minimize waste of material. Once an item’s pattern has been made and marked, mass production of the garment begins. Cutters and trimmers take the patterns and cut out material, paying close attention to their work because mistakes are costly. Following the outline of the pattern, they place multiple layers of material on the cutting table and use an electric knife or other tools to cut out the various pieces of the garment; delicate materials may be cut by hand. In some companies, computer-controlled machines do the cutting. Sewing machine operators join the parts of a garment to gether, reinforce seams, and attach buttons, hooks, zippers, and accessories to produce clothing. After the product is sewn, other workers remove lint and loose threads and inspect and package the garments. Shoe and leather workers. Shoe and leather workers are employed either in manufacturing or in personal services. In shoe manufacturing, shoe machine operators and tenders operate a variety of specialized machines that perform cutting, joining, and finishing functions. In personal services, shoe and leather workers and repairers perform a variety of repairs and custom leatherwork for the general public. They construct, decorate, or repair shoes, belts, purses, saddles, luggage, and other leather products. They also may repair some products made of canvas or plastic. When making custom shoes or modifying existing footwear for people with foot problems or special needs, shoe and leather workers and repairers cut pieces of leather, shape them over a form shaped like a foot, and sew them together. They then attach soles and heels, using sewing machines or ce ment and nails. They also dye and polish the items, utilizing a buffing wheel for a smooth surface and lustrous shine. When making luggage, they fasten leather to a frame and attach handles and other hardware. They also cut and secure linings inside the frames and sew or stamp designs onto the exterior of the luggage. In addition to performing all of the preceding steps, saddlemakers often apply leather dyes and liquid topcoats to produce a glossy finish on a saddle. They also may decorate the surface of the saddle by hand stitching or by stamping the leather with decorative patterns and designs. Shoe and leather workers and repairers who own their own shops keep records and Digitized for supervise FRASER other workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Production Occupations 603 Many upholsters reupholster oldfurniture. Upholsterers. Upholsterers make, fix, and restore furniture that is covered with fabric. Using hammers and tack pullers, upholster ers who restore furniture remove old fabric and stuffing to get down to the springs and wooden frame. Then they reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wood. The springs sit on a cloth mat, called webbing, that is attached to the frame. Upholsterers replace tom webbing, examine the springs, and replace broken or bent ones. Upholsterers who make new furniture start with a bare wooden frame. First, they install webbing, tacking it to one side of the frame, stretching it tight, and tacking it to the other side. Then, they tie each spring to the webbing and to its neighboring springs. Next, they cover the springs with filler, such as foam, a polyester batt, or similar fibrous batting material, to form a smooth, rounded surface. Then they measure and cut fabric for the arms, backs, seats, sides, and other surfaces, leaving as little waste as possible. Finally, sewing the fabric pieces together and attaching them to the frame with tacks, staples, or glue, they affix any ornaments, such as fringes, buttons, or rivets. Sometimes, upholsterers provide pickup and delivery of the furniture they work on. They also help customers select new coverings by providing samples of fabrics and pictures of finished pieces. Laundry and drycleaning workers. Laundry and drycleaning workers clean cloth garments, linens, draperies, blankets, and other articles. They also may clean leather, suede, furs, and rugs. When necessary, they treat spots and stains on articles before laundering or dry cleaning. They tend machines during cleaning and ensure that items are not lost or misplaced with those of another customer. Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials, shape and remove wrinkles from items after steam pressing them or ironing them by hand. Workers then assemble each customer’s items, box or bag them, and prepare an itemized bill for the customer. Working Conditions Most people in textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations work a standard 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Working on evenings and weekends is common for shoe and leather workers; laundry and drycleaning workers; and tailors, dressmakers, and sewers employed in retail stores. Many textile and fiber mills often use rotating sched ules of shifts so that employees do not continuously work nights or days. But these rotating shifts sometimes cause workers to have sleep disorders and stress-related problems. Although much of the work in apparel manufacturing still is based on a piecework system that allows for little interpersonal contact, 604 Occupational Outlook Handbook some apparel firms are placing more emphasis on teamwork and cooperation. Under this new system, individuals work closely with one another, and each team or module often governs itself, increasing the overall responsibility of each operator. Working conditions vary by establishment and by occupation. In manufacturing, machinery in textile mills often is noisy, as are areas in which sewing and pressing are performed in apparel factories; pattemmaking and spreading areas tend to be much quieter. Many older factories are cluttered, hot, and poorly lit and ventilated, but more modem facilities usually have more workspace and are well lit and ventilated. Textile machinery operators use protective glasses and masks that cover their noses and mouths to protect against airborne materials. Many machines operate at high speeds, and textile machinery workers must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. In addition, extruding and forming machine operators wear protective shoes and clothing when working with certain chemical compounds. Work in apparel production can be physically demanding. Some workers sit for long periods, and others spend many hours on their feet, leaning over tables and operating machinery. Operators must be attentive while running sewing machines, pressers, automated cutters, and the like. A few workers wear protective devices such as gloves. In some instances, new machinery and production techniques have decreased the physical demands on workers. For example, newer pressing machines are controlled by foot pedals or by computer and do not require much strength to operate. Laundries and drycleaning establishments often are hot and noisy; those in retail stores, however, tend to be less noisy and more comfort able. Areas in which shoe and leather workers make or repair shoes and other leather items can be noisy, and odors from leather dyes and stains frequently are present. Workers need to pay close attention when work ing with machines, to avoid punctures, lacerations, and abrasions. Upholstery work is not dangerous, but upholsterers usually wear protective gloves and clothing when using sharp tools and lifting and handling furniture or springs. During most of the workday, upholsterers stand and may do a lot of bending and heavy lifting. They also may work in awkward positions for short periods. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for jobs in textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations. Entrants with postsec ondary vocational training or previous work experience in apparel production usually have a better chance of getting a job and advanc ing to a supervisory position. Regardless of the setting, workers usually begin by performing simple tasks. In manufacturing, textile and apparel workers need good handeye coordination, manual dexterity, physical stamina, and the abil ity to perform repetitive tasks for long periods. Machine operators usually are trained on the job by more experienced employees or by machinery manufacturers’ representatives. As they gain experi ence, these workers are assigned more difficult operations. Further advancement is limited, however. Some production workers may become first-line supervisors, but most can advance only to more skilled operator jobs. As machinery in the industry continues to become more complex, knowledge of the basics of computers and electronics will increasingly be an asset. In addition, the trends toward cross-training of operators and working in teams will in crease the time needed to become fully trained on all machines and require interpersonal skills to work effectively with others. Retailers prefer to hire custom tailors, dressmakers, and sew ers with previous experience in apparel production, design, or alteration. Knowledge of fabrics, design, and construction is very important. Custom tailors sometimes learn these skills through https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis courses in high school or a community college. Some experienced custom tailors open their own tailoring shop. Custom tailoring is a highly competitive field, however, and training in small-business operations can mean the difference between success and failure. Although laundries and drycleaners prefer entrants with previous work experience, they routinely hire inexperienced workers. Precision shoe and leather workers and repairers generally learn their skills on the job. Manual dexterity and the mechanical aptitude to work with handtools and machines are important in shoe repair and leatherworking. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom goods should have artistic ability as well. Beginners start as helpers for experienced workers, but, in manufacturing, they may attend more formal in-house training programs. Beginners gradually take on more tasks until they are fully qualified workers, a process that takes about 2 years in an apprenticeship program or as a helper in a shop. In a vocational training program, it can take 6 months to a year. Learning to make saddles takes longer. Shoe repairers need to keep their skills up to date to work with the rapidly changing footwear styles and materials. Some do this by attending trade shows; others attend specialized training semi nars and workshops in custom shoemaking, shoe repair, and other leatherwork sponsored by associations. Some in the shoemaking and leatherworking occupations begin as workers or repairers and advance to salaried supervisory and managerial positions. Some open their own shop, but knowledge of business practices and management and a pleasant manner when dealing with customers are needed to stay in business. Most upholsterers learn their skills on the job, but a few do so through apprenticeships. Inexperienced persons also may take training in basic upholstery in vocational schools and some com munity colleges. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and the strength needed to lift heavy furniture. An eye for detail, a flair for color, and the ability to use fabrics creatively also are helpful. The length of training may vary from 6 weeks to 3 years. Upholsterers who work on custom-made pieces may train for 8 to 10 years. The primary forms of advancement for upholsterers are opening their own shop or moving into manage ment. The upholstery business is highly competitive, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. In large shops and factories, ex perienced or highly skilled upholsterers may become supervisors or samplemakers. Employment Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers held 929,000 jobs in 2004. Employment in the detailed occupations that make up this group was distributed as follows; Sewing machine operators............................................................ 256,000 Laundry and dry-cleaning workers............................................... 235,000 Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers.................................................. 85,000 Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials........................... 82,000 Upholsterers.................................................................................. 53.000 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders............................................................... 53,000 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders................................................................................ 46,000 Textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders............... 28,000 All other textile, apparel, and furnishings workers...................... 23,000 Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders, synthetic and glass fibers............................................ 23,000 Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders..... 21,000 Shoe and leather workers and repairers........................................ 10,000 Fabric and apparel patternmakers................................................. 9,200 Shoe machine operators and tenders............................................. 4,600 Production Occupations Manufacturing jobs are concentrated in California, North Carolina, Georgia, New York, Texas, and South Carolina. Jobs in reupholstery, shoe repair and custom leatherwork, and laundry and drycleaning establishments are found in cities and towns throughout the Nation. Overall, about 11 percent of all workers in textile, ap parel, and furnishings occupations were self-employed; however, 54 percent of tailors, dressmakers, and sewers and 27 percent of upholsterers were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of textile, apparel, and furnishings workers is expected to decline through 2014. Apparel workers have been among the most rapidly declining occupational groups in the economy, and increasing imports, the use of offshore assembly, and greater pro ductivity through new automation will contribute to additional job losses. Also, many new textiles require less production and process ing. Employment in specialty apparel and textiles, where it may be necessary for production facilities to be close to their market, might not decrease as much as in other areas of apparel and textile production. Because of the large size of this occupation, however, job openings arise each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment in the domestic textile and apparel industries has declined in recent years as foreign producers have gained a greater share of the U.S. market. Domestic production of apparel and textiles will continue to move abroad, and imports to the U.S. market will increase. Declines in U.S. apparel production will cause reductions in domestic textile production because the apparel industry is the largest consumer of American-made textiles. Fierce competition in the market for apparel will keep domestic apparel and textile firms under intense pressure to cut costs and produce more with fewer workers. Although the textile industry already is highly automated, it will continue to seek to increase worker productivity through the introduction of labor-saving machinery and the invention of new fibers and fabrics that reduce production costs. Despite advances in technology, the apparel industry has had difficulty employing automated equipment extensively due to the “soft” properties of textile products. The industry produces a wide variety of apparel items that change frequently with changes in style and season. Technological developments, such as computer-aided marking and grading, computer-controlled cutters, semiautomatic sewing and pressing machines, and automated material-handling systems have increased output while reducing the need for some workers in larger firms. However, assembly continues to be the most labor-intensive step in the production of apparel, and increasing numbers of sewing machine operator jobs are expected to be lost to lowwage workers abroad. Still, improvements in productivity will allow many of the presewing functions of design, patternmak ing, marking, and cutting to continue be done domestically, and employment of workers who perform these functions will not be as adversely affected. Outside of the manufacturing sector, tailors, dressmakers, and sewers—the most skilled apparel workers—also are expected to experience declining employment. Demand for their services will continue to lessen because it is often cheaper to buy new apparel than to have clothes altered or repaired. Employment of shoe and leather workers is expected to decline through 2014 as a result of growing imports of less expensive shoes and leather goods and increasing productivity of U.S. manufactur ers. Also, buying new shoes often is cheaper than repairing worn https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 605 or damaged ones. However, declines are expected to be offset somewhat as the population continues to age and more people need custom shoes for health reasons. Employment of upholsterers is expected to decline through 2014 as new furniture and automotive seats use more durable coverings and as manufacturing firms continue to become more automated and efficient. Demand for the reupholstery of furniture also is expected to decline as the increasing manufacture of new, relatively inexpensive upholstered furniture causes many consum ers simply to replace old, worn furniture. However, demand will continue to be steady for upholsterers who restore very valuable furniture. Most reupholstery work is labor intensive and not easily automated. Earnings Earnings of textile, apparel, and furnishings workers vary by occupation. Because many production workers in apparel manufacturing are paid according to the number of acceptable pieces they produce, their total earnings depend on skill, speed, and accuracy. Workers covered by union contracts tend to have higher earnings. Median hourly earnings by occupation in May 2004 were as follows; Fabric and apparel patternmakers................................................... $13.85 Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders, synthetic and glass fibers............................................. 13.37 Upholsterers.................................................................................... 12.35 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders........................................................................................ 11.48 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders................................................................. 10.87 Tailors, dressmakers, and custom sewers...................................... 10.79 Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders....... 10.56 All other textile, apparel, and furnishings workers........................ 10.34 Textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders................. 9.80 Shoe machine operators and tenders.............................................. 9.44 Shoe and leather workers and repairers......................................... 9.29 Sewers, hand................................................................................... 9.13 Sewing machine operators.............................................................. 8.61 Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials............................ 8.33 Laundry and dry-cleaning workers........ ........................................ 8.28 Benefits also vary. A few large employers, for example, include childcare in their benefits package. Apparel workers in retail trade also may receive a discount on their purchases from the company for which they work. In addition, some of the larger manufacturers operate company stores from which employees can purchase apparel products at significant discounts. Some small firms, however, offer only limited benefits. Related Occupations Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers apply their knowl edge of textiles and leathers to fashion products with use of handtools and machinery. Others who produce products using handtools, machines, and their knowledge of the materials with which they work include assemblers and fabricators; medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians; food-processing workers; jewelers and precious stone and metal workers; and woodworkers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in textile, apparel, and furnish ings occupations is available from local employers and local offices of State employment services. 606 Occupational Outlook Handbook Woodworkers (0*NET 51 -7011.00, 51 -7021.00, 51 -7031.00, 51 -7032.00, 51 -7041.01, 51 -7041.02, 51 -7042.01,51 -7042.02, 51 -7099.99) Significant Points • • Most woodworkers are trained on the job; basic ma chine operations may be learned in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 or more years. Overall employment is expected to decline. • Job prospects will be best for highly skilled wood workers who produce customized output, which is less susceptible to automation and import competition, and for those who know how to operate computerized numerical control (CNC) machines. • Employment is highly sensitive to economic cycles; during economic downturns, workers are subject to layoffs or reductions in hours. Nature of the Work Despite the development of sophisticated plastics and other materials, the demand for wood products continues unabated. Helping to meet this demand are woodworkers. Woodworkers are found in industries that produce wood, such as sawmills and plywood mills; in industries that use wood to produce furniture, kitchen cabinets, musical instruments, and other fabricated wood products; and in small shops that make architectural woodwork, furniture, and many other specialty items. All woodworkers are employed at some stage of the process through which logs of wood are transformed into finished prod ucts. Some of these workers produce the structural elements of buildings; others mill hardwood and softwood lumber; still others assemble finished wood products. They operate machines that cut, shape, assemble, and finish raw wood to make the doors, windows, cabinets, trusses, plywood, flooring, paneling, mold ing, and trim that are components of most homes. Others may fashion home accessories, such as beds, sofas, tables, dressers, and chairs. In addition to these household goods, woodworkers also make sporting goods, including baseball bats and oars, as well as musical instruments, toys, caskets, tool handles, and thousands of other wooden items. Production woodworkers set up, operate, and tend woodwork ing machines such as power saws, planers, sanders, lathes, jointers, and routers that cut and shape components from lumber, plywood, and other wood products. In sawmills, sawing machine operators and tenders set up, operate, or tend wood-sawing machines that cut logs into planks, timbers, or boards. In plants manufacturing wood products, woodworkers first determine the best method of shaping and assembling parts, working from blueprints, supervi sors’ instructions, or shop drawings that woodworkers themselves produce. Before cutting, they often must measure and mark the materials. They verify dimensions and may trim parts using handtools such as planes, chisels, wood files, or sanders to ensure a tight fit. Woodworking machine operators and tenders set up, operate, or tend specific woodworking machines, such as drill presses, lathes, shapers, routers, sanders, planers, and wood-nail ing machines. Lower skilled operators may merely press a switch on a woodworking machine and monitor the automatic operation, whereas more highly skilled operators set up equipment, cut and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis shape wooden parts, and verify dimensions using a template, caliper, or rule. The next step in the manufacturing process is the production of subassemblies using fasteners and adhesives. Next, the pieces are brought together to form a complete unit. The product is then fin ish-sanded; stained; and, if necessary, coated with a sealer, such as lacquer or varnish. Woodworkers may perform this work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Woodworkers have been greatly affected by the introduction of computer-controlled machinery. This technology has raised worker productivity by allowing one operator to simultaneously tend a greater number of machines. An operator can program a CNC ma chine to perform a sequence of operations automatically, resulting in greater precision and reliability. The integration of computers with equipment has improved production speed and capability, simplified setup and maintenance requirements, and increased the demand for workers with computer skills. While this costly equipment has had a great effect on workers in the largest, most efficient firms, precision or custom wood workers—who generally work in smaller firms—have continued to employ the same production techniques they have used for many years. Workers such as cabinetmakers and bench carpen ters, modelmakers and patternmakers, and furniture finishers work on a customized basis, often building one-of-a-kind items. These highly skilled precision woodworkers usually perform a complete cycle of tasks—cutting, shaping, and preparing surfaces and assembling prepared parts of complex wood components into a finished wood product. For this reason, these workers normally need substantial training and an ability to work from detailed instructions and specifications. In addition, they often are required to exercise independent judgment when undertaking an assignment. Precision or custom woodworkers often build one-of-a-kind items from start to finish. Production Occupations Working Conditions Working conditions vary by industry and specific job duties. In log ging and sawmills, for example, working conditions are physically demanding because of the handling of heavy, bulky material. Work ers in these industries also may encounter excessive noise, dust, and other air pollutants. However, the use of earplugs and respirators may partially alleviate these problems. Also, rigid adherence to safety precautions minimizes risk of injury from contact with rough wood stock, sharp tools, and power equipment. The risk of injury also is lowered by the installation of computer-controlled equipment, which reduces the physical labor and hands-on contact with machinery. In furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing, employees who operate machinery often must wear ear and eye protection. They also must follow operating safety instructions and use safety shields or guards to prevent accidents. Those who work in the finishing area must be provided with an appropriate dust or vapor mask or a complete protective safety suit, or must work in a finishing environ ment that removes all vapors and dust particles from the atmosphere. Prolonged standing, lifting, and fitting of heavy objects are common characteristics of the job. 607 Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters.................. 1........................ 148,000 Woodworking machine setters, operators, and tenders, except sawing............................................................. 92,000 Sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood................ 58,000 Furniture finishers......................................................................... 34,000 Model makers, wood.............................................. 3,200 Patternmakers, wood..................................................................... 2,500 All other woodworkers................................................................. 26,000 Almost 3 out of 4 woodworkers were employed in manufacturing industries. One-third of woodworkers were found in establishments fabricating household and office furniture and fixtures, and 30 per cent worked in wood product manufacturing, producing a variety of raw, intermediate, and finished woodstock. Wholesale and retail lumber dealers, furniture stores, reupholstery and furniture repair shops, and construction firms also employ woodworkers. Woodworkingjobs are found throughout the country. However, lumber and wood products-related production jobs are concentrated in the South and Northwest, close to the supply of wood, whereas fumituremakers are more prevalent in the Southeast. Custom shops can be found everywhere, but generally are concentrated in or near highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job Outlook Most woodworkers are trained on the job, picking up skills infor mally from experienced workers. Most woodworkers learn basic machine operations and job tasks in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 or more years. Woodworkers increasingly acquire skills through vocational edu cation. Some may learn by working as carpenters on construction jobs. Others may attend colleges or universities that offer training in areas including wood technology, furniture manufacturing, wood engineering, and production management. These programs prepare students for positions in production, supervision, engineering, and management and are increasingly important as woodworking tech nology becomes more advanced. Beginners usually observe and help experienced machine opera tors. They may supply material to, or remove fabricated products from, machines. Trainees also do simple machine operating jobs while closely supervised by experienced workers, but as beginners gain experience, they perform more complex jobs with less supervi sion. Some may learn to read blueprints, set up machines, and plan the sequence of the work. Employers seek applicants with a high school diploma or the equivalent because of the growing sophistication of machinery and the constant need for retraining. People seeking wood working jobs can enhance their employment and advancement prospects by completing high school and receiving training in mathematics, science, and computer applications. Other important qualities for entrants in this occupation include me chanical ability, manual dexterity, and the ability to pay atten tion to detail. Advancement opportunities often are limited and depend on education and training, seniority, and a worker’s skills and initia tive. Sometimes experienced woodworkers become inspectors or supervisors responsible for the work of a group of woodworkers. Production workers often can advance into these positions by as suming additional responsibilities and by attending workshops, seminars, or college programs. Those who are highly skilled may set up their own woodworking shops. Overall employment of woodworkers is expected to decline through 2014, although job growth and opportunities will vary by specialty. In general, opportunities for more highly skilled woodworkers will be better than for woodworkers in specialties susceptible to productivity improvements and competition from imported wood products. Despite the expected overall decline in employment of woodworkers, many job opportunities still will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced woodworkers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Firms will need woodworkers with technical skills to operate their increasingly advanced computerized machinery. The number of new workers entering these occupations is expected to below because, as school systems face tighter budgets, the first programs to be cut often are vocational-technical programs, including those that train woodworkers. Also, interest in pursuing these jobs will continue to decline as workers question the stability of manufacturing occupations. For these reasons, competition should be mild, and op portunities should be best for woodworkers who, through vocational education or experience, develop highly specialized woodworking skills or knowledge of CNC machine tool operation. Employment of sawing and woodworking machine setters, opera tors, and tenders is expected to decline through 2014. Jobs in the United States will continue to be lost as imports grow. To remain competitive with these imports, some domestic firms are expected to continue to move their production processes to foreign countries, further reducing employment. Others are using advanced technology, such as robots and CNC machinery, to reduce the number of workers needed in production. These forces will prevent employment from rising with the demand for wood products, particularly in the mills and manufacturing plants where many processes can be automated. Among woodworking machine operators, job prospects will be best for those skilled in CNC machine tool operation. Employment of furniture finishers is expected to decline. Since furniture is largely mass-produced, it is highly susceptible to import competition; the percentage of furniture sold in the United States that is produced abroad has steadily increased over the past 10 years, a trend that is expected to continue. Employment of bench carpenters, cabinetmakers, modelmakers, patternmakers, and other specialized woodworking occupations will grow more slowly than the average. Demand for these workers will stem from increases in population, personal income, and busi ness expenditures, in addition to the continuing need for repair and renovation of residential and commercial properties. Therefore, Employment Woodworkers held about 364,000 jobs in 2004. Self-employed woodworkers, mostly cabinetmakers and furniture finishers, ac counted for 14 percent of these jobs. Employment among detailed Digitizedwoodworking for FRASER occupations was distributed as follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 608 Occupational Outlook Handbook opportunities should be available for those who specialize in items such as moldings, cabinets, stairs, and windows. Firms that focus on custom woodwork will be best able to compete against imports with out transferring jobs offshore, so opportunities should be very good in specialized woodworking sectors, such as architectural woodworking. Modelmakers and patternmakers who know how to create and execute designs on a computer may have the best opportunities. Employment in all woodworking specialties is highly sensitive to economic cycles. During economic downturns, workers are subject to layoffs or reductions in hours. Earnings Median hourly earnings of cabinetmakers and bench carpenters were $ 12.16 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.69 and $15.51. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.00, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 19.28. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cabinetmakers and bench carpenters in May 2004 are shown below: Office furniture (including fixtures) manufacturing...................... $13.42 Household and institutional furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing................................................... 11.83 Other wood product manufacturing................................................ 11.82 Median hourly earnings of sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood, were $ 10.91 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.95 and $13.34. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.46, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 16.20. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood, in May 2004, are shown below: The middle 50 percent earned between $8.93 and $13.40. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.55, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.33. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of woodworking machine setters, operators, and tenders, except sawing, in May 2004, are shown below: Office furniture (including fixtures) manufacturing...................... $ 11.66 Veneer, plywood, and engineered wood product manufacturing ... 11.19 Household and institutional furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing................................................... 11.00 Sawmills and wood preservation.................................................... 10.83 Other wood product manufacturing...... ......................................... 10.47 In May 2004, median hourly earnings were $11.35 for furniture finishers and $10.16 for all other woodworkers. Some woodworkers, such as those in logging or sawmills who are engaged in processing primary wood and building materials, are members of the International Association of Machinists. Oth ers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters also work with wood. In addition, many woodwork ers follow blueprints and drawings and use machines to shape and form raw wood into a final product. Workers who perform similar functions working with other materials include sheet metal workers, structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers, computer-control programmers and operators, machinists, and tool and die makers. Sources of Additional Information Sawmills and wood preservation.................................................... $ 11.82 Veneer, plywood, and engineered wood product manufacturing.... 11.49 Household and institutional furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing................................................... 10.65 Other wood product manufacturing................................................ 10.49 Median hourly earnings of woodworking machine setters, operators, and tenders, except sawing, were $10.93 in May 2004. For information about careers, education, and training programs in woodworking, contact: >- WoodLINKS USA Internet: http://www.woodlinks.com/USA/home.html For information about woodworking occupations, contact local furniture manufacturers, sawmills and planing mills, cabinetmak ing or millwork firms, lumber dealers, a local of one of the unions mentioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service. Plant and System Operators Power Plant Operators, Distributors, and Dispatchers (0*NET 51 -8011.00, 51 -8012.00, 51 -8013.01, 51 -8013.02) Significant Points • Keen competition for jobs is expected; opportunities will be best for operators with training in computers and automated equipment. • Employment is projected to decline. • Most entry-level workers start as helpers or labor ers, and several years of training and experience are required to become fully qualified. Nature of the Work Electricity is vital for most everyday activities. From the moment you flip the first switch each morning, you are connecting to a huge https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis network of people, electric lines, and generating equipment. Power plant operators control the machinery that generates electricity. Power plant distributors and dispatchers control the flow of electric ity from the power plant, over a network of transmission lines, to industrial plants and substations, and, finally, over distribution lines to residential users. Power plant operators control and monitor boilers, turbines, generators, and auxiliary equipment in power-generating plants. Operators distribute power demands among generators, combine the current from several generators, and monitor instruments to maintain voltage and regulate electricity flows from the plant. When power requirements change, these workers start or stop generators and connect or disconnect them from circuits. They often use comput ers to keep records of switching operations and loads on genera tors, lines, and transformers. Operators also may use computers to prepare reports of unusual incidents, malfunctioning equipment, or maintenance performed during their shift. Operators in plants with automated control systems work mainly in a central control room and usually are called control room opera tors or control room operator trainees or assistants. In older plants, Production Occupations the controls for the equipment are not centralized, and switchboard operators control the flow of electricity from a central point, whereas auxiliary equipment operators work throughout the plant, operating and monitoring valves, switches, and gauges. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses operators of nuclear power plants. Reactor operators are authorized to control equipment that affects the power of the reactor in a nuclear power plant. In addition, an NRC-licensed senior reactor operator must be on duty during each shift to act as the plant supervisor and supervise the operation of all controls in the control room. Power distributors and dispatchers, also called load dispatch ers or systems operators, control the flow of electricity through transmission lines to industrial plants and substations that supply residential needs for electricity. They monitor and operate current converters, voltage transformers, and circuit breakers. Dispatchers also monitor other distribution equipment and record readings at a pilot board—a map of the transmission grid system showing the status of transmission circuits and connections with substations and industrial plants. Dispatchers also anticipate power needs, such as those caused by changes in the weather. They call control room operators to start or stop boilers and generators, in order to bring production into balance with needs. Dispatchers handle emergencies such as transformer or transmission line failures and route current around affected areas. In substations, they also operate and monitor equipment that increases or decreases voltage, and they operate 609 switchboard levers to control the flow of electricity in and out of the substations. Working Conditions Because electricity is provided around the clock, operators, distribu tors, and dispatchers usually work one of three daily 8-hour shifts or one of two 12-hour shifts on a rotating basis. Shift assignments may change periodically, so that all operators can share duty on less desirable shifts. Work on rotating shifts can be stressful and fatigu ing, because of the constant change in living and sleeping patterns. Operators, distributors, and dispatchers who work in control rooms generally sit or stand at a control station. This work is not physi cally strenuous, but it does require constant attention. Operators who work outside the control room may be exposed to danger from electric shock, falls, and burns. Nuclear power plant operators are subject to random drug and alcohol tests, as are most workers at such plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often seek high school graduates for entry-level opera tor, distributor, and dispatcher positions. Candidates with strong mathematics and science skills are preferred. College-level courses and prior experience in a mechanical or technical job are becoming increasingly helpful in a competitive job market. With computers now used to keep records, generate reports, and track maintenance, employers are increasingly requiring computer proficiency. Most entry-level workers start as helpers or laborers. Depending on the results of aptitude tests, their own preferences, and the availability of openings, workers may be assigned to train for one of many utility positions. Workers selected for training as a fossil-fueled power plant operator or distributor undergo extensive on-the-job and classroom instruction. Several years of training and experience are required for a worker to become a fully qualified control room operator or power plant distributor. With further training and experience, workers may advance to shift supervisor. Utilities generally promote from within; therefore, opportunities to advance by moving to another employer are limited. Extensive training and experience are necessary to pass the NRC examinations for reactor operators and senior reactor operators. To maintain their license, licensed reactor operators must pass an annual practical plant operation exam and a biennial written exam administered by their employers. Training may include simulator and on-the-job training, classroom instruction, and individual study. Entrants to nuclear power plant operator trainee jobs must have strong mathematics and science skills. Experience in other power plants or with Navy nuclear propulsion plants also is helpful. With further training and experience, reactor operators may advance to senior reactor operator positions. In addition to receiving preliminary training as a power plant operator, distributor, or dispatcher, most workers are given periodic refresher training—frequently in the case of nuclear power plant operators. Refresher training usually is taken on plant simulators designed specifically to replicate procedures and situations that might be encountered at the trainee’s plant. Employment ■ , Power plant operators in plants with automated control systems Digitized usually for FRASER spend most of their time in a central control room. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers held about 47,000 jobs in 2004. Jobs were located throughout the country. About 64 percent of jobs were in electric power generation, transmission, and distribution. About 20 percent worked in government, mainly in local government. Others worked for manufacturing establishments that produced electricity for their own use. 610 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook People who want to become power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers are expected to encounter keen competition for these relatively high-paying jobs. While demand for electricity will increase, the slow pace of construction of new plants will limit opportunities for these workers. In addition, the increasing use of automatic controls and more computerized equipment should boost productivity and decrease the demand for operators. As a result, individuals with training in computers and automated equipment will have the best job prospects. Some job opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupa tion. However, cost considerations may restrict the number of workers who are replaced, with the job duties instead being given to other workers. A decline in employment of power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers is projected through the year 2014, as the utilities industry continues to restructure in response to deregulation and increasing competition. Independent producers are now allowed to sell power directly to industrial and other wholesale customers. Consequently, some utilities that historically operated as regulated local monopolies have restructured their operations in order to reduce costs and compete effectively. While much of this restruc turing is complete, the focus on reducing costs persists. This new focus is present in regulated utilities, as well as those that have been deregulated. As a result, the number of jobs is expected to decline. Earnings Median annual earnings of power plant operators were $52,530 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,310 and $62,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,330. Median annual earn ings of power plant operators in May 2004 were $53,820 in electric power generation, transmission and distribution. Median annual earnings of nuclear power reactor operators were $64,090 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $56,890 and $71,160. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $49,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,220. Median annual earnings of power distributors and dispatch ers were $57,330 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,010 and $69,100. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,220, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,030. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate plant and system equipment include chemical plant and system operators; petroleum pump sys tem operators, refinery operators, and gaugers; stationary engineers and boiler operators; and water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities, contact local electric utility companies, locals of unions, and State employment service offices. For general information about power plant operators, nuclear power reactor operators, and power plant distributors and dispatch ers, contact: >- American Public Power Association, 2301 M St. NW., Washington, DC 20037-1484. Internet: http://www.appanet.oig ► International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Stationary Engineers and Boiler Operators (0*NET 51 -8021.01, 51 -8021.02) Significant Points • Workers usually acquire their skills through a formal apprenticeship program or through on-the-job training supplemented by courses at a trade or technical school. • Most States and cities have licensing requirements. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. • Applicants may face competition for jobs; opportuni ties will be best for workers with training in computer ized controls and instrumentation. Nature of the Work Heating, air-conditioning, refrigeration, and ventilation systems keep large buildings and other commercial facilities comfortable all year long. Industrial plants often have facilities to provide electrical power, steam, or other services. Stationary engineers and boiler operators operate and maintain these systems, which include boil ers, air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and compressors. The equipment that stationary engineers and boiler operators control is similar to equipment operated by locomotive or marine engineers, except that it is not in a moving vehicle. Stationary engineers and boiler operators start up, regulate, repair, and shut down equipment. They ensure that the equipment operates safely, economically, and within established limits by monitoring meters, gauges, and computerized controls. Stationary engineers and boiler operators control equipment manually and, if necessary, make adjustments. They also record relevant events and facts concerning the operation and maintenance of the equipment. With regard to steam boilers, for example, they observe, control, and record the steam pressure, temperature, water level, chemistry, power output, fuel consumption, and emissions from the vessel. They watch and listen to machinery and routinely check safety devices, identifying and correcting any trouble that develops. They use hand and power tools to perform repairs and maintenance rang ing from a complete overhaul to replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bearings. Servicing, troubleshooting, repairing, and monitoring modem systems all require the use of sophisticated electrical and electronic test equipment. Stationary engineers typically use computers to operate the mechanical, electrical, and fire safety systems of new buildings and plants. Engineers monitor, adjust, and diagnose these systems from a central location, using a computer linked into the buildings’ communications network. Routine maintenance, such as lubricating moving parts, replacing filters, and removing soot and corrosion that can reduce the boiler’s operating efficiency, is a regular part of the work of stationary en gineers and boiler operators. They test the water in the boiler and add chemicals to prevent corrosion and harmful deposits. In most facilities, stationary engineers are responsible for the maintenance and balancing of air systems, as well as hydronic systems that heat or cool buildings by circulating fluid (such as water or water vapor) in a closed system of pipes. They also may check the air quality of the ventilation system and make adjustments to keep the operation of the boiler within mandated guidelines. Production Occupations ^ |& *^8231 t INH Stationary engineers and boiler operators work around hazardous machinery and must follow procedures to guard against injuries. In a large building or industrial plant, a stationary engineer may be in charge of all mechanical systems in the building. Engineers may super vise the work of assistant stationary engineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration operators and mechanics. Most stationary engineers perform other maintenance duties, such as carpentry, plumbing, locksmithing, and electrical repairs. In a small building or industrial plant, there may be only one stationary engineer. Working Conditions Stationary engineers and boiler operators generally have steady, year-round employment. The average workweek is 40 hours. In facilities that operate around the clock, engineers and operators usually work one of three daily 8-hour shifts on a rotating basis. Weekend and holiday work often is required. Engine rooms, power plants, boiler rooms, mechanical rooms, and electrical rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, however, some stationary engineers and boiler operators are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equipment. General maintenance duties also may require contact with oil, grease, or smoke. Workers spend much of the time on their feet. They also may have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouching or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Stationary engineers and boiler operators work around hazardous machinery, such as low- and high-pressure boilers and electrical equipment. They must follow procedures to guard against bums, electric shock, noise, danger from moving parts, and exposure to hazardous materials, such as asbestos or certain chemicals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Stationary engineers and boiler operators usually acquire their skills through a formal apprenticeship program or through on-the-job training supplemented by courses at a trade or technical school. In addition, valuable experience can be obtained in the Navy or the merchant ma rine, because marine engineering plants are similar to many stationary power and heating plants. Most employers prefer to hire persons with at least a high school diploma or the equivalent. However, continuing https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 611 education—such as college courses—is becoming increasingly impor tant, in part because of the growing complexity of the equipment with which engineers and operators now work. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are important. The International Union of Operating Engineers sponsors appren ticeship programs and is the principal union for stationary engineers and boiler operators. In selecting apprentices, most local labor-man agement apprenticeship committees prefer applicants with education or training in mathematics, computers, mechanical drawing, machine shop practice, physics, and chemistry. An apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years and includes 8,000 hours of on-the-job training. In addition, apprentices receive 600 hours of classroom instruction in subjects such as boiler design and operation, elementary physics, pneumatics, refrigeration, air-conditioning, electricity, and electronics. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually start as boiler tenders or helpers to experienced stationary engineers and boiler operators. This practical experience may be supplemented by postsecondary vocational training in computerized controls and instrumentation. However, becom ing an engineer or operator without completing a formal apprenticeship program usually requires many years of work experience. Most large and some small employers encourage and pay for skillimprovement training for their employees. Training almost always is provided when new equipment is introduced or when regulations concerning some aspect of the workers’ duties change. Most States and cities have licensing requirements for stationary engineers and boiler operators. Applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality in which they wish to work, meet experience requirements, and pass a written examination. A stationary engineer or boiler operator who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license due to regional differences in licensing requirements. There are several classes of stationary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the type and size of equipment the engineer is permitted to operate without supervision. A licensed first-class stationary engi neer is qualified to run a large facility, supervise others, and operate equipment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education, apprenticeship or on-the-job training, and several years of experience. Licenses below first class limit the types or capacities of equipment the engineer may operate without supervision. Stationary engineers and boiler operators advance by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equipment. Gen erally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Some stationary engineers and boiler operators advance to boiler inspectors, chief plant engineers, building and plant super intendents, or building managers. A few obtain jobs as examining engineers or technical instructors. Employment Stationary engineers and boiler operators held about 50,000 jobs in 2004. Jobs were dispersed throughout a variety of industries. The majority of jobs were in State and local government facilities; hospitals; educational services; electric power generation, transmis sion, and distribution facilities; and manufacturing firms, such as pulp, paper, and paperboard mills. Other jobs were in architectural, engineering, and related services and real estate firms. Some were employed as contractors to a building or plant. Stationary engineers and boiler operators worked throughout the country, generally in the more heavily populated areas in which large industrial and commercial establishments are located. Job Outlook Applicants may face competition for jobs as stationary engineers and boiler operators. Employment opportunities will be best for 612 Occupational Outlook Handbook those with apprenticeship training or vocational school courses covering systems that are operated by computerized controls and instrumentation. Employment of stationary engineers and boiler operators is expect ed to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Continuing commercial and industrial development will increase the amount of equipment to be operated and maintained. However, automated systems and computerized controls are making newly installed equipment more efficient, thus reducing the number of jobs needed for its operation. Furthermore, relatively few job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The low replacement rate in this occupation reflects its relatively high wages. Earnings Median annual earnings of stationary engineers and boiler operators were $44,150 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,500 and $55,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,570. Median annual earnings of stationary engineers and boiler operators in May 2004 were $48,340 in local government and $43,710 in general medical and surgical hospitals. Related Occupations Workers who monitor and operate stationary machinery include chemical plant and system operators; gas plant operators; petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers; power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers; and water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators. Other workers who maintain the equipment and machinery in a building or plant are industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers, as well as millwrights. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships, vocational training, and work opportunities is available from State employment service offices, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, vocational schools, and State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about this occupation should be addressed to: > International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW„ Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.iuoe.org > National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 1 Springfield St., Chi copee, MA 01013. > Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. Internet: http://www.bomi-edu.org Water and Liquid Waste Treatment Plant and System Operators (0*NET 51-8031.00) Significant Points • Employment is concentrated in local government and private water, sewage, and other systems utilities. • Completion of an associate degree or a 1-year cer tificate program increases an applicant’s chances for employment and promotion. • Because the number of applicants in this field is nor mally low, job prospects will be good for qualified indi viduals, particularly those with training in all aspects of water and wastewater treatment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for everyday life. Water treatment plant and system operators treat water so that it is safe to drink. Liquid waste treatment plant and system operators, also known as wastewater treatment plant and system operators, remove harmful pollutants from domestic and industrial liquid waste so that it is safe to return to the environment. Water is pumped from wells, rivers, streams, and reservoirs to water treatment plants, where it is treated and distributed to customers. Wastewater travels through customers’ sewer pipes to wastewater treatment plants, where it is either treated and re turned to streams, rivers, and oceans or reused for irrigation and landscaping. Operators in both types of plants control equipment and processes that remove or destroy harmful materials, chemi cal compounds, and microorganisms from the water. They also control pumps, valves, and other equipment that moves the water or wastewater through the various treatment processes, after which they dispose of the removed waste materials. Operators read, interpret, and adjust meters and gauges to make sure that plant equipment and processes are working properly. Operators operate chemical-feeding devices, take samples of the water or wastewater, perform chemical and biological laboratory analyses, and adjust the amounts of chemicals, such as chlorine, in the water. They use a variety of instruments to sample and measure water quality and they utilize common hand and power tools to make repairs to valves, pumps, and other equipment. Water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators in creasingly rely on computers to help monitor equipment, store the results of sampling, make process-control decisions, schedule and record maintenance activities, and produce reports. When equip ment malfunctions, operators also may use computers to determine the cause of the malfunction and seek its solution. Occasionally, operators must work during emergencies. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause large amounts of wastewater to flow into sewers, exceeding a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergen cies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlo rine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. To handle these conditions, operators are trained to make an emergency management response and use special safety equipment and procedures to protect public health and the facility. During these periods, operators may work under extreme pressure to correct problems as quickly as possible. Because working conditions may be dangerous, operators must be extremely cautious. The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and size of the plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all of the machinery, perform tests, keep records, handle complaints, and perform repairs and maintenance. A few operators may handle both a water treatment and a wastewater treatment plant. In larger plants with many employees, operators may be more specialized and monitor only one process. The staff also may include chemists, engineers, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards are largely set by two major Federal environmental statutes: the Clean Water Act, which regulates the discharge of pollutants, and the Safe Drinking Water Act, which specifies standards for drinking water. Industrial facilities that send their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards to ensure that the wastes have been adequately pretreated and will not damage municipal treatment facilities. Mu nicipal water treatment plants also must meet stringent standards for drinking water. The list of contaminants regulated by these statutes has grown over time. As a result, plant operators must be familiar with the guidelines established by Federal regulations and how they affect their plant. In addition, operators must be aware Production Occupations *11® U i Blip ■. iiMt jam y~ - ig Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators control equipment that treats water to make it safe for use or disposal. of any guidelines imposed by the State or locality in which the plant operates. Working Conditions Water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators work both indoors and outdoors and may be exposed to noise from ma chinery and to unpleasant odors. Operators’ work is physically demanding and often is performed in unclean locations. Operators must pay close attention to safety procedures because of the pres ence of hazardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and malfunctioning equipment. Plants operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; therefore, operators work one of three 8-hour shifts, including weekends and holidays, on a rotational basis. Operators may be required to work overtime. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma usually is required for an individual to become a water or wastewater treatment plant operator. Opera tors need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics, chemistry, and biology. They must have the ability to apply data to formulas prescribing treatment requirements, flow levels, and concentration levels. Some basic familiarity with computers also is necessary because of the trend toward computer-controlled equipment and more sophisticated instru mentation. Certain positions—particularly in larger cities and towns—are covered by civil service regulations. Applicants for these positions may be required to pass a written examination testing their mathematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence. The completion of an associate degree or a 1-year certificate program in water quality and wastewater treatment technology increases an applicant’s chances for employment and promotion, because plants are becoming more complex. Offered throughout the country, these programs provide a good general knowledge of water and wastewater treatment processes, as well as basic preparation for becoming an operator. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 613 Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced operator. They learn by observing and doing routine tasks such as recording meter readings, taking samples of wastewater and sludge, and performing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, electric motors, valves, and other plant equipment. Larger treat ment plants generally combine this on-the-job training with formal classroom or self-paced study programs. The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, enforced by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, specify national minimum standards for certification and recertification of operators of com munity and nontransient, noncommunity water systems. As a result, operators must pass an examination certifying that they are capable of overseeing wastewater treatment plant operations. There are different levels of certification, depending on the operator’s experience and training. Higher levels qualify the operator for overseeing a wider variety of treatment processes. Certification requirements vary by State and by size of the treatment plant. Although relocation may mean having to become certified in a new jurisdiction, many States accept other States’ certifications. Most State drinking water and water pollution control agencies offer courses to improve operators’ skills and knowledge. The courses cover principles of treatment processes and process control, laboratory procedures, maintenance, management skills, collection systems, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, biological treatment, sludge treatment and disposal, and flow measurements. Some opera tors take correspondence courses on subjects related to water and wastewater treatment, and some employers pay part of the tuition for related college courses in science or engineering. As operators are promoted, they become responsible for more complex treatment processes. Some operators are promoted to plant supervisor or superintendent; others advance by transferring to a larger facility. Postsecondary training in water and wastewater treatment, coupled with increasingly responsible experience as an operator, may be sufficient to qualify a worker for becoming super intendent of a small plant, where a superintendent also serves as an operator. However, educational requirements are rising as larger, more complex treatment plants are built to meet new drinking water and water pollution control standards. With each promotion, the operator must have greater knowledge of Federal, State, and local regulations. Superintendents of large plants generally need an engi neering or science degree. A few operators get jobs as technicians with State drinking water or water pollution control agencies. In that capacity, they monitor and provide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Vo cational-technical school or community college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial liquid waste treatment plants, water or liquid waste treatment equipment and chemical companies, engineer ing consulting firms, or vocational-technical schools. Employment Water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators held about 94,000 jobs in 2004. Almost 4 in 5 operators worked for local governments. Others worked primarily for private water, sew age, and other systems utilities and for private waste treatment and disposal and waste management services companies. Private firms are increasingly providing operation and management services to local governments on a contract basis. Water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators were employed throughout the country, but most jobs were in larger towns and cities. Although nearly all operators worked full time, those in small towns may work only part time at the treatment plant, with the remainder of their time spent handling other municipal duties. 614 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Job prospects will be good for qualified individuals because the number of applicants in this field is normally low, due primarily to the unclean and physically demand ing nature of the work. Workers who have training in all aspects of water and wastewater treatment and who can handle multiple duties will have the best opportunities. The increasing population and the growth of the economy are expected to boost demand for essential water and wastewater treat ment services. As new plants are constructed to meet this demand, employment of water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators will increase. In addition, many job openings will occur as experienced operators leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Local governments are the largest employers of water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators. However, Federal certification requirements have increased utilities’ reliance on private firms specializing in the operation and management of water and wastewater treatment facilities. As a result, employment in privately owned facilities will grow faster than the average. Earnings Median annual earnings of water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators were $34,960 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,180 and $43,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,700, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $53,540. Median annual earnings of water and liquid waste treat ment plant and systems operators in May 2004 were $34,990 in local government and $32,350 in water, sewage, and other systems. In addition to their annual salaries, water and wastewater treat ment plant and system operators usually receive benefits that may include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and educational reimbursement for job-related courses. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include chemical plant and system operators; gas plant operators; petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers; power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers; and stationary engineers and boiler operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact State or lo cal water pollution control agencies, State water and liquid waste operator associations, State environmental training centers, or local offices of the State employment service. For information on certification, contact: >- Association of Boards of Certification, 208 Fifth St., Ames, IA 50010 6259. Internet: http://www.abccert.org For educational information related to a career as a water or liquid waste treatment plant and system operator, contact: >■ American Water Works Association, 6666 West Quincy Ave., Denver, CO 80235. Internet: http://www.awwa.org ► Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314 1994. Internet: http://www.wef.org Other Production Occupations Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers (0*NET 51 -9061.01, 51 -9061.02,51 -9061.03, 51 -9061.04, 51 -9061.05) Significant Points • • • Two in three are employed in manufacturing establish ments. While a high school diploma is sufficient for basic testing of products, complex precision-inspecting posi tions are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. Employment is expected to decline, reflecting the growth of automated inspection and the redistribution of quality-control responsibilities from inspectors to other production workers. Nature of the Work Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers ensure that your food will not make you sick, lhat your car will run properly, and that your pants will not split the first time you wear them. These workers monitor or audit quality standards for virtually all manu factured products, including foods, textiles, clothing, glassware, motor vehicles, electronic components, computers, and structural steel. As product quality becomes increasingly important to the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis success of many manufacturing firms, daily duties of inspectors have changed. In some cases, the job titles of these workers also have been changed to quality-control inspector or a similar name, reflecting the growing importance of quality. (A separate state ment on construction and building inspectors appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of title, all inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers work to guarantee the quality of the goods their firms produce. Job duties, even within one company, vary by the type of products produced or the stage of production. Specific job duties also vary across the wide range of industries in which these workers are found. For example, materials inspectors may check products by sight, sound, feel, smell, or even taste to locate imperfections such as cuts, scratches, bubbles, missing pieces, misweaves, or crooked seams. These workers also may verify dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, or other physical characteristics of ob jects. Mechanical inspectors generally verify that parts fit, move correctly, and are properly lubricated; check the pressure of gases and the level of liquids; test the flow of electricity; and do a test run to check for proper operation. Some jobs involve only a quick visual inspection; others require a longer, detailed one. Sorters may separate goods according to length, size, fabric type, or color, while samplers test or inspect a sample taken from a batch or production run for malfunctions or defects. Weighers weigh quantities of materials for use in production. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers are involved at every stage of the production process. Some inspectors examine materi als received from a supplier before sending them to the production line. Others inspect components and assemblies or perform a final check Production Occupations on the finished product. Depending on their skill level, inspectors also may set up and test equipment, calibrate precision instruments, repair defective products, or record data. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers rely on a num ber of tools to perform their jobs. Although some still use hand held measurement devises such as micrometers, calipers, and alignment gauges, it is more common for them to operate electronic inspection equipment, such as coordinate measuring machines (CMMs). These machines use sensitive probes to measure a part’s dimensional accuracy and allow the inspector to analyze the results using computer software. Inspectors testing electrical devices may use voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test insulation, current flow, and resistance. All the tools that inspectors use are maintained by calibration technicians, who ensure that they work properly and generate accurate readings. Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defec tive items outright, send them for repair or correction, or fix minor problems themselves. If the product is acceptable, inspectors may screw a nameplate onto it, tag it, stamp it with a serial number, or certify it in some other way. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers record the results of their inspections, compute the percentage of defects and other statistical measures, and prepare inspection and test reports. Some electronic inspection equipment automatically provides test reports containing these inspection results. When defects are found, inspectors notify supervisors and help to analyze and correct the production problems. The emphasis on finding the root cause of defects is a basic tenet of modern management and production philosophies. Industrial production managers (see the statement on this occupation else where in the Handbook) work closely with the inspectors to reduce defects and improve quality. In the past, a certain level of defects was considered acceptable because variations would always occur. Current philosophies emphasize constant quality improvement through analysis and correction of the causes of defects. The nature of inspectors’ work has changed from merely checking for defects, to determining the cause of those defects. Increased emphasis on quality control in manufacturing means that inspection is more fully integrated into the production process than in the past. Now, companies have integrated teams of inspection and production workers to jointly review and improve product quality. In addition, many companies now use self-monitoring production machines to ensure that the output is produced within quality stan dards. Self-monitoring machines can alert inspectors to production problems and automatically repair defects in some cases. Some firms have completely automated inspection with the help of advanced vision inspection systems, using machinery installed at one or several points in the production process. Inspectors in these firms monitor the equipment, review output, and perform random product checks. Testers repeatedly test existing products or prototypes under realworld conditions. For example, they may purposely abuse a machine by not changing its oil to see when failure occurs. They may devise automated machines to repeat a basic task thousands of times, such as opening and closing a car door. Through these tests, companies deter mine how long a product will last, what parts will break down first, and how to improve durability. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by industry and establishment size. As a result, some inspectors examine similar products for an entire shift, whereas others examine a variety of items. In manufacturing, it is common for most inspectors to remain at one workstation. Inspectors in some industries may be on their feet all day and may have to lift heavy objects, whereas, in other industries, they sit during most of their shift and do little strenuous work. Workers in heavy manufac- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 615 Inspectors verify that company quality control standards are being met. hiring plants may be exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in other plants, inspectors work in clean, air-conditioned environments suitable for carrying out controlled tests. Other inspectors rarely see the products they are inspecting and instead do the majority of their work examining electronic readouts in front of a computer. Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. Shift as signments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary, based on the responsibilities of the inspec tor, tester, sorter, sampler, or weigher. For workers who perform simple “pass/fail” tests of products, a high school diploma generally is sufficient together with basic in-house training. Training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, computers and other instru ments; quality-control techniques; blueprint reading; safety; and report ing requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but many employers prefer to train inspectors on the job. Complex precision-inspecting positions are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. To advance to these positions, experienced workers may need training in statistical process control, new automation, or the company’s quality assurance policies. As automated inspection equipment and electronic recording of results is common, computer skills are also important. In general, inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers need mechanical aptitude, math and communication skills, and good hand-eye coordination and vision. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. They also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or related positions such as purchaser of materials and equipment. Employment Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers held about 508,000 jobs in 2004. About 2 in 3 worked in manufacturing establishments that produced such products as motor vehicle parts, plastics products, semiconductor and other electronic components, and aerospace prod ucts and parts. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers also were found in employment services, architectural, engineering, and related services, wholesale trade, and government agencies. Job Outlook Like that of many other occupations concentrated in manufacturing industries, employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, 616 Occupational Outlook Handbook and weighers is expected to decline through the year 2014. The decline steins primarily from the growing use of automated inspec tion and the redistribution of some quality-control responsibili ties from inspectors to production workers. Although numerous job openings will arise due to turnover in this large occupation, many of these jobs will be open only to experienced workers with advanced skills. Employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weigh ers will be positively affected by the continuing focus on quality in American industry. The emphasis on improving quality and produc tivity has led manufacturers to invest in automated inspection equip ment and to take a more systematic approach to quality inspection. Continued improvements in technologies, such as spectrophotometers and computer-assisted visual inspection systems, allow firms to ef fectively automate inspection tasks, increasing worker productivity and reducing the demand for inspectors. Inspectors will continue to operate these automated machines and monitor the defects they detect. Thus, while the increased emphasis on quality has increased the importance of inspection, the increased automation of inspection has limited the demand for inspectors. Apart from automation, firms are integrating quality control into the production process. Many inspection duties are being redistrib uted from specialized inspectors to fabrication and assembly workers who monitor quality at every stage of the production process. In addition, the growing implementation of statistical process control is resulting in “smarter” inspection. Using this system, firms survey the sources and incidence of defects so that they can better focus their efforts on reducing production of defective products. In some industries, however, automation is not a feasible al ternative to manual inspection. Where key inspection elements are oriented toward size, such as length, width, or thickness, automation will become more important in the future. But where taste, smell, texture, appearance, fabric complexity, or product performance is important, inspection will continue to be done by workers. Employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers is expected to increase in the rapidly growing em ployment services industry, as more manufacturers and industrial firms hire temporary inspectors to increase the flexibility of their staffing strategies. Earnings Median hourly earnings of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers were $13.66 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.43 and $18.23 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.30 an hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.45 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers in May 2004 were: Motor vehicle parts manufacturing................................................. $ 16.54 Architectural, engineering, and related services............................ 15.59 Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing .... 12.94 Plastics product manufacturing.......... ............................................ 12.40 Employment services...................................................................... 10.08 Related Occupations Other workers who conduct inspections include agricultural inspec tors, construction and building inspectors, fire inspectors and inves tigators, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians, and transportation inspectors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about inspection and testing, contact: >• American Society for Quality, 600 North Plankinton Ave., Milwaukee, WI53203. Internet: http://www.asq.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers (0*NET 51 -9071.01, 51 -9071.02, 51 -9071.03, 51 -9071.04, 51 -9071.05, 51-9071.06) Significant Points • About 40 percent of all jewelers are self-employed. • Jewelers usually learn their trade in vocational or technical schools, through distance-learning centers, or on the job. • Prospects for new jewelers should be excellent; many employers have difficulty finding and retaining workers with the right skills to replace those who retire or who leave the occupation for other reasons. Nature of the Work Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers use a variety of common and specialized handtools and equipment to design and manufacture new pieces of jewelry; cut, set, and polish gem stones; repair or adjust rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewelry; and appraise jewelry, precious metals, and gems. Jewelers usually specialize in one or more of these areas and may work for large jew elry manufacturing firms, for small retail jewelry shops, or as owners of their own businesses. Regardless of the type of work done or the work setting, jewelers require a high degree of skill, precision, and attention to detail. Some jewelers design or make their own jewelry. Following their own designs or those created by designers or customers, they begin by shaping the metal or by carving wax to make a model for casting the metal. The individual parts then are soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other gem or may engrave a design into the metal. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones, polishing, or engraving. Typical repair work includes enlarg ing or reducing ring sizes, resetting stones, and replacing broken clasps and mountings. In larger manufacturing businesses, jewelers usually specialize in a single operation. Mold and model makers create models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Assemblers solder or fuse jewelry and their parts; they also may set stones. Engravers etch designs into the metal with specialized tools, and polishers bring a finished luster to the final product. Jewelers typically do the handiwork required to produce a piece of jewelry, while gemologists and laboratory graders analyze, describe, and certify the quality and characteristics of gem stones. Gemologists may work in gemological laboratories or as quality control experts for retailers, importers, or manufacturers. After using microscopes, computerized tools, and other grading instruments to examine gem stones or finished pieces of jewelry, they write reports certifying that the items are of a particular quality. Many jewelers also study gemology in order to become familiar with the physical properties of the gem stones with which they work. Jewelry appraisers carefully examine jewerly to determine its value, after which they write appraisal documents. They determine the value of a piece by researching the jewelry market, using refer ence books, auction catalogs, price lists, and the Internet. They may work for jewelry stores, appraisal firms, auction houses, pawnbrokers, or insurance companies. Many gemologists also become appraisers. In small retail stores or repair shops, jewelers and appraisers may be involved in all aspects of the work. Those who own or manage Production Occupations stores or shops also hire and train employees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties. New technology is helping to produce jewelry of higher quality at a reduced cost and in a shorter amount of time. For example, lasers are often used for cutting and improving the quality of stones, for applying intricate engraving or design work, and for inscribing personal messages or identification on jewelry. Jewelers also use lasers to weld metals together in milliseconds with no seams or blemishes, improving the quality and appearance of jewelry. Some manufacturing firms use computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) to facilitate product design and au tomate some steps in the moldmaking and modelmaking process. CAD allows jewelers to create a virtual-reality model of a piece of jewelry. Using CAD, jewelers can modify the design, change the stone, or try a different setting and see the changes on a computer screen before cutting a stone or performing other costly steps. Once they are satisfied with the model, CAM produces it in a waxlike or other material. After the mold of the model is made, it is easier for manufacturing firms to produce numerous copies of a given piece of jewelry, which are then distributed to retail establishments across the country. Similar techniques may be used in the retail setting, allowing individual customers to review their jewelry designs with the jeweler and make modifications before committing themselves to the expense of a customized piece of jewelry. 617 — * ■ Working Conditions Ajeweler’s work involves a great deal of concentration and attention to detail. Working on precious stones and metals while trying to satisfy customers’ and employers’ demands for speed and quality can cause fatigue or stress. However, the use of more ergonomi cally correct jewelers’ benches has eliminated most of the strain and discomfort caused by spending long periods bending over a workbench in one position. Lasers require both careful handling to avoid injury and steady hands to direct precision tasks. In larger manufacturing plants and some smaller repair shops, chemicals, sharp or pointed tools, and jewelers’ torches pose safety threats and may cause injury if proper care is not taken. Most dangerous chemicals, however, have been replaced with synthetic, less toxic products to meet safety requirements. In repair shops, jewelers usually work alone with little supervision. In retail stores, they may talk with customers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some selling. Because many of their materials are valuable, jewelers must observe strict security procedures, including working behind locked doors that are opened only by a buzzer, working on the other side of barred windows, making use of burglar alarms, and, in larger jewelry establishments, working in the presence of armed guards. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers usually learn their trade in vocational or technical schools, through distance-learning centers, or on the job. Colleges and art and design schools offer programs that can lead to the degree of bachelor of fine arts, or master of fine arts, in jewelry design. Formal training in the basic skills of the trade enhances one’s employment and advance ment opportunities. Many employers prefer jewelers with design, repair, and sales skills. For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, vocational and technical training or courses offered by public and private colleges are the best sources of training. In these programs, which can vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, students learn the use and care of jewelers’ tools and machines and basic jewelry making and jewelry-repairing skills, such as designing, casting, and setting and polishing stones. Technical school courses also cover https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers use both common and specialized tools to make pieces ofjewelry. topics such as blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. To enter some technical school programs and most college programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent is required. However, some schools specializing in jewelry training do not require graduation from high school. Computer-aided design is being used increasingly in the jewelry field, and students—especially those interested in design and manufacturing—may wish to obtain training in CAD; however, most employers will provide such training. Various institutes offer courses and programs in gemology. Pro grams cover a wide range of topics, including the identification and grading of diamonds and gem stones. Most employers feel that vocational school and technical school graduates need up to a year of additional supervised on-the-job train ing or apprenticeship in order to refine their repair skills and leam more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as fabricating, jewelry de sign, jewelry manufacturing, wax carving, and gemology. Employers may pay all or part of the cost of this additional training. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally develop their skills through informal apprenticeships and on-the-job training. The apprenticeship or training period lasts up to 1 year, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, setting stones, making models, or engraving. In recent years, a grow ing number of technical schools have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Employers in manufacturing 618 Occupational Outlook Handbook may prefer graduates of these programs because they arc familiar with the production process, requiring less on-the-job training. The precise and delicate nature ofjewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, patience, and concen tration. Artistic ability and fashion consciousness are major assets, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat, personable, and knowledgeable about the merchandise. In addition, employers require workers of good character, because jewelers work with valuable materials. Advancement opportunities are limited and depend greatly on an individual’s skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to supervisory jobs, such as master jeweler or head jeweler, but for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become managers; some open their own businesses. Those interested in starting their own business should first establish themselves and build a reputation for their work within the jewelry trade. Once they obtain sufficient credit from jewelry suppliers and wholesalers, they can acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have sales experience, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and com munity colleges. Employment Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers held about 42,000 jobs in 2004. About 40 percent of these workers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jewelry. About 1 out of 5 jobs for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were in other miscellaneous manufacturing, which includes jewelry and silverware manufacturing. Another 3 out of 10 jobs were in retail trade, primarily in jewelry, luggage, and leather goods stores. A small number of jobs were with merchant wholesalers of miscellaneous durable goods and in repair shops providing repair and maintenance of personal and household goods. Although jewelry stores and repair shops were found in every city and in many small towns, most jobs were in larger metropolitan areas. In 2004, many jewelers employed in manufacturing worked in Rhode Island, New York, or California. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is expected to decline slightly through 2014. Employment opportu nities, however, should be excellent. New jewelers will be needed to replace those who retire or who leave the occupation for other reasons. When master jewelers retire, they take with them years of experience that require substantial time and financial resources to replace. Many employers have difficulty finding and retaining jewelers with the right skills and the necessary knowledge. Some technological advances have made jewelrymaking more efficient; however, many tasks cannot be fully automated. Jewelry work is a labor-intensive process that requires excellent handiwork. The increasing numbers of affluent individuals, working women, double-income households, and fashion-conscious men are expected to keep jewelry sales strong. The population aged 45 and older, which accounts for a major portion of jewelry sales, also is on the rise. Nontraditional jewelry marketers, such as discount stores, mail order and catalogue companies, television shopping networks, and Internet retailers, have expanded the number of buying options and increased their sales volume. However, these establishments https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis require fewer sales staff, limiting employment opportunities for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers who work mainly in sales. Because such establishments enjoy increases in sales, however, they will need highly skilled jewelers to make and repair the jewelry they sell. Opportunities in jewelry stores and repair shops will be best for graduates from training programs for jewelers or gemologists. Despite an increase in sales by nontraditional jewelry marketers, traditional jewelers should not be affected greatly, because they have the advantage of being able to build client relationships based on trust. Many clients prefer to work directly with a jeweler, to ensure that the product is of the highest quality and meets their specifications. Many traditional jewelers expand their businesses as clients recommend their services to friends and relatives. The jewelry industry can be cyclical. During economic downturns, demand for jewelry products and for jewelers tends to decrease. How ever, demand for repair workers should remain strong even during economic slowdowns, because maintaining and repairing jewelry is an ongoing process. In fact, demand for jewelry repair may increase during recessions, as people repair or restore existing pieces rather than purchase new ones. Also, many nontraditional vendors typically do not offer repair services. Within manufacturing, increasing automation will adversely af fect employment of low-skilled occupations, such as assemblers and polishers. Automation will have a lesser impact on more creative, highly skilled positions, such as moldmakers and modelmakers. Furthermore, small manufacturers, which typify the industry, will have an increasingly difficult time competing with the larger manu facturers when it comes to supplying large retailers. Because of recent international trade agreements, exports are increasing modestly as manufacturers become more competitive in foreign markets. However, imports from foreign manufactur ers are increasing more rapidly than exports, due to these same agreements. Imports compete mainly with mass-produced jewelry. Therefore, employment in luxury and custom jewelry manufacturing is least susceptible to decline caused by import competition. Earnings Median annual earnings for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were $27,400 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,510 and $37,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,040, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,020. In May 2004, median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were $30,530 in jewelry, luggage, and leather goods stores and $23,590 in other miscel laneous manufacturing. Most jewelers start out with a base salary, but once they become more proficient, they may begin charging by the number of pieces completed. Jewelers who work in retail stores may earn a com mission for each piece of jewelry sold. Many jewelers also enjoy a variety of benefits, including reimbursement from their employers for work-related courses and discounts on jewelry purchases. Related Occupations Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers do precision hand work. Other skilled workers who do similar jobs include precision instrument and equipment repairers; welding, soldering, and brazing workers; and woodworkers. Some jewelers and precious stone and metal workers create their own jewelry designs. Other occupations that require visual arts abilities include artists and related workers, and various designers—commercial and industrial, fashion, floral, graphic, and interior. Finally, some jewelers and precious stone Production Occupations and metal workers are involved in the buying and selling of stones, metals, or finished pieces of jewelry. Similar occupations include retail salespersons and sales representatives in wholesale trade. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities and training programs for jewelers is available from: >• Gemological Institute of America, 5345 Armada Dr., Carlsbad, CA 92008. Internet: http://www.gia.edu For information on the jewelry industry and on schools offering jewelry-related programs and degrees by State, contact: >• Manufacturing Jewelers and Suppliers of America, 45 Royal Little Dr., Providence, RI02904. To receive a list of accredited technical schools that have pro grams in gemology, contact: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Tech nology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org For more information about careers in the jewelry industry, including different career paths, training options, and a list of schools, contact: >• Jewelers of America, 52 Vanderbilt Ave., 19th Floor, New York, NY 10017. Internet: http://www.jewelers.org Medical, Dental, and Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (0*NET 51-9081.00, 51-9082.00, 51-9083.01, 51-9083.02) Significant Points • Around 3 out of 5 salaried jobs were in medical equip ment and supply manufacturing laboratories, which usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than 5 employees. • Most medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job; however, many employers prefer to hire those with formal training in a related field. • Slower-than-average employment growth is expected for dental and ophthalmic laboratory technicians, while average employment growth is expected for medical appliance technicians. • Job opportunities should be favorable as employers have difficulty filling trainee positions. Nature of the Work When patients require a special appliance to see clearly, chew and speak well, or walk, their health care providers send requests to medi cal, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians. These technicians produce a wide variety of appliances to help patients. Medical appliance technicians construct, fit, maintain, and repair braces, artificial limbs, joints, arch supports, and other surgical and medical appliances. They read prescriptions or detailed information from orthotists, podiatrists, or prosthetists. Orthotists treat patients who need braces, supports, or corrective shoes. Podiatrists are doctors who treat foot problems and request the same appliances as orthotists. Prosthetists work with patients who need a replace ment limb, such as an arm, leg, hand, or foot, due to a birth defect or an accident. The appliances are called orthoses and prostheses. Medical appliance technicians are also referred to as orthotic and prosthetic technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 619 For orthoses such as arch supports, technicians first make a wax or plastic impression of the patient’s foot. Then they bend and form a material so that it conforms to prescribed contours required to fabricate structural components. If a support is mainly required to correct the balance of a patient with legs of different lengths, a rigid material is used. If the support is primarily intended to protect those with arthritic or diabetic feet, a soft material is used. Sup ports and braces are polished with grinding and buffing wheels. Technicians may cover arch supports with felt to make them more comfortable. For prostheses, technicians construct or receive a plaster cast of the patient’s limb to use as a pattern. Then, they lay out parts and use precision measuring instruments to measure them. Technicians may use wood, plastic, metal, or other material for the parts of the artificial limb. Next, they carve, cut, or grind the material using hand or power tools. Then, they drill holes for rivets and glue, rivet, or weld the parts together. They are able to do very precise work using common tools. Next, technicians use grinding and buffing wheels to smooth and polish artificial limbs. Lastly, they may cover or pad the limbs with rubber, leather, felt, plastic, or another material. Also, technicians may mix pigments according to formulas to match the patient’s skin color and apply the mixture to the artificial limb. After fabrication, medical appliance technicians test devices for proper alignment, movement, and biomechanical stability using meters and alignment fixtures. They also may fit the appliance on the patient and adjust them as necessary. Over time the appliance will wear down, so technicians must repair and maintain the device. They also may service and repair the machinery used for the fabrica tion of orthotic and prosthetic devices. Dental laboratory technicians fill prescriptions from dentists for crowns, bridges, dentures, and other dental prosthetics. First, dentists send a specification of the item to be manufactured, along with an impression (mold) of the patient’s mouth or teeth. Then, dental laboratory technicians, also called dental technicians, create a model of the patient’s mouth by pouring plaster into the impression and allowing it to set. Next, they place the model on an apparatus that mimics the bite and movement of the patient’s jaw. The model serves as the basis of the prosthetic device. Technicians examine the model, noting the size and shape of the adjacent teeth, as well as gaps within the gumline. Based upon these observations and the dentist’s specifications, technicians build and shape a wax tooth or teeth model, using small hand instruments called wax spatulas and wax carvers. They use this wax model to cast the metal framework for the prosthetic device. After the wax tooth has been formed, dental technicians pour the cast and form the metal and, using small hand-held tools, prepare the surface to allow the metal and porcelain to bond. They then apply porcelain in layers, to arrive at the precise shape and color of a tooth. Technicians place the tooth in a porcelain furnace to bake the porcelain onto the metal framework, and then adjust the shape and color, with subsequent grinding and addition of porcelain to achieve a sealed finish. The final product is a nearly exact replica of the lost tooth or teeth. In some laboratories, technicians perform all stages of the work, whereas, in other labs, each technician does only a few. Dental laboratory technicians can specialize in 1 of 5 areas: orthodontic appliances, crowns and bridges, complete dentures, partial dentures, or ceramics. Job titles can reflect specialization in these areas. For example, technicians who make porcelain and acrylic restorations are called dental ceramists. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufactur ing opticians, optical mechanics, or optical goods workers—make prescription eyeglass or contact lenses. Prescription lenses are 620 Occupational Outlook Handbook curved in such a way that light is correctly focused onto the retina of the patient’s eye, improving his or her vision. Some ophthalmic labo ratory technicians manufacture lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Ophthalmic laboratory techni cians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthalmolo gists and may insert lenses into frames to produce finished glasses. Although some lenses still are produced by hand, technicians are increasingly using automated equipment to make lenses. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmolo gists and optometrists are “eye doctors” who examine eyes, diagnose and treat vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Ophthalmologists are physicians who perform eye surgery. Dispensing opticians, who also may do the work of ophthalmic laboratory technicians, help patients select frames and lenses, and adjust finished eyeglasses. (See the statement on physicians and surgeons, which includes ophthalmologists, as well as the statements on optometrists and opticians, dispensing, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Ophthalmic laboratory technicians read prescription speci fications, select standard glass or plastic lens blanks, and then mark them to indicate where the curves specified on the prescrip tion should be ground. They place the lens in the lens grinder, set the dials for the prescribed curvature, and start the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be “finished” by a machine that rotates it against a fine abrasive, to grind it and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine with an even finer abrasive, to polish it to a smooth, bright finish. Next, the technician examines the lens through a lensometer, an instrument similar in shape to a microscope, to make sure that the degree and placement of the curve are correct. The technician then cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame, dips each lens into dye if the prescription calls for tinted or coated lenses, polishes & is ■ ii !2tr . 2:i 24 23 pip Dental laboratory technicians use Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing equipment, and hand instruments, such as wax spatulas and wax carvers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the edges, and assembles the lenses and frame parts into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians usually handle every phase of the operation. In large ones, in which virtually every phase of the operation is automated, technicians may be responsible for operating computerized equipment. Technicians also inspect the final product for quality and accuracy. Working Conditions Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated laboratories. They have limited contact with the public. Salaried laboratory technicians usually work 40 hours a week, but some work part time. At times, technicians wear goggles to protect their eyes, gloves to handle hot objects, or masks to avoid inhaling dust. They may spend a great deal of time standing. Dental technicians usually have their own workbenches, which can be equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing equip ment, and hand instruments, such as wax spatulas and wax carvers. Some dental technicians have computer-aided milling equipment to assist them with creating artificial teeth. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job; however, many employers prefer to hire those with formal training in a related field. Medical appliance technicians begin as a helper and gradu ally learn new skills as they gain experience. Formal training is also available. There are currently 4 programs actively ac credited by the National Commission on Orthotic and Prosthetic Education (NCOPE). These programs offer either an associate degree for orthotics and prosthetic technicians or one-year cer tificate for orthotic technicians or prosthetic technicians. The programs instruct students on human anatomy and physiology, orthotic and prosthetic equipment and materials, and applied biomechanical principles to customize orthoses or prostheses. The programs also include clinical rotations to provide handson experience. Voluntary certification is available through the American Board for Certification in Orthotics and Prosthetics (ABC). Applicants are eligible for an exam after completing a program accredited by NCOPE or obtaining two years of experience as a technician under the direct supervision of an ABC-certified practitioner. After successfully passing the appropriate exam, technicians receive the Registered Orthotic Technician, Regis tered Prosthetic Technician, or Registered Prosthetic-Orthotic Technician credential. High school students interested in becoming medical appliance technicians should take mathematics, metal and wood shop, and drafting. With additional formal education, medical appliance technicians can advance to become orthotists or prosthetists. Dental laboratory technicians begin with simple tasks, such as pouring plaster into an impression, and progress to more complex procedures, such as making porcelain crowns and bridges. Becoming a fully trained technician requires an aver age of 3 to 4 years, depending upon the individual’s aptitude and ambition, but it may take a few years more to become an accomplished technician. Training in dental laboratory technology also is available through community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and the U.S. Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and in the level of skill they impart. In 2004, 25 programs in dental laboratory technology were ap proved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in Production Occupations conjunction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs provide classroom instruction in dental materials science, oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, ethics, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in a school or an associated dental laboratory. Accredited pro grams normally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree. A few programs take about 4 years to complete and offer a bachelor’s degree in dental technology. Graduates of 2-year training programs need additional hands-on experience to become fully qualified. Each dental laboratory owner operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not necessarily expose students to techniques and procedures favored by individual laboratory owners. Students who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft usually are considered good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have completed a formal program. Many employers will train someone without any classroom experience. The National Board for Certification, an independent board established by the National Association of Dental Laboratories, offers certification in dental laboratory technology. Certification, which is voluntary, can be obtained in five specialty areas: crowns and bridges, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orthodontic appliances. In large dental laboratories, technicians may become supervi sors or managers. Experienced technicians may teach or may take jobs with dental suppliers in such areas as product develop ment, marketing, and sales. Still, for most technicians, opening one’s own laboratory is the way toward advancement and higher earnings. A high degree of manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings and variations in shape are necessary. An artistic aptitude for detailed and pre cise work also is important. High school students interested in becoming dental laboratory technicians should take courses in art, metal and wood shop, drafting, and sciences. Courses in management and business may help those wishing to operate their own laboratories. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians start on simple tasks if they are trained to produce lenses by hand. They may begin with mark ing or blocking lenses for grinding; then, they progress to grind ing, cutting, edging, and beveling lenses; finally, they are trained in assembling the eyeglasses. Depending on individual aptitude, it may take up to 6 months to become proficient in all phases of the work. Employers filling trainee jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science, mathematics, and comput ers are valuable; manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential. Technicians using automated systems will find computer skills valuable. A very small number of ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces or in the few programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These programs have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year and award certificates or diplomas. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some become dispensing opticians, although further education or training generally is required in that occupation. Employment Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 87,000 jobs in 2004. Around 3 out of 5 salaried jobs were in medical equipment and supply manufacturing laboratories, which https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 621 usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than five employees. However, some laboratories are large; a few employ more than 1,000 workers. Employment by detailed occupation is presented in the follow ing tabulation: Dental laboratory technicians....................................................... Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................. Medical appliance technicians..................................................... 50,000 25,000 11,000 Some medical appliance technicians worked in health and per sonal care stores, while others worked in public and private hospitals, professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers, offices of physicians, or consumer goods rental centers. Some were self-employed. Some dental laboratory technicians work in offices of dentists. Others work for hospitals providing dental services, including U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals. Some dental laboratory technicians open their own offices or work in dental laboratories in their homes. Around 30 percent of ophthalmic laboratory technicians were in health and personal care stores, such as optical goods stores that manufacture and sell prescription glasses and contact lenses. Some were in offices of optometrists or oph thalmologists. Others worked at professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers. A few worked in commercial and service industry machine manufacturing firms that produce lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Job Outlook Job opportunities for medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians should be favorable, despite expected slower-than-average growth in overall employment through the year 2014. Employers have difficulty filling trainee positions, probably because entry-level salaries are relatively low and because the public is not familiar with these occupations. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force. Medical appliance technicians will grow faster than dental and ophthalmic laboratory technicians, with employment projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations, due to the increasing prevalence of the two leading causes of limb loss—diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Advances in tech nology may spur demand for prostheses that allow for greater movement. During the last few years, demand has arisen from an ag ing public that is growing increasingly interested in cosmetic prostheses. For example, many dental laboratories are fill ing orders for composite fillings that are the same shade of white as natural teeth to replace older, less attractive fillings. However, job growth for dental laboratory technicians will be limited. The overall dental health of the population has improved because of fluoridation of drinking water, which has reduced the incidence of dental cavities, and greater emphasis on preventive dental care since the early 1960s. As a result, full dentures will be less common, as most people will need only a bridge or crown. Demographic trends also make it likely that many more Ameri cans will need vision care in the years ahead. Not only will the population grow, but also, the proportion of middle-aged and older adults is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons usually require more vision care than others. However, 622 Occupational Outlook Handbook the increasing use of automated machinery will limit job growth for ophthalmic laboratory technicians. Earnings Median hourly earnings of medical appliance technicians were $ 13.38 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 10.46 and $18.22 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.21, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.66 an hour. Median hourly earnings of medical appliance technicians in May 2004 were $13.00 in medical equipment and supplies manufacturing. Median hourly earnings of dental laboratory technicians were $ 14.93 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.18 and $19.71 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.86, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.48 an hour. Median hourly earnings of dental laboratory technicians in May 2004 were $15.95 in offices of dentists and $14.40 in medical equipment and supplies manufacturing. Dental technicians in large laboratories tend to specialize in a few procedures and, therefore, tend to be paid a lower wage than those employed in small laboratories who perform a variety of tasks. Median hourly earnings of ophthalmic laboratory techni cians were $11.40 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.33 and $14.67 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.89, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.61 an hour. Median hourly earnings of ophthalmic laboratory technicians in May 2004 were $10.88 in health and personal care stores and $10.79 in medical equipment and sup plies manufacturing. Related Occupations Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians manufacture a variety of health implements, such as artificial limbs, corrective lenses, and artificial teeth, following specifications and instructions provided by health care practitioners. Other workers who make and repair medical devices or other items include dispensing opticians, orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instrument and equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in orthotics and prosthetics, contact: >■ American Academy of Orthotists and Prosthetists, 526 King St., Suite 201, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.opcareers.org For a list of accredited programs for orthotic and prosthetic technicians, contact: ► National Commission on Orthotic and Prosthetic Education, 330 John Carlyle St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314, Internet: http://www.ncope.org For a list of accredited programs in dental laboratory technol ogy, contact: > Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on requirements for certification of dental labora tory technicians, contact: >- National Board for Certification in Dental Technology, 325 John Knox Rd., LI03, Tallahassee, FL 32303. Internet: http://www.nbccert.org For information on career opportunities in commercial dental laboratories, contact: >- National Association of Dental Laboratories, 325 John Knox Rd., L103, Tallahassee, FL 32303. Internet: http://www.nadl.org For information on an accredited program in ophthalmic labora tory technology, contact: >■ Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 8665 Sudley Rd., #341, Manassas VA 20110. General information on grants and scholarships is available from individual schools. State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Painting and Coating Workers, Except Construction and Maintenance (0*NET 51 -9121.01, 51 -9121.02, 51 -9122.00, 51 -9123.00) Significant Points • About 70 percent of jobs are in manufacturing estab lishments. • Most workers acquire their skills on the job; for most operators, training lasts from a few days to several months, but becoming skilled in all aspects of automo tive painting usually requires 1 to 2 years. • Overall employment is projected to grow more slowly than average; transportation equipment painters are ex pected to grow about as fast as average, while coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders are expected to decline. Nature of the Work Millions of items ranging from cars to candy are covered by paint, plastic, varnish, chocolate, or some other type of coating solution. Often, the protection provided by the paint or coating is essential to the product, as with the coating of insulating material covering wires and other electrical and electronic components. Also, many paints and coatings have dual purposes; for example, the paint finish on an automobile heightens the visual appearance of the vehicle while providing protection from corrosion. Coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders control the machinery that applies these paints and coat ings to a wide range of manufactured products. Perhaps the most straightforward technique is simply dipping an item in a large vat of paint or other coating. This is the technique used by dippers, who immerse racks or baskets of articles in vats of paint, liquid plastic, or other solutions by means of a power hoist. Similarly, tumbling barrel painters deposit articles made of porous materials into a barrel of paint, varnish, or other coating; the barrel is then rotated to ensure thorough coverage. Another familiar technique is spraying products with a solu tion of paint or some other coating. Spray machine operators use spray guns to coat metal, wood, ceramic, fabric, paper, and food products with paint and other coating solutions. Following a formula, operators fill the machine’s tanks with a mixture of paints or chemicals, adding prescribed amounts of solution. Then they adjust nozzles on the guns to obtain the proper dispersion of the spray, and they hold or position the guns so as to direct the spray onto the article. Operators also check the flow and viscosity of the paint or solution and visually inspect the quality of the coat ing. When products are drying, these workers often must regulate the temperature and air circulation in drying ovens. Individuals who paint, coat, or decorate articles such as furniture, glass, pot tery, toys, cakes, and books are known as painting, coating, and decorating workers. Painting and coating workers use various types of machines to coat a range of products. Frequently, their job title reflects the specialized nature of the machine or of the coating being applied. For example, enrobing machine operators coat, or “enrobe,” con fectionery, bakery, and other food products with melted chocolate, cheese, oils, sugar, or other substances. Paper coating machine operators spray “size” on rolls of paper to give it its gloss or finish. Silvering applicators spray silver, tin, and copper solutions on glass in the manufacture of mirrors. Production Occupations In response to concerns about air pollution and worker safety, manufacturers increasingly are using new types of paints and coatings, instead of high-solvent paints, on their products. Water-based paints and powder coatings are two of the most common. These compounds do not emit as many volatile organic compounds into the air and can be applied to a variety of products. Powder coatings are sprayed much as are liquid paints and then are heated to melt and cure the coating. The adoption of new types of paints often is accompanied by a conversion to more automated painting equipment that the operator sets and monitors. When using these machines, operators position the automatic spray guns, set the nozzles, and synchronize the action of the guns with the speed of the conveyor carrying articles through the machine and drying ovens. The operator also may add solvents or water to the paint vessel, thereby preparing the paint for application. During the operation of the equipment, these workers tend painting machines, observe gauges on the control panel, and check articles for evidence of any variation from specifications. The operator then uses a spray gun to “touch up” spots where necessary. Although the majority of painting and coating workers are employed in manufacturing, the best known group refinishes old and damaged cars, trucks, and buses in automotive body repair and paint shops. Transportation equipment painters, or automotive painters, are among the most highly skilled manual spray opera tors, because they perform intricate, detailed work and mix paints to match the original color, a task that is especially difficult if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, painters or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust and then fill small dents and scratches with body filler. They also remove or mask parts they do not want to paint, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray gun to apply several coats of paint. They apply enamel or water-based primers to vehicles with metal bodies and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. Controlling the spray gun by hand, they apply successive coats until the finish of the repaired sections of the vehicle matches that of the original, undamaged portions. To speed drying between coats, they may place the freshly painted ve hicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to remove any irregularities and to improve the adhesion of the next coat. Final sanding of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer then is applied and allowed to dry, followed by the final topcoat. Working Conditions Painting and coating workers typically work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and coating solutions. Although painting usually is done in special ventilated booths, operators typically wear masks or respirators that cover their noses and mouths, even in such booths. In addition, Federal legislation has led to a decrease in workers’ exposure to hazardous chemicals by regulating emissions of volatile organic compounds and other hazardous air pollutants. This legislation also has led to the increas ing use of more sophisticated paint booths and fresh-air systems that provide a safer work environment. Operators have to stand for long periods, and when using a spray gun, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncomfort able positions to reach different parts of the article. Most operators work a normal 40-hour week, but self-employed automotive paint ers sometimes work more than 50 hours a week, depending on the number of vehicles customers want repainted. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most painting and coating workers acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping other, more experienced workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis X 623 11 To minimize exposure to harmful chemicals, painting and coating workers must wear protective masks when performing certain tasks. For most setters, operators, and tenders, as well as for painting, coat ing, and decorating workers, training lasts from a few days to several months. Coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders who modify the operation of computer-controlled equip ment while it is running may require additional training in computer operations and minor programming. Similarly, most transportation equipment painters start as help ers and gain their skills informally on the job. Becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training. Beginning helpers usually remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, mask surfaces they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experience, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Painters should have keen eyesight and a good sense of color. The completion of high school generally is not required, but is advanta geous. Additional instruction is offered at many community colleges and vocational or technical schools. Such programs enhance one’s employment prospects and can speed promotion to the next level. Some employers sponsor training programs to help their workers become more productive. Training is available from manufacturers of chemicals, paints, or equipment or from other private sources and may include safety and quality tips, as well as impart knowledge of products, equipment, and general business practices. Some 624 Occupational Outlook Handbook automotive painters are sent to technical schools to learn the intricacies of mixing and applying different types of paint. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as the standard of achieve ment for automotive painters. For certification, painters must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or community or junior college training in automotive refinishing that meets ASE standards may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain their certification, painters must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced painting and coating workers with leadership abil ity may become team leaders or supervisors. Those who acquire practical experience, college, or other formal training may become sales or technical representatives for chemical or paint companies. Eventually, some automotive painters open their own shops. Since the detailed work of refinishing automobiles in collision repair shops and motor vehicle dealerships does not lend itself to automation, painters employed in these establishments are projected to experience employment growth about as fast as the average for all occupations. As the demand for refinishing continues to grow, slower productivity growth among these workers will lead to employment increases that are more in line with the growing demand for their services. The number of job openings for painting and coating workers in manufacturing industries may fluctuate from year to year due to cyclical changes in economic conditions. When demand for manu factured goods lessens, production may be suspended or reduced, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. Automotive painters, by contrast, can expect relatively steady work because automobiles damaged in accidents require repair and refinishing regardless of the state of the economy. Earnings Employment Painting and coating workers held about 186,000 jobs in 2004. Lesser skilled coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders accounted for about 103,000 jobs, while more skilled transportation equipment painters constituted about 53,000. Another 29,000 jobs were held by painting, coating, and decorating workers. Approximately 70 percent of salaried jobs were found in manufacturing establishments, where the workers applied coat ings to items such as fabricated metal products, motor vehicles and related equipment, industrial machines, household and of fice furniture, and plastic, wood, and paper products. Outside manufacturing, workers included automotive painters employed by independent automotive repair shops and workers employed by body repair and paint shops operated by retail motor vehicle dealers. About 6 percent of painting and coating workers were self-employed. Job Outlook Overall employment of painting and coating workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Employment growth for highly skilled transportation painters and automotive refinishers is projected to be faster than for painting, coating, and decorating workers. In addition to jobs arising from growth, some jobs will become available each year as employers replace experienced operators who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Despite increasing demand for manufactured goods, employment of coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders is expected to decline as part of that demand will be met by products manufactured abroad. Employment will be further decreased by improvements in the automation of paint and coating applications that will raise worker productivity. For example, opera tors will be able to coat goods more rapidly as they use sophisticated industrial machinery that moves and aims spray guns more effi ciently. Legislation has set limits on the emissions of ozone-forming volatile organic compounds and is expected to impede job growth among operators in manufacturing. As manufacturing firms switch to water-based and powder coatings to comply with the law, they will introduce more efficient automation. Painting, coating, and decorating workers should grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Increasing demand for hand-painted tiles and related specialty products will lead to growth among these workers. Although competition from imports should temper increases in employment, the specialized skills required by workers in this occupation should keep them from seeing as much impact of automation on employment. DigitizedofforanFRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median hourly earnings of coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders were $ 12.64 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.16 and $15.78 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.54, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.39 an hour. Median hourly earnings of transportation equipment painters were $16.89 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.85 and $22.74 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.17, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.52 an hour. Median hourly earnings of transportation equipment painters were $16.84 in automotive repair and maintenance shops and $24.13 in motor vehicle manufacturing. Median hourly earnings of painting, coating, and decorating work ers were $ 10.95 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.76 and $13.94 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.44, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.23 an hour. Many automotive painters employed by motor vehicle dealers and independent automotive repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on com mission. Trucking companies, bus lines, and other organizations that repair and refinish their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Many painting and coating machine operators belong to unions, including the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, the Sheet Metal Workers International Association, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Most union operators work for manufacturers and large motor vehicle dealers. Related Occupations Other occupations similar to painting and coating workers include painters and paperhangers, woodworkers, and machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local manufactur ers, automotive body repair shops, motor vehicle dealers, vocational schools, locals of unions representing painting and coating work ers, or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about training programs. Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is available from: >• National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. S.E., Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.ase.com Production Occupations 625 Photographic Process Workers and Processing Machine Operators (O*NET51-9131.01, 51-9131.02, 51-9131.03, 51-9131.04, 51-9132.00) Erl Significant Points • A decline in employment is expected as digital photography becomes commonplace. • Most receive on-the-job training from their companies, manufacturers’ representatives, and experienced workers. • Job opportunities will be best for individuals with experience using computers and digital technology. A v::a Nature of the Work Both amateur and professional photographers rely heavily on photographic process workers and processing machine operators to develop film, make prints or slides, and do related tasks, such as enlarging or retouching photographs. Photographic processing machine operators operate various machines, such as mounting presses and motion picture film printing, photographic printing, and film developing machines. Photographic process workers perform more delicate tasks, such as retouching photographic negatives, prints and images to emphasize or correct specific features. Photographic processing machine operators often have spe cialized jobs. Film process technicians operate machines that develop exposed photographic film or sensitized paper in a series of chemical and water baths to produce negative or positive im ages. First, technicians mix developing and fixing solutions, following a formula. They then load the film in the machine, which immerses the exposed film in a developer solution. This brings out the latent image. The next steps include immersing the negative in a stop-bath to halt the developer action, transfer ring it to a hyposolution to fix the image, and then immersing it in water to remove the chemicals. The technician then dries the film. In some cases, these steps are performed by hand. Color printer operators control equipment that produces color prints from negatives. These workers read customer instructions to determine processing requirements. They load film into color printing equipment, examine negatives to determine equipment control settings, set controls, and produce a specified number of prints. Finally, they inspect the finished prints for defects, remove any that are found, and insert the processed negatives and prints into an envelope for return to the customer. Processing machine operators who work with digital images first load the raw images onto a computer, either directly from the camera or more commonly from a storage device such as a flash card or CD. Most processing of the images is done automatically by software, but they may also be reviewed manually by the operator, who then selects which images the customer wants printed and the quantity. Some digital processors also upload images onto a Web site so that the customer can view them from a home computer and also share them with others through the Internet. Photographic process workers, sometimes known as digital im aging technicians, use computer images of conventional negatives and specialized computer software to vary the contrast of images, remove unwanted background, or combine features from differ ent photographs. Although computers and digital technology are replacing much manual work, some photographic process workers, especially those who work in portrait studios, still perform many specialized tasks by hand directly on the photo or negative. Airbrush artists restore damaged and faded photographs, and may color or shade drawings to create photographic likenesses using an airbrush. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Photographic processing workers generate finished photos from film or datafiles. Photographic retouchers alter photographic negatives, prints, or im ages to accentuate the subject. Colorists apply oil colors to portrait photographs to create natural, lifelike appearances. Photographic spotters remove imperfections on photographic prints and images. Working Conditions Photographic process workers and processing machine operators generally spend their work hours in clean, appropriately lighted, well-ventilated, and air-conditioned offices, photofinishing labora tories, or 1 -hour minilabs. In recent years, more commercial photo graphic processing has been done on computers than in darkrooms, and this trend is expected to continue. Some photographic process workers and processing machine opera tors are exposed to the chemicals and fumes associated with developing and printing. These workers must wear rubber gloves and aprons and take precautions against these hazards. Those who use computers for extended periods may experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Photographic processing machine operators must do repetitive work at a rapid pace without any loss of accuracy. Photographic process workers do detailed tasks, such as airbrushing and spotting, which can contribute to eye fatigue. Many photo laboratory employees work a 40-hour week, includ ing evenings and weekends, and may work overtime during peak seasons. About one in four work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most photographic process workers and processing machine opera tors receive on-the-job training from their companies, manufactur ers’ representatives, and experienced workers. New employees gradually learn to use the machines and chemicals that develop and print film as well as the computer techniques to process and print digital images. Employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates or those who have some experience in the field. Familiarity with computers is essential for photographic processing machine opera tors. The ability to perform simple mathematical calculations also is helpful. Photography courses that include instruction in film 626 Occupational Outlook Handbook processing are valuable preparation. Such courses are available through high schools, vocational-technical institutes, private trade schools, and colleges and universities. On-the-job training in photographic processing occupations can range from just a few hours for print machine operators to several months for photographic processing workers such as airbrush artists and colorists. Some workers attend periodic train ing seminars to maintain a high level of skill. Manual dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision, including normal color perception, are important qualifications for photographic process workers. Photographic process machine workers can sometimes advance from jobs as machine operators to supervisory positions in labora tories or to management positions within retail stores. Employment Photographic process workers held about 32,000 jobs in 2004. About three in ten photographic process workers were employed in photofinishing laboratories and one-hour minilabs. More than one in six worked for portrait studios or commercial laboratories that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers for advertising and other industries. An additional one in nine was employed by general merchandise stores, and one in ten in the print ing, publishing, and motion picture industries. Photographic processing machine operators held about 54,000 jobs in 2004. About half worked in retail establishments, primar ily in general merchandise stores and drug stores. About one in three worked in photofinishing laboratories and one-hour minilabs. Small numbers were employed in the printing industry and in portrait studios and commercial laboratories that process the work of professional photographers. Employment fluctuates somewhat over the course of the year. Typically, employment peaks during school graduation and summer vacation periods, and again during the winter holiday season. Job Outlook A decline in employment is expected for photographic process work ers and processing machine operators through the year 2014. Some openings will still result from replacement needs, which are higher for machine operators than for photographic process workers. In recent years, digital cameras, which use electronic memory rather than film to record images, have become standard among professional photographers and are gaining in popularity among amateur photographers as the cost of these cameras continues to fall. This will reduce the demand for traditional photographic processing machine operators. However, while many digital camera owners will choose to print their own pictures with their own equipment, a growing number of casual photographers are choosing not to acquire the needed equipment and skills to print the photos themselves. For them, self-service machines will be able to meet some of the demand, but there will still be some demand for professionals to print digital photos, as well as to develop and print photos from those who continue to use film cameras. Digital photography also will reduce demand for photographic process workers. Using digital cameras and technology, consum ers who have a personal computer and the proper software will be able to download and view pictures on their computer, as well as manipulate, correct, and retouch their own photographs. No mat ter what improvements occur in camera technology, though, some photographic processing tasks will still require skillful manual treatment. Moreover, not all consumers will want to invest in the software. Job opportunities will be best for individuals with experi ence using computers and digital technology. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Earnings of photographic process workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Median hourly earnings for photographic process workers were $9.63 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.79 and $12.97. The low est 10 percent earned less than $6.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.99. Median hourly earnings were $10.20 in photofinishing laboratories, the largest employer of photographic process workers. Median hourly earning for photographic processing machine operators were $9.33 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.78 and $11.88. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.84, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.21. Median hourly earnings in the two industries employing the largest numbers of photographic processing machine operators were $10.44 in photofinishing laboratories and $7.98 in health and personal care stores. Related Occupations Photographic process workers and processing machine operators need specialized knowledge of the photo developing process. Other workers who apply specialized technical knowledge include clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, computer operators, jewel ers and precious stone and metal workers, prepress technicians and workers, printing machine operators, and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic technol ogy, contact: ► Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place, Jackson, MI 49201. Internet: http://www.pmai.org Semiconductor Processors (Q*NET 51-9141.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to decline over the next 10 years because of increasing automation of fabrication plants in this country and the building of many of the new plants abroad. • An associate degree in a relevant curriculum is increas ingly required. Nature of the Work Electronic semiconductors—also known as computer chips, micro chips, or integrated circuits—are the miniature but powerful brains of high-technology equipment. Semiconductors are composed of a myriad of tiny aluminum or copper lines and electric switches, which manipulate the flow of electrical current. Semiconductor processors are responsible for many of the steps necessary in the manufacture of each semiconductor that goes into personal computers, missile guidance systems, and a host of other electronic equipment. Semiconductor processors are the production workers who manu facture semiconductors in disks of varying sizes, generally eight to twelve inches wide. These disks, called wafers, are thin slices of silicon on which the circuitry of the microchips is layered. Each wafer is eventually cut into dozens or scores of individual chips. Semiconductor processors make wafers by means of photolithog raphy, a printing process for creating patterns from photographic images. Operating automated equipment, workers imprint precise Production Occupations microscopic patterns of the circuitry on the wafers, etch out the pat terns with acids, and replace the patterns with metals that conduct electricity. Then, the wafers receive a chemical bath to make them smooth, and the imprint process begins again on a new layer with the next pattern. Wafers usually have from 8 to 20 such layers of microscopic, three-dimensional circuitry. Semiconductors are produced in semiconductor-fabricating plants, or “fabs.” Within fabs, the manufacturing and cutting of wafers to create semiconductors takes place in “cleanrooms”— production areas that must be kept free of any airborne matter, because even extremely small particles can damage a semiconduc tor. All semiconductor processors working in cleanrooms—both operators and technicians—must wear special lightweight outer garments known as “bunny suits.” These garments fit over clothing to prevent lint and other particles from contaminating semiconduc tor-processing worksites. Operators, who make up the majority of the workers in cleanrooms, start and monitor the sophisticated equipment that performs the various tasks during the many steps of the semicon ductor production sequence. They spend a great deal of time at computer terminals, monitoring the operation of the equipment to ensure that each of the tasks in the production of the wafer is performed correctly. Operators also may transfer wafer carri ers from one development station to the next; in newer fabs, the lifting of heavy wafer carriers and the constant monitoring for quality control are increasingly being automated. 627 Once begun, the production of semiconductor wafers is continu ous. Operators work to the pace of the machinery that has largely automated the production process. Operators are responsible for keeping the automated machinery within proper operating param eters. Technicians account for a smaller percentage of the workers in cleanrooms, but they troubleshoot production problems and make equipment adjustments and repairs. They also take the lead in as suring quality control and in maintaining equipment. To keep equip ment repairs to a minimum, technicians perform diagnostic analyses and run computations. For example, technicians may determine if a flaw in a chip is due to contamination, and peculiar to that wafer, or if the flaw is inherent in the manufacturing process. Working Conditions The work pace in cleanrooms is deliberately slow. Limited move ment keeps the air in cleanrooms as free as possible of dust and other particles, which can destroy semiconductors during their production. Because the machinery sets the operators’ rate of work in the largely automated production process, workers maintain an easygoing pace. Although workers spend some time alone monitor ing equipment, operators and technicians spend much of their time working in teams. Technicians are on their feet most of the day, walking through the cleanroom to oversee production activities. Operators spend a great deal of time sitting or standing at workstations, monitoring computer readouts and gauges. Sometimes, they must retrieve wafers from one station and take them to another. The temperature in the cleanrooms must be kept within a nar row range: usually, it is set at a comfortable 72 degrees Fahren heit. Although bunny suits cover virtually the entire body, except perhaps the eyes (over which workers wear protective glasses), their lightweight fabric keeps the temperature inside fairly com fortable as well. Entry and exit of workers in bunny suits from the cleanroom are controlled to minimize contamination, and workers must be reclothed in a clean suit and decontaminated each time they return to the cleanroom. Several highly toxic chemicals are used at various points in the process of manufacturing semiconductors. Workers who are exposed to such chemicals can be seriously harmed. However, semiconductor fabrication plants are designed with safeguards to ensure that these chemicals are handled, used, and disposed of without exposure to workers or the surrounding environment. Toxic chemicals are applied to wafers by computer-controlled machine tools in sealed chambers and there is normally little risk of workers coming into contact with them. Semiconductor-fabricating plants operate around the clock. For this reason, night and weekend work is common. In some plants, workers maintain standard 8-hour shifts, 5 days a week. In other plants, employees are on duty for 12-hour shifts to minimize the dismption of cleanroom operations brought about by changes in shift. In some plants, managers allow workers to alternate schedules, thereby distributing the overnight shift equitably. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Semiconductor processing technicians use microscopes to checkfor flaws in semiconductor wafers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis People interested in becoming semiconductor processors—either operators or technicians—need a solid background in mathematics and the physical sciences. In addition to applying these disciplines to the complex manufacturing processes performed in fabs, math and science knowledge are essentials for pursuing higher education in semiconductor technology—and knowledge of both subjects is one of the best ways to advance in the semiconductor fabricating field. Semiconductor processor workers must also be able to think analytically and critically to anticipate problems and avoid costly 628 Occupational Outlook Handbook mistakes. Communication skills also are vital, as workers must be able to convey their thoughts and ideas both orally and in writing. For semiconductor processor jobs, employers prefer persons who have completed associate degree programs. However, completion of a 1-year certificate program in semiconductor technology of fered by some community colleges, supplemented by experience, may also be sufficient; Some semiconductor technology programs at community colleges include internships at a semiconductor fabricating plants. Others persons also may qualify by complet ing a degree in high-tech manufacturing, a new degree offered by some community colleges that prepares graduates to work in the semiconductor industry, as well as other industries such as pharma ceuticals, aerospace, or automotive. Degree or certificate program graduates who get hands-on training while attending school should have the best prospects. To ensure that operators and technicians keep their skills current, many employers provide 40 hours of formal training annually. Some employers also provide financial assistance to employees who want to earn associate and bachelor’s degrees to further their career or to work towards becoming a technician. Summer and part-time employment provide another option for getting started in the field for those who are at least 18 years old and live near a semiconductor processing plant. Students often are hired to work during the summer, and some students are allowed to con tinue working part time during the school year. Students in summer and part-time semiconductor processor jobs learn what education they need to prosper in the field. They also gain valuable experience that may lead to full-time employment after graduation. Some semiconductor processing technicians transfer to sales engineer jobs with suppliers of the machines that manufacture the semiconductors or become field support personnel. Employment Electronic semiconductor processors held approximately 45,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly all of them were employed in facilities that manufacture semiconductors and other electronic components and accessories, though a small percentage worked in plants that primar ily manufacture computers and office equipment. Job Outlook Employment of semiconductor processors is projected to decline between 2004 and 2014. The two main reasons for this are increas ing automation and the construction of many newer fabs in other countries. Semiconductor manufacturers are shifting production to larger 12” wafers, which produce twice as many chips as fabs mak ing 8” wafers. Plants that make 12” wafers are more automated, allowing them to sharply increase production with the same number of workers. Additionally, a number of domestic companies are building more fabs overseas, where costs are lower. Imports of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis semiconductors from non-U.S. companies also are growing and may continue to increase throughout the decade. In spite of the decline in employment, some jobs will open up due to the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Despite the expected decline in employment of semiconductor processors, the demand for semiconductor chips remains very high stemming from the many existing and future applications for semi conductors in computers, appliances, machinery, biotechnology, vehicles, cell phones and other telecommunications devices, and other equipment. Moreover, the advent of the new 64-bit microchip and “dual-core” chips is expected to provide the power of computer servers or workstations, onto desktop computers and open up a wealth of new applications, particularly in medical devices. Industry development of semiconductors made from better ma terials means that semiconductors will become even smaller, more powerful, and more durable. For example, the industry has begun producing a new generation of microchips made with copper rather than aluminum wires, which will better conduct electricity. Also, technology now exists to make chips for wireless connections to the Internet possible over a range of several miles, while another com pany will soon be producing chips that will save massive amounts of energy in many kinds of electric products. Job prospects will be best for people with postsecondary educa tion in electronics or semiconductor technology. Earnings Median hourly earnings of electronic semiconductor processors were $ 13.85 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 11.44 and $16.90 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.53, and the top 10 percent earned more than $20.46 an hour. Technicians with an associate degree in electronics or semicon ductor technology generally start at higher salaries than those with less education. About 15 percent of all electronic semiconductor processors belonged to a union. Related Occupations Electronic semiconductor processors do production work that re sembles the work of precision assemblers and fabricators of electrical and electronic equipment. Also, many electronic semiconductor processors have academic training in semiconductor technology, which emphasizes scientific and engineering principles. Other occupations that require some college or postsecondary vocational training emphasizing such principles are engineering technicians, electrical and electronics engineers, and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more information on semiconductor processor careers, contact: ► MaricopaAdvanced Technology Education Center (MATEC), 2323 West 14th St., Suite 540, Tempe, AZ 85281. Internet: http://matec.org/ops/career.shtml Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Air Transportation Occupations Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers (0*NET 53-2011.00, 53-2012.00) Significant Points • Regional and low-fare airlines offer the best opportuni ties; pilots attempting to get jobs at the major airlines will face strong competition. • Pilots usually start with smaller commuter and regional airlines to acquire the experience needed to qualify for higher paying jobs with national or major airlines. • Many pilots have learned to fly in the military, but growing numbers have college degrees with flight training from civilian flying schools that are certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). • Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained professionals who either fly airplanes or helicopters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Most are airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers who transport passengers and cargo, but 1 out of 5 pilots is a commercial pilot involved in tasks such as dusting crops, spreading seed for reforestation, testing aircraft, flying passengers and cargo to areas not served by regular airlines, directing firefighting efforts, tracking criminals, monitoring traffic, and rescuing and evacuating injured persons. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot, the captain, is in com mand and supervises all other crew members. The pilot and the copilot, often called the first officer, share flying and other duties, such as communicating with air traffic controllers and monitoring the instruments. Some large aircraft have a third pilot, the flight engineer, who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor in-flight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. The flight engineer also assists the pilots with the company, air traffic control, and cabin crew commu nications. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and virtually all new aircraft now fly with only two pilots, who rely more heavily on computerized controls. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They thor oughly check their aircraft to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. They confer with flight dispatchers and aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions en route and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that will provide the safest, most economical, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules—procedures governing the operation of the aircraft when there is poor visibility—the pilot https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in command, or the company dispatcher, normally files an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traffic. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight, and require close coordination between the pilot and first officer. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the first officer scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots consider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the first officer informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Pilots and first officers usually alternate flying each leg from takeoff to landing. Unless the weather is bad, the flight itself is relatively routine. Airplane pilots, with the assistance of autopilot and the flight man agement computer, steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They regularly scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply; the condition of their engines; and the air-conditioning, hydraulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, pilots may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions; if so, they may request an altitude change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. In contrast, because helicopters are used for short trips at relatively low altitude, helicopter pilots must be constantly on the lookout for trees, bridges, power lines, transmission towers, and other dangerous obstacles. Regardless of the type of aircraft, all pilots must moni tor warning devices designed to help detect sudden shifts in wind conditions that can cause crashes. Pilots must rely completely on their instruments when visibility is poor. On the basis of altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and whether they can fly safely over mountains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information that, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equipment provides direc tions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely without an outside visual reference. Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight and the aircraft maintenance status for their company and the FAA. The number of nonflying duties that pilots have depends on the employment setting. Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs and, consequently, perform few nonflying duties. However, because of the large numbers of passengers, airline pilots may be called upon to coordinate handling of disgruntled or disruptive pas sengers. Pilots employed by other organizations, such as charter operators or businesses, have many other duties. They may load the aircraft, handle all passenger luggage to ensure a balanced load, and supervise refueling; other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major maintenance, and performing minor aircraft maintenance and repairs. 629 630 Occupational Outlook Handbook Commercial pilots face other types of job hazards. The work of test pilots, who check the flight performance of new and experimen tal planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop-dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and seldom have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Helicopter pilots involved in rescue and police work may be subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, regardless of the weather, can be tiring. Pilots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong, particularly during takeoff and landing. siiiii Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A :: ■' ■ vB', i Before departure, pilots thoroughly check their aircraft to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. Some pilots are flight instructors. They teach their students in ground-school classes, in simulators, and in dual-controlled planes and helicopters. A few specially trained pilots are examiners or check pilots. They periodically fly with other pilots or pilot’s license applicants to make sure that they are proficient. Working Conditions Because of FAA regulations, airline pilots flying large aircraft, cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 75 hours a month and work an additional 75 hours a month performing nonflying duties. Most pilots have a variable work schedule, working several days on, then several days off. Most spend a considerable amount of time away from home because the majority of flights involve overnight layovers. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accommodations, trans portation between the hotel and airport, and an allowance for meals and other expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Flight assignments are based on seniority. An airline seniority number is normally assigned to a pilot on completion of training. The sooner pilots are hired, the lower their seniority number and the stronger their bidding power. Commercial pilots also may have irregular schedules, flying 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Because these pilots frequently have many nonflying responsibilities, they have much less free time than do airline pilots. Except for corporate flight department pilots, most commercial pilots do not remain away from home over night. But, they may work odd hours. However, if the company owns a fleet of planes, pilots may fly a regular schedule. Flight instructors may have irregular and seasonal work schedules, depending on their students’ available time and the weather. Instructors frequently work in the evening or on weekends. Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often experience jet lag—fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. To guard against pilot fatigue, which could result in unsafe flying conditions, the FAA requires airlines to allow pilots at least 8 hours of uninterrupted rest in the 24 hours before finishing their flight duty. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license with an instrument rating issued by the FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight experience. The experience required can be reduced through par ticipation in certain flight school curricula approved by the FAA. Applicants also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. They must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations, and must demonstrate their flying ability to FAA or designated examiners. To fly during periods of low visibility, pilots must be rated by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this rating by having the required hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of experience in flying by instruments; they also must pass a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying and demonstrate to an examiner their ability to fly by instru ments. Requirements for the instrument rating vary depending on the certification level of flight school. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. Pilots must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, including night and instrument flying, and must pass FAA written and flight examinations. Usually, they also have one or more advanced ratings depending on the requirements of their particular job. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments underpressure, many airline companies re ject applicants who do not pass required psychological and aptitude tests. All licenses are valid so long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical and eye examinations and tests of flying skills required by the FAA and company regulations. The U.S. Armed Forces have always been an important source of trained pilots for civilian jobs. Military pilots gain valuable experience on jet aircraft and helicopters, and persons with this experience— because of the extensive flying time military pilots receive—usually are preferred for civilian pilot jobs. Those without Armed Forces train ing may become pilots by attending flight schools or by taking lessons from FAA-certified flight instructors. The FAA has certified about 600 civilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Until 2014, trained pilots leaving the military are not expected to increase very much in number as the need for pilots grows in civilian aviation. As a result, FAA-certified schools will train a larger share of pilots than in the past. Although some small airlines hire high school graduates, most airlines require at least 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. Because the number of college-educated applicants con tinues to increase, many employers are making a college degree an educational requirement. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Depending on the type of aircraft, new airline pilots start as first officers or flight engineers. Although some airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may provide flight engineer training for those who have only the commercial license. Many pilots begin with smaller regional or commuter airlines, where they obtain experience flying passengers on scheduled flights into busy airports in all weather conditions. These jobs often lead to higher paying jobs with bigger, national or major airlines. Initial training for airline pilots includes a week of company in doctrination; 3 to 6 weeks of ground school and simulator training; and 25 hours of initial operating experience, including a check-ride with an FAA aviation safety inspector. Once trained, pilots are required to attend recurrent training and simulator checks once or twice a year throughout their career. Companies other than airlines usually require less flying experi ence. However, a commercial pilot’s license is a minimum require ment, and employers prefer applicants who have experience in the type of craft they will be flying. New employees usually start as first officers, or fly less sophisticated equipment. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Advancement for all pilots usually is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more experienced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes or perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air-taxi companies. Some ad vance to flying corporate planes. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority provi sions of union contracts. After 1 to 5 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to first officer and, after 5 to 15 years, to cap tain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonairline job, a first officer may advance to pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot or director of aviation in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures. Employment Civilian aircraft pilots and flight engineers held about 106,000 jobs in 2004. About 84,000 worked as airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers. The remainder were commercial pilots who worked as flight instructors at local airports or for large businesses that fly company cargo and executives in their own airplanes or helicopters. Some commercial pilots flew small planes for air-taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not served by major air lines. Others worked for a variety of businesses, performing tasks such as dusting crops, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, State, and local governments also employed pilots. A few pilots were self-employed. Pilots are located across the country, but airline pilots usually are based near major metropolitan airports or airports operating as hubs for the major airlines. Job Outlook The passenger airline industry is undergoing many changes, with some airlines posting increases in passenger traffic and adding routes while others are cutting back. Overall, the employment of aircraft pilots is projected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through 2014. In the long run, demand for air travel is expected to grow along with the population and the economy. In the short run, however, employment of pilots is generally sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when a decline in the demand for air travel forces airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may temporarily furlough some pilots. After September 11, 2001, air travel was severely depressed. A number of the major airlines were forced to reduce schedules, lay https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 631 off pilots, and even declare bankruptcy. At the same time, hiring continued at regional and low-fare airlines. Job opportunities are expected to continue to be better with the regional airlines and lowfare carriers, which are growing faster than the more well-known major airlines. Opportunities with air cargo carriers also should arise because of increasing security requirements for shipping freight on passenger airlines and growth in electronic commerce. Business and corporate travel also should provide some new jobs for pilots. Pilots attempting to get jobs at the major airlines will face strong competition, as those firms tend to attract many more applicants than they have jobs. They also will have to compete with laid-off pilots for any available jobs. Pilots who have logged the greatest number of flying hours using sophisticated equipment typically have the best prospects. For this reason, military pilots often have an advantage over other applicants. However, prior to September 11,2001, some airlines reported a shortage of qualified pilots to operate the most sophisticated aircraft. Thus, when hiring improves, jobseekers with the most FAA licenses will have a competitive advantage. Fewer flight engineers will be needed as new planes requiring only two pilots replace older planes that required flight engineers. Pilots also will experience some productivity improvements as air lines switch to larger planes and adopt the low-fare carrier model that emphasizes faster turnaround times for flights, keeping more pilots in the air rather than waiting on the ground. Earnings Earnings of aircraft pilots and flight engineers vary greatly depend ing whether they work as airline or commercial pilots. Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation, and depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane-and the number of hours and miles flown. For example, pilots who fly jet aircraft usually earn higher salaries than do pilots who fly turboprops. Airline pilots and flight engineers may earn extra pay for night and international flights. In May 2004, median annual earnings of airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers were $129,250. Median annual earnings of commercial pilots were $53,870 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,170 and $79,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 110,070. Airline pilots usually are eligible for life and health insurance plans. They also receive retirement benefits and, if they fail the FAA physical examination at some point in their careers, they get disability payments. In addition, pilots receive an expense allow ance, or “per diem,” for every hour they are away from home. Some airlines also provide allowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced-fare transportation on their own and other airlines. More than half of all aircraft pilots are members of unions. Most of the pilots who fly for the major airlines are members of the Airline Pi lots Association, International, but those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engineers’ International Association. Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and airfield operation specialists also play an important role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions that pilots must make. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities, salaries for a particular airline, and qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the person nel manager of the airline. 632 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information on airline pilots, contact: >- Air Line Pilots Association, International, 1625 Massachusetts Ave., NW., Washington, DC 20036. >- Air Transport Association of America, Inc., 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. >- Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20591. Internet: http://www.faa.gov For information on helicopter pilots, contact: >- Helicopter Association International, 1635 Prince St., Alexandria, VA22314. For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports. Air Traffic Controllers (Q*NET 53-2021.00) Significant Points • • • • Nearly all air traffic controllers are employed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), an agency of the Federal Government. Replacement needs will account for most job openings, reflecting the large number of air traffic controllers who will be eligible to retire over the next decade. Competition to get into FAA training programs is expected to remain keen; however, graduates of these programs have good job prospects. Air traffic controllers earn relatively high pay and have good benefits. Nature of the Work The air traffic control system is a vast network of people and equip ment that ensures the safe operation of commercial and private air craft. Air traffic controllers coordinate the movement of air traffic to make certain that planes stay a safe distance apart. Their immediate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes efficiently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic through designated airspaces; others regulate airport arrivals and departures. Although airport tower controllers or terminal controllers watch over all planes traveling through the airport’s airspace, their main re sponsibility is to organize the flow of aircraft into and out of the airport. Relying on radar and visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to ensure a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s airspace. In addition, controllers keep pilots informed about changes in weather conditions such as wind shear, a sudden change in the velocity or direction of the wind that can cause the pilot to lose control of the aircraft. During arrival or departure, several controllers direct each plane. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of the plane’s presence. The controller in the radar room, just beneath the control tower, has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the path is clear, the controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the mnway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the mnway, delaying any departures that would interfere with the plane’s landing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground controller usually works entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The procedure is reversed for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper mnway. The local controller then in forms the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues mnway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure controller. After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 20 air route traffic control centers located around the country, each employing 300 to 700 controllers, with more than 150 on duty during peak hours at the busiest facilities. Airplanes usually fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, depend ing on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center’s airspace. A team, for example, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 and 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the radar associate controller organizes flight plans coming off a printer. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at nearly the same time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight path. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s airspace, the radar controller accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team’s airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other potential hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team respon sible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge of the airspace JSk 1 If] Air traffic controllers coordinate the movement ofair traffic to make certain that planes stay a safe distance apart. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations ahead. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control sev eral planes at a time; often, they have to make quick decisions about completely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its landing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with information about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also might observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well separated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic controllers also work in flight service stations operated at more than 100 locations. These flight service specialists provide pilots with information on the station’s particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weather information, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight. Flight service specialists help pilots in emergency situations and initiate and co ordinate searches for missing or overdue aircraft. However, they are not involved in actively managing air traffic. Some air traffic controllers work at the FA A’s Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center in Herndon, VA, where they oversee the entire system. They look for situations that will create bottlenecks or other problems in the system, then respond with a management plan for traffic into and out of the troubled sector. The objective is to keep traffic levels in the trouble spots manageable for the controllers working at enroute centers. The FAA has implemented an automated air traffic control system, called the National Airspace System (NAS) Architecture. The NAS Architecture is a long-term strategic plan that will allow controllers to more efficiently deal with the demands of increased air traffic. It encompasses the replacement of aging equipment and the introduction of new systems, technologies, and procedures to enhance safety and security and support future aviation growth. The NAS Architecture facilitates continuing discussion of modernization between the FAA and the aviation community. Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work additional hours, for which they receive overtime, or premium, pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. Total concentration is required to keep track of several planes at the same time and to make certain that all pilots receive correct instruc tions. The mental stress of being responsible for the safety of several aircraft and their passengers can be exhausting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become an air traffic controller, a person must enroll in an FAAapproved education program and pass a pre-employment test that measures his or her ability to learn the controller’s duties. Exceptions are air traffic controllers with prior experience and military veterans. The pre-employment test is currently offered only to students in the FAA Air Traffic Collegiate Training Initiative Program or the Minneapolis Community & Technical College, Air Traffic Control Training Program. The test is administered by computer and takes about 8 hours to complete. To take the test, an applicant must apply under an open advertisement for air traffic control positions and be chosen to take the examination. When there are many more ap plicants than available positions, applicants are selected to take the test through random selection. In addition to the pre-employment test, applicants must have 3 years of full-time work experience, have completed a full 4 years of college, or a combination of both. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 633 In combining education and experience, 1 year of undergraduate study—30 semester or 45 quarter hours—is equivalent to 9 months of work experience. Certain kinds of aviation experience also may be substituted for these requirements. Upon successful completion of an FAA-approved program, individuals who receive school recommendation, meet the basic qualification requirements (including being less than 31 years of age) in accordance with Federal law, and achieve a qualifying score on the FAA-authorized pre-employment test become eligible for employment as an air traffic controller. Candidates also must pass a medical exam, undergo drug screening, and obtain a security clearance before they can be hired. Upon selection, employees attend the FAA Academy in Okla homa City, OK, for 12 weeks of training, during which they learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, and aircraft performance characteristics, as well as more specialized tasks. After graduation, candidates assigned to an air traffic control facility are classified as “developmental controllers” until they com plete all requirements to be certified for all of the air traffic control positions within a defined area of a given facility. Generally, it takes new controllers with only initial controller training between 2 and 4 years, depending on the facility and the availability of facility staff or contractors to provide on-the-job training, to complete all the cer tification requirements to become certified professional controllers. Individuals who have had prior controller experience normally take less time to become fully certified. Controllers who fail to complete either the academy or the on-the-job portion of the training usually are dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance examination twice each year. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time also may result in dismissal. Controllers also are subject to drug screening as a condition of continuing employment. Air traffic controllers must be articulate to give pilots directions quickly and clearly. Intelligence and a good memory also are im portant because controllers constantly receive information that they must immediately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness also is required because controllers often have to make quick decisions. The ability to concentrate is crucial because controllers must make these decisions in the midst of noise and other distractions. At airports, new controllers begin by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to the posi tion of ground controller, then local controller, departure controller, and, finally, arrival controller. At an air route traffic control center, new controllers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staff jobs, such as air traffic control data systems computer specialist, in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. However, there are only limited opportunities for a controller to switch from a position in an enroute center to a tower. Employment Air traffic controllers held about 24,000 jobs in 2004. The vast majority were employed by the FAA. Air traffic controllers work at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in air route traffic control centers. Some professional controllers conduct re search at the FAA’s national experimental center near Atlantic City, NJ. Others serve as instructors at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, OK. A small number of civilian controllers work for the U.S. Department of Defense. In addition to controllers employed by the Federal Government, some work for private air traffic control companies providing service to non-FAA towers. 634 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Increas ing air traffic will require more controllers to handle the additional work. Employment growth, however, is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying. New computerized systems will assist the controller by automatically making many of the routine decisions. This will allow controllers to handle more traffic, thus increasing their productivity. In addition, Federal budget constraints may limit hiring of air traffic controllers. More job openings are expected as the result of replacement needs from workers leaving the occupation. The majority of today’s air traffic controllers will be eligible to retire over the next decade, although not all are expected to do so. Nevertheless, replacement needs will result in job opportunities each year for those graduating from the FAA training programs. Despite the increasing number of jobs coming open, competition to get into the FAA training programs is expected to remain keen, as there generally are many more appli cants to get into the schools than there are openings, but those who graduate have good prospects of getting a job as a controller. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than do most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic controllers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. The average annual salary, excluding overtime earnings, for air traffic controllers in the Federal Government—which em ploys 90 percent of the total—in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $106,380 in May 2004. The Air Traffic Control pay system classifies each air traffic facility into one of eight levels with corresponding pay bands. Under this pay system, controllers’ salaries are determined by the rating of the facility. The higher the rating, the higher the controller’s salary and the greater the demand on the controller’s judgment, skill, and decision making ability. Depending on length of service, air traffic controllers receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, in addition to life insurance and health benefits. Controllers also can retire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Federal employees. Air traffic controllers are eligible to retire at age 50 with 20 years of service as an active air traffic controller or after 25 years of active service at any age. There is a mandatory retirement age of 56 for controllers who manage air traffic. However, Federal law provides for exemptions to the man datory age of 56, up to age 61, for controllers having exceptional skills and experience. Related Occupations Airfield operations specialists also are involved in the direction and control of traffic in air transportation. Earnings Air traffic controllers earn relatively high pay and have good benefits. Median annual earnings of air traffic controllers in May 2004 were $102,030. The middle 50 percent earned between $78,170 and $126,260. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $57,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $139,210. Sources of Additional Information For further information on how to qualify and apply for a job as an air traffic controller, contact the FAA: ► Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Ave. SW„ Washing ton, DC 20591. Internet: http://www.faa.gov Motor Vehicle Operators Bus Drivers ________ __ (0*NET 53-3021.00, 53-3022.00) Significant Points • Opportunities should be good, particularly for school bus driver jobs; applicants for higher paying public transit bus driver positions may encounter competition. • State and Federal governments establish bus driver qualifications and standards, which include a commer cial driver’s license. Work schedules vary considerably among various types of bus drivers. Bus drivers must possess strong customer service skills, including communication skills and the ability to manage large groups of people with varying needs. • • Nature of the Work Bus drivers provide transportation for millions of people every year, from commuters to school children to vacationers. There are two major kinds of bus drivers: Transit and Intercity bus drivers, who transport people between regions of a State or of the country, along routes ran within a metropolitan area or county, or on chartered excursions and tours; and school bus drivers, who take children to and from schools and related events. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bus drivers pick up and drop off passengers at bus stops, stations, or—in the case of students—at regularly scheduled neighborhood locations, all according to strict time schedules. Drivers must oper ate vehicles safely, especially in heavy traffic. They cannot let light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that they miss passengers. Bus drivers drive a range of vehicles from 15-passenger buses to 60-foot articulated buses that can carry more than 100 passengers. Local-transit and intercity bus drivers report to their assigned terminal or garage, where they stock up on tickets or transfers and prepare trip report forms. In some transportation firms, maintenance departments are responsible for keeping vehicles in good condition; in others, drivers may be expected to check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, and water supply before beginning their routes. Drivers usually verify that the bus has safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors. During the course of their shift, local-transit and intercity bus drivers collect fares; answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points; and sometimes announce stops. Intercity bus drivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day. They may stop at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Local-transit bus drivers may make several trips each day over the same city and suburban streets, stopping as frequently as every few blocks. Local-transit bus drivers submit daily trip reports with a record of trips, significant schedule delays, and mechanical problems. Intercity drivers who drive across State or national boundaries Transportation and Material Moving Occupations must comply with U.S. Department of Transportation regulations. These include completing vehicle inspection reports and recording distances traveled and the periods they spend driving, performing other duties, and off duty. Some intercity drivers operate motor coaches which transport passengers on chartered trips and sightseeing tours. Drivers routinely interact with customers and tour guides to make the trip as comfort able and informative as possible. They are directly responsible for keeping to strict schedules, adhering to the guidelines of the tour’s itinerary, and ensuring the overall success of the trip. These drivers act as customer service representative, tour guide, program director, and safety guide. Trips frequently last more than a day. The driver may be away for more than a week if assigned to an extended tour. As with all commercial drivers who drive across State or national boundaries, motor coach drivers must comply with U.S. Department of Transportation and State regulations. School bus drivers usually drive the same routes each day, stopping to pick up pupils in the morning and return them to their homes in the afternoon. Some school bus drivers also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. In ad dition to driving, some school bus drivers work part time in the school system as janitors, mechanics, or classroom assistants when not driving buses. Bus drivers must be alert to prevent accidents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather, and to avoid sudden stops or swerves that jar passengers. School bus drivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off the bus. They must maintain order on their bus and enforce school safety standards by allowing only students to board. In addition, they must know and enforce the school system’s rules regarding student conduct. School bus drivers do not always have to report to an assigned terminal or garage. In some cases, they have the choice of taking their bus home or parking it in a more convenient area. School bus drivers do not collect fares. Instead, they prepare weekly reports on the number of students, trips or “runs,” work hours, miles, and fuel consumption. Their supervisors set time schedules and routes for the day or week. bus drivers hold 7 out of 10 bus driving jobs. DigitizedSchool for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 635 Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is more stressful and fatiguing than physically strenuous. Many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for their bus and passengers. To improve working conditions and retain drivers, many buslines provide ergonomically designed seats and controls for drivers. Many bus companies use Global Positioning Systems to help dispatchers manage their bus fleets and help drivers navigate. Intercity bus drivers may work nights, weekends, and holidays and often spend nights away from home, during which they stay in hotels at company expense. Senior drivers with regular routes have regular weekly work schedules, but others do not have regular schedules and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. They report for work only when called for a charter assignment or to drive extra buses on a regular route. Intercity bus travel and charter work tend to be seasonal. From May through August, drivers may work the maximum number of hours per week that regulations allow. During winter, junior drivers may work infrequently, except for busy holiday travel periods, and may be furloughed at times. School bus drivers work only when school is in session. Many work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two routes in the morn ing and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips, or who also have midday kindergarten routes, may work more hours a week. As more students with a variety of physical and behavioral disabilities assimilate into mainstream schools, school bus drivers must leam how to accommodate their special needs. Regular local-transit bus drivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some driv ers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate commuters, many work “split shifts”—for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between. Intercity bus drivers operating tour and charter buses may work any day and all hours of the day, including weekends and holidays. Their hours are dictated by the destinations, schedules, and itineraries of chartered tours. Like all commercial drivers, their weekly hours must be consistent with the Department of Transportation’s rules and regulations concerning hours of service. For example, drivers may drive for 10 hours and work for up to 15 hours—including driving and nondriving duties—before having 8 hours off duty. Drivers may not drive after having worked for 60 hours in the past 7 days or 70 hours in the past 8 days. Most drivers are required to document their time in a logbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a written test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. Many intercity and public transit bus companies prefer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require several years of experience driving a bus or tmck. In some States, school bus drivers must pass a background investigation to uncover any criminal record or history of mental problems. Bus driver qualifications and standards are established by State and Federal regulations. All drivers must comply with Federal regu lations and with any State regulations that exceed Federal require ments. Federal regulations require drivers who operate commercial motor vehicles in excess of 26,000 pounds gross vehicle weight rating or designed to carry 16 or more persons, including the driver, to hold a commercial driver’s license (CDL) with the appropriate endorsements from the State in which they live. To qualify for a CDL, applicants must pass a knowledge test on rules and regulations and then demonstrate in a skills test that they can operate a bus safely. A national databank records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses, and a 636 Occupational Outlook Handbook State may not issue a CDL to a person who has already had a license suspended or revoked in another State. To be issued a CDL, a driver must surrender all other driver’s licenses. A driver with a CDL must accompany trainees until the trainees get their own CDL. In addition to having a CDL, all bus drivers must have a “passenger” endorse ment for their CDL, which requires passing a knowledge test and demonstrating the necessary skills in a vehicle of the same type as the one they would be driving in their duties. Information on how to apply for a CDL and each type of endorsement can be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. While many States allow those who are 18 years of age and older to drive buses within State borders, the Department of Transporta tion establishes minimum qualifications for bus drivers engaged in interstate commerce. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations require drivers to be at least 21 years old and to pass a physical examination once every 2 years. The main physical requirements include good hearing, at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, and a 70-degree field of vision in each eye. Drivers cannot be colorblind. They must be able to hear a forced whisper in one ear at not less than 5 feet, with or without a hearing aide. Drivers must have normal blood pressure as well as normal use of their arms and legs. They may not use any controlled substances, unless prescribed by a licensed physician. Persons with epilepsy or with diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate bus drivers. Federal regulations also require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment and require periodic random tests of the drivers while they are on duty. In addition, a driver must not have been convicted of a felony involving the use of a motor vehicle, a crime involving drugs, driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, refusing to submit to an alcohol test required by a State or its implied consent laws or regulations, leaving the scene of a crime, or causing a fatality through negligent operation of a commercial vehicle. All drivers must be able to read and speak English well enough to read road signs, prepare reports, and communicate with law enforcement officers and the public. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Car rier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Because bus drivers deal with passengers, they must be courteous. They need an even temperament and emotional stability because driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Drivers must have strong customer service skills, including communication skills and the ability to coordinate and manage large groups of people. Most intercity bus companies and local-transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and behind-the-wheel instruc tion. In the classroom, trainees learn Department of Transportation and company work rules, safety regulations, State and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. School bus drivers also are required to obtain a CDL from the State in which they live. They must additionally have a “school bus” endorsement for their CDL. To receive this endorsement, they must pass a written test and demonstrate necessary skills. The skills portion of the test is taken in a bus of the same type that they would be driving on their route. Both of these tests are specific to school buses and are in addition to the testing required to receive a CDL and the “passenger” endorsement. Many persons who become school bus drivers have never driven any vehicle larger than an automobile. They receive between 1 and 4 weeks of driving instruction and classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating school buses; safe driving practices; driver-pupil rela tions; first aid; special needs of disabled and emotionally troubled students; and emergency evacuation procedures. School bus drivers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis also must be aware of the school system’s rules for discipline and conduct for bus drivers and the students they transport. During training, bus drivers practice driving on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag maneuvers, backing up, and driving in narrow lanes. Then, they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs without passengers to improve their driving skills and learn the routes. Local-transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. New drivers make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, accompanied by an experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and evaluates the new driver’s performance. Most bus drivers get brief supplemen tal training at regular periods to keep abreast of safety issues and regulatory changes. New intercity and local-transit drivers usually are placed on an “extra” list to drive chartered runs, extra buses on regular runs, and special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events). They also substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, perhaps for several years, until they have enough seniority to be given a regular run. Senior drivers may bid for the runs that they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or—in the case of intercity bus drivers—higher earnings or fewer workdays per week. Opportunities for promotion are generally limited. However, experienced drivers may become supervisors or dispatchers—as signing buses to drivers, checking whether drivers are on schedule, rerouting buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatching extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail systems, drivers may become train operators or station attendants. Opportunities exist for bus drivers to become either instructors of new bus drivers or masterinstructors, who train new instructors. A few drivers become manag ers. Promotion in publicly owned bus systems is often determined by competitive civil service examination. Some motor coach drivers purchase their own equipment and open their own business. Employment Bus drivers held about 653,000 jobs in 2004. About 35 percent worked part time. Around 71 percent of all bus drivers were school bus drivers working primarily for school systems or for companies providing school bus services under contract. Most of the remainder worked for private and local government transit systems; some also worked for intercity and charter bus lines. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as bus drivers likely will encounter many op portunities. Individuals who have good driving records and who are willing to work a part-time or irregular schedule probably will have the best job prospects. School bus driving jobs, particularly in rapidly growing suburban areas, should be easiest to acquire because most are part-time positions with high turnover and less training required than for other bus-driving jobs. Those seeking higher paying public transit bus driver positions may encounter competition. Opportunities for intercity driving positions should be good, although employment prospects for motor coach drivers will depend on tourism which fluctuates with the cyclical nature of the economy. Employment of bus drivers overall is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014, primarily to meet the transportation needs of the growing general population and the school-aged population. Most job openings are expected to occur each year because of the need to Transportation and Material Moving Occupations replace workers who take jobs in other occupations or who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. The number of school bus drivers is expected to increase as fast as average over the next 10 years, although at a decreasing rate. School enrollments are projected to increase in 30 States and to decrease in 20 States. The net effect will be a slowdown in school enrollment and, therefore, in employment growth of school bus drivers. This, as well as the part-time nature of the occupation, will result in most openings for school bus drivers being to replace those who leave the occupation. Employment growth for local-transit bus drivers is expected to be faster than the average for all occupations in 2004, and will likely be the result of the increasing popularity of mass transit due to congestion and rising fuel prices, as well as the demand for transit services in expanding portions of metropolitan areas. There may be competition for positions with more regular hours and steady driving routes. Competition from other modes of transportation—airplane, train, or automobile—will temper job growth among intercity bus drivers. Most growth in intercity bus transportation will occur in group charters to locations not served by other modes of transporta tion. Like automobiles, buses have a far greater number of possible destinations than airplanes or trains. Since they offer greater cost savings and convenience over automobiles, buses usually are the most economical option for tour groups traveling to out-of-the-way destinations. Full-time bus drivers rarely are laid off during recessions. If the number of passengers decreases, however, employers might reduce the hours of part-time local-transit and intercity bus drivers since fewer extra buses would be needed. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many intercity bus drivers with little seniority, for example, are furloughed during the winter when regularly scheduled and charter business declines, while school bus drivers seldom work during the summer or school holidays. Earnings Median hourly earnings of transit and intercity bus drivers were $ 14.30 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 10.74 and $19.31 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.66, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.53 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of transit and intercity bus drivers in May 2004 were as follows: Local government........................................................................... $17.10 Interurban and rural bus transportation............................................. 15.86 Urban transit systems...................................................................... 13.49 Charter bus industry........................................................................... 10.81 Other transit and ground passenger transportation........................ 10.74 Median hourly earnings of school bus drivers were $ 11.18 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.10 and $13.92 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.23, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.81 an hour. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of school bus drivers in May 2004 were as follows: School and employee bus transportation........................................ $ 11.97 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 10.74 Other transit and ground passenger transportation........................ 10.62 Child day care services....................................................................... 9.28 Individual and family services........................................................... 8.75 The benefits bus drivers receive from their employers vary greatly. Most intercity and local-transit bus drivers receive paid health and life insurance, sick leave, vacation leave, and free bus rides on any of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 637 the regular routes of their line or system. School bus drivers receive sick leave, and many are covered by health and life insurance and pension plans. Because they generally do not work when school is not in session, they do not get vacation leAve. Many intercity and local-transit bus drivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local-transit bus drivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union or to the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets in clude taxi drivers and chauffeurs, and truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact local-transit systems, intercity buslines, school systems, or the local offices of the State employment service. General information on school bus driving is available from: >- National School Transportation Association, 113 South West St., 4th Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314. >- National Association of State Directors of Pupil Transportation Services, 6298 Rock Hill Road, The Plains, VA 20198-1916. General information on motor coach driving is available from: >- United Motorcoach Association, 113 South West St., 4th Floor, Alexan dria, VA 22314. >• American Bus Association, 70013th Street, NW., Suite 575, Washington, D.C. 20005. Taxi Drivers and Chauffeurs (0*NET 53-3041.00) Significant Points • Taxi drivers and chauffeurs may work any schedule, including full-time, part-time, night, evening, weekend, and seasonal work. • Many taxi drivers like the independent, unsupervised work of driving their automobile. • Local governments set license standards for driving experience and training; many taxi and limousine com panies set higher standards. • Job opportunities will be good because of the need to replace the many people who work in this occupation for short periods and then leave. Nature of the Work Anyone who has been in a large city knows the importance of taxi and limousine services. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs help passengers get to and from their homes, workplaces, and recreational pursuits such as dining, entertainment, and shopping, as well as to and from busi ness-related events. These professional drivers also help out-of-town business people and tourists get around in unfamiliar surroundings. Some drivers offer sight-seeing services around their city. At the beginning of their driving shift, taxi drivers usually report to a taxicab service or garage where they are assigned a vehicle, most frequently a large, conventional automobile modified for commercial passenger transport. They record their name, the date, and the cab’s identification number on a trip sheet. Drivers check the cab’s fuel and oil levels and make sure that the lights, brakes, and windshield wipers are in good working order. Drivers adjust rear and side mirrors and 638 Occupational Outlook Handbook their seat for comfort. Any equipment or part not in good working order is reported to the dispatcher or company mechanic. Taxi drivers pick up passengers by “cruising” for fares, prearrang ing pickups, and picking up passengers from taxistands in high-traffic areas. In urban areas, the majority of passengers flag down drivers cruising the streets. Customers also may prearrange a pickup by calling a cab company and giving a location, approximate pickup time, and destination. The cab company dispatcher then relays the information to a driver by two-way radio, cellular telephone, or onboard computer. Outside of urban areas, the majority of trips are dispatched in this manner. Drivers also pick up passengers waiting at cabstands or in taxi lines at airports, train stations, hotels, restaurants, and other places where people frequently seek taxis. Some drivers transport individuals with special needs, such as those with disabilities and the elderly. These drivers, known as paratransit drivers, operate specially equipped vehicles designed to accommodate a variety of needs in nonemergency situations. Al though special certification is not necessary, some additional training on the equipment and passenger needs may be required. Drivers should be familiar with streets in the areas they serve so that they can use the most efficient route to destinations. They should know the locations of frequently requested destinations, such as airports, bus and railroad terminals, convention centers, hotels, and other points of interest. In case of emergency, the driver should know the location of fire and police stations as well as hospitals. Upon reaching the destination, drivers determine the fare and an nounce it to their riders. Fares often consist of many parts. In many cabs, a taximeter measures the fare based on the distance covered and the amount of time the trip took. Drivers turn on the taximeter when passengers enter the cab and turn it off when they reach the final destination. The fare also may include surcharges to help cover fuel costs as well as fees for additional passengers, a fee for handling luggage, and a drop charge—an additional flat fee added for use of the cab. In some cases, fares are determined by a system of zones through which the taxi passes during a trip. Each jurisdiction de termines the rate and structure of the fare system covering licensed taxis. Passengers generally add a tip or gratuity to the fare. The amount of the gratuity depends on the passengers’ satisfaction with the quality and efficiency of the ride and the courtesy of the driver. Drivers issue receipts upon request by the passenger. They enter onto the trip sheet all information regarding the trip, including the place and time of pickup and dropoff and the total fee; these logs help taxi company management check drivers’ activity and efficiency. Drivers also must fill out accident reports when necessary. Chauffeurs operate limousines, vans, and private cars for lim ousine companies, private businesses, government agencies, and wealthy individuals. Chauffeur service differs from taxi service in that all trips are prearranged. Many chauffeurs transport custom ers in large vans between hotels and airports as well as bus or train terminals. Others drive luxury automobiles, such as limousines, to business events, entertainment venues, and social events. Still others provide full-time personal transportation for wealthy families and private companies. At the beginning of the workday, chauffeurs prepare their auto mobiles or vans for use. They inspect the vehicle for cleanliness and, when needed, vacuum the interior and wash the exterior body, windows, and mirrors. They check fuel and oil levels and make sure the lights, tires, brakes, and windshield wipers work. Chauffeurs may perform routine maintenance and make minor repairs, such as changing tires or adding oil and other fluids when needed. If a vehicle requires a more complicated repair, they take it to a profes sional mechanic. Chauffeurs cater to passengers by providing attentive customer service and paying attention to detail. They help riders into the car https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis by holding open doors, holding umbrellas when it is raining, and loading packages and luggage into the trunk of the car. Chauffeurs may perform errands for their employers such as delivering packages or picking up clients arriving at airports. To ensure a pleasurable ride in their limousines, many chauffeurs offer conveniences and luxuries such as newspapers, magazines, music, drinks, televisions, and telephones. Increasingly, chauffeurs work as full-service ex ecutive assistants, simultaneously acting as driver, secretary, and itinerary planner. Working Conditions Taxi drivers and chauffeurs occasionally have to load and unload heavy luggage and packages. Driving for long periods can be tiring and uncomfortable, especially in densely populated urban areas. Drivers must be alert to conditions on the road, especially in heavy and congested traffic or in bad weather. They must take precautions to prevent accidents and avoid sudden stops, turns, and other driv ing maneuvers that would jar passengers. Taxi drivers risk robbery because they work alone and often carry large amounts of cash. Work hours of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly. Some jobs offer full-time or part-time employment with work hours that can change from day to day or remain the same every day. It is often necessary for drivers to report to work on short notice. Chauffeurs who work for a single employer may be on call much of the time. Evening and weekend work is common for drivers and chauffeurs employed by limousine and taxicab services. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs may work any schedule, including full time, part-time, night, evening, weekend, and seasonal work. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Whereas the needs of the client or employer dictate the work schedule for chauffeurs, the work of taxi drivers is much less struc tured. Working free of supervision, they may break for a meal or a rest whenever their vehicle is unoccupied. Many taxi drivers like the independent, unsupervised work of driving. This occupation is attractive to individuals seeking flexible work schedules, such as college and postgraduate students, and to anyone seeking a second source of income. For example, other service workers, such as ambulance drivers and police officers, sometimes moonlight as taxi drivers or chauffeurs. Full-time taxi drivers usually work one shift a day, which may last from 8 to 12 hours. Part-time drivers may work half a shift each day, or work a full shift once or twice a week. Drivers may work shifts at all times of the day and night because most taxi companies offer services 24 hours a day. Early morning and late night shifts are not uncommon. Drivers work long hours during holidays, weekends, and other special times when demand for their services may be heavier. Independent drivers, however, often set their own hours and schedules. Design improvements in newer cars have reduced the stress and increased the comfort and efficiency of drivers. Many regulatory bodies overseeing taxi and chauffeur services require standard amenities such as air-conditioning and general upkeep of the ve hicles. Some modem taxicabs also are equipped with sophisticated tracking devices, fare meters, and dispatching equipment. Satellites and tracking systems link many of these state-of-the-art vehicles with company headquarters. In a matter of seconds, dispatchers can deliver directions, traffic advisories, weather reports, and other important communications to drivers anywhere in the area. The satellite link also allows dispatchers to track vehicle location, fuel consumption, and engine performance. Automated dispatch systems help dispatchers locate the closest driver to a customer in order to minimize individual wait time and increase the quality of service. Drivers easily can communicate with dispatchers to discuss delivery schedules and courses of action if there are mechanical problems. When threatened with crime or violence, drivers may have special “trouble lights” to alert authorities of emergencies and guarantee that help arrives quickly. Many municipalities and taxicab and chauffeur companies require drivers to have a neat appearance. Many chauffeurs wear formal at tire, such as a tuxedo, a coat and tie, a dress, or a uniform and cap. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local governments set licensing standards and requirements for taxi drivers and chauffeurs which may include minimum amounts of driv ing experience and training. Many taxi and limousine companies set higher standards than those required by law. It is common for companies to review applicants’ medical, credit, criminal, and driv ing records. In addition, many companies require applicants to be 21, higher than the age typically required by law. Most companies also prefer that an applicant be a high school graduate. Persons interested in driving a taxicab or a limousine first must have a regular automobile driver’s license. Usually, applicants then must acquire a taxi driver or chauffeur’s license, commonly called a “hack” license. Some States require only a passenger endorsement on a driver’s license; some require only that drivers be certified by their employer; while others require a Commercial Driver’s License with a passenger endorsement. While States set licensing requirements, local regulatory bodies usually set other terms and conditions. These often include requirements for training, which can vary greatly. Some localities require new drivers to enroll in training programs consisting of up to 80 hours of classroom instruction before they are allowed to work. To qualify through either an exam or a training program, applicants must know local geography, motor vehicle laws, safe https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 639 driving practices, and relevant regulations and display some aptitude for customer service. Some localities require an English proficiency test, usually in the form of listening comprehension; applicants who do not pass the English exam must take an English course in addi tion to any formal driving programs. Some classroom instruction includes route management, mapreading, and service for passengers with disabilities. Many taxicab or limousine companies sponsor ap plicants, giving them a temporary permit that allows them to drive before they have finished the training program and passed the test. Some jurisdictions, such as New York City, have discontinued this practice and now require driver applicants to complete the licensing process before operating a taxi or limousine. Some taxi and limousine companies give new drivers on-thejob training. This training is typically informal and often lasts only about a week. Companies show drivers how to operate the taximeter and communications equipment and how to complete paperwork. Other topics covered may include driver safety and the best routes to popular sightseeing and entertainment destinations. Many companies have contracts with social service agencies and transportation services to transport elderly and disabled citizens in nonemergency situations. To support these services, new driv ers may get special training in how to handle wheelchair lifts and other mechanical devices. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs should be able to get along with many different types of people. They must be patient when waiting for passengers and when dealing with rude customers. It also is helpful for drivers to be tolerant and level-headed when driving in heavy and congested traffic. Drivers should be dependable since passengers expect to be picked up at a prearranged time and taken to the correct destination. To be successful, drivers must be responsible and selfmotivated because they work with little supervision. Increasingly, companies encourage drivers to develop their own loyal customer base, so as to improve their business. Many taxi drivers and chauffeurs are lease drivers. These driv ers pay a daily, weekly, or monthly fee to the company allowing them to lease their vehicles. In the case of limousines, leasing also permits the driver access to the company’s dispatch system. The fee also may include charges for vehicle maintenance, insurance, and a deposit on the vehicle. Lease drivers may take their cars home with them when they are not on duty. Opportunities for advancement are limited for taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Experienced drivers may obtain preferred routes or shifts. Some advance to become lead drivers, who help to train new drivers, or to take dispatching and managerial positions. Many managers start their careers as drivers. Some people start their own limousine companies. In small and medium-size communities, drivers sometimes are able to buy their own taxi, limousine, or other type of automobile and go into business for themselves. These independent owner-drivers require an additional permit allowing them to operate their vehicle as a company. Some big cities limit the number of operating permits. In these cities, drivers become owner-drivers by buying permits from owner-drivers who leave the business, or by purchasing or leasing them from the city. Although many owner-drivers are successful, some fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their permits and automobiles. For both taxi and limousine service owners, good business sense and courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic can help an owner-driver to be successful. Knowledge of mechanics enables owner-drivers to perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs to cut expenses. Employment Taxi drivers and chauffeurs held about 188,000 jobs in 2004. About 27 percent of taxi drivers and chauffeurs were self-employed. 640 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as taxi drivers and chauffeurs should encounter good opportunities because of the need to replace the many people who work in this occupation for short periods and then transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities for drivers vary greatly in terms of earnings, work hours, and work ing conditions, depending on economic and regulatory conditions. Opportunities should be best for persons with good driving records, good customer service instincts, and the ability to work flexible schedules. Employment of taxi drivers and chauffeurs is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, as local and suburban travel increases. Employment growth also will stem from Federal legislation requiring increased services for persons with disabilities. Rapidly growing metropolitan areas should offer the best job opportunities. The number of job openings can fluctuate with the overall movements of the economy because the demand for taxi and limousine transportation depends on travel and tourism. During economic slowdowns, drivers seldom are laid off, but they may have to increase their work hours, and earnings may decline. When the economy is strong, job openings are numerous as many drivers transfer to other occupations. Extra drivers may be hired during holiday seasons as well as during peak travel and tourist times. Earnings Earnings of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly, depend ing on factors such as the number of hours worked, regulatory conditions, customers’ tips, and geographic location. Median hourly earnings of salaried taxi drivers and chauffeurs, including tips, were $9.41 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.61 and $11.94 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.43, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.62 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of taxi drivers and chauffeurs in May 2004 were: Taxi and limousine service.............................................................. $10.68 Other transit and ground passenger transportation......................... 9.23 Traveler accommodation................................................................. 8.48 Automobile dealers......................................................................... 8.45 Automotive equipment rental and leasing...................................... 8.25 Related Occupations Other workers who have similar jobs include bus drivers and truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on necessary permits and the registration of taxi driv ers and chauffeurs is available from local government agencies that regulate taxicabs. Questions regarding licensing should be directed to your State motor vehicle administration. For infor mation about work opportunities as a taxi driver or chauffeur, contact local taxi or limousine companies or State employment service offices. For general information about the work of taxi drivers, chauffeurs, and paratransit drivers, contact: >• Taxicab, Limousine & Paratransit Association, 3849 Farragut Ave., Kensington, MD 20895. For general information about the work of limousine drivers, contact: >- National Limousine Association, 49 South Maple Ave., Marlton, NJ 08053. Internet: http://www.limo.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Truck Drivers and Driver/Sales Workers (0*NET 53-3031.00, 53-3032.01, 53-3032.02, 53-3033.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be favorable. • Competition is expected for jobs offering the highest earnings or most favorable work schedules. • A commercial driver’s license is required to operate most larger trucks. Nature of the Work Track drivers are a constant presence on the Nation’s highways and interstates. They deliver everything from automobiles to canned food. Firms of all kinds rely on tracks to pick up and deliver goods because no other form of transportation can deliver goods door-todoor. Even if some goods travel most of the way by ship, train, or airplane, almost everything is carried by tracks at some point in its journey. Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, track drivers check the fuel level and oil in their tracks. They also inspect the trucks to make sure that the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and that a fire extinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard and in working order. Drivers make sure their cargo is secure and adjust the mirrors so that both sides of the track are visible from the driver’s seat. Drivers report equipment that is inoperable, missing, or loaded improperly to the dispatcher. Once under way, drivers must be alert in order to prevent acci dents. Drivers can see farther down the road because large tracks seat them higher off the ground than other vehicles. This allows them to see the road ahead and select lanes that are moving more smoothly as well as giving them warning of any dangerous road conditions ahead of them. The duration of runs vary according to the types of cargo and the destinations. Local drivers may provide daily service for a specific route or region, while other drivers make longer, intercity and interstate deliveries. Interstate and intercity cargo tends to vary from job to job more than local cargo. A driver’s responsibilities and assignments change according to the type of loads transported and their vehicle’s size. New technologies are changing the way truck drivers work, especially long-distance truck drivers. Satellites and the Global Positioning System link many trucks with their company’s headquarters. Troubleshooting information, directions, weather reports, and other important communications can be instantly relayed to the truck. Drivers can easily communicate with the dispatcher to discuss delivery schedules and courses of action in the event of mechanical problems. The satellite link also allows the dispatcher to track the truck’s location, fuel consumption, and engine performance. Some drivers also work with computerized inventory tracking equipment. It is important for the producer, warehouse, and customer to know their product’s location at all times so they can maintain a high quality of service. Heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers operate tracks or vans with a capacity of at least 26,000 pounds Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW). They transport goods including cars, livestock, and other materials in liquid, loose, or packaged form. Many routes are from city to city and cover long distances. Some companies use two Transportation and Material Moving Occupations drivers on very long runs—one drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. These “sleeper” runs can last for days, or even weeks. Trucks on sleeper runs typically stop only for fuel, food, loading, and unloading. Some heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Other drivers perform ad hoc runs because shippers request varying service to different cities every day. The U.S. Department of Transportation requires that drivers keep a log of their activities, the condition of the truck, and the circum stances of any accidents. Long-distance heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel, but also may have to load or unload their cargo. This is especially common when drivers haul specialty cargo, because they may be the only ones at the destination familiar with procedures or certified to handle the materials. Auto-transport drivers, for example, position cars on the trailers at the manufacturing plant and remove them at the dealerships. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-distance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. Light or delivery services truck drivers operate vans and trucks weighing less than 26,000 pounds GVW. They pick up or deliver merchandise and packages within a specific area. This may include short “turnarounds” to deliver a shipment to a nearby city, pick up another loaded truck or van, and drive it back to their home base the same day. These services may require use of electronic delivery tracking systems to track the whereabouts of the merchandise or packages. Light or delivery services truck drivers usually load or unload the merchandise at the customer’s place of business. They may have helpers if there are many deliveries to make during the day, or if the load requires heavy moving. Typically, before the driver arrives for work, material handlers load the trucks and arrange items for ease of delivery. Customers must sign receipts for goods and pay drivers the balance due on the merchandise if there is a cash-on-delivery arrangement. At the end of the day drivers turn in receipts, payments, records of deliveries made, and any reports on mechanical problems with their trucks. Some local truck drivers have sales and customer service re sponsibilities. The primary responsibility of driver/sales workers, or route drivers, is to deliver and sell their firm’s products over es tablished routes or within an established territory. They sell goods such as food products, including restaurant takeout items, or pick up and deliver items such as laundry. Their response to customer complaints and requests can make the difference between a large order and a lost customer. Route drivers may also take orders and collect payments. The duties of driver/sales workers vary according to their in dustry, the policies of their employer, and the emphasis placed on their sales responsibility. Most have wholesale routes that deliver to businesses and stores, rather than to homes. For example, wholesale bakery driver/sales workers deliver and arrange bread, cakes, rolls, and other baked goods on display racks in grocery stores. They estimate how many of each item to stock by paying close attention to what is selling. They may recommend changes in a store’s order or encourage the manager to stock new bakery products. Laun dries that rent linens, towels, work clothes, and other items employ driver/sales workers to visit businesses regularly to replace soiled laundry. Their duties also may include soliciting new customers along their sales route. After completing their route, driver/sales workers place orders for their next deliveries based on product sales and customer re quests. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 641 Truck driving is an occupation well suited for those who are selfmotivated and able to work with little supervision. Working Conditions Truck driving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and improved, ergonomically designed cabs. Although these changes make the work environment less taxing, driving for many hours at a stretch, loading and unloading cargo, and making many deliveries can be tiring. Local truck drivers, unlike long-distance drivers, usu ally return home in the evening. Some self-employed long-distance truck drivers who own and operate their trucks spend most of the year away from home. Design improvements in newer trucks have reduced stress and increased the efficiency of long-distance drivers. Many newer trucks are equipped with refrigerators, televisions, and bunks. The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and other working conditions of truck drivers engaged in inter state commerce. A long-distance driver may drive for 11 hours and work for up to 14 hours—including driving and non-driving duties—after having 10 hours off-duty. A driver may not drive after having worked for 60 hours in the past 7 days or 70 hours in the past 8 days unless they have taken at least 34 consecutive hours off-duty. Most drivers are required to document their time in a logbook. Many drivers, particularly on long runs, work close to the maximum time permitted because they typically are compensated according to the number of miles or hours they drive. Drivers on long runs face boredom, loneliness, and fatigue. Drivers often travel nights, holidays, and weekends to avoid traffic delays. Local truck drivers frequently work 50 or more hours a week. Drivers who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries typically work long hours—starting late at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have regular routes, some have different routes each day. Many local truck drivers, particularly driver/sales workers, load and unload their own trucks. This requires considerable lifting, carrying, and walking each day. 642 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State and Federal regulations govern the qualifications and stan dards for truck drivers. All drivers must comply with Federal regulations and any State regulations that are in excess of those Federal requirements. Truck drivers must have a driver’s license issued by the State in which they live, and most employers require a clean driving record. Drivers of trucks designed to carry 26,000 pounds or more—including most tractor-trailers, as well as big ger straight trucks—must obtain a commercial driver’s license (CDL) from the State in which they live. All truck drivers who operate trucks transporting hazardous materials must obtain a CDL, regardless of truck size. In order to receive the hazardous materials endorsement a driver must be fingerprinted and submit to a criminal background check by the Transportation Security Administration. Federal regulations governing CDL adminis tration allow for States to exempt farmers, emergency medical technicians, firefighters, some military drivers, and snow and ice removers from the need for a CDL at the State’s discretion. In many States a regular driver’s license is sufficient for driving light trucks and vans. To qualify for a CDL an applicant must have a clean driving record, pass a written test on rules and regulations, and then dem onstrate that they can operate a commercial truck safely. A national database permanently records all driving violations committed by those with a CDL. A State will check these records and deny a CDL to those who already have a license suspended or revoked in another State. Licensed drivers must accompany trainees until they get their own CDL. A person may not hold more than one license at a time and must surrender any other licenses when a CDL is issued. Information on how to apply for a CDL may be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. Many States allow those who are as young as 18 years old to drive trucks within their borders. To drive a commercial vehicle between States one must be 21 years of age, according to the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT), which establishes minimum qualifications for truck drivers engaging in interstate commerce. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regula tions—published by U.S. DOT—require drivers to be at least 21 years old and to pass a physical examination once every 2 years. The main physical requirements include good hearing, at least 20/40 vision with glasses or corrective lenses, and a 70-degree field of vision in each eye. Drivers may not be col orblind. Drivers must be able to hear a forced whisper in one ear at not less than 5 feet, with a hearing aid if needed. Drivers must have normal use of arms and legs and normal blood pres sure. Drivers may not use any controlled substances, unless prescribed by a licensed physician. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate truck drivers. Federal regulations also require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employ ment, and require periodic random tests of the drivers while they are on duty. A driver must not have been convicted of a felony involving the use of a motor vehicle; a crime involving drugs; driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol; refusing to submit to an alcohol test required by a State or its implied consent laws or regulations; leaving the scene of a crime; or causing a fatality through negligent operation of a motor vehicle. All drivers must be able to read and speak English well enough to read road signs, prepare reports, and communicate with law enforcement officers and the public. Many trucking operations have higher standards than those described here. Many firms require that drivers be at least 22 years old, be able to lift heavy objects, and have driven trucks for 3 to 5 years. Many prefer to hire high school graduates and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis require annual physical examinations. Companies have an eco nomic incentive to hire less risky drivers, as good drivers use less fuel and cost less to insure. Taking driver-training courses is a desirable method of prepar ing for truck driving jobs and for obtaining a CDL. High school courses in driver training and automotive mechanics also may be helpful. Many private and public vocational-technical schools offer tractor-trailer driver training programs. Students learn to maneuver large vehicles on crowded streets and in highway traffic. They also learn to inspect trucks and freight for compli ance with regulations. Some programs provide only a limited amount of actual driving experience. Completion of a program does not guarantee a job. Those interested in attending a driv ing school should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable. Some States require prospective drivers to complete a training course in basic truck driving before being issued their CDL. The Professional Truck Driver Institute (PTDI), a nonprofit organization established by the trucking industry, manufacturers, and others, certifies driver training courses at truck driver training schools that meet industry standards and Federal Highway Administration guidelines for training tractor-trailer drivers. Drivers must get along well with people because they often deal directly with customers. Employers seek driver/sales work ers who speak well and have self-confidence, initiative, tact, and a neat appearance. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals who are able to work well with little supervision. Training given to new drivers by employers is usually infor mal, and may consist of only a few hours of instruction from an experienced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. New drivers may also ride with and observe experienced drivers before getting their own assignments. Drivers receive additional training to drive special types of trucks or handle hazardous mate rials. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction covering general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver/sales workers also receive training on the various types of products their company carries so that they can effectively answer questions about the products and more easily market them to their customers. Although most new truck drivers are assigned to regular driv ing jobs immediately, some start as extra drivers—substituting for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. Extra drivers receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. New drivers sometimes start on panel trucks or other small straight trucks. As they gain experience and show competent driv ing skills they may advance to larger, heavier trucks and finally to tractor-trailers. The advancement of truck drivers generally is limited to driving runs that provide increased earnings, preferred schedules, or work ing conditions. Local truck drivers may advance to driving heavy or specialized trucks, or transfer to long-distance truck driving. Working for companies that also employ long-distance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. Few truck drivers become dispatchers or managers. Some long-distance truck drivers purchase trucks and go into business for themselves. Although some of these owner-opera tors are successful, others fail to cover expenses and go out of business. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truck driving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business mathematics are helpful. Knowledge of truck me chanics can enable owner-operators to perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Employment Truck drivers and driver/sales workers held about 3.2 million jobs in 2004. Of these workers, 451,000 were driver/sales work ers and 2.8 million were truck drivers. Most truck drivers find employment in large metropolitan areas or along major interstate roadways where trucking, retail, and wholesale companies tend to have their distribution outlets. Some drivers work in rural areas, providing specialized services such as delivering newspapers to customers. The truck transportation industry employed 25 percent of all truck drivers and driver/sales workers in the United States. An other 25 percent worked for companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade. The remaining truck drivers and driver/sales workers were distributed across many industries, including construction and manufacturing. Around 9 percent of all truck drivers and driver/sales workers were self-employed. Of these, a significant number were owneroperators who either served a variety of businesses independently or leased their services and trucks to a trucking company. Job Outlook Job opportunities should be favorable for truck drivers. In addition to growth in demand for truck drivers, numerous job openings will occur as experienced drivers leave this large occupation to transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the labor force for other rea sons. Jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, weekly work hours, the number of nights spent on the road, and quality of equipment. There may be competition for the jobs with the highest earnings and most favorable work schedules. Overall employment of truck drivers and driver/sales workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the year 2014, due to growth in the economy and in the amount of freight carried by truck. Competing forms of freight transportation—rail, air, and ship transportation—still require trucks to move the goods between ports, depots, airports, warehouses, retailers, and final consumers who are not connected to these other modes of transportation. Demand for long-distance drivers will remain strong because they can transport perishable and time-sensi tive goods more effectively than alternate modes of transportation. Job opportunities for truck drivers with local carriers will be more competitive than those with long-distance carriers because of the more desirable working conditions of local carriers. Job opportunities may vary from year to year, since the output of the economy dictates the amount of freight to be moved. Compa nies tend to hire more drivers when the economy is strong and their services are in high demand. When the economy slows, employers hire fewer drivers or may lay off some drivers. Independent owneroperators are particularly vulnerable to slowdowns. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluctuation, such as grocery stores, tend to be the most stable employers of truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers were $16.11 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.67 and $20.09 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.07 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers in May 2004 were: General freight trucking.................................................................. $17.56 Grocery and related product wholesalers........................................ 17.32 Specialized freight trucking............................................................ 15.61 Employment services...................................................................... 14.82 and concrete product manufacturing................................. 14.47 Digitized Cement for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 643 Median hourly earnings of light or delivery services truck drivers were $11.80 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.96 and $16.00 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.20, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.83 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of light or delivery services truck drivers in May 2004 were: Couriers........................................................................................... $17.94 General freight trucking.................................................................. 14.79 Grocery and related product wholesalers....................................... 12.44 Building material and supplies dealers.......................................... 10.85 Automotive parts, accessories, and tire stores............................... 8.07 Median hourly earnings of driver/sales workers, including commissions, were $9.66 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.94 and $14.59 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.96, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.81 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of driver/sales workers in May 2004 were: Drycleaning and laundry services................................................... $14.67 Direct selling establishments.......................................................... 13.55 Grocery and related product wholesalers....................................... 12.36 Limited-service eating places......................................................... 6.77 Full-service restaurants................................................................... 6.59 Local truck drivers tend to be paid by the hour, with extra pay for working overtime. Employers pay long-distance drivers primarily by the mile. The per-mile rate can vary greatly from employer to employer and may even depend on the type of cargo they are hauling. Some long-distance drivers are paid a percent of each load’s revenue. Typically, earnings increase with mile age driven, seniority, and the size and type of truck driven. Most driver/sales workers receive commissions based on their sales in addition to their hourly wages. Most self-employed truck drivers are primarily engaged in long-distance hauling. Many truck drivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Some truck drivers em ployed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions representing the plant workers of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations include ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians; bus driv ers; and taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Another occupation involving sales duties is sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing. Sources of Additional Information Information on truck driver employment opportunities is available from local trucking companies and local offices of the State em ployment service. Information on career opportunities in truck driving may be obtained from: > American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.trucking.org A list of certified tractor-trailer driver training courses may be obtained from: >• Professional Truck Driver Institute, 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA22314. Internet: http://www.ptdi.org Information on union truck driving can be obtained from: >• The International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 25 Louisiana Ave., NW., Washington, DC 20001. 644 Occupational Outlook Handbook Rail Transportation Occupations (0*NET 53-4011.00, 53-4012.00, 53-4013.00, 53-4021.01,53-4013.02, 53-4031.00,53-4041.00, 53-4099.99) Significant Points • • • • Opportunities are expected to be good for qualified ap plicants, mainly because of the large number of work ers expected to retire or leave these occupations in the next decade. Employment is expected to decline due to productivity increases. Most workers begin as yard laborers and later may have the opportunity to train for engineer or conductor jobs. Eight out of 10 workers are members of unions, and earnings are relatively high. Nature of the Work More than a century ago, freight and passenger railroads were the ties binding the Nation together and the engine driving the economy. Today, rail transportation remains a vital link in our Nation’s trans portation network and economy. Railroads deliver billions of tons of freight and millions of travelers per year to destinations throughout the country, while subways and light-rail systems transport millions of passengers around metropolitan areas. Locomotive engineers are among the most experienced and skilled workers on the railroad. They operate large trains carry ing cargo and passengers between stations. Most engineers run diesel-electric locomotives, although a few operate locomotives powered electrically. Before and after each run, engineers check the mechanical condition of their locomotives, making any minor adjustments necessary. Engineers receive starting instructions from conduc tors. They move controls such as throttles and airbrakes to drive the locomotive. They monitor instruments that measure speed, amperage, battery charge, and air pressure, both in the brake lines and in the main reservoir. On the open rail and in the yard, engineers confer with con ductors and traffic control center personnel via two-way radio or mobile telephone to issue or receive information concerning stops, delays, and the locations of trains. They interpret and comply with orders, signals, speed limits, and railroad rules and regulations. They must have a thorough knowledge of the signaling systems, yards, and terminals on the routes over which they travel. Engineers must be constantly aware of the condi tion and makeup of their train, because trains react differently to acceleration, braking, and curves, depending on the grade and condition of the rail, the number of cars, the ratio of empty cars to loaded cars, and the amount of slack in the train. Rail yard engineers operate engines within the rail yard. Dinkey operators drive smaller engines, mainly within industrial plants, mines and quarries, or construction projects. Hostlers operate en gines—without attached cars—within the yard, as well as driving them to maintenance shops. Railroad conductors coordinate the activities of freight and passenger train crews. Railroad conductors assigned to freight trains review schedules, switching orders, waybills, and shipping records to obtain loading and unloading information https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis regarding their cargo. In switching operations, conductors may move engines using radio control devices. Conductors assigned to passenger trains also ensure passenger safety and comfort as they go about collecting tickets and fares, making announce ments for the benefit of passengers, and coordinating activities of the crew to provide passenger services. Before a train leaves the terminal, the conductor and the engi neer discuss instructions received from the dispatcher concerning the train’s route, timetable, and cargo. During the run, conductors use two-way radios and mobile telephones to communicate with dispatchers, engineers, and conductors of other trains. Conduc tors use dispatch or electronic monitoring devices that relay information about equipment problems on the train or the rails. They may arrange for the removal of defective cars from the train for repairs at the nearest station or stop. In addition, conductors may discuss alternative routes if there is a defect in, or obstruc tion on, the rails. Yardmasters coordinate the activities of workers engaged in railroad traffic operations. These activities include making up or breaking up trains and switching inbound or outbound traffic to a specific section of the line. Some cars are sent to unload their cargo on special tracks, while others are moved to different tracks to await assembly into new trains, based on their destina tions. Yardmasters tell engineers where to move the cars to fit the planned train configuration. Switches—many of them operated remotely by computer—divert the locomotive or cars to the proper track for coupling and uncoupling. Railroad brake operators act as assistants to engineers, han dling the coupling and uncoupling of cars as well as operating some switches. Signal operators install, maintain, and repair the signals on tracks and in yards. Switch operators control the track switches within a rail yard. Traditionally, freight train crews included either one or two brake operators—one in the locomotive with the engineer and another who rode with the conductor in the rear car. Brake operators worked under the direction of conductors and did the physical work involved in adding and removing cars at railroad stations and assembling and disassembling trains in railroad yards. In an effort to reduce costs, most railroads have phased out brake operators. Many modern freight trains use only an engineer and a conductor. New visual instrumentation and monitoring devices have eliminated the need for crewmembers located at the rear of the train, so the conductor is now stationed with the engineer. In contrast to other rail transportation workers, subway and streetcar operators generally work for public transit authorities instead of railroads. Subway operators control trains that trans port passengers through cities and their suburbs. The trains run in underground tunnels, on the surface, or on elevated tracks. Operators must stay alert to observe signals along the track that indicate when they must start, slow, or stop their train. They also make announcements to riders, may open and close the doors of the train, and ensure that passengers get on and off the subway safely. To meet predetermined schedules, operators must control the train’s speed and the amount of time spent at each station. Increasingly, however, these functions are controlled by computers and not by the operator. During breakdowns or emergencies, operators contact their dispatcher or supervisor and may have to evacuate cars. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations . ...... 645 and engineers on local runs, on which trains frequently stop at stations to pick up and deliver cars, is physically demanding. Climbing up and down and getting off moving cars is strenuous and can be dangerous. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers begin as yard laborers and later may have the opportunity to train for engineer or conductor jobs. Streetcar operators drive electric-powered streetcars, trolleys, or light-rail vehicles that transport passengers around metropolitan areas. Some tracks may be recessed in city streets or have grade crossings, so operators must observe traffic signals and cope with car and truck traffic. Operators start, slow, and stop their cars so that passengers may get on and off with ease. Operators may collect fares and issue change and transfers. They also answer questions from passengers concerning fares, schedules, and routes. Working Conditions Many rail transportation employees work nights, weekends, and holidays, because trains operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Many work more than a 40-hour workweek. Seniority usually dictates who receives the more desirable shifts. Many freight trains are dispatched according to the needs of customers; as a result many train crews have irregular schedules. Many workers place their names on a list and wait for their turn to work. Jobs usually are assigned on short notice and often at odd hours; working weekends is common. Those who work on trains operating between points hundreds of miles apart may spend several nights at a time away from home. Workers on passenger trains ordinarily have regular and reliable shifts. Also, the appearance, temperature, and accommodations of passenger trains are more comfortable than those of freight trains. Rail yard workers spend most of their time outdoors and work regardless of weather conditions. The work of conductors https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most railroad transportation workers begin as yard laborers; later they may have the opportunity to train for engineer or conductor jobs. Railroads require that applicants have a minimum of a high school diploma or its equivalent. Applicants must have good hearing, eyesight, and color vision, as well as good hand-eye coordination, manual dexterity, and mechanical aptitude. Physi cal stamina is required for entry-level jobs. Employers require railroad transportation job applicants to pass a physical exami nation, drug and alcohol screening, and a criminal background check. Federal regulation requires that the driving record of anybody applying for a job operating an engine be checked for evidence of drug or alcohol problems. Similarly, under Federal regulation, all persons licensed to operate engines are subject to random drug and alcohol testing while on duty. Applicants for locomotive engineer jobs must be at least 21 years old. Employers almost always fill engineer positions with workers who have experience in other railroad-operating occupations. Federal regulations require beginning engineers to complete a formal engineer training program, including classroom, simulator, and hands-on instruction in locomotive operation. The instruction usually is administered by the rail company in programs approved by the Federal Railroad Ad ministration. At the end of the training period, engineers must pass a hearing and visual acuity test, a safety conduct back ground check, a railroad operation knowledge test, and a skills performance test. The company issues the engineer a license after the applicant passes the examinations. Other conditions and rules may apply to entry-level engineers and usually vary with the employer. To maintain certification, railroad companies must monitor their engineers. In addition, engineers must periodically pass an operational rules efficiency test. The test is an unannounced event requiring engineers to take active or responsive action in certain situations, such as maintaining a particular speed through a curve or yard. Engineers undergo periodic physical examinations and drug and alcohol testing to determine their fitness to operate locomo tives. In some cases, engineers who fail to meet these physical and conduct standards are restricted to yard service; in other instances, they may be disciplined, trained to perform other work, or discharged. Conductor jobs generally are filled from the ranks of experi enced rail transportation workers who have passed tests covering signals, timetables, operating rules, and related subjects. Seniority usually is the main factor in determining promotion to conduc tor. Entry-level conductors generally must be at least 21 years of age and are either trained by their employers or required to com plete a formal conductor training program through a community college. Newly trained engineers and conductors are placed on the “extra board” until permanent positions become available. Workers on the extras-board receive assignments only when the railroad needs substitutes for regular workers who are absent because of vacation, illness, or other reasons. Seniority rules may allow workers with greater seniority to select their type of assignment. For example, an engineer may move from an initial, regular assignment in yard service to road service. 646 Occupational Outlook Handbook For brake and signal operator jobs, railroad firms will train applicants either in a company program or—especially with smaller railroads—at an outside training facility. Typical train ing programs combine classroom and on-site training and last between 4 and 6 weeks for signal operators and between 10 and 18 weeks for brake operators. For subway and streetcar operator jobs, subway transit systems prefer applicants with a high school education. Most transit systems that operate subways and streetcars also operate buses. In these systems, subway or streetcar operators usually start as bus drivers. Applicants must be in good health, have good communication skills, and be able to make quick, responsible judgments. New operators generally complete training programs that last from a few weeks to 6 months. At the end of the period of classroom and on-the-job training, operators usually must pass qualifying examinations covering the operating system, troubleshooting, and evacuation and emergency procedures. Some operators with sufficient seniority can advance to station manager or another supervisory position. For yard occupations, a commercial driver’s license may be required because these workers often operate trucks and other heavy vehicles. For more information on commercial driver’s licenses, contact your State motor vehicle administration and see the Handbook statements on truck drivers and driver/sales workers or bus drivers. Employment Rail transportation workers held 112,000 jobs in 2004, distributed among the detailed occupations as follows: Locomotive engineers and operators............................................ Railroad conductors and yardmasters........................................... Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators................................ Subway and streetcar operators.................................................... Rail transportation workers, all other............................................ 40,000 38,000 17,000 9,200 8,100 Most rail transportation workers are employed in either the rail transportation industry or support activities for the industry. The rest work primarily for local governments as subway and streetcar operators and for mining and manufacturing establishments that operate their own locomotives and dinkey engines to move railcars containing ore, coal, and other bulk materials. between terminals. Railroads are improving delivery times and ontime service, while reducing shipping rates, in order to com pete with other modes of transportation, such as trucks, ships, and aircraft. Growth in the number of railroad transportation workers will be adversely affected by innovations such as larger, faster, more fuel-efficient trains and computerized classification yards that make it possible to move freight more efficiently. Computers help to keep track of freight cars, match empty cars with the closest loads, and dispatch and control trains. Computer-assisted devices alert engineers to malfunctions, and work rules now allow trains to operate with two-person crews instead of the traditional three- to five-person crews. Earnings Median hourly earnings of rail transportation occupations in May of 2004 were relatively high, as indicated in the following tabula tion: Locomotive engineers..................................................................... $24.30 Subway and streetcar operators...................................................... 23.70 Railroad conductors and yardmasters............................................. 22.28 Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators.................................. 21.46 Most railroad workers are paid according to miles traveled or hours worked, whichever leads to higher earnings. Full-time employees have steadier work, more regular hours, increased op portunities for overtime work, and higher earnings than do those assigned to the extra board. Eight out of 10 railroad transportation workers are members of unions. Many different railroad unions represent various crafts on the railroads. Most railroad engineers are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen, while most other railroad transportation workers are members of the United Transportation Union. Many subway operators are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union, while others belong to the Transport Workers Union of North America. Related Occupations Other related transportation workers include bus drivers, truck drivers and driver/sales workers, and those working in water trans portation occupations. Job Outlook Even though employment in most railroad transportation occupa tions is expected to decline through the year 2014, opportunities are expected to be good for qualified applicants, due mainly to the large number of workers expected to retire or leave these oc cupations in the next decade. Employment is expected to decline, despite expected increases in the amount of freight carried, due to productivity increases. Opportunities for long-distance train crews are expected to be better than those for yard jobs, because yard occupations gener ally require little education beyond high school and do not require as much travel. Employment of subway and streetcar operators will grow about as fast as the average for all occupations, due to increased demand for light-rail transportation systems around the country. Demand for railroad freight service will grow as the economy and the intermodal transportation of goods expand. Intermodal systems use trucks to move shippers’ sealed trailers or containers to and from terminals and employ trains—which are more fuelthan trucks—to transport them over the long distances Digitizedefficient for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information To obtain information on employment opportunities, contact either the employment offices of railroads and rail transit systems or State employment service offices. General information about the rail transportation industry is available from: >• Association of American Railroads, 50 F St. N.W., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.aar.org General information about career opportunities in passenger transportation is available from: >- American Public Transportation Association, 1666 K Street N.W., Washington, DC 20006. General information on career opportunities as a locomotive engineer is available from: >- Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen, 1370 Ontario St. Mezzanine, Cleveland, OH 44113. Internet: http://www.ble.org General information on career opportunities as a conductor, yardmaster, or brake operator is available from: >• United Transportation Union, 14600 Detroit Ave., Cleveland, OH 44107. Internet: http://www.utu.org Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 647 Water Transportation Occupations (0*NET 53-5011.01,53-5011.02, 53-5021.01, 53-5021.02, 53-5021 03 53-5022.00,53-5031.00) Significant Points • Merchant mariners spend extended periods at sea. • Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water transportation occupations are established and regulated by the U.S. Coast Guard, an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. • Increasing global trade and tourism will generate growth in water transportation occupations. Nature of the Work The movement of huge amounts of cargo, as well as passengers, between nations and within our Nation depends on workers in water transportation occupations, also known on commercial ships as merchant mariners. They operate and maintain deep-sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great Lakes, rivers, canals, and other waterways, as well as in harbors. (Workers who operate watercraft used in commercial fishing are described in the section on fishers and fishing vessel operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Captains, mates, and pilots of water vessels command or supervise the operations of ships and water vessels, both within domestic waterways and on the deep sea. Captains or masters are in overall command of the operation of a vessel, and they supervise the work of all other officers and crew. They determine the course and speed of the vessel, maneuver to avoid hazards, and continuously monitor the vessel’s position with charts and navigational aides. Captains either direct or oversee crew members who steer the vessel, determine its location, operate engines, communicate with other vessels, perform maintenance, handle lines, or operate equipment on the vessel. Captains and their department heads ensure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, check to make sure that machinery and equipment are in good working order, and oversee the loading and discharging of cargo or passengers. They also maintain logs and other records tracking the ships’ movements, efforts at controlling pollution, and cargo and passengers carried. Deck officers or mates direct the routine operation of the vessel for the captain during the shifts when they are on watch. All mates stand watch for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 hours off. However, on smaller vessels, there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some inland towing vessels), who alternates watches with the captain. The mate would assume command of the ship if the captain became incapacitated. When more than one mate is necessary aboard a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first mate, second mate, third mate, etc. Mates also supervise and coordinate activities of the crew aboard the ship. They inspect the cargo holds during loading to ensure that the load is stowed according to specifications and regulations. Mates supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the primary upkeep of the vessel. Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where a familiarity with local water depths, winds, tides, currents, and hazards such as reefs and shoals are of prime importance. Pilots on river and canal vessels https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis usually are regular crew members, like mates. Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port. Harbor pilots may pilot many ships in a single day. Motorboat operators operate small, motor-driven boats that carry six of fewer passengers on fishing charters. They also take depth soundings in turning basins and serve as liaisons between ships, between ship and shore, between harbors and beaches, or on area patrol. Ship engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the safe operation of engines and machinery. Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the vessel in proper running order in the engine spaces below decks, under the direction of the ship’s engineering officers. These workers lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors; read pres sure and temperature gauges; record data; and sometimes assist with repairs and adjust machinery. Sailors operate the vessel and its deck equipment under the direction of the ship’s officers and keep the nonengineering areas in good condition. They stand watch, looking out for other ves sels and obstructions in the ship’s path, as well as for navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. On vessels handling liquid cargo, mariners designated as pumpmen hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks; on tugboats or tow vessels, they tie barges together into tow units, inspect them periodically, and disconnect them when the destination is reached. When docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform routine maintenance chores, such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks or other areas. Experienced sailors are designated able seamen on oceangoing vessels, but may be called simply deckhands on inland waters; larger vessels usually have a boatswain, or head seaman. lillllilii ipjll Studying at a maritime academy is usually the best route to becoming an officer. 648 Occupational Outlook Handbook A typical deep-sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck officers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, a radio operator, plus six or more unlicensed seamen, such as able seamen, oilers, QMEDs, and cooks or food handlers. The size and service of the ship determine the number of crewmembers for a particular voyage. Small vessels operating in harbors, on rivers, or along the coast may have a crew comprising only a captain and one deckhand. The cooking responsibilities usually fall under the deckhands’ duties. On larger coastal ships, the crew may include a captain, a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Some ships may have special unlicensed positions for entry level apprentice trainees. Unlicensed positions on a large ship may include a full-time cook, an electrician, and machinery mechanics. On cruise ships, bedroom stewards keep passengers’ quarters clean and comfortable. Working Conditions Merchant mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several months; there is no job security after that. The length of time be tween voyages varies depending on job availability and personal preference. The rate of unionization for these workers is about 36 per cent, much higher than the average for all occupations. Con sequently, merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by shipping companies. Hiring halls rank the can didates by the length of time the person has been out of work and fill open slots accordingly. Hiring halls typically are found in major seaports. At sea, these workers usually stand watch for 4 hours and are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week. Those employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off, but do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen. Workers on rivers, on canals, and in harbors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8-hour or 12-hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or a month and then have an extended period off. When working, they usually are on duty for 6 or 12 hours and off for 6 or 12 hours. Those on smaller vessels are normally assigned to one vessel and have steady employment. People in water transportation occupations work in all weather conditions. Although merchant mariners try to avoid severe storms while at sea, working in damp and cold condi tions often is inevitable. While it is uncommon nowadays for vessels to suffer disasters such as fire, explosion, or a sinking, workers face the possibility that they may have to abandon their craft on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. They also risk injury or death from falling overboard and hazards associated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. However, modern safety manage ment procedures, advanced emergency communications, and effective international rescue systems place modern mariners in a much safer position. Most newer vessels are air conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and equipped with comfortable living quarters. For some mariners, these amenities have helped ease the some times difficult circumstances of long periods away from home. Also, modern communications, especially email, link modern mariners to their families. Nevertheless, some mariners dislike https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship and consequently leave the occupation. Training and Other Qualifications Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water transportation occupations are established and regulated by the U.S. Coast Guard, an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. All officers and operators of commercially operated vessels must be licensed by the Coast Guard, which offers various kinds of licenses, depending on the position and type of vessel. There are two ways to qualify for a deck or engineering officer’s license; applicants either must accumulate sea time and meet regulatory requirements, or must graduate from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy or one of the six State mari time academies. In both cases, applicants must pass a written examination. Federal regulations also require that an applicant pass a physical examination, a drug screening, and a National Driver Register Check before being considered. Persons without formal training can be licensed if they pass the written exam and possess sea service appropriate to the license for which they are applying. However, it is difficult to pass the examination without substantial formal schooling or independent study. Also, because seamen may work 6 or fewer months a year, it can take 5 to 8 years to accumulate the necessary experience. The academies offer a 4-year academic program leading to a bachelor-of-science degree, a license (issued only by the Coast Guard) as a third mate (deck officer) or third assistant engineer (engineering officer), and, if the person is qualified, a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve, Merchant Marine Reserve, or Coast Guard Reserve. With experience and additional training, third officers may qualify for higher rank. Sailors and unlicensed engineers working on U.S. flagged deep-sea and Great Lakes vessels must hold a Coast Guard-issued document. In addition, they must hold certification when work ing aboard liquid-carrying vessels. Able seamen also must hold government-issued certification. For employment in the merchant marine as an unlicensed seaman, a merchant mariner’s document issued by the Coast Guard is needed. Most of the jobs must be filled by U.S. citizens; however, a small percentage of applicants for merchant mariner documents do not need to be U.S. citizens, but must at least be aliens legally admitted into the United States and holding a green card. A medical certificate of excellent health attesting to vision, color perception, and general physical condition is required for higher level deckhands and unlicensed engineers. While no experience or formal schooling is required, training at a union-operated school is the best source. Beginners are classified as ordinary seamen and may be assigned to any of the three unlicensed departments: Deck, engine, or steward. With experience at sea and perhaps union-sponsored training, an ordinary seaman can pass the able-seaman exam and move up with 3 years of service. No special training or experience is needed to become a seaman or deckhand on vessels operating in harbors or on rivers or other waterways. Newly hired workers generally are given a short introductory course and then learn skills on the job. After sufficient experience, they are eligible to take a Coast Guard exam to qualify as a mate, pilot, or captain. Substantial knowledge gained through experience, courses taught at approved schools, and independent study is needed to pass the exam. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Harbor pilot training usually consists of an extended apprentice ship with a towing company or a pilots’ association. Entrants may be able seamen or licensed officers. Employment Water transportation workers held more than 72,000 jobs in 2004. The total number who worked at some point in the year was perhaps twice as large because many merchant marine of ficers and seamen worked only part of the year. The following tabulation shows employment in the occupations that make up this group: Captains, mates, and pilots of water vessels................................ Sailors and marine oilers............................................................... Ship engineers............................................................................... Motorboat operators...................................................................... 29,000 28,000 12,000 3,400 About 33 percent of all workers were employed in water transportation services. About 17 percent worked in inland water transportation—primarily the Mississippi River system—while the other 16 percent were employed in water transportation on the deep seas, along the coasts, and on the Great Lakes. Another 25 percent worked in establishments related to port and harbor operations, marine cargo handling, or navigational services to shipping. The Federal government employed approximately 5 percent of all water transportation workers, most of whom worked on supply ships and are Civilian Mariners of the Department Navy’s Military Sealift Command. Job Outlook Employment in water transportation occupations is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Job growth will stem from increasing tourism and increases in shipping traffic due to rising imports that will provide greater employment in and around major port cities. Employment in deep-sea shipping for American mariners is expected to stabilize after several years of decline. International regulations have raised shipping standards with respect to safety, training, and working conditions. Consequently, competition from ships that sail under foreign flags of convenience has less ened as the standards of operation become more uniform. This has made the costs of operating a U.S. ship more comparable to foreign-flagged ships and has modestly increased the amount of international cargo carried by U.S. ships. A fleet of deep-sea U.S.-flagged ships is also considered to be vital to the Nation’s defense, so some receive Federal support through a maritime security subsidy and other provisions in laws that limit certain Federal cargoes to ships that fly the U.S. flag. Employment growth also is expected in passenger cruise ships within U.S. waters. Vessels that operate between U.S. ports are required by law to be U.S.-flagged vessels. The building and staff ing of several new cruise ships that will travel around the Hawaiian Islands will create new opportunities for employment at sea in the cruise line industry, which is composed mostly of foreign-flagged ships. In addition efforts are underway at the Federal level that could lead to greater use of ferries to handle commuter traffic around major metropolitan areas, which may cause more workers to be hired. Moderating the growth in water transportation occupations is a projected decline in vessels operating in the Great Lakes and inland waterways. Vessels on rivers and canals and on the Great Lakes carry mostly bulk products, such as coal, iron ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals. Although ship https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 649 ments of most of these products are expected to grow through the year 2014, imports of steel are dampening employment on the Lakes. Job openings will also result from the need to replace those leaving the occupation. Some experienced merchant mariners may continue to go without work for varying periods. How ever, this situation appears to be changing, with demand for licensed and unlicensed personnel rising. Maritime academy graduates who have not found licensed shipboard jobs in the U.S. merchant marine find jobs in related industries. Because they are commissioned as ensigns in the Naval or Coast Guard Reserve, some are selected for active duty in those branches of the Service. Some find jobs as seamen on U.S.-flagged or foreign-flagged vessels, tugboats, and other watercraft or enter civilian jobs with the U.S. Navy or Coast Guard. Some take land-based jobs with shipping companies, marine insurance companies, manufacturers of boilers or related machinery, or other related jobs. Earnings Earnings vary widely with the particular water transportation position and the worker’s experience, ranging from the minimum wage for some beginning seamen or mate positions to more than $42.02 an hour for some experienced ship engineers. Median hourly earnings of water transportation occupations in May 2004 were: Ship engineers................................................................................. $26.42 Captains, mates, and pilots of water vessels................................. 24.20 Motorboat operators........................................................................ 15.39 Sailors and marine oilers................................................................. 14.00 Annual pay for captains of larger vessels, such as container ships, oil tankers, or passenger ships, may exceed $100,000, but only after many years of experience. Similarly, captains of tugboats often earn more than the median reported here, with earnings dependent on the port and the nature of the cargo. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who make their living on the seas and coastal waters include fishers and fishing vessel operators and some members of the Armed Forces. Sources of Additional Information Information on a program called “Careers Afloat”, which includes a substantial listing of training and employment de scriptive information and contacts in the U.S., may be obtained through: >- Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 400 7th St. SW., Room 7302, Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://www.marad.dot.gov/acareerafloat Information on merchant marine careers, training, and li censing requirements is available from any of the following organizations: ► Military Sealift Command, APMC, PO Box 120, Camp Pendleton, Virginia Beach, VA 23458-0120. Internet: http://www.sealiftcommand.com ► Seafarers’ International Union, 5201 Auth Way, Camp Springs, MD 20746. ► Paul Hall Center for Maritime Training and Education, P.O. Box 75, Piney Point, MD 20674-0075. Internet: http://www.seafarers.org/phc >- International Organization of Masters, Mates, and Pilots, 700 Maritime Blvd., Linthicum Heights, MD 21090-1941. ► U.S. Coast Guard National Maritime Center, 4200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 630, Arlington, VA 22203-1804. Internet: http://www.uscg.mil/stcw/index.htm 650 Occupational Outlook Handbook Material Moving Occupations (0*NET 53-1021.00, 53-7011.00, 53-7021.00, 53-7031.00, 53-7032.01, 53-7032.02,53-7033.00, 53-7041.00, 53-7051.00, 53-7061.00, 53 7062.01, 53-7062.02, 53-7062.03, 53-7063.00, 53-7064.00, 53-7071.01, 53-7071.02, 53-7072.00, 53-7073.00, 53-7081.00, 53-7111.00, 53 7121.00,53-7199.99) Significant Points • Job openings should be numerous because the occupa tion is very large and turnover is relatively high. • Most jobs require little work experience or training. • Pay is low, and the seasonal nature of the work may reduce earnings. Nature of the Work Material moving workers are categorized into two groups—opera tors and laborers. Operators use machinery to move constmction materials, earth, petroleum products, and other heavy materials. Generally, they move materials over short distances—around construction sites, factories, or warehouses. Some move materials onto or off of trucks and ships. Operators control equipment by moving levers, wheels, and/or foot pedals; operating switches; or turning dials. They also may set up and inspect equipment, make adjustments, and perform minor maintenance or repairs. Laborers and hand material movers manually handle freight, stock, or other materials; clean vehicles, machinery, and other equipment; feed materials into or remove materials from machines or equipment; and pack or package products and materials. Material moving occupations are classified by the type of equipment they operate or the goods they handle. Each piece of equipment requires different skills, as do different types of loads. (For information on operating engineers; paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators; and pile-driver operators, see the statement on construction equipment operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial truck and tractor operators drive and control industrial trucks or tractors equipped to move materials around warehouses, storage yards, factories, or construction sites. A typical industrial truck, often called a forklift or lift truck, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks for moving heavy and large objects. Industrial truck and tractor operators also may operate tractors that pull trailers loaded with materials, goods, or equipment within factories and warehouses or around outdoor storage areas. Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators tend or operate machinery equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets to dig and load sand, gravel, earth, or similar materials into trucks or onto conveyors. Construction and mining indus tries employ the majority of excavation and loading machine and dragline operators. Dredge operators excavate waterways, removing sand, gravel, rock, or other materials from harbors, lakes, rivers, and streams. Dredges are used primarily to maintain navigable channels but also are used to restore wetlands and other aquatic habitats; reclaim land; and create and maintain beaches. Underground mining loading machine operators use underground loading machines to load coal, ore, or rock into shuttles and mine cars or onto conveyors. Loading equipment may include power shovels, hoisting engines equipped with cable-drawn scrapers or scoops, and machines equipped with gathering arms Digitizedand for conveyors. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Crane and tower operators work mechanical boom and cable or tower and cable equipment to lift and move materials, ma chinery, and other heavy objects. Operators extend and retract horizontally mounted booms and lower and raise hooks attached to load lines. Most operators are guided by other workers using hand signals or a radio. Operators position loads from an onboard console or from a remote console at the site. While crane and tower operators are noticeable at office building and other con struction sites, the biggest group works in primary metal, metal fabrication, and transportation equipment manufacturing indus tries that use heavy, bulky materials. Hoist and winch operators control movement of cables, cages, and platforms to move work ers and materials for manufacturing, logging, and other industrial operations. They work in positions such as derrick operators and hydraulic boom operators. Many hoist and winch operators are found in manufacturing or construction industries. Pump operators tend, control, and operate power-driven pumps and manifold systems that transfer gases, oil, or other materials to vessels or equipment. They maintain the equipment to regulate the flow of materials according to a schedule set up by petroleum engineers and production supervisors. Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators operate steam, gas, electric motor, or internal combustion engine-driven compressors. They transmit, compress, or recover gases, such as butane, nitrogen, hydrogen, and natural gas. Wellhead pumpers operate power pumps and auxiliary equipment to produce flows of oil or gas from extraction sites. Tank car, truck, and ship loaders operate ship-loading and -unloading equipment, conveyors, hoists, and other specialized material-handling equipment such as railroad tank car-unload ing equipment. They may gauge or sample shipping tanks and test them for leaks. Conveyor operators and tenders control and tend conveyor systems that move materials to or from stockpiles, processing stations, departments, or vehicles. Shuttle car opera tors run diesel or electric-powered shuttle cars in underground mines, transporting materials from the working face to mine cars or conveyors. Laborers and handfreight, stock, and material movers manu ally move materials and perform other unskilled general labor. These workers move freight, stock, and other materials to and from storage and production areas, loading docks, delivery vehicles, ships, and containers. Their specific duties vary by industry and work setting. In factories, they may move raw materials or finished goods between loading docks, storage areas, and work areas, as well as sort materials and supplies and prepare them according to their work orders. Specialized workers within this group include baggage and cargo handlers, who work in transportation industries, and truck loaders and unloaders. Hand packers and packagers manually pack, package, or wrap a variety of materials. They may inspect items for defects, label cartons, stamp information on products, keep records of items packed, and stack packages on loading docks. This group also includes order fillers, who pack materials for shipment, as well as grocery store courtesy clerks. In grocery stores, they may bag groceries, carry packages to customers’ cars, and return shopping carts to designated areas. Machine feeders and offbearers feed materials into or remove materials from automatic equipment or machines tended by other workers. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations ■ ■> ■nfi si R W&igsK. Fork lifts have hydraulic lifting mechanisms for moving heavy or large objects. Cleaners of vehicles and equipment clean machinery, vehicles, storage tanks, pipelines, and similar equipment using water and other cleaning agents, vacuums, hoses, brushes, cloths, and other cleaning equipment. Refuse and recyclable material collectors gather refuse and recyclables from homes and businesses into their truck for trans port to a dump, landfill, or recycling center. They lift and empty garbage cans or recycling bins by hand or operate a hydraulic lift truck that picks up and empties dumpsters. They work along scheduled routes. Working Conditions Material moving work tends to be repetitive and physically de manding. Workers may lift and carry heavy objects and stoop, kneel, crouch, or crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights and some work outdoors, regardless of weather and climate. Some jobs expose workers to fumes, odors, loud noises, harmful materials and chemicals, or dangerous machinery. To protect their eyes, respiratory systems, and hearing, these workers wear safety clothing, such as gloves, hardhats, and other safety devices. These jobs have become much less dangerous as safety equipment—such as overhead guards on lift trucks—has become common. Accidents usually can be avoided by observing proper operating procedures and safety practices. Material movers generally work 8-hour shifts, though longer shifts also are not uncommon. In industries that work around the clock, material movers may work overnight shifts. Some do this because the establishment does not want to disturb customers during normal business hours. Refuse and recyclable material collectors often work shifts starting at 5 or 6 a.m. Some material movers work only during certain seasons, such as when the weather permits construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Little work experience or training is required for most material moving occupations. Some employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma, but most simply require workers to be at least 18 years old and physically able to perform the work. For those jobs requiring physical exertion, employers may require that ap plicants pass a physical exam. Some employers also require drug testing or background checks before employment. Material movers often are younger than workers in other occupations, reflecting the limited training but significant physical requirements of many of jobs. Digitizedthese for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 651 Material movers generally learn skills informally, on the job, from more experienced workers or their supervisors. Workers who handle toxic chemicals or use industrial trucks or other dangerous equipment must receive specialized training in safety awareness and procedures. Many of the training requirements are standardized through the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. This training is usually provided by the employer. Employers also must certify that each operator has received the training and evaluate each operator at least once every 3 years. For other operators, such as crane operators and those working with specialized loads, there are some training and apprenticeship programs, such as that offered by the International Union of Operating Engineers, as well as certifying institutions, such as the National Commission for the Certification of Crane Operators. Some employers may require crane operators to be certified. Twelve States have laws requiring crane operators to be licensed. Licensing requirements typically include a written as well as a skills test to demonstrate that the licensee can oper ate a crane safely. Material moving equipment operators need a good sense of balance, the ability to judge distances, and eye-hand-foot coordina tion. For jobs that involve dealing with the public, such as grocery store courtesy clerks, workers should be pleasant and courteous. Most jobs require basic arithmetic skills and the ability to read procedural manuals, to understand orders, and other billing docu ments. Mechanical aptitude and training in automobile or diesel mechanics can be helpful because some operators may perform basic maintenance on their equipment. Experience operating mobile equipment—such as tractors on farms or heavy equipment in the Armed Forces—is an asset. As material moving equipment becomes more advanced, workers will need to be increasingly comfortable with technology. In many of these occupations, experience may allow workers to qualify or become trainees for jobs such as construction trades workers; assemblers or other production workers; motor vehicle operators; or vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers. In many workplaces new employees gain experience in a material moving position before being promoted to a better paying and more highly skilled job. Some may eventually advance to become supervisors. Employment Material movers held 5.1 million jobs in 2004. They were distributed among the detailed occupations as follows: Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand........... 2,430,000 Packers and packagers, hand...................................................... 877,000 Industrial truck and tractor operators........................................ 635,000 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment......................................... 347,000 First-line supervisors/managers of helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand........................................................... 173,000 Refuse and recyclable material collectors................................. 149,000 Machine feeders and offbearers................................................ 148,000 Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators......... 86,000 Conveyor operators and tenders................................................ 53,000 Crane and tower operators......................................................... 44,000 Tank car, track, and ship loaders............................................... 17,000 Wellhead pumpers...................................................................... 11,000 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers............................... 11,000 Hoist and winch operators......................................................... 5,600 Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators................. 5,100 Loading machine operators, underground mining.................... 4,300 Shuttle car operators.................................................................. 3,100 Dredge operators........................................................................ 2,500 All other material moving workers........................................... 58,000 652 Occupational Outlook Handbook About 29 percent of all material movers worked in the wholesale trade or retail trade industries. Another 22 percent worked in manu facturing; 14 percent in transportation and warehousing; 4 percent in construction and mining; and 15 percent in the employment services industry, on a temporary or contract basis. For example, companies that need workers for only a few days, to move materials or to clean up a site, may contract with temporary help agencies specializing in providing suitable workers on a short-term basis. A small proportion of material movers were self-employed. Material movers work in every part of the country. Some work in remote locations on large construction projects such as highways and dams, while others work in factories, warehouses, or mining operations. Job Outlook Job openings should be numerous because the occupation is very large and turnover is relatively high—characteristic of occupa tions requiring little prior or formal training. Many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or those who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment in material moving occupations is projected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Improvements in equipment, such as automated storage and retrieval systems and conveyors, will continue to raise productivity and moderate the demand for material movers. Employment growth will stem from an expanding economy, especially in industries involved with the production, distribu tion, and sales of goods. Employment also will grow in the warehousing and storage industry as more firms contract out their warehousing functions to this industry. For example, a frozen food manufacturer may reduce its costs by outsourcing these functions to a refrigerated warehousing firm, which can more efficiently deal with the specialized storage needs of frozen food. Job growth for material movers depends on the growth or decline of employing industries and the type of equipment the workers operate or the materials they handle. For example, jobs in mining are expected to decline due to continued productivity increases within that industry. Job growth generally will be slower in large establishments, as they increasingly turn to automation for their material moving needs. Both construction and manufacturing are very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so the number of job openings in these industries will fluctuate. Although increasing automation will eliminate some routine tasks, new jobs will be created by the need to operate and maintain new equipment. Earnings Median hourly earnings of material moving workers in May 2004 were relatively low, as indicated by the following tabulation: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis First-line supervisors/managers of helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand................................................................ $ 18.40 Crane and tower operators.............................................................. 17.99 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers..................................... 17.04 Wellhead pumpers........................................................................... 16.31 Hoist and winch operators.............................................................. 16.19 Tank car, track, and ship loaders..................................................... 15.59 Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators.............. 15.37 Material moving workers, all other................................................. 13.87 Industrial track and tractor operators.............................................. 12.78 Refuse and recyclable material collectors....................................... 12.38 Conveyor operators and tenders...................................................... 12.23 Machine feeders and offbearers...................................................... 10.68 Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand................ 9.67 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment............................................... 8.41 Packers and packagers, hand........................................................... 8.25 Wages vary according to experience and job responsibilities. Wages usually are higher in metropolitan areas. Seasonal peaks and lulls in workload can affect the number of hours scheduled and, therefore, earnings. Certified crane operators tend to have a slightly higher hourly rate than those who are not certified. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equipment include con struction equipment operators; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; rail transportation workers; and truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Other entry-level workers who perform mostly physical work are agricultural workers; building cleaning workers; construction laborers; forest, conservation, and logging workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities and training programs, contact local State employment service offices, building or construction con tractors, manufacturers, and wholesale and retail establishments. Information on safety and training requirements is available from: > U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administra tion (OSHA), 200 Constitution Ave., NW„ Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http://www.osha.gov Information on industrial truck and tractor operators is available from: >- Industrial Truck Association, 1750 K St., NW„ Suite 460, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.indtrk.org Information on training and apprenticeships for industrial truck operators is available from: ► International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Internet: http://www.iuoe.org Information on crane and derrick certification and licensure is available from: >- National Commission for the Certification of Crane Operators, 2750 Pros perity Ave., Suite 505, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.nccco.org Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces (0*NET 55-1011.00, 55-1012.00, 55-1013.00, 55-1014.00, 55-1015.00, 55-1016.00, 55-1017.00, 55-1019.99, 55-2011.00, 55-2012.00, 55-2013.00, 55-3011.00, 55-3012.00, 55-3013.00, 55-3014.00, 55-3015.00, 55-3016.00, 55-3017.00, 55-3018.00, 55-3019.99) Significant Points • Some training and duty assignments are hazardous, even in peacetime; hours and working conditions can be arduous and vary substantially. • Enlisted personnel need at least a high school diploma or its equivalent, while officers need a bachelor’s or an advanced degree. • Opportunities should be good in all branches of the Armed Forces for applicants who meet designated standards. Nature of the Work Maintaining a strong national defense encompasses such diverse activities as running a hospital, commanding a tank, programming computers, operating a nuclear reactor, or repairing and maintaining a helicopter. The military provides training and work experience in these and many other fields for more than 2.6 million people. More than 1.4 million people serve in the active Army, Navy, Ma rine Corps, and Air Force, and more than 1.2 million serve in their Reserve components, and the Air and Army National Guard. The Coast Guard, which is also discussed in this Handbook statement, is now part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The military distinguishes between enlisted and officer careers. Enlisted personnel, who make up about 85 percent of the Armed Forces, carry out the fundamental operations of the military in areas such as combat, administration, construction, engineering, health care, and human services. Officers, who make up the remaining 15 percent of the Armed Forces, are the leaders of the military, supervising and managing activities in every occupational specialty of the Armed Forces. The sections that follow discuss the major occupational groups for enlisted personnel and officers. Enlisted occupational groups Administrative careers include a wide variety of positions. The military must keep accurate information for planning and manag ing its operations. Both paper and electronic records are kept on personnel and on equipment, funds, supplies, and all other aspects of the military. Administrative personnel record information, type reports, maintain files, and review information to assist military officers. Personnel may work in a specialized area such as finance, accounting, legal affairs, maintenance, supply, or transportation. Combat specialty occupations refer to enlisted specialties, such as infantry, artillery, and special forces, whose members operate weapons or execute special missions during combat. Persons in these occupations normally specialize by the type of weapon system or combat operation. These personnel maneuver against enemy forces and position and fire artillery, guns, and missiles to destroy enemy positions. They also may operate tanks and amphibi ous assault vehicles in combat or scouting missions. When the military has difficult and dangerous missions to perform, they call upon special forces teams. These elite combat forces maintain a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis constant state of readiness to strike anywhere in the world on a moment’s notice. Team members from the special forces conduct offensive raids, demolitions, intelligence, search-and-rescue mis sions, and other operations from aboard aircraft, helicopters, ships, or submarines. Construction occupations in the military include personnel who build or repair buildings, airfields, bridges, foundations, dams, bunkers, and the electrical and plumbing components of these struc tures. Personnel in construction occupations operate bulldozers, cranes, graders, and other heavy equipment. Construction special ists also may work with engineers and other building specialists as part of military construction teams. Some personnel specialize in areas such as plumbing or electrical wiring. Plumbers and pipefit ters install and repair the plumbing and pipe systems needed in buildings and on aircraft and ships. Building electricians install and repair electrical-wiring systems in offices, airplane hangars, and other buildings on military bases. Electronic and electrical equipment repair personnel repair and maintain electronic and electrical equipment used in the military. Repairers normally specialize by type of equipment, such as avion ics, computer, optical, communications, or weapons systems. For example, electronic instrument repairers install, test, maintain, and repair a wide variety of electronic systems, including navigational controls and biomedical instruments. Weapons maintenance techni cians maintain and repair weapons used by combat forces; most of these weapons have electronic components and systems that assist in locating targets and in aiming and firing the weapon. Engineering, science, and technical personnel in the military require specific knowledge to operate technical equipment, solve complex problems, or provide and interpret information. Personnel normally specialize in one area, such as space operations, informa tion technology, environmental health and safety, or intelligence. Space operations specialists use and repair ground-control command equipment having to do with spacecraft, including electronic systems that track the location and operation of a craft. Information technol ogy specialists develop software programs and operate computer systems. Environmental health and safety specialists inspect military facilities and food supplies for the presence of disease, germs, or other conditions hazardous to health and the environment. Intel ligence specialists gather and study information by means of aerial photographs and various types of radar and surveillance systems. Health care personnel assist medical professionals in treating and providing services for men and women in the military. They may work as part of a patient-service team in close contact with doctors, dentists, nurses, and physical therapists to provide the necessary support functions within a hospital or clinic. Health care special ists normally specialize in a particular area—emergency medical treatment, the operation of diagnostic tools such as x-ray and ultra sound equipment, laboratory testing of tissue and blood samples, or maintaining pharmacy supplies or patients’ records, among others. Dental and optical laboratory technicians construct and repair dental equipment and eyeglasses for military personnel. Human resources development specialists recruit and place quali fied personnel and provide the training programs necessary to help people perform their jobs effectively. Personnel in this career area normally specialize by activity. For example, recruiting specialists provide information about military careers to young people, parents, schools, and local communities and explain the Armed Service’s employment and training opportunities, pay and benefits, and service 653 654 Occupational Outlook Handbook life. Personnel specialists collect and store information about the people in the military, including information on their previous and current training, job assignments, promotions, and health. Training specialists and instructors teach classes and give demonstrations to provide military personnel with the knowledge they need to perform their jobs. Machine operator and production personnel operate industrial equipment, machinery, and tools to fabricate and repair parts for a variety of items and structures. They may operate engines, turbines, nuclear reactors, and water pumps. Often, they specialize by type of work performed. Welders and metalworkers, for instance, work with various types of metals to repair or form the structural parts of ships, submarines, buildings, or other equipment. Survival equip ment specialists inspect, maintain, and repair survival equipment such as parachutes and aircraft life support equipment. Media and public affairs personnel deal with the public presen tation and interpretation of military information and events. They take and develop photographs; film, record, and edit audio and video programs; present news and music programs; and produce graphic artwork, drawings, and other visual displays. Other public affairs specialists act as interpreters and translators to convert written or spoken foreign languages into English or other languages. Protective service personnel include those who enforce military laws and regulations and provide emergency response to natural and human-made disasters. These personnel normally specialize by function. For example, military police control traffic, prevent crime, and respond to emergencies. Other law enforcement and se curity specialists investigate crimes committed on military property and guard inmates in military correctional facilities. Firefighters put out, control, and help prevent fires in buildings, on aircraft, and aboard ships. Support service personnel provide subsistence services and support the morale and well-being of military personnel and their families. Food service specialists prepare all types of food in din ing halls, hospitals, and ships. Counselors help military personnel and their families deal with personal issues. They work as part of a team that may include social workers, psychologists, medical of ficers, chaplains, personnel specialists, and commanders. Religious program specialists assist chaplains with religious services, religious education programs, and related administrative duties. Transportation and material handling specialists ensure the safe transport of people and cargo. Most personnel within this oc cupational group are classified according to mode of transportation, such as aircraft, motor vehicle, or ship. Aircrew members operate equipment on board aircraft during operations. Vehicle drivers oper ate all types of heavy military vehicles, including fuel or water tank trucks, semi-trailers, heavy troop transports, and passenger buses. Quartermasters and boat operators navigate and pilot many types of small watercraft, including tugboats, gunboats, and barges. Cargo specialists load and unload military supplies, using equipment such as forklifts and cranes. Vehicle and machinery mechanics conduct preventive and cor rective maintenance on aircraft, automotive and heavy equipment, heating and cooling systems, marine engines, and powerhouse station equipment. These workers typically specialize by the type of equipment that they maintain. For example, aircraft mechanics inspect, service, and repair helicopters and airplanes. Automotive and heavy equipment mechanics maintain and repair vehicles such as humvees, trucks, tanks, self-propelled missile launchers, and other combat vehicles. They also repair bulldozers, power shovels, and other constmction equipment. Heating and cooling mechan ics install and repair air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating equipment. Marine engine mechanics repair and maintain gasoline and diesel engines on ships, boats, and other watercraft. They also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mam It ' ■ m The Marine Corps has many duties, including guarding U.S. embassies. repair shipboard mechanical and electrical equipment. Powerhouse mechanics install, maintain, and repair electrical and mechanical equipment in power-generating stations. Officer occupational groups Combat specialty officers plan and direct military operations, oversee combat activities, and serve as combat leaders. This cat egory includes officers in charge of tanks and other armored assault vehicles, artillery systems, special forces, and infantry. Combat specialty officers normally specialize by the type of unit that they lead. Within the unit, they may specialize by the type of weapon system. Artillery and missile system officers, for example, direct personnel as they target, launch, test, and maintain various types of missiles and artillery. Special-operations officers lead their units in offensive raids, demolitions, intelligence gathering, and searchand-rescue missions. Engineering, science, and technical officers have a wide range of responsibilities based on their area of expertise. They lead or perform activities in areas such as space operations, environmental health and safety, and engineering. These officers may direct the op erations of communications centers or the development of complex computer systems. Environmental health and safety officers study the air, ground, and water to identify and analyze sources of pollu tion and its effects. They also direct programs to control safety and health hazards in the workplace. Other personnel work as aerospace engineers to design and direct the development of military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. Executive, administrative, and managerial officers oversee and direct military activities in key functional areas such as finance, ac counting, health administration, international relations, and supply. Health services administrators, for instance, are responsible for the overall quality of care provided at the hospitals and clinics they operate. They must ensure that each department works together to provide the highest quality of care. As another example, purchasing and contracting managers negotiate and monitor contracts for the purchase of the billions of dollars worth of equipment, supplies, and services that the military buys from private industry each year. Health care officers provide health services at military facilities, on the basis of their area of specialization. Officers who examine, diagnose, and treat patients with illness, injury, or disease include physicians, registered nurses, and dentists. Other health care officers provide therapy, rehabilitative treatment, and additional services for patients. Physical and occupational therapists plan and administer therapy to help patients adjust to disabilities, regain independence, Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces and return to work. Speech therapists evaluate and treat patients with hearing and speech problems. Dietitians manage food service facilities and plan meals for hospital patients and for outpatients who need special diets. Pharmacists manage the purchase, storage, and dispensation of drugs and medicines. Physicians and surgeons in this occupational group provide the majority of medical services to the military and their families. Dentists treat diseases and disorders of the mouth. Optometrists treat vision problems by prescribing eyeglasses or contact lenses. Psychologists provide mental health care and also conduct research on behavior and emotions. Human resource development officers manage recruitment, placement, and training strategies and programs in the military. They normally specialize by activity. Recruiting managers direct recruiting efforts and provide information about military careers to young people, parents, schools, and local communities. Personnel managers direct military personnel functions such as job assignment, staff promotion, and career counseling. Training and education di rectors identify training needs and develop and manage educational programs designed to keep military personnel current in the skills they need to perform their jobs. Media and public affairs officers oversee the development, pro duction, and presentation of information or events for the public. These officers may produce and direct motion pictures, videotapes, and television and radio broadcasts that are used for training, news, and entertainment. Some plan, develop, and direct the activities of military bands. Public information officers respond to inquiries about military activities and prepare news releases and reports to keep the public informed. Protective service officers are responsible for the safety and protection of individuals and property on military bases and vessels. Emergency management officers plan and prepare for all types of natural and human-made disasters. They develop warning, control, and evacuation plans to be used in the event of a disaster. Law en forcement and security officers enforce all applicable laws on mili tary bases and investigate crimes when the law has been broken. Support services officers manage food service activities and perform services in support of the morale and well-being of military personnel and their families. Food services managers oversee the preparation and delivery of food services within dining facilities located on military installations and vessels. Social workers focus on improving conditions that cause social problems such as drug and alcohol abuse, racism, and sexism. Chaplains conduct worship services for military personnel and perform other spiritual duties covering the beliefs and practices of all religious faiths. §2C 12 updates the status of one of the aircraft used by the Navy. Digitized A forsailor FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 655 Transportation officers manage and perform activities related to the safe transport of military personnel and material by air and water. These officers normally specialize by mode of transportation or area of expertise because, in many cases, they must meet licens ing and certification requirements. Pilots in the military fly various types of specialized airplanes and helicopters to carry troops and equipment and to execute combat missions. Navigators use radar, radio, and other navigation equipment to determine their position and plan their route of travel. Officers on ships and submarines work as a team to manage the various departments aboard their ves sels. Ship engineers direct engineering departments aboard ships and submarines, including engine operations, maintenance, repair, heating, and power generation. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Enlisted personnel. In order to join the services, enlisted personnel must sign a legal agreement called an enlistment contract, which usually involves a commitment to 8 years of service. Depending on the terms of the contract, 2 to 6 years are spent on active duty, and the balance is spent in the National Guard or Reserves. The enlistment contract obligates the service to provide the agreed-upon job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education. In return, enlisted personnel must serve satisfactorily for the period specified. Requirements for each service vary, but certain qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. In order to enlist, one must be between 17 and 35 years old for active service, be a U.S. citizen or an alien holding permanent resident status, not have a felony record, and possess a birth certificate. Applicants who are aged 17 must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Coast Guard enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birthday, whereas Marine Corps enlisted personnel must not be over the age of 29. Applicants must both pass a written examination—the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery—and meet certain minimum physical standards, such as height, weight, vision, and overall health. All branches of the Armed Forces require high school graduation or its equivalent. In 2004, more than 9 out of 10 recruits were high school graduates. People thinking about enlisting in the military should learn as much as they can about military life before making a decision. Do ing so is especially important if you are thinking about making the military a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military experience is a good idea. Find out what the military can offer you and what it will expect in return. Then, talk to a recruiter, who can determine whether you qualify for enlistment, explain the various enlistment options, and tell you which military occupational special ties currently have openings. Bear in mind that the recruiter’s job is to recruit promising applicants into his or her branch of military service, so the information that the recruiter gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life in the branch in which he or she serves. Ask the recruiter for the branch you have chosen to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation of your choice, or, better still, take the aptitude exam to see how well you score. The military uses this exam as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an individual’s chances of being accepted into a particular training program. Selection for a particular type of training depends on the needs of the service, your general and technical aptitudes, and your personal preference. Because all prospective recruits are required to take the exam, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular specialty. The recruiter can 656 Occupational Outlook Handbook schedule you for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery without any obligation. Many high schools offer the exam as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career, and the test also affords an insight into career areas in which the student has demonstrated aptitudes and interests. If you decide to join the military, the next step is to pass the physi cal examination and sign an enlistment contract. Negotiating the contract involves choosing, qualifying for, and agreeing on a number of enlistment options, such as the length of active-duty time, which may vary according to the option. Most active-duty programs have first-term enlistments of 4 years, although there are some 2-, 3-, and 6-year programs. The contract also will state the date of enlistment and other options—for example, bonuses and the types of training to be received. If the service is unable to fulfill any of its obligations under the contract, such as providing a certain kind of training, the contract may become null and void. All branches of the Armed Services offer a delayed entry program (DEP) by which an individual can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year after enlisting. High school students can enlist during their senior year and enter a service after graduation. Others choose this program because the job training they desire is not currently available, but will be within the coming year, or because they need time to arrange their personal affairs. Women are eligible to enter most military specialties; for example, they may become mechanics, missile maintenance technicians, heavy-equipment operators, and fighter pilots, or they may enter into medical care, administrative support, and intelligence specialties. Generally, only occupations involving direct exposure to combat are excluded. People planning to apply the skills gained through military train ing to a civilian career should first determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty that interests them. Second, they should know the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Because many civilian occupations require a license, certification, or minimum level of education, it is important to determine whether military training is sufficient for a person to enter the civilian equivalent or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements discuss the job outlook, training requirements, and other aspects of civilian occupations for which military training and experience are helpful. Additional information often can be obtained from school counselors. Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces undergo initial-entry training, better known as “basic training” or “boot camp.” Through courses in military skills and protocol recruit training provides a 6-week to 13-week introduction to military life. Days and nights are carefully structured and include rigorous physi cal exercise designed to improve strength and endurance and build each unit’s cohesion. Following basic training, most recruits take additional training at technical schools that prepare them for a particular military oc cupational specialty. The formal training period generally lasts from 10 to 20 weeks, although training for certain occupations—nuclear power plant operator, for example—may take as long as a year. Recruits not assigned to classroom instruction receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. Many service people get college credit for the technical train ing they receive on duty, which, combined with off-duty courses, can lead to an associate degree through programs in community colleges such as the Community College of the Air Force. In ad dition to on-duty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of educational programs. Most military installations have tuition assistance programs for people wishing to take courses during off-duty hours. The courses may be correspondence courses or courses in degree programs offered by local colleges or universities. Tuition assistance pays up to 100 percent of col lege costs up to a credit-hour and annual limit. Each branch of the service provides opportunities for full-time study to a limited number of exceptional applicants. Military personnel accepted into these highly competitive programs—in law or medicine, for example—receive full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. In return, they must agree to serve an additional amount of time in the service. Other highly selective programs enable enlisted personnel to qualify as commissioned officers through additional military training. Warrant officers. Warrant officers are technical and tactical leaders who specialize in a specific technical area; for example, Army aviators make up one group of warrant officers. The Army Warrant Officer Corps constitutes less than 5 percent of the total Army. Although the Corps is small in size, its level of responsi bility is high. Its members receive extended career opportunities, worldwide leadership assignments, and increased pay and retire ment benefits. Selection to attend the Warrant Officer Candidate School is highly competitive and restricted to those who meet rank and length-of-service requirements. The only exception is the Army aviator warrant officer, which has no prior military service requirements (table 3). Table 1. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category and branch of military service, February 2005 Army Air Force Administrative occupations................................................ 14,016 Combat specialty occupations............................................. 113,689 Construction occupations.................................................... 15,544 Electronic and electrical repair occupations...................... 39,601 Engineering, science, and technical occupations............... 35,482 Health care occupations...................................................... 27,031 Human resource development occupations....................... 15,908 Machine operator and precision work occupations........... 4,103 Media and public affairs occupations................................ 4,867 Protective service occupations............................................ 23,270 Support services occupations............................................. 13,438 Transportation and material handling occupations............ 53,349 Vehicle machinery mechanic occupations......................... 48,577 25,008 398 6,407 40,083 50,732 17,924 12,468 7,409 6,453 31,716 1,667 34,588 50,532 Total, by service................................................................ 408,875 285,385 Occupational Group - Enlisted SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Navy Total, all services 1,548 121 2,695 1,146 10,549 5,538 6,803 2,439 2,258 5,733 2,264 22,825 18,076 25,923 6,264 5,085 58,992 41,951 26,614 4,822 12,274 5,047 12,215 10,699 42,860 50,020 76,800 173,458 32,183 157,307 152,807 72,251 40,001 27,773 18,746 75,629 29,214 164,171 172,743 29,402 166,655 302,766 1,193,083 Coast Guard Marine Corps 2,241 851 9,612 52,256 5,147 15,586 23,656 — 3,045 986 682 — — Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 657 Table 2. Military officer personnel by broad occupational category and branch of service, February 2005 Occupational Group - Officer Army Air Force 18,835 19,137 11,262 9,792 2,128 224 2,237 1,525 13,216 6,007 17,503 10,395 9,413 2,418 500 1,410 830 19,729 Total, by service.................................................................... 78,356 68,205 Combat specialty occupations............................................ ... Engineering, science, and technical occupations.................. Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations....... Health care occupations......................................................... Human resource development occupations....................... ... Media and public affairs occupations................................ ... Protective service occupations........................................... ... Support services occupations............................................. ... Transportation occupations.................................................... Coast Guard Marine Corps Navy Total, all services 4,662 3,576 2,582 — 2,250 — 299 44 309 38 7,082 5,463 9,778 7,450 6,983 3,258 282 890 1,003 11,975 34,967 51,087 31,971 26,231 8,316 1,070 4,950 3,396 54,252 4,005 18,592 47,082 216,240 — 1,093 282 43 213 20 104 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center Officers. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Federal service academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program offered at many colleges and universities; Officer Candi date School (OCS) or Officer Training School (OTS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences; and other programs. All are highly selective and are good options for those wishing to make the military a career. Persons interested in obtaining train ing through the Federal service academies must be single to enter and graduate, while those seeking training through OCS, OTS, or ROTC need not be single. Single parents with one or more minor dependents are not eligible to become commissioned officers. Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program leading to a bachelor-of-science degree. Midshipmen or cadets are provided free room and board, tuition, medical and dental care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular or reserve commis sions and have a 5-year active-duty obligation, or more if they are entering flight training. To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midshipman in one of the service academies, applicants are required to obtain a nomination from an authorized source, usually a member of Con gress. Candidates do not need to know a member of Congress per sonally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recommendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a medical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy, however, are based strictly on merit and do not require a nomination. ROTC programs train students in about 575 Army, 130 Navy and Marine Corps, and 300 Air Force units at participating col leges and universities. Trainees take 3 to 5 hours of military instruction a week, in addition to regular college courses. After graduation, they may serve as officers on active duty for a stipu lated period. Some may serve their obligation in the Reserves or National Guard. In the last 2 years of a ROTC program, students typically receive a monthly allowance while attending school, as well as additional pay for summer training. ROTC scholarships for 2, 3, and 4 years are available on a competitive basis. All scholarships pay for tuition and have allowances for textbooks, supplies, and other costs. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS or OTS programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. These officers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis generally must serve their obligation on active duty. Those with training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of persons studying for the health professions, financial assistance and internship op portunities are available from the military in return for specified periods of military service. Prospective medical students can apply to the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, which offers a salary and free tuition in a program leading to a doctor-of-medicine (M.D.) degree. In return, graduates must serve for 7 years in either the military or the U.S. Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those quali fied to serve in other specialty areas, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct enlistment option to become a warrant officer aviator. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Gen erally, the first few promotions for both enlisted and officer personnel come easily; subsequent promotions are much more competitive. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and in grade, job performance, a fitness report (supervisor’s recommendation), and passing scores on written examinations. Table 3 shows the officer, warrant officer, and enlisted ranks by service. Employment In 2005, more than 2.6 million people served in the Armed Forces. More than 1.4 million were on active duty in the Armed Forces— about 487,000 in the Army, 350,000 in the Navy, 356,000 in the Air Force, and 185,000 in the Marine Corps. In addition, more than 1.2 million people served in their Reserve components, and the Air and Army National Guard. In addition, 33,000 individuals served in the Coast Guard, which is now part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of the 1.2 mil lion active-duty enlisted personnel in February 2005; table 2 presents similar information for the 216,000 active-duty officers. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. About half of all military jobs in the U.S. are located in California, Texas, North Carolina, Virginia, Florida, and Georgia. Approximately 169,000 service members were deployed to Operation Iraqi Freedom either in or around Iraq in June 2005. An additional 278,000 individuals were stationed outside the United States, including 21,000 assigned to ships at sea. About 106.000 were stationed in Europe, mainly in Germany, and another 81.000 were assigned to East Asia and the Pacific area, mostly in Japan and the Republic of Korea. 658 Occupational Outlook Handbook Table 3. Military rank and employment for active duty personnel, January 2005 Grade Rank and title Army Navy Air Force Marine Corps Admiral Vice Admiral Rear Admiral (U) Rear Admiral (L) Captain Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant (JG) Ensign General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant Total Employment Commissioned officers: 0-10 0-9 0-8 0-7 0-6 0-5 0-4 0-3 0-2 0-1 General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant 34 125 276 439 11,483 28,378 43,846 70,500 30,853 24,948 Warrant officers: W-5 W-4 W-3 W-2 W-l Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer — — — — — Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer 540 2,180 4,618 6,227 2,193 Enlisted personnel: E-9 Sergeant Major Master Chief Petty Officer Chief Master Sergeant E-8 E-7 E-6 E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-l 1 st Sergeant/Master Sergeant Sergeant First Class Staff Sergeant Sergeant Corporal Private First Class Private Private Senior Chief Petty Officer Chief Petty Officer Petty Officer 1st Class Petty Officer 2nd Class Petty Officer 3rd Class Seaman Seaman Apprentice Seaman Recruit Senior Master Sergeant Master Sergeant Technical Sergeant Staff Sergeant Senior Airman Airman 1st Class Airman Airman Basic Sergeant Major/ Master Gunnery Sergeant 1 st Sergeant/Master Sergeant Gunnery Sergeant Staff Sergeant Sergeant Corporal Lance Corporal Private 1st Class Private 10,704 27,229 100,458 174,467 249,816 260,631 216,321 82,008 48,818 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for qualified individuals in all branches of the Armed Forces through 2014. Many military personnel retire with a pension after 20 years of service, while they still are young enough to start a new career. About 170,000 personnel must be recruited each year to replace those who complete their commitment or retire. Since the end of the draft in 1973, the military has met its personnel requirements with volunteers. When the economy is good and civilian employment opportunities generally are more favorable, it is more difficult for all the services to meet their recruitment quotas. It is also more difficult to meet these goals during times of war, when recruit ment goals typically rise. America’s strategic position is stronger than it has been in de cades. Despite reductions in personnel due to the elimination of the threats of the Cold War, the number of active-duty personnel is expected to remain roughly constant through 2014. However, recent conflicts and the resulting strain on the Armed Forces may lead to an increasing number of active-duty personnel. The Armed Forces’ current goal is to maintain a sufficient force to fight and win two major regional conflicts at the same time. Political events, however, could lead to a significant restructuring with or without an increase in size. Educational requirements will continue to rise as military jobs become more technical and complex. High school graduates and applicants with a college background will be sought to fill the ranks of enlisted personnel, while virtually all officers will need at least a bachelor’s degree and, in some cases, an advanced degree as well. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Army has many health care specialists, including optometrists. Earnings The earnings structure for military personnel is shown in table 4. Most enlisted personnel started as recruits at Grade E-l in 2004; however, those with special skills or above-average education started as high as Grade E-4. Most warrant officers had started at Grade W-l or W-2, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifications and the branch of service of which they were a member, but warrant officer typically is not an entry-level Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces allowance, military supermarket and department store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year (referred to as leave), and travel opportunities. In many duty stations, military person nel may receive a housing allowance that can be used for off-base housing. This allowance can be substantial, but varies greatly by rank and duty station. For example, in fiscal year 2005, the average housing allowance for an E-4 with dependents was $958 per month; for a comparable individual without dependents, it was $752. The allowance for an 0-4 with dependents was $1,645 per month; for a comparable individual without dependents, it was $1,428. Other allowances are paid for foreign duty, hazardous duty, submarine and flight duty, and employment as a medical officer. Athletic and other facilities—such as gymnasiums, tennis courts, golf courses, bowl ing centers, libraries, and movie theaters—are available on many military installations. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served at least 24 months of continuous active duty in the Armed Forces. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all service-related disabilities, regardless of time served; those with other medical problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. Veterans also are eligible for certain loans, including loans to pur chase a home. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company upon separation from the military. In addition, job coun seling, testing, and placement services are available. Veterans who participate in the Montgomery GI Bill Program receive education benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces personnel may elect to deduct up to $100 a month from their pay -• if; : Air Force mechanics maintain and repair a broad range of aircraft. occupation and, consequently, most of these individuals had previous military service. Most commissioned officers started at Grade 0-1; some with advanced education started at Grade 0-2, and some highly trained officers—for example, physicians and dentists—started as high as Grade 0-3. Pay varies by total years of service as well as rank. Because it usually takes many years to reach the higher ranks, most personnel in higher ranks receive the higher pay rates awarded to those with many years of service. In addition to receiving their basic pay, military personnel are provided with free room and board (or a tax-free housing and sub sistence allowance), free medical and dental care, a military clothing Table 4. Military basic monthly pay by grade for active duty personnel, January 2005 Years of service Grade Less than 2 Over 4 Over 8 0-10 0-9 0-8 0-7 0-6 0-5 0-4 0-3 0-2 0-1 $8,022.30 6,666.00 4,940.70 4,118.70 3,553.80 3,124.50 2,699.40 2,343.60 W-5 W-4 W-3 W-2 W-l 3,228.60 2,948.40 2,593.50 2,290.20 E-9 E-8 E-7 E-6 E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-l 4 months+ E-l Less than 4 months — — _ _ — 2,220.00 1,920.30 1,759.50 1,612.80 1,456.20 1,384.50 1,235.10 1,142.70 — _ — $8,508.30 7,233.00 5,784.00 5,021.40 4,449.60 4,168.20 3,660.90 2,948.10 _ 3,671.40 3,238.80 2,965.50 2,684.40 _ — 2,638.80 2,296.50 2,060.70 1,877.70 1,641.00 1,384.50 1,235.10 — — — $9,089.40 7,642.50 6,054.90 5,341.80 4,977.60 4,586.70 3,736.20 2,948.10 Over 12 — — $9,519.00 8,113.50 6,087.90 5,799.00 5,582.70 4,962.00 3,736.20 2,948.10 Over 16 — — $9,915.30 9,089.40 7,045.50 6,431.10 5,872.20 5,083.20 3,736.20 2,948.10 Over 20 $12,963.00 11,337.90 10,742.40 9,714.60 7,763.40 6,793.20 5,933.70 5,083.20 3,736.20 2,948.10 4,007.10 3,522.30 3,268.20 3,030.90 4,341.00 3,918.90 3,564.00 3,275.40 4,779.00 4,285.50 3,771.30 3,438.30 _ 5,548.20 5,117.40 4,509.30 3,977.40 3,659.70 3,193.50 2,899.50 2,604.30 2,329.80 1,957.80 1,641.00 1,384.50 1,235.10 _ 3,989.70 3,422.10 3,084.60 2,779.20 2,450.70 1,957.80 1,641.00 1,384.50 1,235.10 4,232.40 3,640.50 3,332.40 2,888.70 2,450.70 1,957.80 1,641.00 1,384.50 1,235.10 4,575.90 3,949.20 3,458.70 2,908.20 2,450.70 1,957.80 1,641.00 1,384.50 1,235.10 — — — _ SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense—Defense Finance and Accounting Service https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 659 _ — 660 Occupational Outlook Handbook wmm . ' ■ ; benefits for 36 months of full-time institutional training. Those who enlisted and serve less than 3 years received $816 a month for 36 months for the same. In addition, each service provides its own contributions to the enlistee’s future education. The sum of the amounts from all these sources becomes the service member’s educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance educational costs at any VA-approved institution. Among those institutions which are approved by the VA are many vocational, correspondence, certification, business, technical, and flight-training schools; community and junior colleges; and colleges and universities. Sources of Additional Information The Coast Guard assists distressed vessels and protects U.S. waterways. during the first 12 months of active duty, putting the money toward their future education. In fiscal year 2005, veterans who served on active duty for 3 or more years or who spent 2 years in active duty plus 4 years in the Selected Reserve received $1,004 a month in basic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Each of the military services publishes handbooks, fact sheets, and pamphlets describing entrance requirements, training and advance ment opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These pub lications are widely available at all recruiting stations, at most State employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. Information on educational and other veterans’ benefits is available from VA offices located throughout the country. In addition, the Defense Manpower Data Center, an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense, publishes Military Career Guide Online, a compendium of military occupational, training, and career informa tion designed for use by students and jobseekers. This information is available on the Internet: http://www.todaysmilitary.com Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Employment in the hundreds of occupations covered in detail in the main body of the Handbook accounts for more than 131 million or 90 percent of all jobs in the economy. Although oc cupations covering the full spectrum of work are included, those requiring lengthy education or training generally are given the most attention. This chapter presents summary data on 129 additional occupa tions, for which employment projections are prepared, but for which detailed occupational information is not developed. These occupa tions account for about 7 percent of all jobs. For each occupation, the Occupational Information Network (0*NET) code, a brief description of the nature of the work, the number of jobs in 2004, a phrase describing the projected employment change from 2004 to 2014, and the most significant source of postsecondary education or training are presented. For a complete list of 0*NET codes cited in the Handbook, refer to a later chapter, Occupational Information Network fO*NET) Coverage. For guidelines on interpreting the description of projected employment change, refer to a chapter in the front of the Handbook, Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. The approximately 3 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupational descriptions in the main body of the Handbook or in the summary data presented in this chapter are mainly residual categories, such as “all other managers,” for which little meaningful information could be developed. Credit analysts (Q*NET 13-2041.00) Analyze current credit data and financial statements of individuals or firms to determine the degree of risk involved in extending credit or lending money. Prepare reports with this credit information for use in decisionmaking. 2004 employment: 68,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Emergency management specialists (Q*NET 13-1061.00) Coordinate disaster response or crisis management activities, pro vide disaster preparedness training, and prepare emergency plans and procedures for natural (e.g. hurricanes, floods, earthquakes), wartime, or technological (e.g., nuclear power plant emergencies, hazardous materials spills) disasters or hostage situations. 2004 employment: 10,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Financial examiners (Q*NET 13-2061.00) Management, business, and financial occupations Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes (Q*NET 13-1011.00) ~~~ Represent and promote artists, performers, and athletes to prospec tive employers. May handle contract negotiations and other business matters for clients. Enforce or ensure compliance with laws and regulations governing financial and securities institutions and financial and real estate transactions. May examine, verify correctness of, or establish au thenticity of records. 2004 employment: 24,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree 2004 employment: 21,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s or higher degree, plus work experience Gaming managers Compliance officers, except agriculture, construction, health and safety, and transportation 2004 employment: 3,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation (0*NET 13-1041.01, 13-1041.02, 13-1041.03, 13-1041.04,13-1041.05, 13-1041.06)____________________________________ ____________ Examine, evaluate, and investigate eligibility for or conformity with laws and regulations governing contract compliance of licenses and permits, and other compliance and enforcement inspection activities not classified elsewhere. Exclude tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents and financial examiners. 2004 employment: 177,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (Q*NET 11-9071.00) Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate gaming operations in a casino. Formulate gaming policies for their area of responsibility. Legislators (Q*NET 11-1031.00) Develop laws and statutes at the Federal, State, or local level. Includes only elected officials. 2004 employment: 66,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s or higher degree, plus work experience 661 662 Occupational Outlook Handbook Loan counselors (Q*NET 13-2071.00) Transportation, storage, and distribution managers ~ Provide guidance to prospective loan applicants who have problems qualifying for traditional loans. Guidance may include deter mining the best type of loan and explaining loan requirements or restrictions. 2004 employment: 34,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Logisticians (Q*NET 13-1081.00) Analyze and coordinate the logistical functions of a firm or organi zation. Responsible for the entire life cycle of a product, including acquisition, distribution, internal allocation, delivery, and final disposal of resources. 2004 employment: 53,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Postmasters and mail superintendents (Q*NET 11 -3071,01, 11 -3071.02) Plan, direct, or coordinate transportation, storage, or distribution activities in accordance with governmental policies and regulations. Includes logistics managers. 2004 employment: 92,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Professional and related occupations Audio-visual collections specialists (Q*NET 25-9011.00) Prepare, plan, and operate audio-visual teaching aids for use in education. May record, catalogue, and file audio-visual materials. 2004 employment: 9,300 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Clergy (Q*NET 11-9131.00) (Q*NET 21-2011.00)________________________________ Direct and coordinate operational, administrative, management, and supportive services of a U.S. post office; or coordinate activi ties of workers engaged in postal and related work in assigned post office. Conduct religious worship and perform other spiritual functions associated with beliefs and practices of religious faith or denomi nation. Provide spiritual and moral guidance and assistance to members. 2004 employment: 26,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation 2004 employment: 422,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Master’s degree Social and community service managers Dietetic technicians (Q*NET 11-9151.00) (Q*NET 29-2051.00) Plan, organize, or coordinate the activities of a social service program or community outreach organization. Oversee the program or organization’s budget and polices regarding par ticipant involvement, program requirement, and benefits. Work may involve directing social workers, counselors, or probation officers. Assist dieticians in the provision of food service and nutritional pro grams. Under the supervision of dieticians, may plan and produce meals based on established guidelines, teach principles of food and nutrition, or counsel individuals. 2004 employment: 134,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree 2004 employment: 25,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Directors, religious activities and education (Q*NET 21-2021.00) Tax preparers Prepare tax returns for individuals or small businesses but do not have the background or responsibilities of an accredited or certified public accountant. Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students. Plan, direct, or coordinate church school programs designed to promote religious education among church membership. May provide counseling and guidance relative to marital, health, financial, or religious problems. 2004 employment: 86,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 90,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree (Q*NET 13-2082.00) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Farm and home management advisors (Q*NET 25-9021.00) ~ ' " 663 ~ Advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agriculture, agricultural-related processes, or home economics activi ties. Demonstrate procedures and apply research findings to solve problems; instruct and train in product development, sales, and the utilization of machinery and equipment to promote general welfare. Include county agricultural agents, feed and farm management advisors, home economists, and extension service advisors. 2004 employment: 16,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Orthotists and prosthetists (Q*NET 29-2091.00) ~~ Assist patients with disabling conditions of limbs and spine or with partial or total absence of limb by fitting and preparing orthopedic braces and prostheses. 2004 employment: 6,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Psychiatric technicians Health educators (Q*NET 21-1091.00) (Q*NET 29-2053.00) " Promote, maintain, and improve individual and community health by assisting individuals and communities to adopt healthy behav iors. Collect and analyze data to identify community needs prior to planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating programs designed to encourage healthy lifestyles, policies and environments. May also serve as a resource to assist individuals, other profes sionals, or the community, and may administer fiscal resources for health education programs. 2004 employment: 49,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Master’s degree Law clerks (Q*NET 23-2092.00) Assist lawyers or judges by researching or preparing legal documents. May meet with clients or assist lawyers and judges in court. Excludes lawyers, and paralegal and legal assistants. 2004 employment: 51,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals, following physician instructions and hospital procedures. Monitor patients’ physical and emotional well-being and report to medical staff. May participate in rehabilitation and treatment programs, help with personal hygiene, and administer oral medications and hypodermic injections. 2004 employment: 61,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Set and exhibit designers (Q*NET 27-1027.01, 27-1027.02) ~~ Design special exhibits and movie, television, and theater sets. May study scripts, confer with directors, and conduct research to determine appropriate architectural styles. 2004 employment: 13,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Bachelor’s degree Social science research assistants (Q*NET 19-4061.00) Mathematical technicians (Q*NET 15-2091.00) ~ Apply standardized mathematical formulas, principles, and method ology to technological problems in engineering and physical sciences in relation to specific industrial and research objectives, processes, equipment, and products. 2004 employment: 1,800 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Master’s degree Assist social scientists in laboratory, survey, and other social re search. May perform publication activities, laboratory analysis, quality control, or data management. Normally these individuals work under the direct supervision of a social scientist and assist in those activities which are more routine. Excludes graduate teaching assistants, who both teach and do research. 2004 employment: 18,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Associate degree Merchandise displayers and window trimmers Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers (Q*NET 27-1026.00) (Q*NET 23-2093.01, 23-2093.02) ~ Plan and erect commercial displays, such as those in windows and interiors of retail stores and at trade exhibitions. 2004 employment: 86,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Search real estate records, examine titles, or summarize pertinent legal or insurance details for a variety of purposes. May compile lists of mortgages, contracts, and other instruments pertaining to titles by searching public and private records for law firms, real estate agencies, or title insurance companies. 664 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2004 employment: 61,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as streets, schools, railroad crossings, or construction sites. 2004 employment: 71,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Service occupations Amusement and recreation attendants (Q*NET 39-3091.00) Embalmers Perform a variety of attending duties at amusement or recreation facilities. May schedule use of recreations facilities, maintain and provide equipment to participants of sporting events or recreational pursuits, or operate amusement concessions and rides. 2004 employment: 252,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Animal control workers (Q*NET 33-9011.00) Crossing guards (Q*NET 33-9091.00) ~ Handle animals for the purpose of investigations of mistreatment, or control of abandoned, dangerous, or unattended animals. 2004 employment: 15,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Baggage porters and bellhops (Q*NET 39-6011.00) Handle baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. 2004 employment: 57,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Concierges (Q*NET 39-6012,00) Assist patrons at hotel, apartment or office building with personal services. May take messages, arrange or give advice on transporta tion, business services or entertainment, or monitor guest requests for housekeeping and maintenance. 2004 employment: 18,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Costume attendants (Q*NET 39-4011.00) Prepare bodies for interment in conformity with legal requirements. 2004 employment: 8,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Postsecondary vocational award First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers (Q*NET 35-1012.00) Supervise workers engaged in preparing and serving food. 2004 employment: 773,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation First-line supervisors/managers of personal service workers (Q*NET 39-1021.00) Supervise and coordinate activities of personal service workers, such as supervisors of flight attendants, hairdressers, or caddies. 2004 employment: 206,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Funeral attendants (Q*NET 39-4021.00) Perform a variety of tasks during a funeral, such as placing casket in parlor or chapel prior to service; arranging floral offerings or lights around casket; directing or escorting mourners; closing casket; and issuing and storing funeral equipment. 2004 employment: 30,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Lifeguards, ski patrol, and other recreational protective services (Q*NET 39-3092.00) (Q*NET 33-9092.00) Select, fit and take care of costumes for cast members, and aid entertainers. Monitor recreational areas, such as pools, beaches, or ski slopes to provide assistance and protection to participants. 2004 employment: 3,500 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 113,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job-training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Locker room, coatroom and dressing room attendants (Q*NET 39-3093.00) Provide personal items to patrons or customers in locker rooms, dressing rooms, or coatrooms. 2004 employment: 25,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Medical equipment preparers 665 2004 employment: 38,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Transportation attendants, except flight attendants and baggage porters (Q*NET 39-6032,00) Provide services to ensure the safety and comfort of passengers aboard ships, buses, trains, or within the station or terminal. Perform duties, such as greeting passengers, explaining the use of safety equipment, serving meals or beverages, or answering questions related to travel. (Q*NET 31-9093.00) Prepare, sterilize, install, or clean laboratory or healthcare equip ment. May perform routine laboratory tasks and operate or inspect equipment. 2004 employment: 43,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Motion picture projectionists (Q*NET 39-3021.00) ~ Set up and operate motion picture projection and related sound reproduction equipment. 2004 employment: 12,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Parking enforcement workers 2004 employment: 28,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Travel guides (Q*NET 39^6022.00) ~~ Plan, organize, and conduct long distance cruises, tours, and expedi tions for individuals or groups. 2004 employment: 5,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers (Q*NET 39-3031.00) ~ Assist patrons at entertainment events by performing duties, such as collecting admission tickets and passes from patrons, assisting in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating such facilities as rest rooms and telephones. (Q*NET 33-3041.00) Patrol assigned area, such as public parking lot or section of city to issue tickets to overtime parking violators and illegally parked vehicles. 2004 employment: 11,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Residential advisors (Q*NET 39-9041.00) Coordinate activities for residents of boarding schools, college fraternities or sororities, college dormitories, or similar establish ments. Order supplies and determine need to maintenance, repairs, and furnishings. May maintain household records and assign rooms. May refer residents to counseling resources if needed. 2004 employment: 56,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Tour guides and escorts (Q*NET 39-6021.00) Escort individuals or groups on sightseeing tours or through places of interest, such as industrial establishments, public buildings, and artFRASER galleries. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2004 employment: 112,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers (Q*NET 31-9096.00) Feed, water, and examine pets and other nonfarm animals for signs of illness, disease, or injury in laboratories and animal hospitals and clinics. Clean and disinfect cages and work areas, and sterilize labo ratory and surgical equipment. May provide routine postoperative care, administer medication orally or topically, or prepare samples for laboratory examination under the supervision of veterinary or laboratory animal technologists or technicians, veterinarians, or scientists. Excludes nonfarm animal caretakers. 2004 employment: 74,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Sales and related occupations Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers (Q*NET 41-9091.00) Sell goods or services door-to-door or on the street. ~ 666 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2004 employment: 239,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Parts salespersons (Q*NET 41-2022.00) Sell spare and replacement parts and equipment in repair shop or parts store. 2004 employment: 239,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Telemarketers and insurance company representatives. Excludes claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators. 2004 employment: 251,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Mail clerks and mail machine operators, except Postal Service (Q*NET 43-9051.01,43-9051.02) Prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distribution. Use hand or mail handling machines to time, stamp, open, read, sort, and route incoming mail; and address, seal, stamp, fold, stuff, and affix postage to outgoing mail or packages. Duties may also include keeping necessary records and completed forms. (Q*NET 41-9041.00) Solicit orders for goods and services over the telephone. 2004 employment: 415,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Correspondence clerks ~ Compose letters in reply to request for merchandise, damage claims, credit and other information, delinquent accounts, incorrect billings, or unsatisfactory services. Duties may include gathering data to formulate reply and typing correspondence. 2004 employment: 23,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term-on-the-job training Court, municipal, and license clerks (Q*NET 43-4031.01, 43-4031~02,43-4031.03) " Perform clerical duties in courts of law, municipalities, and gov ernmental licensing agencies and bureaus. May prepare docket of cases to be called; secure information forjudges and court; prepare draft agendas or bylaws for town or city council; answer official correspondence; keep fiscal records and accounts; issue licenses or permits; record data, administer tests, or collect fees. 2004 employment: 110,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term-on-the-job training Insurance claims and policy processing clerks (Q*NET 43-9041.01,43-9041.02) Process new insurance policies, modifications to existing policies, and claims forms. Obtain information from policyholders to verify the ac curacy and completeness of information on claims forms, applications and related documents, and company records. Update existing policies and company records to reflect changes requested by policyholders https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis New account clerks (Q*NET 43-4141.00) Interview persons desiring to open bank accounts. Explain bank ing services available to prospective customers and assist them in preparing application form. Office and administrative support occupations (Q*NET 43-4021.00) 2004 employment: 160,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 98,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Office machine operators, except computer (Q*NET 43-9071.01) Operate one or more of a variety of office machines, such as photocopying, photographic, and duplicating machines, or other office machines. Excludes computer operators; mail clerks and mail machine operators; and billing and posting clerks and machine operators. 2004 employment: 100,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Proofreaders and copy markers (Q*NET 43-9081.00) Read transcript or proof type setup to detect and mark for cor rection any grammatical, typographical, or compositional errors. Excludes workers whose primary duty is editing copy. Includes proofreaders of Braille. 2004 employment: 23,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Statistical assistants (Q*NET 43-9111.00) Compile and compute data according to statistical formulas for use in statistical studies. May perform actuarial computations Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail and compile charts and graphs for use by actuaries. Includes actuarial clerks. 2004 employment: 19,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations Hunters and trappers (Q*NET 45-3021.00) Hunt and trap wild animals for human consumption, fur, feed, bait, or other purposes. 2004 employment: 1,100 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Supervisors, farming, fishing, and forestry workers (0*NET45-fOll.Ol, 45-1011.02, 45-1011.03, 45-1011.04, 45-1011.05, 45-1011.06,45-1012.00) This broad occupation includes two detailed occupations—first-line supervisors/managers of farming, fishing, and forestry workers; and farm labor contractors. First-line supervisors/managers of farming, fishing, and forestry workers directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, forestry, aquacultural, and related workers. Farm labor contractors recruit, hire, furnish, and supervise seasonal or temporary agricultural laborers for a fee. May transport, house, and provide meals for workers. Excludes first-line supervisors/man agers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers. 2004 employment: 61,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Construction and extraction occupations Continuous mining machine operators (Q*NET 47-5041.00) Operate self-propelled mining machines that rip coal, metal and nonmetal ores, rock, stone, or sand form the face and load it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. 2004 employment: 8,300 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Derrick operators, oil and gas ~~ Rig derrick equipment and operate pumps to circulate mud through drill hole. 2004 employment: 15,000 Digitized forProjected FRASER2004-14 employment change: Decline https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Earth drillers, except oil and gas (Q*NET 47-5021.01,47-5021.02) _____________ Operate a variety of drills—such as rotary, chum, and pneumatic—to tap subsurface water and salt deposits, to remove core samples dur ing mineral exploration or soil testing, and to facilitate the use of explosives in mining or construction. May use explosives. Includes horizontal and earth boring machine operators. 2004 employment: 22,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters (Q*NET 47-503 E00) ~ " Place and detonate explosives to demolish structures or to loosen, remove, or displace earth, rock, or other materials. May perform specialized handling, storage, and accounting procedures. Includes seismograph shooters. Excludes earth drillers, except oil and gas who may also work with explosives. 2004 employment: 5,500 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Fence erectors (Q*NET 47-4031.00) Erect and repair metal and wooden fences and fence gates around highways, industrial establishments, residences, or farms, using hand and power tools. 2004 employment: 38,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers ~ (Q*NET 47-5011.00) 667 (Q*NET 47-1011.01, 47-1011.02) Directly supervise and coordinate activities of construction or extraction workers. 2004 employment: 750,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Helpers—brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, and tile and marble setters (Q*NET 47-3011.00) Help brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, or tile and marble setters by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area 668 Occupational Outlook Handbook and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons or tile and marble setters. 2004 employment: 62,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—carpenters Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters (Q*NET 47-3015.00) " Help pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, or steamfitters by perform ing duties of lesser skill. Duties including using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction labor ers who do not primarily assist pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters or steamfitters. (Q*NET 47-3012.00) Help carpenters by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist carpenters. 2004 employment: 109,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—electricians 2004 employment: 76,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—roofers (0*NET 47-3016.00) Help roofers by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist roofers. (Q*NET 47-3013.00) Help electricians by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and clean ing work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist electricians. 2004 employment: 22,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Highway maintenance workers (Q*NET 47-4051.00) 2004 employment: 95,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—extraction workers (Q*NET 47-5081.00) Help extraction craft workers, such as earth drillers, blasters and explosives workers, derrick operators, and mining machine opera tors, by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include supplying equipment or cleaning work area. Excludes apprentice workers. 2004 employment: 27,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—painters, paperhangers, plasterers, and stucco masons (Q*NET 47-3014.00) Help painters, paperhangers, plasterers, or stucco masons by perform ing duties of lesser skill. Duties including using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled con struction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist painters, paperhangers, plasterers, or stucco masons. 2004 employment: 27,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Maintain highways, municipal and rural roads, airport runways, and rights-of-way. Duties include patching broken or eroded pavement, repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also mow or clear brush from along road or plow snow from roadway. Excludes tree trimmers and pruners. 2004 employment: 143,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Mine cutting and channeling machine operators (Q*NET 47-5042.00) Operate machinery—such as longwall shears, plows, and cutting machines—to cut or channel along the face or seams of coal mines, stone quarries, or other mining surfaces to facilitate blasting, sepa rating, or removing minerals or materials from mines or from the earth’s surface. Includes shale planers. 2004 employment: 4,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Rail-track laying and maintenance equipment operators (Q*NET 47-4061.00) Lay, repair, and maintain track for standard or narrow-gauge railroad equipment used in regular railroad service or in plant yards, quarries, sand and gravel pits, and mines. Includes ballast cleaning machine operators and railroad bed tamping machine operators. Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 2004 employment: 11,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 669 2004 employment: 17,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Rock splitters, quarry (Q*NET 47-5051.00) ~ " Separate blocks of rough dimension stone from quarry mass using jackhammer and wedges. Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations Bicycle repairers 2004 employment: 3,400 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Repair and service bicycles. Roof bolters, mining 2004 employment: 8,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training (Q*NET 47-5061.00) (Q*NET 49-3091.00) " Operate machinery to install roof support bolts in underground mine. 2004 employment: 4,400 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Rotary drill operators, oil and gas (Q*NET 47-5012,00) ~ " Set up or operate a variety of drills to remove petroleum products from the earth and to find and remove core samples for testing dur ing oil and gas exploration. 2004 employment: 15,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 34,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Septic tank servicers and sewer pipe cleaners ' 2004 employment: 20,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Service unit operators, oil, gas, and mining ~ ~ ~ Operate equipment to increase oil flow from producing wells or to remove stick pipe, casing, tools, or other obstructions from drilling wells. May also perform similar services in mining exploration operations. Includes fishing-tool technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2004 employment: 2,900 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training ~ Install, repair, and maintain mechanical regulating and controlling devices, such as electric meters, gas regulators, thermostats, safety and flow valves, and other mechanical governors. 2004 employment: 38,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Fabric menders, except garment Clean and repair septic tanks, sewer lines, or drains. May patch walls and partitions of tank, replace damaged drain tile, or repair breaks in underground piping. (Q*NET 47-5013.00) ~~ Work below surface of water, using scuba gear to inspect, repair, remove, or install equipment and structures. May use a variety of power and hand tools, such as drills, sledgehammers, torches, and welding equipment. May conduct tests or experiments, rig explo sives, or photograph structures or marine life. Excludes fishers and related fishing workers, athletes and sports competitors, and police and sheriff’s patrol officers. (Q*NET 49-9012,01, 49-9012.02,49-90TZ03~j ~~ Assemble or repair oil field equipment using hand and power tools. Perform other tasks as needed. (Q*NET 47-4071.00) (Q*NET 49-9092.00) Control and valve installers and repairers, except mechanical door Roustabouts, oil and gas (Q*NET 47-5071.00) Commercial divers (0*NHT 49-9093.00) Repair tears, holes, and other defects in fabrics, such as draperies, linens, parachutes, and tents. 2004 employment: 2,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers (Q*NET 49-1011.00) Supervise and coordinate the activities of mechanics, installers, and repairers. Excludes team or work leaders. 670 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2004 employment: 469,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Helpers—installation, maintenance, and repair workers (Q*NET 49-9098.00) Help installation, maintenance, and repair workers in maintenance, parts replacement, and repair of vehicles, industrial machinery, and electrical and electronic equipment. Perform duties, such as furnishing tools, materials, and supplies to other workers; cleaning work area, ma chines, and tools; and holding materials or tools for other workers. 2004 employment: 163,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Locksmiths and safe repairers (Q*NET 49-9094.00) Refractory materials repairers, except brickmasons (Q*NET 49-9045.00) Build or repair furnaces, kilns, cupolas, boilers, converters, ladles, soaking pits, ovens, etc., using refractory materials. 2004 employment: 3,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Riggers (Q*NET 49-9096.00) ~ Set up or repair rigging for construction projects, manufacturing plants, logging yards, ships and shipyards, or for the entertainment industry. 2004 employment: 13,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Repair and open locks; make keys; change locks and safe combina tions; and install and repair safes. Security and fire alarm systems installers 2004 employment: 28,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Install, program, maintain, and repair security and fire alarm wiring and equipment. Ensure that work is in accordance with relevant codes. Excludes electricians who do a broad range of electrical wiring. Manufactured building and mobile home installers (Q*NET 49-9095.00) (Q*NET 49-2098.00) 2004 employment: 47,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Postsecondary vocational award Move or install mobile homes or prefabricated buildings. Signal and track switch repairers 2004 employment: 15,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Mechanical door repairers (Q*NET 49-9011.00) Install, service, or repair opening and closing mechanisms of au tomatic doors and hydraulic door closers. Includes garage door mechanics. (Q*NET 49-9097.00) Install, inspect, test, maintain, or repair electric gate crossings, signals, signal equipment, track switches, section lines, or intercom munications systems within a railroad system. 2004 employment: 8,200 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Tire repairers and changers 2004 employment: 11,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Recreational vehicle service technicians (Q*NET 49-3092.00) Diagnose, inspect, adjust, repair, or overhaul recreational vehicles in cluding travel trailers. May specialize in maintaining gas, electrical, hydraulic, plumbing, or chassis/towing systems as well as repairing generators, appliances, and interior components. Includes workers who perform customized van conversions. Excludes automotive service technicians and mechanics, and bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists who also work on recreation vehicles. 2004 employment: 13,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (Q*NET 49-3093.00) ~ Repair and replace tires. 2004 employment: 91,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Production occupations Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders (Q*NET 51-9191.00) Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join items for further processing or to form a completed product. Processes include joining veneer sheets into plywood; gluing paper; joining rubber and rubberized fabric parts, plastic, simulated leather, or other materials. Excludes shoe machine operators and tenders. Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 2004 employment: 25,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Chemical equipment operators and tenders (O*NET51-9011.Ql, 51-9011.02) Operate or tend equipment to control chemical changes or reactions in the processing of industrial or consumer products. Equipment used includes devulcanizers, steam-jacketed kettles, and reactor vessels. Excludes chemical plant and system op erators. 2004 employment: 49,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Chemical plant and system operators (Q*NET 51-8091.00) Control or operate an entire chemical process or system of machines. 671 Cutters and trimmers, hand (Q*NET 51-9031.00) Use hand tools or hand-held power tools to cut and trim a variety of manufactured items, such as carpet, fabric, stone, glass, or rubber. 2004 employment: 29,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators, and tenders (Q*NET 51 -9032.01, 51 -9032.02, 51 -9032.03, 51 -9032.04) Set up, operate, or tend machines that cut or slice materials, such as glass, stone, cork, rubber, tobacco, food, paper, or insulating material. Excludes woodworking machines setters, operators, and tenders; cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic; and textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders. 2004 employment; 75,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training; Moderate-term on-the-job training Etchers and engravers 2004 employment: 60,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training Cleaning, washing, and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders (Q*NET 51-9192.00) Operate or tend machines to wash or clean products, such as barrels or kegs, glass items, tin plate, food, pulp, coal, plastic, or rubber, to remove impurities. 2004 employment: 18,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Cooling and freezing equipment operators and tenders (Q*NET 51-9193.00) ~ Operate or tend equipment, such as cooling and freezing units, refrigerators, batch freezers, and freezing tunnels, to cool or freeze products, food, blood plasma, and chemicals. 2004 employment: 8,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51-9194.01, 51-9194.02, 51-9194.03, 51-9194.04,51-9194.05, 51-9194.06)________ Engrave or etch metal, wood, rubber, or other materials for identi fication or decorative purposes. Includes such workers as etchercircuit processors, pantograph engravers, and silk screen etchers. Includes photoengravers with prepress technicians and workers. 2004 employment: 12,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine setters, operators, and tenders (Q*NET51-9041.01,5L904L02)~ ~~~ Set up, operate, or tend machines, such as glass forming machines, plodder machines, and tuber machines, to shape and form products, such as glassware, food, rubber, soap, brick, tile, clay, wax, tobacco, or cosmetics. Excludes paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders; and shoe machine operators and tenders. 2004 employment: 74,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training First-line supervisors/managers of production and operating workers (Q*NET 51-1011.00) Set up, operate, or tend machines to crush, grind, or polish materials, such as coal, glass, grain, stone, food, or rubber. Supervise and coordinate the activities of production and operating workers, such as inspectors, precision workers, machine setters, and operators, assemblers, fabricators, and plant and system operators. Excludes team or work leaders. 2004 employment: 43,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 731,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation (Q*NET 51-9021.00) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 672 Occupational Outlook Handbook Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, and kettle operators and tenders (Q*NET 51-9051.00) Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal, plastic or food processing equipment. Includes activities, such as anneal ing glass, drying lumber, curing rubber, removing moisture from materials, or boiling soap. 2004 employment: 30,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Gas plant operators (Q*NET 51-8092.01,51-8092.02) Distribute or process gas for utility companies and others by control ling compressors to maintain specified pressures on main pipelines. 2004 employment: 47,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders (Q*NET 51-9111.00) Operate or tend machines to prepare industrial or consumer products for storage or shipment. Includes cannery workers who pack food products. 2004 employment: 412,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders 2004 employment: 11,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training Grinding and polishing workers, hand (Q*NET5 j-9022.00) ~ Grind, sand, or polish, using hand tools or hand-held power tools, a variety of metal, wood, stone, clay, plastic, or glass objects. Includes chippers, buffers, and finishers. 2004 employment: 45,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Helpers—production workers (Q*NET 51-9198.01, 51-9198.02) Help production workers by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include supplying or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers. 2004 employment: 484,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Mixing and blending machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51 -9196.00) “ Set up, operate, or tend paper goods machines that perform a vari ety of functions, such as converting, sawing, corrugating, banding, wrapping, boxing, stitching, forming, or sealing paper or paperboard sheets into products. 2004 employment: 111,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers (Q*NET 51-8093.01,51-8093.02, 51-8093.03) Control the operation of petroleum refining or processing units. May specialize in controlling manifold and pumping systems, gauging or testing oil in storage tanks, or regulating the flow of oil into pipelines. 2004 employment: 43,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training Separating, filtering, clarifying, precipitating, and still machine setters, operators, and tenders (Q*NET 51-9012.00) Set up, operate, or tend machines to mix or blend materials, such as chemicals, tobacco, liquids, color pigments, or explosive ingredients. Excludes food batchmakers. Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment; filter presses; shaker screens; centrifuges; condenser tubes; precipitating, fermenting, or evaporating tanks; scrubbing towers; or batch stills. These machines extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solids from other materials to recover a refined product. Includes dairy processing equip ment operators. Excludes chemical equipment operators and tenders. 2004 employment: 120,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 38,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Molders, shapers, and casters, except metal and plastic Tire builders (0*NET 51-9195.01, 51-9195.02,51-9195.03, 51-9195.04,51-9195.05, 51-9195.06,51-9195.07) (Q*NET 51-9197.00) (Q*NET 51-9023.00) Mold, shape, form, cast, or carve products such as food products, figurines, tile, pipes, and candles consisting of clay, glass, plaster, concrete, stone, or combinations of materials. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Operate machines to build tires from rubber components. 2004 employment: 18,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 673 First-line supervisors/managers of transportation and material moving machine and vehicle operators (Q*NET 53-1031.00) Transportation and material moving occupations Aircraft cargo handling supervisors (Q*NET 53-1011.00) """ Direct ground crew in the loading, unloading, securing, and staging of aircraft cargo and baggage. Determine the quantity and orientation of cargo and compute aircraft center of gravity. May accompany aircraft as member of flight crew and monitor and handle cargo in flight, and assist and brief passengers on safety and emergency procedures. Includes loadmasters. Directly supervise and coordinate activities of transportation and material-moving machine and vehicle operators and helpers. 2004 employment: 228,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Parking lot attendants (Q*NET 53-6021.00) Park automobiles or issue tickets for customers in parking lot or garage. May collect fee. 2004 employment: 7,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation 2004 employment: 122,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Decline Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Airfield operations specialists Service station attendants (Q*NET 53-20224)0) (Q*NET 53-6031.00) Ensure the safe takeoff and landing of commercial and military aircraft. Duties include coordination between air-traffic control and maintenance personnel; dispatching; using airfield landing and navigational aids; implementing airfield safety procedures; moni toring and maintaining flight records; and applying knowledge of weather information. Service automobiles, buses, trucks, boats, and other automotive or marine vehicles with fuel, lubricants, and accessories. Collect payment for services and supplies. May lubricate vehicle, change motor oil, install antifreeze, or replace lights or other accessories, such as windshield wiper blades or fan belts. May repair or re place tires. 2004 employment: 5,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Long-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 91,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians Traffic technicians (Q*NET 53-3011.00) ~ (Q*NET 53-6041,00) Drive ambulance or assist ambulance drivers in transporting sick, injured, or convalescent persons. Assist in lifting patients. Conduct field studies to determine traffic volume, speed, effective ness of signals, adequacy of lighting, and other factors influencing traffic conditions, under direction of traffic engineer. 2004 employment: 20,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2004 employment: 6,500 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training Bridge and lock tenders Transportation inspectors (Q*NET 53-6011.00) (0*NET 53-6051.01, 53-6051.02, 53-6051.03, 53-6051.04,53-6051.05, 53-6051.06) Operate and tend bridges, canal locks, and lighthouses to permit marine passage on inland waterways, near shores, and at danger points in waterway passages. May supervise such operations. Includes drawbridge operators, lock tenders and operators, and slip bridge operators. 2004 employment: 3,700 Projected 2004-14 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Short-term on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Inspect equipment or goods in connection with the safe transport of cargo or people. Includes rail transport inspectors, such as freight inspectors, car inspectors, rail inspectors, and other nonprecision inspectors of other types of transportation vehicles. 2004 employment: 26,000 Projected 2004-14 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of postsecondary education or training: Work experience in a related occupation Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Occupational statements in the Handbook use 1 of 5 phrases to describe the projected change in employment between 2004 and 2014. (See page 24.) These phrases are based on numerical projections developed using the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) employment projections model system. Pro jections of occupational employment are the sixth and final step in the system; the six steps are listed in the discussion of methods below. A full description of projections methods appears in the BLS Handbook of Methods. A discussion of projections methods also is accessible on the Internet at: http://www.bls.gov/emp/empmth01.htm. The November 2005 Monthly Labor Review presents a comprehensive discus sion of the 2004-14 projections of the economy, labor force, and industry and occupation employment. The winter 2005-06 Occupational Outlook Quarterly presents the projections in a series of charts. The projections reflect the knowledge and judgment of staff in the BLS Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections and of knowledgeable people from other BLS offices, other government agencies, colleges and universities, industries, unions, professional societies, and trade associa tions, who furnished data and information, prepared reports, or reviewed the projections. BLS takes full responsibility, however, for the projections. Assumptions. The information in the Handbook is based on an economic projection, which is characterized by a slower growth in labor force (1.0 percent annually from 2004 to 2014 compared with 1.2 percent over the past 10-year period, 1994-2004), an expected unemployment rate of 5.0 percent in 2014, a continued increase in labor productivity (2.7-percent average annual growth), and an improving but still large deficit of foreign trade. The Federal budget deficit is assumed to decline due largely to modest growth in Federal defense and nondefense expenditures. Other assumptions include consumer spending on durable goods that grows faster than consumer spending on services and nondurable goods. Within nondurable goods, a large source of consumer spending is drugs and medicines, and is assumed to grow much faster than spending on most other categories. Within services, con sumer spending on medical care is expected to drive growth. Investment spending for production equipment—including communication equipment, computers, and software—will grow rapidly. Expenditures for construction of residential structures will settle down after its 2004 record high, but a still healthy 1.7-percent average annual growth is projected over the 2004-14 projection period. Spending on nonresidential construction will grow faster than the historical pace—1.3 percent annually over the projection period, compared with 0.7-percent annual growth between 1994 and 2004. Although BLS considers these assumptions reasonable, the economy may follow a different course, resulting in a different pattern of occupational growth. Real growth also could be different because most occupations are sensitive to a much wider variety of factors than those considered in the various projections models. Unforeseen changes in consumer, 674 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis business, or government spending patterns and in the ways in which goods and services are produced could greatly alter the growth of individual occupations. Methods. This section summarizes the steps involved in BLS projections of employment by occupation. BLS uses U.S. Census Bureau projections of the population by age, gender, and race, combined with projections of labor force participation rates—the percent of the specified group of the population working or seeking work—to arrive at estimates of the civilian labor force for the projected year. BLS projections are developed in a series of six steps, each of which is based on separate projections procedures and models and various related assumptions. These six steps, or system components, deal with: • • • • • • Size and demographic composition of the labor force Growth of the aggregate economy Final demand or gross domestic product (GDP) Interindustry relationships (input-output) Industry output and employment Occupational employment These components provide the overall analytical frame work needed to develop detailed employment projections. Each component is developed in order, with the results of each used as input for successive components and with some results feeding back into earlier steps. Each step is repeated a number of times to ensure internal consistency as assump tions and results are reviewed and revised. The projections of the labor force and assumptions about other demographic variables, fiscal and monetary policies, foreign economic activity, and energy prices and availability form the input to the macroeconomic model. This model projects GDP (sales to all final consuming sectors in the economy) and the distribution of GDP by its major demand components (consumer expenditures, investment, government consumption and gross investments, and exports and imports). Estimating the intermediate flows of goods and services—for example, the steel incorporated into automobiles—is the next step in the projections process. The resulting estimates of demand for goods and services are used to project industry output of final products as well as total output by industry. Industry output of goods and services is then converted to industry employment. Studies of trends in productivity and technology are used to estimate future output per worker hour, and regression analysis is used to estimate worker hours. These estimates, along with output projections, are used to develop the final industry employment projections. An industry-occupation matrix, also known as the national employment matrix, is used to project employment for wage and salary workers. The matrix shows occupational staffing patterns—each occupation as a percent of employment in ev ery industry. The matrix covering the 2004-14 period includes 336 detailed industries and 754 detailed occupations. Data Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections for current staffing patterns in the matrix come from the BLS Occupational Employment Statistics surveys, which collect data from employers on a 3-year cycle. The occupational staffing patterns for each industry were projected based on anticipated changes in the ways in which goods and services are produced, and were then applied to projected industry employment. The resulting employment was summed across industries to derive total wage and sal ary employment by occupation. Using this method, rapid employment growth is projected for health care workers while employment of rail transportation workers is expected to decline, reflecting the projected changes in the health care and railroad transportation industries, respectively. Employment in an occupation also may grow or decline as a result of many other factors. For example, faster-thanaverage growth also is expected among computer support specialists as technology advances and organizations place more emphasis on network applications and on maximizing the efficiency of their computer systems. On the other hand, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 675 automation, the expanding use of computers, and develop ments in computer software will result in declining employ ment among procurement clerks, order clerks, and word processors and typists. The projected-year matrix incorporates these expected changes. Data on self-employed workers in each occupation come from the Current Population Survey. Numbers of selfemployed workers were projected separately. Replacement needs. In most occupations, replacement needs provide more job openings than growth. Replacement open ings occur as people leave occupations. Some individuals transfer to other occupations as a step up the career ladder or to change careers; some stop working temporarily, perhaps to return to school or care for a family; other workers—retirees for example—leave the labor force permanently. A discussion of replacements and the methodology used to prepare esti mates is presented in Occupational Projections and Training Data, 2006-07 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2602. Occupational Information Network Coverage The Occupational Information Network (0*NET), which replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, is used by public employ ment service offices to classify and place jobseekers. The 0*NET was developed by job analysts. The information on job duties, knowledge and skills, education and training, and other occupa tional characteristics comes directly from workers and employers. Information on 0*NET is available from 0*NET Project, U.S. Department of Labor/ETA, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Room N5637, Washington, DC 20210-0001. Telephone (202) 693-3660. Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/programs/onet The 0*NET reflects the 2000 Standard Occupational Clas sification (SOC) system. With 822 detailed occupations, the SOC represents the Federal Government’s most recent effort to analyze the occupational structure in the United States and to provide a universal occupational classification system. All Federal agencies that collect occupational data adhere to the SOC. Information on the SOC, including its occupational structure, is available on the Internet: http://www.bls.gov/soc Occupational statements in this 2006-07 edition of the Handbook list the 0*NETcodes that relate to or match the defini tions used in the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) survey—the principal source of occupational employment data in the Handbook. All numbers listed also appear in the table below. The table is arranged by the 0*NET/S0C code, followed by the 0*NET/S0C title and the page on which the corresponding Handbook statement begins. SOC Code SOC Code 11-1011.01 11-1011.02 11-1021.00 11-1031.00 11-2011.00 11 -2021.00 11-2022.00 11-2031.00 11-3011.00 11-3021.00 11 -3031.01 11-3031.02 11 -3040.00 11-3041.00 11-3042.00 11 -3049.99 11 -3051.00 11-3061.00 11 -3071.01 11 -3071.02 11-9011.01 11-9011.02 11 -9011.03 11-9012.00 11-9021.00 11 -9031.00 11-9032.00 11-9033.00 11-9039.99 11-9041.00 11 -9051.00 11-9061.00 11-9071.00 11-9081.00 11 -9111.00 11 -9121.00 11 -9131.00 11 -9141.00 11 -9151.00 13-1011.00 13-1021.00 13-1022.00 13-1023.00 13-1031.01 13-1031.02 13-1032.00 13-1041.01 13-1041.02 13-1041.03 13-1041.04 13-1041.05 0*NET Title Page Government service executives....................................... 67 Private sector executives................................................. 67 General and operations managers................................... 67 Legislators..................................................................... 661 Advertising and promotions managers........................... 27 Marketing managers......................................................... 27 Sales managers................................................................ 27 Public relations managers................................................ 27 Administrative services managers.................................. 25 Computer and information systems managers................ 30 Treasurers, controllers, and chief financialofficers.......... 42 Financial managers, branch or department..................... 42 Human resources managers............................................. 50 Compensation and benefits managers............................ 50 Training and development managers.............................. 50 Human resources managers, all other............................. 50 Industrial production managers....................................... 54 Purchasing managers....................................................... 64 Transportation managers................................................. 662 Storage and distribution managers................................ 662 Nursery and greenhouse managers.................................... 40 Agricultural crop farm managers................................... 40 Fish hatchery managers................................................... 40 Farmers and ranchers...................................................... 40 Construction managers.................................................... 32 Education administrators, preschool and child care center/program............................................. 34 Education administrators, elementary and secondary school.......................................................... 34 Education administrators, postsecondary....................... 34 Education administrators, all other.................................... 34 Engineering managers..................................................... 38 Food service managers................................................... 45 Funeral directors.............................................................. 48 Gaming managers.......................................................... 661 Lodging managers........................................................... 56 Medical and health services managers........................... 59 Natural sciences managers............................................. 38 Postmasters and mail superintendents.......................... 662 Property, real estate, and community association managers.................................................... 61 Social and community service managers..................... 662 Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes.............................................. 661 Purchasing agents and buyers, farm products................ 64 Wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products........ 64 Purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products......................................................... 64 Claims examiners, property and casualty insurance...... 80 Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators............80 Insurance appraisers, auto damage.................................... 80 Environmental compliance inspectors......................... 661 Licensing examiners and inspectors................................661 Equal opportunity representatives and officers...............661 Government property inspectors and investigators........661 Pressure vessel inspectors............................................ 661 676 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 13-1041.06 13-1051.00 13-1061.00 13-1071.01 13-1071.02 13-1072.00 13-1073.00 13-1079.99 13-1081.00 13-1111.00 13-1121.00 13-2011.01 13-2011.02 13-2021.01 13-2021.02 13-2031.00 13-2041.00 13-2051.00 13-2052.00 13-2053.00 13-2061.00 13-2071.00 13-2072.00 13-2081.00 13-2082.00 15-1011.00 15-1021.00 15-1031.00 15-1032.00 15-1041.00 15-1051.00 15-1061.00 15-1071.00 15-1071.00 15-1081.00 15-1099.99 15-2011.00 15-2021.00 15-2031.00 15-2041.00 15-2091.00 17-1011.00 17-1012.00 17-1021.00 17-1022.00 17-2011.00 17-2021.00 17-2031.00 17-2041.00 17-2051.00 17-2061.00 17-2071.00 17-2072.00 17-2081.00 0*NET Title Page Coroners...........................................................................661 Cost estimators................................................................ 83 Emergency management specialists................................ 661 Employment interviewers, private or public employment service.........................................................50 Personnel recruiters............................................................50 Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists..... 50 Training and development specialists............................ 50 Human resources, training, and labor relations specialists, all other...................................................... 50 Logisticians................................................................... 662 Management analysts...................................................... 92 Meeting and convention planners.................................. 95 Accountants..................................................................... 70 Auditors................................................... 70 Assessors......................................................................... 74 Appraisers, real estate..................................................... 74 Budget analysts............................................................... 77 Credit analysts............................................................... 661 Financial analysts............................................................ 85 Personal financial advisors............................................. 85 Insurance underwriters.................................................... 88 Financial examiners....................................................... 661 Loan counselors............................................................. 662 Loan officers.................................................................... 90 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.............. 98 Tax preparers................................................................. 662 Computer and information scientists, research............ 107 Computer programmers................................................. 104 Computer software engineers, applications................. Ill Computer software engineers, systems software......... Ill Computer support specialists....................................... 113 Computer systems analysts.......................................... 116 Database administrators................................................ 107 Network and computer systems administrators........... 113 Computer security specialists....................................... 113 Network systems and data communications analysts ... 107 Computer specialists, all other..................................... 107 Actuaries........................................................................ 102 Mathematicians............................................................. 119 Operations research analysts........................................ 121 Statisticians.................................................................... 123 Mathematical technicians............................................. 663 Architects, except landscape and naval........................ 125 Landscape architects.................................................... 128 Cartographers and photogrammetrists......................... 130 Surveyors....................................................................... 130 Aerospace engineers..................................................... 133 Agricultural engineers.................................................. 133 Biomedical engineers.................................................... 133 Chemical engineers...................................................... 133 Civil engineers............................................................... 133 Computer hardware engineers...................................... 133 Electrical engineers...................................................... 133 Electronics engineers, except computer....................... 133 Environmental engineers.............................................. 133 Occupational Information Network Coverage 17-2111.00 Health and safety engineers, except mining safety engineers and inspectors..................... 135 17-2111.01 Industrial safety and health engineers............................ 133 17-2111.02 Fire-prevention and protection engineers....................... 133 17-2111.03 Product safety engineers................................................. 133 17-2112.00 Industrial engineers........................................................ 133 17-2121.01 Marine engineers............................................................ 133 17-2121.02 Marine architects............................................................ 133 17-2131.00 Materials engineers........................................................ 133 17-2141.00 Mechanical engineers..................................................... 133 17-2151.00 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers.............................................. 133 17-2161.00 Nuclear engineers........................................................... 133 17-2171.00 Petroleum engineers....................................................... 133 17-2199.99 Engineers, all other............................................................ 133 17-3011.01 Architectural drafters...................................................... 141 17-3011.02 Civil drafters................................................................... 141 17-3012.01 Electronic drafters.......................................................... 141 17-3012.02 Electrical drafters........................................................... 141 17-3013.00 Mechanical drafters........................................................ 141 17-3019.99 Drafters, all other............................................................ 144 17-3021.00 Aerospace engineering and operations technicians........ 144 17-3022.00 Civil engineering technicians........................... 144 17-3023.01 Electronics engineering technicians............................... 144 17-3023.02 Calibration and instrumentation technicians.....................144 17-3023.03 Electrical engineering technicians.................................. 144 17-3024.00 Electro-mechanical technicians...................................... 144 17-3025.00 Environmental engineering technicians......................... 144 17-3026.00 Industrial engineering technicians.................................. 144 17-3027.00 Mechanical engineering technicians.............................. 144 17-3029.99 Engineering technicians, except drafters, all other....... 144 17-3031.01 Surveying technicians.................................................... 130 17-3031.02 Mapping technicians...................................................... 130 19-1011.00 Animal scientists............................................................ 147 19-1012.00 Food scientists and technologists................................... 147 19-1013.01 Plant scientists................................................................ 147 19-1013.02 Soil scientists.................................................................. 147 19-1020.01 Biologists........................................................................ 150 19-1021.01 Biochemists.................................................................... 150 19-1021.02 Biophysicists.................................................................. 150 19-1022.00 Microbiologists............................................................... 150 19-1023.00 Zoologists and wildlife biologists.....................................150 19-1029.99 Biological scientists, all other........................................... 150 19-1031.01 Soil conservationists....................................................... 153 19-1031.02 Range managers............................................................. 153 19-1031.03 Park naturalists.................................................................. 153 19-1032.00 Foresters......................................................................... 153 19-1041.00 Epidemiologists.............................................................. 156 19-1042.00 Medical scientists, except epidemiologists................... 156 19-2011.00 Astronomers................................................................... 170 19-2012.00 Physicists........................................................................ 170 19-2021.00 Atmospheric and space scientists......................................159 19-2031.00 Chemists......................................................................... 162 19-2032.00 Materials scientists............................................................ 162 19-2041.00 Environmental scientists and specialists, including health.......................................................... 164 19-2041.00 Environmental scientists and specialists, including health.......................................................... 164 19-2042.01 Geologists....................................................................... 167 19-2042.01 Geologists....................................................................... 167 19-2043.00 Hydrologists................................................................... 167 19-2043.00 Hydrologists................................................................... 167 19-3011.00 Economists..................................................................... 173 19-3021.00 Market research analysts................................................ 175 19-3022.00 Survey researchers.......................................................... 175 19-3031.01 Educational psychologists.............................................. 177 19-3031.02 Clinical psychologists.................................................... 177 19-3031.03 Counseling psychologists............................................... 177 19-3032.00 Industrial-organizational psychologists......................... 177 19-3041.00 Sociologists.................................................................... 182 19-3051.00 Urban and regional planners......................................... 180 19-3091.01 Anthropologists.............................................................. 182 19-3091.02 Archeologists.................................................................. 182 19-3092.00 Geographers................................................................... 182 19-3093.00 Historians....................................................................... 182 19-3094.00 Political scientists........................................................... 182 19-4011.00 Agricultural and food science technicians.................... 185 19-4011.01 Agricultural technicians................................................. 185 19-4011.02 Food science technicians............................................... 185 19-4021.00 Biological technicians.................................................... 185 19-4031.00 Chemical technicians...................................................... 185 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 19-4041.01 19-4041.02 19-4051.01 19-4051.02 19-4061.00 19-4061.01 19-4091.00 19-4092.00 19-4093.00 21-1011.00 21 -1012.00 21-1013.00 21-1014.00 21 -1015.00 21 -1021.00 21-1022.00 21-1023.00 21-1029.99 21-1091.00 21-1092.00 21 -1093.00 21-2011.00 21 -2021.00 23-1011.00 23-1021.00 23-1022.00 23-1023.00 23-2011.00 23-2091.00 23-2092.00 23-2093.00 23-2093.01 23-2093.02 25-1011.00 25-1021.00 25-1022.00 25-1031.00 25-1032.00 25-1041.00 25-1042.00 25-1043.00 25-1051.00 25-1052.00 25-1053.00 25-1054.00 25-1061.00 25-1062.00 25-1063.00 25-1064.00 25-1065.00 25-1066.00 25-1067.00 25-1069.99 25-1071.00 25-1072.00 25-1081.00 25-1082.00 25-1111.00 25-1112.00 25-1113.00 25-1121.00 25-1122.00 25-1123.00 25-1124.00 25-1125.00 25-1126.00 25-1191.00 25-1192.00 25-1193.00 25-1194.00 677 Geological data technicians........................................... 185 Geological sample test technicians............................... 185 Nuclear equipment operation technicians..................... 185 Nuclear monitoring technicians.................................... 185 Social science research assistants.................................. 663 City planning aides........................................................... 350 Environmental science and protection technicians, including health..................................... 185 Forensic science technicians......................................... 185 Forest and conservation technicians.............................. 185 Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors.... 189 Educational, vocational, and school counselors............ 189 Marriage and family therapists...................................... 189 Mental health counselors............................................... 189 Rehabilitation counselors.............................................. 189 Child, family, and school social workers...................... 196 Medical and public health social workers..................... 196 Mental health and substance abuse social workers....... 196 Social workers, all other................................................ 196 Health educators............................................................ 663 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists................................................... 192 Social and human service assistants.............................. 194 Clergy............................................................................. 662 Directors, religious activities and education................. 662 Lawyers.......................................................................... 204 Administrative law judges, adjudicators, and hearing officers.......................................................... 201 Arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators........................ 201 Judges, magistrate judges, and magistrates................... 201 Paralegals and legal assistants....................................... 207 Court reporters............................................................... 199 Law clerks..................................................................... 663 Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers................... 663 Title searchers................................................................ 663 Title examiners and abstractors..................................... 663 Business teachers, postsecondary.................................. 223 Computer science teachers, postsecondary................... 223 Mathematical science teachers, postsecondary............. 223 Architecture teachers, postsecondary............................ 223 Engineering teachers, postsecondary............................ 223 Agricultural sciences teachers, postsecondary.............. 223 Biological science teachers, postsecondary.................. 223 Forestry and conservation science teachers, postsecondary............................................. 223 Atmospheric, earth, marine, and space sciences teachers, postsecondary............................................. 223 Chemistry teachers, postsecondary............................... 223 Environmental science teachers, postsecondary........... 223 Physics teachers, postsecondaiy.................................... 223 Anthropology and archeology teachers, postsecondary............................................................. 223 Area, ethnic, and cultural studies teachers, postsecondary............................................................ 223 Economics teachers, postsecondary.............................. 223 Geography teachers, postsecondary.............................. 223 Political science teachers, postsecondary...................... 223 Psychology teachers, postsecondary............................. 223 Sociology teachers, postsecondary................................ 223 Social sciences teachers, postsecondary, all other......... 223 Health specialties teachers, postsecondary.................... 223 Nursing instructors and teachers, postsecondary......... 223 Education teachers, postsecondary................................ 223 Library science teachers, postsecondary....................... 223 Criminal justice and law enforcement teachers, postsecondary............................................................ 223 Law teachers, postsecondary......................................... 223 Social work teachers, postsecondary............................. 223 Art, drama, and music teachers, postsecondary............ 223 Communications teachers, postsecondary..................... 223 English language and literature teachers, postsecondary............................................................ 223 Foreign language and literature teachers, postsecondary............................................................ 223 History teachers, postsecondary.................................... 223 Philosophy and religion teachers, postsecondary.......... 223 Graduate teaching assistants.......................................... 223 Home economics teachers, postsecondary.................... 223 Recreation and fitness studies teachers, postsecondary............................................................. 223 Vocational education teachers postsecondary............... 223 678 Occupational Outlook Handbook 25-1199.99 25-2011.00 25-2012.00 25-2021.00 25-2022.00 Postsecondary teachers, all other.................................. Preschool teachers, except special education............... Kindergarten teachers, except special education......... Elementary school teachers, except special education.. Middle school teachers, except special and vocational education................................................... 25-2023.00 Vocational education teachers, middle school............. 25-2031.00 Secondary school teachers, except special and vocational education................................................... 25-2032.00 Vocational education teachers, secondary school......... 25-2041.00 Special education teachers, preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school.......................... 25-2042.00 Special education teachers, middle school.................. 25-2043.00 Special education teachers, secondary school............. 25-3011.00 Adult literacy, remedial education, and GED teachers and instructors..................................... 25-3021.00 Self-enrichment education teachers............................. 25-4011.00 Archivists..................................................................... 25-4012.00 Curators........................................................................ 25-4013.00 Museum technicians and conservators......................... 25-4021.00 Librarians..................................................................... 25-4031.00 Library technicians....................................................... 25-9011.00 Audio-visual collections specialists............................. 25-9021.00 Farm and home management advisors......................... 25-9031.00 Instructional coordinators............................................. 25-9041.00 Teacher assistants......................................................... 27-1011.00 Art directors.................................................................. 27-1012.00 Craft artists................................................................... 27-1013.01 Painters and illustrators................................................ 27-1013.02 Sketch artists................................................................ 27-1013.03 Cartoonists.................................................................... 27-1013.04 Sculptors....................................................................... 27-1014.00 Multi-media artists and animators................................ 27-1019.99 Artists and related workers, all other........................... 27-1021.00 Commercial and industrial designers........................... 27-1022.00 Fashion designers......................................................... 27-1023.00 Floral designers............................................................ 27-1024.00 Graphic designers......................................................... 27-1025.00 Interior designers.......................................................... 27-1026.00 Merchandise displayers and window trimmers............ 27-1027.01 Set designers................................................................. 27-1027.02 Exhibit designers.......................................................... 27-2011.00 Actors........................................................................... 27-2012.01 Producers...................................................................... 27-2012.02 Directors- stage, motion pictures, television, and radio.................................................... 27-2012.03 Program directors......................................................... 27-2012.04 Talent directors............................................................. 27-2012.05 Technical directors/managers....................................... 27-2021.00 Athletes and sports competitors................................... 27-2022.00 Coaches and scouts....................................................... 27-2023.00 Umpires, referees, and other sports officials................ 27-2031.00 Dancers.......................................................................... 27-2032.00 Choreographers............................................................ 27-2041.01 Music directors............................................................. 27-2041.02 Music arrangers and orchestrators................................ 27-2041.03 Composers.................................................................... 27-2042.01 Singers........................................................................... 27-2042.02 Musicians, instrumental............................................... 27-3011.00 Radio and television announcers.................................. 27-3012.00 Public address system and other announcers............... 27-3021.00 Broadcast news analysts................................................ 27-3022.00 Reporters and correspondents....................................... 27-3031.00 Public relations specialists........................................... 27-3041.00 Editors........................................................................... 27-3042.00 Technical writers........................................................... 27-3043.01 Poets and lyricists.......................................................... 27-3043.02 Creative writers............................................................ 27-3043.03 Caption writers............................................................. 27-3043.04 Copy writers.................................................................. 27-3091.00 Interpreters and translators............................................ 27-4011.00 Audio and video equipment technicians...................... 27-4012.00 Broadcast technicians................................................... 27-4013.00 Radio operators............................................................. 27-4014.00 Sound engineering technicians..................................... 27-4021.01 Professional photographers.......................................... 27-4021.02 Photographers, scientific.............................................. 27-4031.00 Camera operators, television, video, and motion picture............................................................. 27-4032.00 Film and video editors.................................................. 29-1011.00 Chiropractors................................................................ 29-1021.00 Dentists, general............................................................ 29-1022.00 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons................................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 223 227 227 227 227 227 227 227 232 232 232 221 231 210 210 210 214 217 662 663 213 219 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 238 240 242 243 245 663 663 663 249 249 249 249 249 249 252 252 252 255 255 257 257 257 257 257 259 259 267 267 271 275 275 275 275 275 275 263 261 261 261 261 269 269 274 274 280 282 282 29-1023.00 29-1024.00 29-1029.99 29-1031.00 29-1041.00 29-1051.00 29-1061.00 29-1062.00 29-1063.00 29-1064.00 29-1065.00 29-1066.00 29-1067.00 29-1069.99 29-1071.00 29-1081.00 29-1111.00 29-1121.00 29-1122.00 29-1123.00 29-1124.00 29-1125.00 29-1126.00 29-1127.00 29-1131.00 29-2011.00 29-2012.00 29-2021.00 29-2031.00 29-2032.00 29-2033.00 29-2034.01 29-2034.02 29-2041.00 29-2051.00 29-2052.00 29-2053.00 29-2054.00 29-2055.00 29-2056.00 29-2061.00 29-2071.00 29-2081.00 29-2091.00 29-9011.00 29-9012.00 29-9091.00 31 -1011.00 31-1012.00 31-1013.00 31 -2011.00 31-2012.00 31-2021.00 31-2022.00 31-9011.00 31 -9091.00 31-9092.00 31 -9093.00 31-9094.00 31-9095.00 31-9096.00 33-1011.00 33-1012.00 33-1021.01 33-1021.02 33-2011.01 33-2011.02 33-2021.01 33-2021.02 33-2022.00 33-3011.00 33-3012.00 33-3021.01 33-3021.02 33-3021.03 33-3021.04 33-3021.05 33-3031.00 33-3041.00 Orthodontists.................................................................. Prosthodontists............................................................... Dentists, all other specialists......................................... Dietitians and nutritionists............................................ Optometrists................................................................... Pharmacists..................................................................... Anesthesiologists............................................................ Family and general practitioners................................... Internists, general.......................................................... Obstetricians and gynecologists.................................... Pediatricians, general.................................................... Psychiatrists................................................................... Surgeons......................................................................... Physicians and surgeons, all other................................. Physician assistants........................................................ Podiatrists....................................................................... Registered nurses............................................................ Audiologists................................................................... Occupational therapists................................................. Physical therapists......................................................... Radiation therapists........................................................ Recreational therapists................................................... Respiratory therapists..................................................... Speech-language pathologists....................................... Veterinarians................................................................... Medical and clinical laboratory technologists............... Medical and clinical laboratory technicians.................. Dental hygienists........................................................... Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............... Diagnostic medical sonographers.................................. Nuclear medicine technologists.................................... Radiologic technologists............................................... Radiologic technicians.................................................. Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.......... Dietetic technicians........................................................ Pharmacy technicians..................................................... Psychiatric technicians.................................................. Respiratory therapy technicians.................................... Surgical technologists..................................................... Veterinary technologists and technicians...................... Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses........ Medical records and health information technicians..... Opticians, dispensing..................................................... Orthotists and prosthetists.............................................. Occupational health and safety specialists.................... Occupational health and safety technicians.................. Athletic trainers.............................................................. Flome health aides.......................................................... Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants........................ Psychiatric aides............................................................. Occupational therapist assistants.................................... Occupational therapist aides.......................................... Physical therapist assistants.......................................... Physical therapist aides................................................. Massage therapists.......................................................... Dental assistants............................................................. Medical assistants........................................................... Medical equipment preparers......................................... Medical transcriptionists................................................ Pharmacy aides............................................................... Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers........................................................ First-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers................................................ First-line supervisors/managers of police and detectives.............................................. Municipal fire fighting and prevention supervisors....... Forest fire fighting and prevention supervisors............. Municipal fire fighters.................................................... Forest fire fighters........................................................... Fire inspectors................................................................ Fire investigators............................................................ Forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists........... Bailiffs............................................................................ Correctional officers and jailers..................................... Police detectives............................................................. Police identification and records officers...................... Criminal investigators and special agents..................... Child support, missing persons, and unemployment insurance fraud investigators............ Immigration and customs inspectors............................. Fish and game wardens.................................................. Parking enforcement workers........................................ 282 282 282 284 287 289 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 293 298 303 278 285 292 300 302 307 309 311 318 318 320 316 322 330 337 337 324 662 336 663 307 339 341 326 328 334 663 331 331 314 350 350 350 353 353 356 356 344 343 347 665 348 354 665 357 362 359 359 359 359 359 359 359 357 357 362 362 362 362 362 362 665 Occupational Information Network Coverage 33-3051.01 33-3051.02 33-3051.03 33-3052.00 33-9011.00 33-9021.00 33-9031.00 Police patrol officers..................................................... 362 Highway patrol pilots................................................... 362 Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs.............................................362 Transit and railroad police............................................ 362 Animal control workers................................................ 664 Private detectives and investigators............................ 366 Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators................................................... 368 33-9032.00 Security guards............................................................. 368 33-9091.00 Crossing guards............................................................ 664 33-9092.00 Lifeguards, ski patrol, and other recreational protective service workers.......................................... 664 35-1011.00 Chefs and head cooks................................................... 371 35-1012.00 First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers................................ 664 35-2011.00 Cooks, fast food............................................................. 371 35-2012.00 Cooks, institution and cafeteria..................................... 371 35-2013.00 Cooks, private household.............................................. 371 35-2014.00 Cooks, restaurant........................................................... 371 35-2015.00 Cooks, short order......................................................... 371 35-2019.99 Cooks, all other.............................................................. 371 35-2021.00 Food preparation workers............................................. 371 35-3011.00 Bartenders..................................................................... 374 35-3021.00 Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food...................................... 374 35-3022.00 Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop........................................................... 374 35-3031.00 Waiters and waitresses.................................................. 374 35-3041.00 Food servers, nonrestaurant.......................................... 374 35-9011.00 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers........................................................ 374 35-9021.00 Dishwashers................................................................. 374 35-9031.00 Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop........................................................... 374 35-9099.99 Food preparation and serving related workers, all other........................................................ 374 37-1011.01 Housekeeping supervisors............................................ 378 37-1011.02 Janitorial supervisors.................................................... 378 37-1012.01 Lawn service managers................................................ 380 37-1012.02 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — landscaping workers................................................... 380 37-2011.00 Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners................................................ 378 37-2012.00 Maids and housekeeping cleaners................................ 378 37-2019.99 Building cleaning workers, all other............................ 378 37-2021.00 Pest control workers..................................................... 382 37-3011.00 Landscaping and groundskeeping workers.................. 380 37-3012.00 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation................................................ 380 37-3013.00 Tree trimmers and pruners............................................ 380 37-3019.99 Grounds maintenance workers, all other...................... 380 39-1011.00 Gaming supervisors...................................................... 397 39-1012.00 Slot key persons............................................................ 397 39-1021.00 First-line supervisors/managers of personal service workers............................................ 664 39-2011.00 Animal trainers............................................................. 384 39-2021.00 Nonfarm animal caretakers.......................................... 384 39-3011.00 Gaming dealers............................................................. 397 39-3012.00 Gaming and sports book writers and runners............... 397 39-3019.99 Gaming service workers, all other................................ 397 39-3021.00 Motion picture projectionists....................................... 665 39-3031.00 Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers.................. 665 39-3091.00 Amusement and recreation attendants.......................... 664 39-3092.00 Costume attendants...................................................... 664 39-3093.00 Locker room, coatroom, and dressing room attendants.......................................................... 665 39-4011.00 Embalmers..................................................................... 664 39-4021.00 Funeral attendants........................................................ 664 39-5011.00 Barbers.......................................................................... 387 39-5012.00 Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists.............. 387 39-5091.00 Makeup artists, theatrical and performance................. 387 39-5092.00 Manicurists and pedicurists.......................................... 387 39-5093.00 Shampooers................................................................... 387 39-5094.00 Skin care specialists..................................................... 387 39-6011.00 Baggage porters and bellhops...................................... 664 39-6012.00 Concierges..................................................................... 664 39-6021.00 Tour guides and escorts................................................ 665 39-6022.00 Travel guides................................................. 665 39-6031.00 Flight attendants............................................................ 394 39-6032.00 Transportation attendants, except flight attendants and baggage porters.................................................... 665 39-9011.00 Child care workers........................................................ 389 Digitized39-9021.00 for FRASER Personal and home care aides....................................... 399 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 679 39-9031.00 Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors....................... 392 39-9032.00 Recreation workers........................................................ 400 39-9041.00 Residential advisors....................................................... 665 41 -1011.00 First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers.................................................... 423 41-1012.00 First-line supervisors/managers of non-retail sales workers............................................. 423 41-2011.00 Cashiers......................................................................... 405 41 -2012.00 Gaming change persons and booth cashiers.................. 405 41-2021.00 Counter and rental clerks............................................... 407 41-2022.00 Parts salespersons.......................................................... 666 41-2031.00 Retail salespersons........................................................ 417 41-3011.00 Advertising sales agents................................................ 403 41-3021.00 Insurance sales agents................................................... 411 41-3031.01 Sales agents, securities and commodities...................... 426 41-3031.02 Sales agents, financial services...................................... 426 41-3041.00 Travel agents................................................................. 429 41-4011.01 Sales representatives, agricultural................................. 421 41-4011.02 Sales representatives, chemical and pharmaceutical........................................................... 421 41-4011.03 Sales representatives, electrical/electronic.................... 421 41-4011.04 Sales representatives, mechanical equipment and supplies................................................................ 421 41-4011.05 Sales representatives, medical....................................... 421 41-4011.06 Sales representatives, instruments....................................421 41 -4012.00 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products.................... 421 41-9011.00 Demonstrators and product promoters.......................... 408 41-9012.00 Models........................................................................... 408 41-9021.00 Real estate brokers........................................................ 414 41-9022.00 Real estate sales agents................................................. 414 41-9031.00 Sales engineers.............................................................. 419 41-9041.00 Telemarketers................................................................ 666 41 -9091.00 Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers.................................................... 665 43-1011.01 First-line supervisors, customer service........................ 479 43-1011.02 First-line supervisors, administrative support............... 479 43-2011.00 Switchboard operators, including answering service.... 471 43-2021.01 Directory assistance operators....................................... 471 43-2021.02 Central office operators................................................. 471 43-2099.99 Communications equipment operators, all other........... 471 43-3011.00 Bill and account collectors............................................ 431 43-3021.00 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators........ 432 43-3021.01 Statement clerks............................................................ 432 43-3021.02 Billing, cost, and rate clerks.......................................... 432 43-3021.03 Billing, posting, and calculating machine operators..... 432 43-3031.00 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............. 434 43-3041.00 Gaming cage workers.................................................... 435 43-3051.00 Payroll and timekeeping clerks..................................... 437 43-3061.00 Procurement clerks........................................................ 438 43-3071.00 Tellers............................................................................. 440 43-401 LOO Brokerage clerks............................................................ 441 43-4021.00 Correspondence clerks.................................................. 666 43-4031.01 Court clerks................................................................... 666 43-4031.02 Municipal clerks............................................................ 666 43-4031.03 License clerks................................................................ 666 43-4041.01 Credit authorizers.......................................................... 442 43-4041.02 Credit checkers.............................................................. 442 43-4051.01 Adjustment clerks.......................................................... 444 43-4051.02 Customer service representatives, utilities.................... 444 43-4061.01 Claims takers, unemployment benefits.......................... 451 43-4061.02 Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers................ 451 43-4071.00 File clerks...................................................................... 447 43-4081.00 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.............................. 448 43-4111.00 Interviewers, except eligibility and loan....................... 451 43-4121.00 Library assistants, clerical............................................. 453 43-4131.00 Loan interviewers and clerks......................................... 451 43-4141.00 New accounts clerks...................................................... 666 43-4151.00 Order clerks...................................................................... 454 43-4161.00 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................ 449 43-4171.00 Receptionists and information clerks............................ 455 43-4181.01 Travel clerks.................................................................. 457 43-4181.02 Reservation and transportation ticket agents................. 457 43-5011.00 Cargo and freight agents................................................ 459 43-5021.00 Couriers and messengers............................................... 460 43-5031.00 Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers........................ 461 43-5032.00 Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance........... 461 43-5041.00 Meter readers, utilities................................................... 463 43-5051.00 Postal service clerks...................................................... 464 43-5052.00 Postal service mail carriers............................................ 464 43-5053.00 Postal service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators.................................... 464 680 Occupational Outlook Handbook 43-5061.00 43-5071.00 43-5081.01 43-5081.02 43-5081.03 43-5081.04 43-5111.00 Production, planning, and expediting clerks................ 466 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks.......................... 467 Stock clerks, sales floor................................................. 469 Marking clerks............................................................... 469 Stock clerks-stockroom, warehouse, or storage yard... 469 Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales........................ 469 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping............................................................. 470 43-6011.00 Executive secretaries and administrative assistants..... 482 43-6012.00 Legal secretaries............................................................ 482 43-6013.00 Medical secretaries........................................................ 482 43-6014.00 Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive........ 482 43-9011.00 Computer operators....................................................... 473 43-9021.00 Data entry keyers........................................................... 475 43-9022.00 Word processors and typists......................................... 475 43-9031.00 Desktop publishers........................................................ 477 43-9041.01 Insurance claims clerks................................................ 666 43-9041.02 Insurance policy processing clerks............................... 666 43-9051.01 Mail machine operators, preparation and handling...... 666 43-9051.02 Mail clerks, except mail machine operators and postal service.............................................................. 666 43-9061.00 Office clerks, general..................................................... 481 43-9071.00 Office machine operators, except computer................. 666 43-9071.01 Duplicating machine operators...................................... 666 43-9081.00 Proofreaders and copy markers.................................... 666 43-9111.00 Statistical assistants....................................................... 666 45-1011.01 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — agricultural crop workers............................................ 667 45-1011.02 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — animal husbandry workers.......................................... 667 45-1011.03 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — animal care workers, except livestock....................... 667 45-1011.04 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — horticultural workers.................................................. 667 45-1011.05 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — logging workers.......................................................... 667 45-1011.06 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — fishery workers........................................................... 667 45-1012.00 Farm labor contractors................................................. 667 45-2011.00 Agricultural inspectors.................................................... 485 45-2021.00 Animal breeders............................................................ 485 45-2041.00 Graders and sorters, agricultural products.................... 485 45-2091.00 Agricultural equipment operators................................. 485 45-2092.01 Nursery workers........................................................... 485 45-2092.02 General farmworkers..................................................... 485 45-2093.00 Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals......................... 485 45-2099.99 Agricultural workers, all other..................................... 485 45-3011.00 Fishers and related fishing workers.............................. 487 45-3021.00 Hunters and trappers...................................................... 667 45-4011.00 Forest and conservation workers.................................. 490 45-4021.00 Fallers............................................................................ 490 45-4022.00 Logging equipment operators....................................... 490 45-4022.01 Logging tractor operators............................................. 490 45-4023.00 Log graders and scalers................................................ 490 45-4029.99 Logging workers, all other........................................... 490 47-1011.01 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — construction trades workers........................................ 667 47-1011.02 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors — extractive workers...................................................... 667 47-2011.00 Boilermakers................................................................. 494 47-2021.00 Brickmasons and blockmasons.................................... 495 47-2022.00 Stonemasons..............................................:................... 495 47-2031.01 Construction carpenters................................................ 497 47-2031.02 Rough carpenters.......................................................... 497 47-2031.03 Carpenter assemblers and repairers.............................. 497 47-2031.04 Ship carpenters and joiners.......................................... 497 47-2031.05 Boat builders and shipwrights...................................... 497 47-2031.06 Brattice builders........................................................... 497 47-2041.00 Carpet installers............................................................ 499 47-2042.00 Floor layers, except carpet, wood, and hard tiles......... 499 47-2043.00 Floor sanders and finishers........................................... 499 47-2044.00 Tile and marble setters.................................................. 499 47-2051.00 Cement masons and concrete finishers......................... 502 47-2053.00 Terrazzo workers and finishers..................................... 502 47-2061.00 Construction laborers................................................... 509 47-2071.00 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators ... 507 47-2072.00 Pile-driver operators..................................................... 507 47-2073.01 Grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators...................... 507 47-2073.02 Operating engineers...................................................... 507 47-2081.01 Ceiling tile installers..................................................... 511 47-2081.02 Drywall installers......................................................... 511 47-2082.00 Tapers........................................................................... 511 47-2111.00 Electricians................................................................... 513 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 47-2121.00 47-2131.00 47-2132.00 47-2141.00 47-2142.00 47-2151.00 47-2152.01 47-2152.02 47-2152.03 47-2161.00 47-2171.00 47-2181.00 47-2211.00 47-2221.00 47-3011.00 47-3012.00 47-3013.00 47-3014.00 47-3015.00 47-3016.00 47-4011.00 47-4021.00 47-4031.00 47-4041.00 47-4041.01 47-4051.00 47-4061.00 47-4071.00 47-4091.00 47-5011.00 47-5012.00 47-5013.00 47-5021.01 47-5021.02 47-5031.00 47-5041.00 47-5042.00 47-5051.00 47-5061.00 47-5071.00 47-5081.00 49-1011.00 49-2011.01 49-2011.02 49-2011.03 49-2021.00 49-2022.01 49-2022.02 49-2022.03 49-2022.04 49-2022.05 49-2091.00 49-2092.01 49-2092.02 49-2092.03 49-2092.04 49-2092.05 49-2092.06 49-2093.00 49-2094.00 49-2095.00 49-2096.00 49-2097.00 49-2098.00 49-3011.01 49-3011.02 49-3011.03 49-3021.00 49-3022.00 49-3023.01 49-3023.02 Glaziers........................................................................... 517 Insulation workers, floor, ceiling, and wall.................. 522 Insulation workers, mechanical...................................... 522 Painters, construction and maintenance........................ 523 Paperhangers.................................................................. 523 Pipelayers....................................................................... 525 Pipe fitters....................................................................... 525 Plumbers......................................................................... 525 Pipelaying fitters............................................................. 525 Plasterers and stucco masons........................................ 528 Reinforcing iron and rebar workers.............................. 534 Roofers........................................................................... 530 Sheet metal workers....................................................... 531 Structural iron and steel workers................................... 534 Helpers—brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, and tile and marble setters.......................................... 667 Helpers—carpenters....................................................... 668 Helpers—electricians..................................................... 668 Helpers—painters, paperhangers, plasterers, and stucco masons............................................................. 668 Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters........................................................... 668 Helpers—roofers............................................................ 668 Construction and building inspectors............................ 504 Elevator installers and repairers.................................... 516 Fence erectors................................................................. 667 Hazardous materials removal workers.......................... 519 Irradiated-fuel handlers.................................................... 519 Highway maintenance workers..................................... 668 Rail-track laying and maintenance equipment operators................................................... 668 Septic tank servicers and sewer pipe cleaners............... 669 Segmental pavers............................................................ 502 Derrick operators, oil and gas....................................... 667 Rotary drill operators, oil and gas................................. 669 Service unit operators, oil, gas, and mining.................. 669 Construction drillers....................................................... 667 Well and core drill operators......................................... 667 Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters................................................................. 667 Continuous mining machine operators.......................... 667 Mine cutting and channeling machine operators........... 668 Rock splitters, quarry..................................................... 669 Roof bolters, mining....................................................... 669 Roustabouts, oil and gas................................................. 669 Helpers—extraction workers......................................... 668 First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers............................................... 669 Automatic teller machine servicers............................... 536 Data processing equipment repairers............................ 536 Office machine and cash register servicers................... 536 Radio mechanics............................................................ 542 Central office and pbx installers and repairers.............. 542 Frame wirers, central office........................................... 542 Communication equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers............................................................... 542 Telecommunications facility examiners........................ 542 Station installers and repairers, telephone..................... 542 Avionics technicians....................................................... 544 Electric home appliance and power tool repairers........ 538 Electric motor and switch assemblers and repairers.... 538 Battery repairers............................................................. 538 Transformer repairers.................................................... 538 Electrical parts reconditioners....................................... 538 Hand and portable power tool repairers........................ 538 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transportation equipment............................................ 538 Electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment............................................ 538 Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay................................................... 538 Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles............................................................ 538 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers............................................................... 540 Security and fire alarm systems installers..................... 670 Airframe-and-power-plant mechanics........................... 544 Aircraft engine specialists............................................. 544 Aircraft body and bonded structure repairers................ 544 Automotive body and related repairers......................... 547 Automotive glass installers and repairers...................... 547 Automotive master mechanics...................................... 549 Automotive specialty technicians.................................. 549 Occupational Information Network Coverage Bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists.................................................................... 49-3041.00 Farm equipment mechanics............................................ 49-3042.00 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics, except engines............................................................ 49-3043.00 Rail car repairers............................................................ 49-3051.00 Motorboat mechanics..................................................... 49-3052.00 Motorcycle mechanics.................................................... 49-3053.00 Outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics........................................................ 49-3091.00 Bicycle repairers............................................................. 49-3092.00 Recreational vehicle service technicians....................... 49-3093.00 Tire repairers and changers............................................ 49-9011.00 Mechanical door repairers.............................................. 49-9012.01 Electric meter installers and repairers........................... 49-9012.02 Valve and regulator repairers.......................................... 49-9012.03 Meter mechanics............................................................ 49-9021.01 Heating and air conditioning mechanics................... v. 49-9021.02 Refrigeration mechanics................................................. 49-9031.01 Home appliance installers.............................................. 49-9031.02 Gas appliance repairers.................................................. 49-9041.00 Industrial machinery mechanics..................................... 49-9042.00 Maintenance and repair workers, general.................... 49-9043.00 Maintenance workers, machinery.................................. 49-9044.00 Millwrights..................................................................... 49-9045.00 Refractory materials repairers, except brickmasons.... 49-9051.00 Electrical power-line installers and repairers............... 49-9052.00 Telecommunications line installers and repairers........ 49-9061.00 Camera and photographic equipment repairers............ 49-9062.00 Medical equipment repairers.......................................... 49-9063.01 Keyboard instrument repairers and tuners..................... 49-9063.02 Stringed instrument repairers and tuners........................ 49-9063.03 Reed or wind instrument repairers and tuners.............. 49-9063.04 Percussion instrument repairers and tuners................... 49-9064.00 Watch repairers............................................................... 49-9069.99 Precision instrument and equipment repairers, all other....................................................................... 49-9091.00 Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers............................................................... 49-9092.00 Commercial divers......................................................... 49-9093.00 Fabric menders, except garment..................................... 49-9094.00 Locksmiths and safe repairers........................................ 49-9095.00 Manufactured building and mobile home installers...... 49-9096.00 Riggers........................................................................... 49-9097.00 Signal and track switch repairers................................... 49-9098.00 Helpers—installation, maintenance, and repair workers............................................................. 51 -1011.00 First-line supervisors/managers of production and operating workers....................................................... 51 -2011.01 Aircraft structure assemblers, precision........................ 51-2011.02 Aircraft systems assemblers, precision......................... 51-2011.03 Aircraft rigging assemblers............................................ 51-2021.00 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers................................ 51-2022.00 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers............ 51-2023.00 Electromechanical equipment assemblers..................... 51-2031.00 Engine and other machine assemblers.......................... 51-2041.01 Metal fabricators, structural metal products.................. 51-2041.02 Fitters, structural metal-precision................................. 51-2091.00 Fiberglass laminators and fabricators............................ 51-2092.00 Team assemblers............................................................. 51-2093.00 Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators................................................................... 51-2099.99 Assemblers and fabricators, all other............................ 51-3011.01 Bakers, bread and pastry................................................ 51-3011.02 Bakers, manufacturing................................................... 51-3021.00 Butchers and meat cutters.............................................. 51-3022.00 Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers................. 51 -3023.00 Slaughterers and meat packers...................................... 51 -3091.00 Food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders....................... 51-3092.00 Food batchmakers.......................................................... 51-3093.00 Food cooking machine operators and tenders............... 51 -4011.01 Numerical control machine tool operators and tenders, metal and plastic........................................... 51-4012.00 Numerical tool and process control programmers........ 51 -4021.00 Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.................................... 51-4022.00 Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic......................................................... 51-4023.00 Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic......................................................... 51-4031.01 Sawing machine tool setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic......................................................... 51 -4031.02 49-3031.00 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 552 555 555 555 558 558 51-4031.03 51-4031.04 51-4032.00 51-4033.01 558 669 670 670 670 669 669 669 562 562 565 565 567 572 567 573 670 569 569 575 575 575 575 575 575 575 575 560 669 669 670 670 670 670 51-4033.02 51-4034.00 51-4035.00 51-4041.00 51-4051.00 51-4052.00 51-4061.00 51-4062.00 51-4071.00 51-4072.01 51-4072.02 51 -4072.03 51-4072.04 51-4072.05 51 -4081.01 51 -4081.02 51-4111.00 51-4121.01 51-4121.02 51-4121.03 51-4121.04 51-4121.05 51-4122.01 51-4122.02 51-4122.03 51 -4122.04 51-4191.01 670 51 -4191.02 671 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 579 51-4191.03 51 -4192.00 51-4193.01 51-4193.02 51-4193.03 51-4193.04 589 51-4194.00 51-4199.99 51-5011.01 51 -5011.02 51-5012.00 51-5021.00 51-5022.01 51-5022.02 51-5022.03 51-5022.04 51-5022.05 51-5022.06 51-5022.07 51-5022.08 51-5022.09 51-5022.10 51-5022.11 51 -5022.12 589 51 -5022.13 589 51-5023.01 51-5023.02 51-5023.03 579 579 581 581 581 581 581 581 581 581 585 585 589 Punching machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic......................................................... Press and press brake machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic....................................... Shear and slitter machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic......................................................... Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.................................... Grinding, honing, lapping, and debuning machine set-up operators......................................................... Buffing and polishing set-up operators......................... Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.................................... Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.......................................... Machinists..................................................................... Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders................ Pourers and casters, metal............................................. Model makers, metal and plastic................................... Patternmakers, metal and plastic................................... Foundry mold and coremakers...................................... Plastic molding and casting machine setters and set-up operators......................................................... Plastic molding and casting machine operators and tenders.................................................................. Metal molding, coremaking, and casting machine setters and set-up operators....................................... Metal molding, coremaking, and casting machine operators and tenders................................................. Casting machine set-up operators................................. Combination machine tool setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic....................................... Combination machine tool operators and tenders, metal and plastic........................................................ Tool and die makers...................................................... Welders, production....................................................... Welders and cutters....................................................... Welder-fitters................................................................. Solderers........................................................................ Brazers........................................,................................. Welding machine setters and set-up operators............. Welding machine operators and tenders........................ Soldering and brazing machine setters and set-up operators..................................................................... Soldering and brazing machine operators and tenders.. Heating equipment setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic......................................................... Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators and tenders, metal and plastic.................... Heaters, metal and plastic.............................................. Lay-out workers, metal and plastic.............................. Electrolytic plating and coating machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic............................ Electrolytic plating and coating machine operators and tenders, metal and plastic.................................... Nonelectrolytic plating and coating machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic...................... Nonelectrolytic plating and coating machine operators and tenders, metal and plastic.................................... Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners.............................. Metal workers and plastic workers, allother................ Bindery machine setters and set-up operators............... Bindery machine operators and tenders........................ Bookbinders.................................................................. Job printers.................................................................... Hand compositors and typesetters................................ Paste-up workers........................................................... Photoengravers.............................................................. Camera operators........................................................... Scanner operators.......................................................... Strippers........................................................................ Platemakers................................................................... Dot etchers..................................................................... Electronic masking system operators........................... Electrotypers and stereotypers...................................... Plate finishers................................................................ Typesetting and composing machine operators and tenders......................................................................... Photoengraving and lithographing machine operators and tenders.................................................................. Precision printing workers............................................ Offset lithographic press setters and set-up operators... Letterpress setters and set-up operators....................... 681 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 592 594 594 594 594 594 594 594 594 594 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 589 596 596 596 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 598 600 600 600 682 Occupational Outlook Handbook 51-5023.04 51-5023.05 Design printing machine setters and set-up operators... Marking and identification printing machine setters and set-up operators.................................................... 51-5023.06 Screen printing machine setters and set-up operators... 51 -5023.07 Embossing machine set-up operators............................ 51-5023.08 Engraver set-up operators............................................... 51-5023.09 Printing press machine operators and tenders............... 51-6011.01 Spotters, dry cleaning..................................................... 51-6011.02 Precision dyers............................................................... 51-6011.03 Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and tenders, except pressing.............................................. 51-6021.01 Pressers, delicate fabrics............................................... 51 -6021.02 Pressing machine operators and tenders- textile, garment, and related materials.................................... 51-6021.03 Pressers, hand................................................................. 51 -6031.01 Sewing machine operators, garment............................. 51 -6031.02 Sewing machine operators, non-garment..................... 51 -6041.00 Shoe and leather workers and repairers........................ 51 -6042.00 Shoe machine operators and tenders............................ 51-6051.00 Sewers, hand................................................................... 51 -6052.01 Shop and alteration tailors.............................................. 51-6052.02 Custom tailors................................................................ 51 -6061.00 Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders......................................................................... 51 -6062.00 Textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders.................................................................. 51-6063.00 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders................................................. 51 -6064.00 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders..................................... 51-6091.01 Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders, synthetic or glass fibers................................. 51-6092.00 Fabric and apparel patternmakers.................................. 51-6093.00 Upholsterers................................................................... 51 -6099.99 Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers, all other..... 51 -7011.00 Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters............................ 51-7021.00 Furniture finishers.......................................................... 51-7031.00 Model makers, wood...................................................... 51-7032.00 Patternmakers, wood...................................................... 51-7041.01 Sawing machine setters and set-up operators................ 51-7041.02 Sawing machine operators and tenders.......................... 51 -7042.01 Woodworking machine setters and set-up operators, except sawing............................................................. 51-7042.02 Woodworking machine operators and tenders, except sawing............................................................. 51-7099.99 Woodworkers, all other.................................................. 51-8011.00 Nuclear power reactor operators.................................... 51-8012.00 Power distributors and dispatchers................................. 51-8013.01 Power generating plant operators, except auxiliary equipment operators................................................... 51-8013.02 Auxiliary equipment operators, power.......................... 51 -8021.01 Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure.................... 51-8021.02 Stationary engineers....................................................... 51 -8031.00 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators........................................................ 51 -8091.00 Chemical plant and system operators............................. 51-8092.01 Gas processing plant operators....................................... 51-8092.02 Gas distribution plant operators..................................... 51-8093.01 Petroleum pump system operators................................. 51 -8093.02 Petroleum refinery and control panel operators............ 51-8093.03 Gaugers........................................................................... 51-9011.01 Chemical equipment controllers and operators............. 51-9011.02 Chemical equipment tenders.......................................... 51 -9012.00 Separating, filtering, clarifying, precipitating, and still machine setters, operators, and tenders.............. 51-9021.00 Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders................................................. 51-9022.00 Grinding and polishing workers, hand........................... 51-9023.00 Mixing and blending machine setters, operators, and tenders.................................................................. 51-9031.00 Cutters and trimmers, hand............................................ 51-9032.01 Fiber product cutting machine setters and set-up operators.......................................................... 51-9032.02 Stone sawyers................................................................. 51 -9032.03 Glass cutting machine setters and set-up operators........ 51-9032.04 Cutting and slicing machine operators and tenders....... 51 -9041.01 Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine setters and set-up operators......................... 51 -9041.02 Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine operators and tenders.................................. 51 -9051.00 Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, and kettle operators and tenders.................................................................. 51-9061.01 Materials inspectors................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 600 600 600 600 600 600 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 602 51-9061.02 51 -9061.03 51-9061.04 51-9061.05 51-9071.01 51-9071.02 51-9071.03 51-9071.04 51-9071.05 51 -9071.06 51 -9081.00 51-9082.00 51-9083.01 51-9083.02 51-9111.00 51 -9121.01 51-9121.02 51-9122.00 51-9123.00 51-9131.01 51 -9131.02 51 -9131.03 51-9131.04 51 -9132.00 51-9141.00 51 -9191.00 602 51-9192.00 602 602 602 602 606 606 606 606 606 606 606 606 606 608 608 608 608 610 610 612 671 672 672 672 672 672 671 671 672 671 672 672 671 671 671 671 671 671 671 672 614 51 -9193.00 51-9194.01 51-9194.02 51-9194.03 51-9194.04 51-9194.05 51-9194.06 51-9195.01 51-9195.02 51-9195.03 51-9195.04 51-9195.05 51-9195.06 51 -9195.07 51-9196.00 51-9197.00 51-9198.01 51-9198.02 53-1011.00 53-1021.00 53-1031.00 53-2011.00 53-2012.00 53-2021.00 53-2022.00 53-3011.00 53-3021.00 53-3022.00 53-3031.00 53-3032.01 53-3032.02 53-3033.00 53-3041.00 53-4011.00 53-4012.00 53-4013.00 53-4021.01 53-4021.02 53-4031.00 53-4041.00 53-4099.99 53-5011.01 53-5011.02 53-5021.01 53-5021.02 53-5021.03 Mechanical inspectors.................................................. Precision devices inspectors and testers....................... Electrical and electronic inspectors and testers............ Production inspectors, testers, graders, sorters, samplers, and weighers............................................... Jewelers......................................................................... Silversmiths................................................................... Model and mold makers, jewelry................................. Bench workers, jewelry................................................ Pewter casters and finishers.......................................... Gem and diamond workers........................................... Dental laboratory technicians........................................ Medical appliance technicians..................................... Precision lens grinders and polishers........................... Optical instrument assemblers..................................... Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders... Coating, painting, and spraying machine setters and set-up operators.................................................... Coating, painting, and spraying machine operators and tenders.................................................................. Painters, transportation equipment............................... Painting, coating, and decorating workers................... Photographic retouchers and restorers......................... Photographic reproduction technicians........................ Photographic hand developers..................................... Film laboratory technicians.......................................... Photographic processing machine operators................ Semiconductor processors............................................ Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders......................................................................... Cleaning, washing, and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders............ ..................................... Cooling and freezing equipment operators and tenders......................................................................... Precision etchers and engravers, hand or machine...... Engravers/carvers......................................................... Etchers........................................................................... Pantograph engravers.................................................... Etchers, hand................................................................. Engravers, hand............................................................. Precision mold and pattern casters, except nonferrous metals....................................................... Precision pattern and die casters, nonferrous metals.... Stone cutters and carvers............................................... Glass blowers, molders, benders, and finishers........ :... Potters............................................................................ Mold makers, hand....................................................... Molding and casting workers....................................... Paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders .... Tire builders................................................................. Production laborers...................................................... Production helpers........................................................ Aircraft cargo handling supervisors............................. First-line supervisors/managers of helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand.......................................... First-line supervisors/managers of transportation and material-moving machine and vehicle operators....... Airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers................ Commercial pilots......................................................... Air traffic controllers..................................................... Airfield operations specialists...................................... Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians.................................................... Bus drivers, transit and intercity.................................. Bus drivers, school........................................................ Driver/sales workers..................................................... Truck drivers, heavy..................................................... Tractor-trailer truck drivers.......................................... Truck drivers, light or delivery services....................... Taxi drivers and chauffeurs.......................................... Locomotive engineers.................................................. Locomotive firers.......................................................... Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers..... Train crew members...................................................... Railroad yard workers................................................... Railroad conductors and yardmasters.......................... Subway and streetcar operators.................................... Rail transportation workers, all other........................... Able seamen.................................................................. Ordinary seamen and marine oilers.............................. Ship and boat captains.................................................. Mates-ship, boat, and barge......................................... Pilots, ship..................................................................... 614 614 614 616 616 616 616 616 616 616 619 619 619 619 672 622 622 622 622 625 625 625 625 625 626 670 671 671 671 671 671 671 671 671 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 673 650 673 629 629 632 673 673 634 634 640 640 640 640 637 644 644 644 644 644 644 644 644 647 647 647 647 647 53-5022.00 53-5031.00 53-6011.00 53-6021.00 53-6031.00 53-6041.00 53-6051.01 53-6051.02 53-6051.03 53-6051.04 53-6051.05 53-6051.06 53-7011.00 53-7021.00 53-7031.00 53-7032.01 53-7032.02 53-7033.00 53-7041.00 53-7051.00 53-7061.00 53-7062.01 53-7062.02 53-7062.03 53-7063.00 53-7064.00 53-7071.01 53-7071.02 53-7072.00 Motorboat operators....................................................... 647 Ship engineers................................................................ 647 Bridge and lock tenders.................................................. 673 Parking lot attendants..................................................... 673 Service station attendants............................................... 673 Traffic technicians.......................................................... 673 Aviation inspectors......................................................... 673 Public transportation inspectors.................................... 673 Marine cargo inspectors................................................. 673 Railroad inspectors......................................................... 673 Motor vehicle inspectors................................................ 673 Freight inspectors........................................................... 673 Conveyor operators and tenders.................................... 650 Crane and tower operators............................................. 650 Dredge operators............................................................ 650 Excavating and loading machine operators................... 650 Dragline operators.......................................................... 650 Loading machine operators, underground mining........ 650 Hoist and winch operators.............................................. 650 Industrial truck and tractor operators............................ 650 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment.............................. 650 Stevedores, except equipment operators........................ 650 Grips and set-up workers, motion picture sets, studios, and stages.........................................................650 Freight, stock, and material movers, hand.................... 650 Machine feeders and offbearers..................................... 650 Packers and packagers, hand......................................... 650 Gas pumping station operators....................................... 650 Gas compressor operators.............................................. 650 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers................... 650 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53-7073.00 53-7081.00 53-7111.00 53-7121.00 53-7199.99 55-1011.00 55-1012.00 55-1013.00 55-1014.00 55-1015.00 55-1016.00 55-1017.00 55-1019.99 55-2011.00 55-2012.00 55-1013.00 55-3011.00 55-3012.00 55-3013.00 55-3014.00 55-3015.00 55-3016.00 55-3017.00 55-3018.00 55-3019.99 Occupational Information Network Coverage 683 Wellhead pumpers........................................................ Refuse and recyclable material collectors................... Shuttle car operators..................................................... Tank car, truck, and ship loaders.................................. Material moving workers, all other.............................. Air crew officers........................................................... Aircraft launch and recovery officers.......................... Armored assault vehicle officers.................................. Artillery and missile officers....................................... Command and control center officers.......................... Infantry officers............................................................ Special forces officers.................................................. Military officer special and tactical operations leaders/managers, all other........................................ First line supervisors/managers of air crew members.................................................. First line supervisors/managers of weapons specialists/crew members.......................................... First line supervisors/managers of all other tactical operations specialists.................................... Air crew members........................................................ Aircraft launch and recovery specialists..................... Armored assault vehicle crew members....................... Artillery and missile crew members............................. Command and control center specialists..................... Infantry......................................................................... Radar and sonar technicians......................................... Special forces............................................................... Military enlisted tactical operations and air/weapons specialists and crew members, all other.................... 650 650 650 650 650 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 653 Index A A & P mechanics, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians....................................................... 544 ABE teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education .. 221 Able seamen, see: Water transportation occupations............................. 647 Abstractors, see: Medical records and health information technicians........................................................................ 328 Abstractors, see: Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers................ 663 Academic deans, see: Education administrators.......................................34 Account clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................ 437 Account collectors, see: Bill and account collectors............................. 431 Account executives, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers......................................................27 Account executives, see: Advertising sales agents................................ 403 Account executives, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents..............................................................426 Accountants and auditors.......................................................................... 70 Accounting clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks......................................................................................434 Accounts payable clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks......................................................................................434 Accounts receivable clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks......................................................................................434 Acoustical carpenters, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers............................................................................. 511 Activity specialists, see: Recreation workers.........................................400 Actors, see: Actors, producers, and directors.........................................249 Actors, producers, and directors.............................................................249 Actuaries................................................................................................. 102 Addictions nurses, see: Registered nurses..............................................303 Adjudicators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.....201 Adjusters, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators........................................................................................... 80 Administrative assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative assistants for human resources, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping............ 449 Administrative clerks, see: Office clerks, general................................. 481 Administrative coordinators, see: Administrative services managers....25 Administrative directors, see: Administrative services managers........... 25 Administrative law judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers...........................................................................201 Administrative leaders, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...........................................479 Administrative leads, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.... 482 Administrative managers, see: Administrative services mangers............ 25 Administrative managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................479 Administrative office assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative office assistants, officers, see: Administrative services managers.................................................................................. 25 Administrative office managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...........................................479 Administrative office managers, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative office specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative officers, see: Administrative services managers............. 25 Administrative officers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...........................................479 Administrative professionals, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative project coordinators, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.................. 479 Administrative services managers............................................................25 Administrative services managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.......................................... 479 Administrative specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.......................................... 479 684 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Administrative support managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...........................................479 Administrative support specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants....................................................................... 482 Administrative technicians, see: Office clerks, general......................... 481 Administrative technicians, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Administrative worker supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers..................479 Administrators, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers....................................................................479 Administrators, see: Top executives.........................................................67 Administrators, education, see: Education administrators...................... 34 Administrators, medical and health services, see: Medical and health services managers................................................................. 59 Administrators, support services, see: Administrative services managers.................................................................................. 25 Admissions officers, see: Education administrators.................................34 Admitting interviewers, see: Interviewers..............................................451 Adult basic education teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education............................................................................... 221 Adult literacy teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education............................................................................... 221 Adult secondary education teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education........................................................................ 221 Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers........................................................................................ 27 Advertising sales agents.......................................................................... 403 Advertising sales agents, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers................................. 27 Advisors, personal financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors..................................................................... 85 Aerobics instructors, see: Fitness workers..............................................392 Aeronautical drafters, see: Drafters........................................................ 141 Aeronautical engineers, see: Engineers..................................................133 Aerospace engineering and operations technicians, see: Engineering technicians........................................................................144 Aerospace engineers, see: Engineers...................................................... 133 Affirmative action coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................50 Agent-contract clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...........................................................449 Agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents................................. 414 Agents, Advertising Sales, see: Advertising sales agents...................... 403 Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes...... 661 Agents, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), see: Police and detectives............................................................................ 362 Agents, cargo and freight, see: Cargo and freight agents...................... 459 Agents, customs, see: Police and detectives...........................................362 Agents, Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), see: Police and detectives............................................................................ 362 Agents, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), see: Police and detectives............................................................................ 362 Agents, Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), see: Police and detectives............................................................................ 362 Agents, independent, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing................................................................................ 421 Agents, loss prevention, see: Private detectives and investigators.......366 Agents, manufacturers, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing................................................................................421 Agents, U.S. Border Patrol, see: Police and detectives......................... 362 Agents, U.S. Secret Service, see: Police and detectives........................ 362 Agricultural and food science technicians,see: Science technicians.... 185 Agricultural and food scientists.............................................................. 147 Agricultural engineers, see: Engineers................................................... 133 Agricultural inspectors, see: Agricultural workers................................ 485 Agricultural managers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................. 40 Agricultural workers............................................................................... 485 Agronomists, see: Agricultural and food scientists................................ 147 Aides, geriatric, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides...... 350 Aides, home care, see: Personal and home care aides............................399 Aides, home health, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides. 350 Index Aides, nursing, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........ 350 Aides, occupational therapist, see: Occupational therapist assistants and aides.............................................................................. 353 Aides, personal care, see: Personal and home care aides..................... 399 Aides, pharmacy, see: Pharmacy aides..................................................354 Aides, physical therapist, see: Physical therapist assistants and aides.. 356 Aides, psychiatric, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides... 350 Aides, teacher, see: Teacher assistants................................................... 219 Air Force, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces........................ 653 Air traffic controllers............................................................................... 632 Airbrush artists, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators..............................................................625 Air-conditioning mechanics, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers.......................................... 562 Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians.... 544 Aircraft cargo handling supervisors........................................................673 Aircraft engineers, see: Engineers..........................................................133 Aircraft pilots, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers....................... 629 Aircraft pilots and flight engineers.......................... ............................629 Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators..................................................................579 Airfield operations specialists.................................................................673 Airframe mechanics, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians.......................................................544 Airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers.......................................................629 Airline stewardesses and stewards, see: Flight attendants.................... 394 Airmen, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces............................ 653 Airport service agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..............................................................457 Airport terminal controllers, see: Air traffic controllers....................... 632 Airport tower controllers, see: Air traffic controllers........................... 632 Allergists, see: Physicians and surgeons.................................................295 Allopathic physicians and surgeons, see: Physicians and surgeons.....295 Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians.............................................................................. 673 Ambulatory care nurses, see: Registered nurses.................................... 303 Amusement and recreation attendants....................................................664 Amusement machine servicers and repairers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers...... 560 Analysts, budget, see: Budget analysts.....................................................77 Analysts, financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.....................................................................85 Analysts, management see: Management analysts.................................. 92 Analysts, market researcher, see: Market and survey researchers........ 175 Analytical chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists................ 162 Anchors, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents............... 267 Anesthesiologists, see: Physicians and surgeons....................................295 Anesthetists, certified registered nurse, see: Registered nurses............. 303 Animal breeders, see: Agricultural workers.......................................... 485 Animal care and service workers............................................................384 Animal caretakers, see: Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers.................................................................................. 665 Animal control officers, see: Animal care and service workers........... 384 Animal control workers..........................................................................664 Animal scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists.........................147 Animal trainers, see: Animal care and service workers........................ 384 Animators, see: Artists and related workers.......................................... 235 Announcers............................................................................................. 259 Anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other.........................................182 Apartment house managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers......................................................... 61 Apartment leasing agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents ....414 Apartment managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers..............................................................................61 Apartment rental agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents.....414 Apparel workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.... 602 Appellate court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers...........................................................................201 Appliance repairers, see: Home appliance repairers.............................. 565 Applications engineers, see: Computer software engineers...................111 Applications programmers, see: Computer programmers......................104 Applicators, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers ..511 Applied mathematicians, see: Mathematicians.......................................119 Appraisers, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.................................................................................... 80 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 685 Appraisers and assessors of real estate.................................................... 74 Appraisers, jewelry, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers.......................................................................................616 Appraisers, real estate, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate.......74 Aquaculture farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................ 40 Aquatic biologists, see: Biological scientists......................................... 150 Arbitrators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 Arbitrators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers......... 201 Arborists, see: Grounds maintenance workers...................................... 380 Arc cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers.................. 595 Archaeologists, see: Social scientists, other.......................................... 182 Architects, except landscape and naval..................................................130 Architects, landscape, see: Landscape architects.................................. 128 Architectural drafters, see: Drafters........................................................141 Archivists, curators, and museum technicians....................................... 210 Armed forces, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.................. 653 Armored car guards, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers............................................................... 368 Army, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces............................... 653 Arrangers, music, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers..........257 Art directors, see: Artists and related workers....................................... 235 Artificial inseminator, see: Agricultural workers...................................485 Artists and related workers.................................................................... 235 Artists, graphic, see: Graphic designers................................................ 243 Asbestos abatement workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers................................................ 519 ASE teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education..............................................................................................221 Asphalt paving machine operators, see: Construction equipment operators...................................................... 507 Assemblers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers....... 616 Assemblers and fabricators.................................................................... 579 Assessors, real estate, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate.........74 Asset property managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers......................................................... 61 Assignment clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.......................................................... 449 Assignment editors, see: Writers and editors......................................... 275 Assistant cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers...... 371 Assistant editors, see: Writers and editors............................................. 275 Assistant executive directors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers..........................................479 Assistant managers, see: Food service managers....................................45 Assistant managers, see: Lodging managers........................................... 56 Assistant principals, see: Education administrators.................................34 Assistant property managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers......................................................... 61 Assistants, control room, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.....................................................................................608 Assistants, dental, see: Dental assistants............................................... 343 Assistants, legal, see: Paralegals and legal assistants............................ 207 Assistants, medical, see: Medical assistants..........................................347 Assistants, mental health, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and ' home health aides.................................................................................350 Assistants, nursing, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.................................................................................350 Assistants, occupational therapist, see: Occupational therapist assistants and aides...............................................................................353 Assistants, ophthalmic medical, see: Medical assistants....................... 347 Assistants, physical therapist, see: Physical therapist assistants and aides............................................................................................... 356 Assistants, physician, see: Physician assistants..................................... 293 Assistants, podiatric medical, see: Medical assistants........................... 347 Assistants, surgeons’, see: Physician assistants..................................... 293 Assistants, teacher, see: Teacher assistants............................................219 Astronautical engineers, see: Engineers................................................ 133 Astronomers, see: Physicists and astronomers...................................... 170 Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers................................... 254 Athletic directors, see: Education administrators.................................... 34 Athletic trainers.......................................................................................314 Athletic training instructors, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers..............................................................................252 Atmospheric scientists............................................................................159 Attendance clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................437 686 Occupational Outlook Handbook Attendants, hospital, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................................................................. 350 Attendants, personal, see: Personal and home care aides...................... 399 Attorneys, see: Lawyers.......................................................................... 204 Audio and video equipment operators, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................ 261 Audio control engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................ 261 Audiologists............................................................................................ 278 Audio-visual collections specialists........................................................ 662 Auditing clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....434 Auditors, see: Accountants and auditors...................................................70 Authors, see: Writers and editors............................................................275 Auto damage appraisers, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.................................................................. 81 Automated systems librarians, see: Librarians...................................... 214 Automated teller machine servicers, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers......................................................538 Automotive air-conditioning repairers, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics.................................. 549 Automotive body and related repairers...................................................547 Automotive body repairers, see: Automotive body and related repairers.................................................................................... 547 Automotive engineers, see: Engineers.................................................... 133 Automotive glass installers and repairers, see: Automotive body and related repairers.............................................................................548 Automotive mechanics, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics...................................................................................... 549 Automotive painters, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance..................................................622 Automotive service technicians and mechanics.....................................549 Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.................................................................608 Avionics technicians, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians.......................................................544 B Babysitters, see: Child care workers.......................................................389 Baggage porters and bellhops.................................................................664 Bailiffs, see: Correctional officers..........................................................357 Bakers, see: Food processing occupations..............................................581 Ballet masters, see: Dancers and choreographers.................................. 255 Ballet mistresses, see: Dancers and choreographers.............................. 255 Bank tellers, see: Tellers.........................................................................440 Banquet managers, see: Food service managers...................................... 45 Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers......... 387 Bartenders, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers........ 371 Beauty care specialists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers......................................................371 Bedroom stewards, see: Water transportation occupations................... 647 Behavioral disorder counselors, see: Counselors................................... 189 Bellhops, see: Baggage porters and bellhops.........................................664 Bench carpenters, see: Woodworkers.....................................................606 Bench technicians, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers.......................................................................536 Bench technicians, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.........................................................................................538 Bench technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers.........................................................................540 Benefits administrators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Benefits clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...................................................................................449 Benefits directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................................50 Benefits managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Bibliographers, see: Librarians...............................................................214 Bicycle repairers.....................................................................................669 Bill and account collectors......................................................................431 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators................................. 432 Billing clerks, see: Billing and posting clerks and machine operators.. 432 Billing machine operators, see: Billing and posting clerks and machine operators................................................................................432 Bindery machine setters, operators, and tenders, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers.............................................................................596 Bindery workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers..................... 596 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Biochemists, see: Biological scientists................................................... 150 Biographers, see: Social scientists, other................................................ 182 Biological oceanographers, see: Geoscientists......................................167 Biological-physical anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other........ 182 Biological scientists.................................................................................. 80 Biological technicians, see: Science technicians....................................185 Biomedical engineers, see: Engineers.................................................... 133 Biomedical equipment technicians, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.............................................................................. 575 Biometricians, see: Statisticians............................................................. 123 Biophysicists, see: Biological scientists................................................. 150 Biostatisticians, see: Statisticians........................................................... 123 Blankbook binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers... 596 Blasters, see: Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters........................................................................................... 667 Bleaching and dyeing machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations......................................602 Blockmasons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons....... 495 Bloggers, see: Writers and editors..........................................................275 Blood bank technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 318 Boat operators, see: Water transportation occupations.......................... 647 Boatswains, see: Water transportation occupations................................647 Boatswains, fishing boat, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators.....487 Body repairers, automotive, see: Automotive body and related repairers.................................................................................... 547 Bodyguards, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers .... 368 Boiler mechanics, see: Boilermakers......................................................494 Boiler operators, see: Stationary engineers and boiler operators.......... 610 Boilermakers........................................................................................... 494 Bonus clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................ 437 Bookbinders and bindery workers..........................................................596 Bookkeepers, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....... 434 Bookkeepers, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................ 437 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.......................................434 Bookmobile drivers, see: Library technicians........................................217 Booth cashiers, see: Cashiers.................................................................. 405 Border Patrol agents, see: Police and detectives....................................362 Botanists, see: Biological scientists........................................................ 150 Brace makers, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................................... 619 Braille clerks, see: Library assistants, clerical........................................453 Brake operators, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations............ 644 Brake repairers, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics .. 549 Brattice builders, see: Carpenters...........................................................497 Brazing workers, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers.......... 594 Bricklayers, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons...........495 Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons....................................... 495 Bridge and lock tenders.......................................................................... 673 Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators......261 Broadcast field supervisors, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................ 261 Broker associates, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents................ 414 Broker’s assistants, see: Brokerage clerks..............................................441 Brokerage clerks..................................................................................... 441 Brokers, see: Insurance sales agents....................................................... 411 Brokers, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing...... 421 Brokers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents............................................................................. 426 Brokers, real estate, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents............. 414 Buckers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers...................... 490 Budget analysts......................................................................................... 77 Budget managers, see: Budget analysts....................................................77 Budget officers, see: Budget analysts.......................................................77 Building cleaning workers...................................................................... 378 Building construction estimators, see: Cost estimators............................83 Building consultants, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents............ 414 Building inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors............ 504 Building managers, see: Administrative services managers.................... 25 Building managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.......................................................... 61 Building superintendents, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.......................................................... 61 Bulldozer operators, see: Construction equipment operators................ 507 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) agents, see: Police and detectives............................................................................ 362 Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents, see: Police and detectives............................................................................ 362 Index Bus dispatchers, see: Dispatchers................... ;.....................................461 Bus drivers.............................................................................................. 634 Bus mechanics, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics........... 552 Business administrators, see: Administrative services managers........... 25 Business management analysts, see: Management analysts................... 92 Business management consultants, see: Management analysts............... 92 Business managers, see: Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes.......................................................................661 Business managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................479 Business office assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Business office managers, see: Administrativeservices managers.......... 25 Business support assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Butchers and meatcutters, see: Food processing occupations............... 581 Buyers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents....... 64 Buyers’ agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents.................... 414 C Cab drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs....................................... 637 Cabinetmakers, see: Woodworkers........................................................ 606 Cable line installers, see: Line installers and repairers......................... 569 Cable splicers, see: Line installers and repairers................................... 569 CAD operators, see: Drafters.................................................................. 141 Cafeteria cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers...... 371 Cage cashiers, see: Gaming cage workers............................................. 435 Call completion operators, see: Communications equipment operators................................................ 471 Camera operators, television, video, and motion picture, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.. 274 Camera repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers ..575 Camp counselors, see: Recreation workers........................................... 400 Camp directors, see: Recreation workers.............................................. 400 Campaign managers, see: Public relations specialists.......................... 271 Cancer registrars, see: Medical records and health information technicians........................................................................328 Campaign managers, see: Public relations specialists........................... 271 Captains, airline, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers.................... 629 Captains, fishing boat, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators......... 487 Captains, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations.........................................................647 Captive agents, see: Insurance sales agents........................................... 411 Card puncher, see: Data entry and information processing workers....475 Card punching machine operator, see: Data entry and information processing workers.......................................................... 475 Cardiac and vascular nurses, see: Registered nurses............................. 303 Cardiac sonographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Cardiographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.... 316 Cardiographic technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Cardiologists, see: Physicians and surgeons.......................................... 295 Cardiology technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Cardiopulmonary technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Cardiovascular technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians....................................... 316 Career counselors, see: Counselors........................................................ 189 Career-technical teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary .....................................................227 Career-technical teachers, postsecondary, see: Teachers—postsecondary.....................................................................223 Career-technology teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary .....................................................227 Caregivers, see: Personal and home care aides..................................... 399 Cargo and freight agents.........................................................................459 Carpenters............................................................................................... 497 Carpet installers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers.... 499 Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers......................................... 499 Cartographers, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................................................... 130 Cartoonists, see: Artists and related workers......................................... 235 Case management aides, see: Social and human service assistants...... 194 managers, see: Financial managers................................................. 42 Digitized Cash for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 687 Cashiers...................................................................................................405 Cashiers, gaming, see: Gaming cage workers...................................... 435 Casino cage workers, see: Gaming cage workers................................. 435 Casino cashiers, see: Gaming cage workers......................................... 435 Catering managers, see: Food service managers.................................... 45 Caulkers, see: Construction laborers..................................................... 509 Ceiling tile installers, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers............................................................................................. 511 Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers...................................................................................502 Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders..........................670 Central office installers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers....................................................... 542 Central office operators, see: Communications equipment operators................................................ 471 Ceramic engineers, see: Engineers.... •....................................................133 Ceramists, dental, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians......................................................................... 619 Certified nurse-midwives, see: Registered nurses................................. 303 Certified nursing assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.................................................................................350 Certified pest control applicators, see: Pest control workers................382 Certified public accountants, see: Accountants and auditors...................70 Certified registered nurse anesthetists, see: Registered nurses.............. 303 Certified respiratory therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.................. 307 Chairpersons, college or university department, see: Education administrators....................................................................... 34 Chairpersons of the board, see: Top executives.......................................67 Charter bus drivers, see: Bus drivers..................................................... 634 Chauffeurs, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs......................................... 637 Checkers, see: Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping.......................................................................................470 Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.......................................... 371 Chemical engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians......... 144 Chemical engineers, see: Engineers.......................................................133 Chemical equipment operators and tenders........................................... 671 Chemical oceanographers, see: Geoscientists....................................... 167 Chemical plant and system operators.................................................... 671 Chemical technicians, see: Science technicians.................................... 185 Chemists and materials scientists............................................................162 Chief engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators...............................................................................261 Chief executive officers, see: Top executives.......................................... 67 Chief executives, government, see: Top executives................................ 67 Chief financial officers, see: Top executives........................................... 67 Chief information officers, see: Top executives......................................67 Chief operating officers, see: Top executives.......................................... 67 Chief technology officers, see: Computer and information systems managers...................................................................................30 Child care workers .................................................................................389 Child protective services social workers, see: Social workers.............. 196 Child welfare social workers, see: Social workers................................ 196 Children’s librarians, see: Librarians..................................................... 214 Chiropractic physicians, see: Chiropractors.......................................... 280 Chiropractors................. 280 Choke setters, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.............490 Choreographers, see: Dancers and choreographers...............................255 Cinematographers, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors............................................................... 274 Circulation assistants, see: Library assistants, clerical..........................453 City planners, see: Urban and regional planners................................... 180 Civil drafters, see: Drafters.....................................................................141 Civil engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians................. 144 Civil engineers, see: Engineers...............................................................133 Civil service clerks, see: Fluman resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...................................................................................449 Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators..................... 80 Claims examiners, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators....................................................................................80 Claims representatives, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators....................................................................................80 Cleaners and servants, private household, see: Building cleaning workers.................................................................. 378 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment, see: Material moving occupations............................................................................ 650 Cleaning supervisors, see: Building cleaning workers.......................... 378 Cleaning, washing, and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders...........................................................................................671 688 Occupational Outlook Handbook Clergy......................................................................................................662 Clerical assistants, see: Office clerks, general........................................481 Clerical specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants....... 482 Clerical supervisors, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.....482 Clerical worker supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................ 479 Clerks, see: Bill and account collectors...................................................................431 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators.............................. 432 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks................................... 434 Brokerage clerks.................................................................................. 441 Cargo and freight agents......................................................................459 Communications equipment operators.................................................471 Computer operators..............................................................................473 Couriers and messengers......................................................................460 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks.............................................. 442 Customer service representatives.........................................................444 Data entry and information processing workers................................. 475 Desktop publishers...............................................................................477 Dispatchers...........................................................................................461 File clerks.............................................................................................447 Gaming cage workers...........................................................................435 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.....................................................448 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping............ 449 Interviewers..........................................................................................451 Library assistants, clerical..................................... ,............................453 Meter readers, utilities..........................................................................463 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.....................................................................................479 Office clerks, general...........................................................................481 Order clerks..........................................................................................454 Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................................................437 Postal Service workers.........................................................................464 Procurement clerks............................................................................... 438 Production, planning, and expediting clerks........................................466 Receptionists and information clerks...................................................455 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks........... 457 Secretaries and administrative assistants.............................................482 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks.................................................467 Stock clerks and order fillers................................................................469 Tellers...................................................................................................440 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping............ 469 Clerk typists, see: Office clerks, general................................................481 Climatologists , see: Atmospheric scientists.......................................... 159 Clinical chemistry technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...............................................................318 Clinical dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists............................... 284 Clinical laboratory scientists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 318 Clinical laboratory technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...............................................................318 Clinical laboratory technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...............................................................318 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................318 Clinical managers, see: Medical and health services managers.............. 59 Clinical nurse specialists, see: Registered nurses...................................303 Clinical psychologists, see: Psychologists..............................................177 Clinical social workers, see: Social workers.......................................... 196 Clock repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers................................................................................................ 575 Closed captioners, see: Court reporters..................................................199 Closing agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents..................... 414 Clothing designers, see: Fashion designers............................................ 240 CNC operators, see: Computer control programmers and operators...............................................................................................585 CNC programmers, see: Computer control programmers and operators........................................................................................585 Coaches, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers............ 252 Coast Guard, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces..................... 653 Coders, see: Medical records and health information technicians....... 328 Coding specialists, see: Medical records and health information technicians............................................................................................328 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers, see: Assemblers and fabricators.............................................................................................579 Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers.......... 560 Collectors, see: Bill and account collectors........................................... 431 Collectors, see: Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.............. 98 College and university faculty, see: Teachers—postsecondary............. 223 College counselors, see: Counselors.................................................... 189 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Collision repair and refinish technicians, see: Automotive body and related repairers............................................................................. 547 Color printer operators, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.............................................................. 625 Colorists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................................. 387 Columnists, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents........... 267 Combined food preparation and serving workers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers................................ 374 Commentators, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.....267 Commercial and industrial designers......................................................238 Commercial divers.................................................................................. 669 Commercial loan officers, see: Loan officers.......................................... 90 Commercial photographers, see: Photographers................................... 269 Commercial pilots, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers................ 629 Commission clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks......................437 Commissioners, see: Top executives........................................................67 Communications equipment operators...................................................471 Communications specialists, see: Public relations specialists............... 271 Community association managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.......................................................... 61 Community dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists......................... 284 Community outreach workers, see: Social and human service assistants...................................................................... 194 Community planners, see: Urban and regional planners........................180 Community service managers, see: Social and community service managers.............................................................................................. 662 Community supervision officers, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists......................................................... 192 Community support workers, see: Social and human service assistants...................................................................... 194 Companions, see: Personal and home care aides................................... 399 Compensation and benefits technicians, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping......................................... 449 Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........50 Compensation managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Compliance officers, except agriculture, construction, health and safety, and transportation..................................................................... 661 Composers, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers..................... 257 Composing machine operators and tenders, see: Prepress technicians and workers........................................................598 Compositors, see: Desktop publishers....................................................All Compositors, see: Prepress technicians and workers............................ 598 Computer aides, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Computer and information systems managers..........................................30 Computer applications software engineers, see: Computer software engineers................................................................Ill Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers..................... 536 Computer chip processing operators, see: Semiconductor processors.................................................................... 626 Computer chip processing technicians, see: Semiconductor processors.................................................................... 626 Computer clerks, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Computer control operators, see: Computer control programmers and operators........................................................................................ 585 Computer control programmers and operators...................................... 585 Computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, see: Computer control programmers and operators................................... 585 Computer hardware engineers, see: Engineers.......................................133 Computer operators................................................................................. 473 Computer programmers.......................................................................... 104 Computer scientists and database administrators...................................107 Computer security specialists, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators...................................................................113 Computer software engineers..................................................................Ill Computer support specialists and systems administrators...................... 113 Computer systems analysts......................................................................116 Computer systems software engineers, see: Computer software engineers................................................................Ill Computer technology trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................... 50 Computer training specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................50 Computer typesetters, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Concierges............................................................................................... 664 Conciliators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...............................................50 Conciliators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers....... 201 Concrete finishers, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers............... :............................ 502 Concrete paving machine operators, see: Construction equipment operators...................................................... 507 Condominium association managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers....................................................61 Conductors, music, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers........ 257 Conductors, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations................... 644 Conference interpreters, see: Interpreters and translators...................... 263 Conference planners, see: Meeting and convention planners.................. 95 Conference service coordinators, see: Meeting and convention planners........................ 95 Congress members, see: Top executives.................................................. 67 Conservation scientists and foresters......................................................153 Conservation technicians, see: Science technicians...............................185 Conservation workers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.................................................................................... 490 Conservators, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians....... 210 Construction and building inspectors......................................................504 Construction cost estimators, see: Cost estimators.................................. 83 Construction electricians, see: Electricians........................................... 513 Construction engineers, see: Engineers..................................................133 Construction equipment operators..........................................................507 Construction job cost estimators, see: Cost estimators............................ 83 Construction laborers.............................................................................. 509 Construction managers.............................................................................. 32 Construction millwrights, see: Millwrights........................................... 573 Construction vehicle technicians, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics........................ 555 Constructors, see: Construction managers................................................32 Consultant dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists........................... 284 Consultant, financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.....................................................................85 Content editors, see: Writers and editors............................................... 275 Continuous mining machine operators.................................................. 667 Contract administrators, see: Administrative services managers............ 25 Contract managers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................................................................................... 64 Contract specialists, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................................................................................... 64 Contract specialists, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents.............. 414 Control and valve installers and repairers, except mechanical door...................................................................................................... 669 Control room assistants, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Control room operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Control room trainees, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Control technicians, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers..............................................................................575 Controllers, see: Financial managers........................................................42 Controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers...................................... Convention managers, see: Meeting and convention planners................ 95 Convention planners, see: Meeting and convention planners................. 95 Convention services managers, see: Lodging managers......................... 56 Cooking instructors, see: Teachers—self-enrichment education........... 267 Cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers...................... 371 Cooling and freezing equipment operators and tenders......................... 671 Cooperative managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers..........................................................61 Coordinators, instructional, see: Instructional coordinators.................. 213 Copy editors, see: Writers and editors....................................................275 Copy writers, see: Writers and editors....................................................275 Corporate accountants, see: Accountants and auditors............................ 70 Corporate administrative assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Corporate investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators......................................................................................... 366 Corporate office services managers, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Corporate recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................... 50 Corporate secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative Digitized forassistants............................................................................................... FRASER 482 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Index 689 Corporate trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.............................................. 50 Correctional officers................................................................................357 Correctional treatment specialists, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists........................................................ 192 Correspondence clerks......................................................................... 666 Correspondents, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents....267 Cosmetologists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers..................................................... 387 Cost accountants, see: Accountants and auditors....................................70 Cost consultants, see: Cost estimators..................................................... 83 Cost engineers, see: Cost estimators........................................................ 83 Cost estimators..........................................................................................83 Cost/investment recovery technicians, see: Cost estimators................... 83 Costume designers, see: Fashion designers........................................... 240 Costume attendants.................................................................................664 Counseling psychologists, see: Psychologists....................................... 177 Counselors............................................................................................... 189 Counselors, loan, see: Loan officers........................................................ 90 Counter and rental clerks....................................................................... 407 Counter attendants, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers.....................................................................................374 County court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers....................................................................................201 Couriers and messengers........................................................................ 460 Court officers, see: Correctional officers............................................... 357 Court reporters........................................................................................ 199 Court, municipal, and license clerks...................................................... 666 Courtesy van drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs........................637 CPAs, see: Accountants and auditors....................................................... 70 Craft artists, see: Artists and related workers........................................ 235 Crane and tower operators, see: Material moving occupations............ 650 Creative directors, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers..................................................... 27 Creative writers, see: Writers and editors.............................................. 275 Credentials specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 Credit analysts.........................................................................................661 Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks................................................442 Credit checkers, see: Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks..............442 Credit clerks, see: Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks................. 442 Credit counselors, see: Loan officers....................................................... 90 Credit investigators, see: Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks.................................................................................................... 442 Credit managers, see: Financial managers............................................... 42 Credit reporters, see: Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks............. 442 Criminal investigators, see: Police and detectives.................................362 Criminal lawyers, see: Lawyers............................................................. 204 Criminologists, see: Social scientists, other.......................................... 182 Critical care nurses, see: Registered nurses........................................... 303 Crop farm managers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................ 40 Crop scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................ 147 Crossing guards.......................................................................................664 Cruise ship workers, see: Water transportation occupations.................647 Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders....... ...................................................... 671 Cryptanalysts, see: Mathematicians........................................................119 CT technologists, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians.........337 Curators, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians................210 Curriculum specialists, see: Instructional coordinators.........................213 Customer service representatives.......................................................... 444 Customer service representatives, see: Tellers......................................440 Customer services managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers..........................................479 Customs agents, see: Police and detectives........................................... 362 Customs inspectors, see: Police and detectives..................................... 362 Cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers..........................594 Cutters and trimmers, apparel, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................602 Cutters and trimmers, hand.................................................................... 671 Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators, and tenders.................. 671 Cutting machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................602 Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders— metal and plastic...................................................................................589 Cytotechnologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.....................................................................................318 690 Occupational Outlook Handbook D Dairy farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers......... 40 Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists.......................... 147 Dance captains, see: Dancers and choreographers.................................255 Dancers and choreographers................................................................... 255 Data coder operators, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Data entry and information processing workers.....................................475 Data entry clerks, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Data entry clerks, see: Office clerks, general........................................ 481 Data entry keyers, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Data entry operators, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Data entry operators, see: Office clerks, general................................... 481 Data entry technicians, see: Data entry and information processing workers............................................................................... 475 Data input clerks, see: Data entry and information processing workers...............................................................................475 Data processing equipment repairers, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers.....................................536 Data processors, see: Data entry and information processing workers...............................................................................475 Data typists, see: Data entry and information processing workers....... 475 Database administrators, see: Computer scientists and database administrators........................................................................ 107 Dealers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.............................................................................426 Dealers, gaining, see: Gaming services occupations..............................397 Deans, university, see: Education administrators.....................................34 Deck officers, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations........................................................................................... 647 Deckhands, fishing boats, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators.... 487 Decommissioning and decontamination (D&D) workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers.................................................519 Decontamination technicians, see: Hazardous materials removal workers.................................................519 Decorators, interior, see: Interior designers............................................245 Defense attorneys, see: Lawyers.............................................................204 Delivery services truck drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers.............................................................................640 Demographers, see: Social scientists, other............................................182 Demographic economists, see: Economists............................................ 173 Demonstrators, product promoters, and models.................................... 408 Dental assistants...................................................................................... 343 Dental ceramists, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians .........................................................................619 Dental hygienists..................................................................................... 320 Dental laboratory technicians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................619 Dental surgeons, see: Dentists................................................................282 Dental technicians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians..........................................................................619 Dentists...................................................................................................282 Department heads, college or university, see: Education administrators........................................................................ 34 Department managers, see: Sales worker supervisors........................... 423 Deputy sheriffs, see: Police and detectives.............................................362 Dermatologists, see: Physicians and surgeons....................................... 295 Dermatology nurses, see: Registered nurses..........................................303 Derrick operators, oil and gas.................................................................667 Design consultants, see: Cost estimators..................................................83 Design printing machine setters and set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators..................................................................600 Designers, see: Commercial and industrial designers...................................................238 Fashion designers.................................................................................240 Floral designers....................................................................................242 Graphic designers.................................................................................243 Interior designers..................................................................................245 Designers, clothing, see: Fashion designers...........................................240 Designers, costume, see: Fashion designers.......................................... 240 Designers, footwear and accessory, see: Fashion designers.................. 240 Design printing machine setters and set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators..................................................................600 Desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks........................... 448 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Desktop publishers.................................................................................. All Desktop publishing editors, see: Desktop publishers............................ 477 Detectives and criminal investigators, see: Police and detectives........ 362 Detectives, hotel, see: Private detectives and investigators.................. 366 Detectives, private, see: Private detectives and investigators............... 366 Detectives, store, see: Private detectives and investigators.................. 366 Detention officers, see: Correctional officers........................................357 Development specialists, staff, see: Instructional coordinators............ 213 Developmental disabilities nurses, see: Registered nurses................... 303 Developmental psychologists, see: Psychologists................................ 177 Diabetes management nurses, see: Registered nurses........................... 303 Diagnostic medical sonographers...........................................................322 Die makers, see: Tool and die makers...................................................592 Diesel engine specialists, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics............................................................................................. 552 Diesel engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations......................... 644 Diesel mechanics, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics....... 552 Diesel service technicians and mechanics.............................................552 Dietetic technicians................................................................................. 662 Dietitians and nutritionists...................................................................... 284 Digital electronic prepress workers, see: Desktop publishers.............. 477 Digital image processors, see: Desktop publishers................................All Digital imaging technicians , see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.......................................................625 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers.................................374 Dinkey operators, see: Rail transportation occupations........................ 644 Diocesan priests, see: Clergy..................................................................662 Dippers, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance................................................................................... 622 Directors, see: Actors, producers, and directors................................... 249 Directors of administration, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.......................................... 479 Directors of administrative services, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers................. 479 Directors of administrative support services, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers................. 479 Directors of admissions, see: Education administrators.......................... 34 Directors of human resources, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Directors of industrial relations, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................50 Directors of instructional material, see: Instructional coordinators...... 213 Directors of operations, see: Administrative services managers............. 25 Directors of operations, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................479 Directors of recreation and parks, see: Recreation workers.................. 400 Directors of staff development, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................50 Directors of student services, see: Education administrators.................. 34 Directors, museum, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians............................................................................. 210 Directors, music, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers............ 257 Directors, religious activities and education...........................................662 Directory assistance operators, see: Communications equipment operators.................................................471 Disc jockeys, see: Announcers............................................................... 259 Dishwashers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers..... 374 Dispatchers...............................................................................................461 Dispatchers, load, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Dispatchers, power, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Dispensing opticians, see: Opticians, dispensing.................................. 334 Distribution clerks, see: Postal Service workers.................................... 464 Distribution managers, see: Transportation, storage, and distribution managers........................................................................... 662 Distributors, power, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Dividend clerks, see: Brokerage clerks..................................................441 Division secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants..... 482 DJs, see: Announcers.............................................................................. 259 Doctors of dental medicine, see: Dentists...............................................282 Doctors of dental surgery, see: Dentists..................................................282 Doctors of optometry, see: Optometrists................................................287 Doctors, chiropractic, see: Chiropractors...............................................280 Doctors, medical, see: Physicians and surgeons.................................... 295 Doctors, osteopathic, see: Physicians and surgeons.............................. 295 Index Doctors, podiatric, see: Podiatrists.........................................................298 Documentation specialists, see: Desktop publishers............................. 477 Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers..............................................................................665 Dot etchers, see: Prepress technicians and workers.............................. 598 Drafters....................................................................................................141 Dredge, excavating, and loading machine operators, see: Material moving occupations...............................................................650 Dressmakers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations......... 602 Drillers, see: Earth drillers, except oil and gas..................................... 667 Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic....................................................................589 Drill operators, see: Rotary drill operators, oil and gas........................ 669 Driver-sales workers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers...... 640 Drivers, bookmobile, see: Library technicians...................................... 217 Drivers, bus, see: Bus drivers.................................................................634 Drivers, cab, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs....................................... 637 Drivers, courtesy van, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs....................... 637 Drivers, delivery services, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers............................................................................. 640 Drivers, fork lift, see: Material moving occupations............................. 650 Drivers, lease, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs................................... 637 Drivers, light truck, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers......... 640 Drivers, limousine, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................ 637 Drivers, motor coach, see: Bus drivers...................................................634 Drivers, paratransit, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs.......................... 637 Drivers, route, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers................. 640 Drivers, sales worker, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers...... 640 Drivers, school bus, see: Bus drivers......................................................634 Drivers, taxi, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs..................................... 637 Drivers, tractor, see: Agricultural workers............................................ 485 Drivers, tractor-trailer, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers....640 Drivers, truck, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers................. 640 Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents, see: Police and detectives............................................................................362 Dry-cleaning workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................602 Dry wall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers.............................. 511 DTP operators, see: Desktop publishers................................................ 477 Dyeing machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................602 E Earth drillers, except oil and gas.............................................................667 Echocardiographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................................................................................ 316 Ecological modelers, see: Environmental scientists and hydrologists.......................................................................................... 164 Ecologists, see: Biological scientists......................................................150 Ecologists, see: Environmental scientists and hydrologists.................. 164 Econometricians, see: Economists..........................................................173 Econometricians, see: Statisticians.........................................................123 Economic geographers, see: Social scientists, other..............................182 Economists.............................................................................................. 173 Edition binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers........ 596 Editors, see: Writers and editors.............................................................275 Education administrators.......................................................................... 34 Education and development managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................... 50 Education and training managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................ 50 Education planners, see: Meeting and convention planners.................... 95 Educational consultants, see: Instructional coordinators....................... 213 Educational counselors, see: Counselors................................................189 EEO officers or representatives, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 EKG technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians... 316 Electric line repairers, see: Line installers and repairers....................... 569 Electric motor repairers, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers......................................................................................... 538 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators..................................................................579 Electrical and electronics engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians....................................................................... 144 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.................................. 538 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 691 Electrical drafters, see: Drafters.............................................................141 Electrical engineers, see: Engineers...................................................... 133 Electrical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors..........504 Electrical powerline installers and repairers, see: Line installers and repairers................................................................ 569 Electricians..............................................................................................513 Electrocardiograph (EKG) technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................... 316 Electrologists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers..................................................... 387 Electromechanical engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians............................................................................................ 144 Electromechanical equipment assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators................................................................. 579 Electronic data processors, see: Data entry and information processing workers.............................................................................. 475 Electronic drafters, see: Drafters........................................................... 141 Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers............................... 538 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers......540 Electronic masking system operators, see: Prepress technicians and workers..........................................................................................598 Electronic news gathering operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors......................................274 Electronic prepress technicians, see: Desktop publishers......................477 Electronic publishers, see: Desktop publishers.....................................477 Electronic publishing specialists, see: Desktop publishers....................477 Electronic reporters and transcribers, see: Court reporters.................... 199 Electronic semiconductor processors, see: Semiconductor processors............................................................ ......626 Electronic typesetting machine operators, see: Data entry and information processing workers.......................................................... 475 Electronics engineers, see: Engineers......................................................... Electronics repairers, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.........................................................................................538 Electronics technicians, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers............................................................................. 576 Electrotypers and stereotypers, see: Prepress technicians and workers..........................................................................................598 Elementary school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary...............................287 Elevator constructors , see: Elevator installers and repairers................516 Elevator inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors............504 Elevator installers and repairers............................................................. 516 Elevator mechanics, see: Elevator installers and repairers....................516 Eligibility interviewers, government programs, see: Interviewers....... 451 Embalmers..............................................................................................664 Embalmers, see: Funeral directors........................................................... 48 Embossing machine set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators................................................................. 600 Emergency and disaster response workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers................................................ 519 Emergency care nurses, see: Registered nurses.....................................303 Emergency management specialists...................................................... 661 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics................................... 324 Emergency physicians, see: Physicians and surgeons...........................295 Employee assistance plan managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..........................50 Employee benefits managers and specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................50 Employee development managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................ 50 Employee development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................ 50 Employee placement specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists....................................... 50 Employee relations managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................50 Employee training specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................ 50 Employee welfare managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................ 50 Employer relations representatives, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................50 Employment and placement managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................... 50 Employment assistants, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.......................................................... 449 692 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...........................................................449 Employment consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...............................................50 Employment coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Employment counselors, see: Counselors.............................................. 189 Employment interviewers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Employment managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Employment recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........ 50 Employment service specialists, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll, training, and timekeeping............................................. 53 Employment specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 EMTs, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics............... 324 Encoders, see: Data entry and information processing workers........... 475 Encoding clerks, see: Data entry and information processing workers.. 475 Endodontists, see: Dentists.....................................................................282 ENG operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................ 274 Engine and other machine assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators............................................................................................. 579 Engineering and natural sciences managers.............................................38 Engineering geologists, see: Geoscientists............................................. 167 Engineering managers, see: Engineering and natural sciences managers.................................................................................. 38 Engineering technicians.......................................................................... 144 Engineers................................................................................................. 133 Engineers, computer software, see: Computer software engineers...... Ill Engineers, diesel, see: Rail transportation occupations......................... 644 Engineers, locomotive, see: Rail transportation occupations................ 644 Engineers, rail yard, see: Rail transportation occupations..................... 644 Engineers, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations...................... 644 Engineers, ship, see: Water transportation occupations......................... 647 Engineers, stationary, see: Stationary engineers and boiler operators....................................................................................610 English as a second language teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education........................................................................221 English to speakers of other languages teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education................................221 Engraver set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators................. 600 Engravers, see: Etchers and engravers....................................................671 Engravers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers.......... 616 Enlisted personnel, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces........... 653 Enrichment education instructors, see: Teachers— self-enrichment education....................................................................231 Enrobing machine operators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance..................................................622 Enrollment specialists, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...........................................................449 Enroute controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers..................... 629 Entomologists, see: Agricultural and food scientists..............................147 Environmental chemists, see: Environmental scientists and hydrologists.......................................................................................... 164 Environmental ecologists, see: Environmental scientists and hydrologists................................................................................... 164 Environmental engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians ..144 Environmental engineers, see: Engineers............................................... 133 Environmental meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists..................159 Environmental protection officers, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.........................................................331 Environmental scientists, see: Environmental scientists and hydrologists................................................................................... 164 Environmental scientists and hydrologists..............................................164 Environmental technicians, see: Science technicians............................. 185 Epidemiologists, see: Medical scientists................................................ 156 Ergonomists, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians............................................................................................331 Escort interpreters, see: Interpreters and translators.............................. 263 ESL teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education.... 221 ESOL teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education. 221 Essayists, see: Writers and editors..........................................................275 Estheticians, see: Massage therapists.....................................................344 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Estheticians, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................................. 387 Estimator project managers, see: Cost estimators....................................83 Estimators, see: Cost estimators............................................................... 83 Etchers and engravers............................................................................. 671 Event planners, see: Meeting and convention planners........................... 95 Examiners, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.................................................................................... 80 Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators, see: Material moving occupations...............................................................650 Executive administrative assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................................................................482 Executive administrators, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.......................................... 479 Executive administrators, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants............................................................................................... 482 Executive assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.....482 Executive chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers......371 Executive editors, see: Writers and editors.............................................275 Executive housekeepers, see: Lodging managers.....................................56 Executive office administrators, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...........................................479 Executive office administrators, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants....................................................................... 482 Executive recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Executive secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants....482 Executives, see: Top executives................................................................67 Exercise instructors, see: Fitness workers..............................................392 Expediting clerks, see: Production, planning, and expediting clerks ....466 Experimental psychologists, see: Psychologists.....................................177 Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters............... 667 Exterminators, see: Pest control workers................................................382 Extractive metallurgical engineers, see: Engineers................................133 Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders —metal and plastic............................................................................... 589 Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders, synthetic and glass fibers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................ 602 Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine setters, operators, and tenders.......................................................................... 671 F Fabric and apparel patternmakers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................ 602 Fabric menders, except garment.............................................................669 Fabricators, see: Assemblers and fabricators..........................................579 Facilitators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers........ 201 Facilities coordinators, see: Administrative services managers............. 25 Facility coordinators, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.............................................................................. 61 Facility managers, see: Administrative services managers..................... 25 Faculty, college and university, see: Teachers—postsecondary............223 Fallers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers........................ 490 Family and general practitioners, see: Physicians and surgeons.......... 295 Family child care providers, see: Child care workers.............................389 Family services social workers, see: Social workers..............................196 Family therapists, see: Counselors......................................................... 189 Farm and home management advisors....................................................663 Farm equipment mechanics, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics........................ 555 Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers......................................... 40 Farmworkers, agricultural production, see: Agricultural workers.........485 Farmworkers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse, see: Agricultural workers................................................................................................. 485 Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals, see: Agricultural workers....... 485 Fashion designers.................................................................................... 240 Fashion designers, see: Fashion designers..............................................240 Fast-food cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers...... 371 FBI agents, see: Police and detectives.................................................... 362 Federal Bureau of Investigation agents, see: Police and detectives.....362 Fence erectors......................................................................................... 667 Field technicians, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................................... 261 Field technicians, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers....................................................................... 536 Index Field technicians, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers......................................................................................... 538 Field technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers........................................................540 File clerks................................................................................................ 447 File clerks, see: Office clerks, general................................................... 481 Film and video editors, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors..................................... 274 Film processing technicians, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators...................................................... 625 Finance managers, hotels, see: Lodging managers.................................. 56 Finance officers, see: Financial managers............................................... 42 Financial aid directors, see: Education administrators............................ 34 Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.................................. 85 Financial clerks, see: Bill and account collectors...................................................................431 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators.............................. 432 Bookkeeping, Accounting, and auditing clerks.................................. 434 Gaming cage workers...........................................................................435 Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................................................... 437 Procurement clerks.......................................................................... 438 Tellers................................................................................................... 440 Financial consultants, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors..................................................................... 85 Financial consultants, see: Insurance sales agents................................. 411 Financial consultants, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents..............................................................426 Financial economists, see: Economists...................................................173 Financial examiners................................................................................ 661 Financial investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators......... 366 Financial managers................................................................................... 42 Financial planners, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.................................................................................... 85 Financial planners, see: Insurance sales agents..................................... 411 Financial planners, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents..............................................................426 Financial services sales agents, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents...................................................... 426 Fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators, see: Artists and related workers............... !.........................................235 Fine arts instructors, see: Teachers—self-enrichment education........... 231 Fine arts photographers, see: Artists and related workers ................... 235 Fine arts photographers, see: Photographers......................................... 269 Finishers, see: Dry wall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers.....511 Fire alarm systems installers, see: Security and fire alarm systems installers.................................................................670 Fire fighting occupations.........................................................................359 Fire inspectors, see: Fire fighting occupations...................................... 359 Fire investigators, see: Fire fighting occupations.................................. 359 Fire prevention specialists, see: Fire fighting occupations................... 359 First-line supervisors/managers/contractors of farming, fishing, and forestry workers, see: Supervisors, farming, fishing, and forestry workers................................................................... 667 First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers................................................................................ 667 First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers.................................................................................... 664 First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers......................................................................................... 669 First-line supervisors/managers of personal service workers................ 664 First-line supervisors/managers of production and operating workers................................................................................. 671 First-line supervisors/managers of transportation and material moving machine and vehicle operators............................................... 673 First mates, fishing boat, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators...... 487 First responders, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics..................................................................................... 324 Fiscal and policy analysts, see: Budget analysts..................................... 77 Fiscal technicians, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................ 437 Fish and game wardens, see: Police and detectives............................... 362 Fish cleaners, see: Food processing occupations................................... 581 Fish cutters and trimmers, see: Food processing occupations............... 581 Fish hatchery managers, see: Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................. 40 Fishers and fishing vessel operators....................................................... 487 Fitness directors, see: Fitness workers....................................................392 Fitness trainers, see: Fitness workers......................................................392 Fitness workers....................................................................................... 392 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 693 Flight attendants......................................................................................394 Flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers..................... 629 Flight service specialists, see: Air traffic controllers............................. 632 Floor brokers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents............................................................. 426 Floor installers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers...... 499 Floor layers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers...........499 Floor sanders and finishers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers........................................................................................ 499 Floral designers......................................................................................242 Florists, see: Floral designers............................................................... 242 Food and beverage managers, see: Food service managers....................45 Food and beverage managers, hotels, see: Lodging managers................56 Food and beverage serving and related workers....................................374 Food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators, see: Food processing occupations...................................................... 581 Food batchmakers, see: Food processing occupations.........................581 Food cooking machine operators and tenders, see: Food processing occupations.............................................................. 581 Food preparation workers, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.................................................................... 371 Food processing occupations................................................................. 581 Food science technicians, see: Science technicians............................... 185 Food scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................ 147 Food service managers............................................................................. 45 Food technologists, see: Agricultural and food scientists..................... 147 Foot doctors, see: Podiatrists................................................................. 298 Foot specialists, see: Podiatrists............................................................ 298 Footwear and accessory designers, see: Fashion designers.................. 240 Foreign language interpreters and translators, see: Interpreters and translators................................................................. 263 Forensic accountants, see: Accountants and auditors..............................70 Forensic nurses, see: Registered nurses.................................................303 Forensic technicians, see: Science technicians...................................... 185 Forest and conservation technicians, see: Science technicians............ 185 Forest and conservation workers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers............................................................................ 490 Forest, conservation, and logging workers............................................490 Forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists, see: Fire fighting occupations..................................................................... 359 Foresters, see: Conservation scientists and foresters............................. 153 Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............. 589 Fork lift operators, see: Material moving occupations.........................650 Forming machine operators, synthetic and glass fibers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.....................................602 Foundry mold and coremakers, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic........................................................... 589 Freight agents, see: Cargo and freight agents........................................459 Freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Material moving occupations.............................................................. 650 Front desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks................. 448 Front office managers, see: Lodging managers....................................... 56 Front-end mechanics, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics......................................................................................549 Fry cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers...............371 Full-charge bookkeepers, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................................................................. 434 Fumigators, see: Pest control workers................................................... 382 Funeral attendants...................................................................................664 Funeral directors.......................................................................................48 Funeral managers, see: Funeral directors................................................ 48 Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, and kettle operators and tenders..................672 Furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers................................................. 562 Furniture finishers, see: Woodworkers.................................................. 606 G Game wardens, see: Police and detectives............................................ 362 Gaming and sports book writers and runners, see: Gaming services occupations.............................................................. 397 Gaming cage cashiers, see: Gaming cage workers................................435 Gaming cage workers............................................................................ 435 Gaining change persons, see: Cashiers..................................................405 Gaming dealers, see: Gaming services occupations.............................. 397 Gaming investigators, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers............................................................... 368 694 Occupational Outlook Handbook Gaming machine servicers and repairers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servers and repairers...................................560 Gaming managers................................................................................... 661 Gaming services occupations.................................................................. 397 Gaming supervisors, see: Gaming services occupations....................... 397 Gaming surveillance officers, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers................................................................ 368 Garbage collectors, see: Material moving occupations.........................650 Gas and water service dispatchers, see: Dispatchers............................ 461 Gas appliance repairers, see: Home appliance repairers............... .......565 Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators, see: Material moving occupations............................................................... 650 Gas furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers..................................................562 Gas plant operators...................................................................................... Gas station attendants, see: Service station attendants......................... 673 Gastroenterologists, see: Physicians and surgeons............................... 295 Gastroenterology nurses, see: Registered nurses....................................303 Gate agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................................... 457 GED teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education ..221 Gemologists, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers...... 616 General and operations managers, see: Top executives.......................... 67 General clerks, see: Office clerks, general............................................. 481 General internists, see: Physicians and surgeons................................... 295 General maintenance and repair workers, see: Maintenance and repair workers, general............................................572 General managers, see: Administrative services managers.................... 25 General managers, see: Lodging managers..............................................56 General office clerks, see: Office clerks, general..................................481 General practitioners, see: Physicians and surgeons............................. 295 General trial court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers........................................................................... 201 Genetics nurses, see: Registered nurses..................................................303 Geochemists, see: Geoscientists............................................................. 167 Geodesists, see: Geoscientists................................................................ 167 Geodetic surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................130 Geographers, see: Social scientists, other............................................... 182 Geographic information specialists, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................130 Geological and geophysical oceanographers, see:Geoscientists............167 Geological engineers, see: Engineers..................................................... 133 Geological technicians, see: Science technicians...................................185 Geologists, see: Geoscientists................................................................. 167 Geomagnetists, see: Geoscientists.......................................................... 167 Geophysical prospecting surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................130 Geophysicists, see: Geoscientists........................................................... 167 Geoscientists........................................................................................... 167 Geotechnical engineers, see: Engineers.................................................. 133 Geriatric aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........ 350 Geriatric nurses, see: Registered nurses.................................................303 Gerontologists, see: Social scientists, other............................................ 182 Gerontology aides, see: Social and human serviceassistants..................194 Gerontology social workers, see: Social workers................................... 196 Geropsychologists, see: Psychologists................................................... 177 Glass installers, see: Glaziers.................................................................517 Glass installers and repairers, automotive, see: Automotive body and related repairers................................................547 Glaziers...................................................................................................517 Gluing machine operators, see: Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders...........................................................................670 Golf course architects, see: Landscape architects...................................128 Government accountants and auditors, see: Accountants and auditors... 70 Grader operators, see: Construction equipment operators..................... 507 Graders, agricultural products, see: Agricultural workers..................... 485 Graduate TAs, see: Teachers—postsecondary........................................223 Graduate teaching assistants, see: Teachers—postsecondary................ 223 Graphic artists, see: Artists and related workers................................... 235 Graphic artists, see: Graphic designers...................................................243 Graphic designers....................................................................................243 Greenhouse managers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................. 40 Greenhouse workers, see: Agricultural workers.................................... 485 Greenskeepers, see: Grounds maintenance workers.............................. 380 Grief counselors, see: Funeral directors.................................................. 48 Grill cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.............. 371 Grinding and polishing workers, hand................................................... 672 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Grinding, lapping, polishing, and buffing machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic..........................................589 Grips, see: Material moving occupations..............................................650 Grocery baggers, see: Material moving occupations............................ 650 Groomers, see: Animal care and service workers.................................384 Grooms, see: Animal care and service workers.....................................384 Ground controllers, see: Air traffic controllers......................................632 Grounds maintenance workers................................................................ 380 Groundskeepers, see: Grounds maintenance workers........................... 380 Groundskeeping workers, see: Grounds maintenance workers............ 380 Group exercise instructors, see: Fitness workers.................................. 392 Guards, prison, see: Correctional officers...............................................357 Guards, security, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers........... „.............................................................. 368 Guidance counselors, see: Counselors.................................................... 189 Guide interpreters, see: Interpreters and translators............................. 263 Guitar repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.... 575 Gynecologic sonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.....322 Gynecologists, see: Physicians and surgeons.........................................295 Gynecology nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................303 H Hairdressers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................................. 387 Hairstylists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers......................................................387 Hand compositors and typesetters, see: Prepress technicians and workers.......................................................................................... 598 Hand packers and packagers, see: Material moving occupations..........650 Handymen, see: Building cleaning workers...........................................378 Hangers, see: Dry wall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers...... 511 Harbor pilots, see: Water transportation occupations............................ 647 Hardware engineers, see: Engineers....................................................... 133 Hazardous materials removal workers....................................................519 Head cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers............. 371 Head hunters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Health and safety inspectors, occupational, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................ 331 Health and safety specialists and technicians, occupational, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................ 331 Health care administrators, see: Medical and health services managers.................................................................................. 59 Health care executives, see: Medical and health services managers...... 59 Health care interpreters and translators, see: Interpreters and translators...................................................................................... 263 Health educators...................................................................................... 663 Health engineers, see: Engineers............................................................ 133 Health information managers, see: Medical and health services managers....................................................................................59 Health information technicians, see: Medical records and health information technicians............................................................. 328 Health inspectors, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians......................................................................................331 Health physicists, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians......................................................................................331 Health psychologists, see: Psychologists................................................ 177 Health services managers, see: Medical and health services managers.................................................................................. 59 Hearing officers, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.................................................................................... 201 Hearing therapists, see: Audiologists.....................................................278 Heat treating equipment setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic................................................................... 589 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration engineers, see: Engineers.......................................................................................133 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers........................................................................................ 562 Heating equipment technicians, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers...........................................562 Heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers............................................................................. 640 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics...................................................................................... 555 Help-desk technicians, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators..........................................................................113 Index Helpers—brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, and tile and marble setters...................................................................................... 667 Helpers—carpenters................................................................................ 668 Helpers—cleaning, see: Building cleaning workers............................. 378 Helpers—electricians..............................................................................668 Helpers—extraction workers..................................................................668 Helpers—installation, maintenance, and repair workers....................... 670 Helpers—maintenance, see: Building cleaning workers....................... 378 Helpers—painters, paperhangers, plasterers, and stucco masons.......... 668 Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.............................. 525 Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters................. 668 Helpers—production workers.................................................................672 Helpers—roofers..................................................................................... 668 High school counselors, see: Counselors................................................ 189 High school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary..................................................... 227 Highway maintenance workers...............................................................668 Highway patrol officers, see: Police and detectives.............................. 362 Histology technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 318 Historians, see: Social scientists, other...................................................182 HIV/AIDS nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................. 303 Hoist and winch operators, see: Material moving occupations............. 650 Holistic nurses, see: Registered nurses...................................................303 Home appliance repairers.......................................................................565 Home care aides, see: Personal and home care aides........................... 399 Home health aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........................................................................................... 350 Home health nurses, see: Registered nurses.......................................... 303 Home inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors................ 504 Home management advisors, see: Farm and home management advisors................................................................................................ 663 Homemakers, see: Personal and home care aides................................. 399 Homeowner association managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers......................................................... 61 Horse breeders, see: Agricultural workers............................................. 485 Horticultural specialty farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.............................................................................40 Hospice nurses, see: Registered nurses................................................. 303 Hospital attendants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................................................................. 350 Hostlers, see: Rail transportation occupations....................................... 644 Hosts and hostesses, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers..................................................................................... 371 Hotel desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks................. 448 Hotel detectives, see: Private detectives and investigators.................... 366 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks....................................................... 448 Housekeepers, see: Lodging managers.....................................................56 Housekeepers, see: Building cleaning workers..................................... 378 Housing managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers...................................................................... Housing relocators, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers...................................................................... Human resources administrative assistants, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................................................................... Human resources analysts, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.................................................................. 449 Human resources analysts, see: Management analysts................................ 92 Human resources assistants, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks........ 437 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................ 449 Human resources associates, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.................................................................. 449 Human resources clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.................................................................. 449 Human resources consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.............................................50 Human resources coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................. 50 Human resources generalists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..............................................50 Human resources information system specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......... 50 Human resources managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................50 Human resources recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................50 Human resources representatives, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks...........................................................................................437 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 695 Human resources supervisors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.................................................... 50 Human resources trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.................................................... 50 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................................................. 50 Human service workers, see: Social and human service assistants.......194 Human services managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.................................................... 50 Hunters and trappers......................................................................................... 667 HVAC technicians, see: Sheet metal workers............................................ 531 FTVACR technicians, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers........................................................562 Hydraulic and pneumatic technicians, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics........................... 555 Hydrographic surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians........................................ 130 Hydrologists, see: Environmental scientists and hydrologists................ 164 Hygienists, dental, see: Dental hygienists................................................... 320 Hygienists, industrial, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians............................................. I Identification clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...................................................................... 449 Illustrators, see: Artists and related workers..........................................235 Image consultants, see: Public relations specialists...............................271 Image designers, see: Desktop publishers.............................................477 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) agents and inspectors, see: Police and detectives................................................. 362 Immigration inspectors, see: Police and detectives............................... 362 Immunohematology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................. 318 Immunology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.....................................................................................318 Independent adjusters, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators....................................................................................80 Independent agents, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing......................................................................................421 Independent insurance agents, see: Insurance sales agents...................411 Industrial accountants, see: Accountants and auditors............................70 Industrial designers, see: Commercial and industrial designers............238 Industrial economists, see: Economists................................................. 173 Industrial engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians......... 144 Industrial engineers, see: Engineers...................................................... 133 Industrial equipment technicians, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics........................555 Industrial hygienists, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.....................................................................................331 Industrial machinery mechanics, see: Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers.................................................. 567 Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers...................567 Industrial millwrights, see: Millwrights................................................ 573 Industrial-organizational psychologists, see: Psychologists.................. 177 Industrial photographers, see: Photographers........................................ 269 Industrial production managers................................................................ 54 Industrial property managers, see: Administrative services managers.... 25 Industrial relations directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 Industrial relations managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 Industrial therapists, see: Occupational therapists.................................285 Industrial truck and tractor operators, see: Material moving occupations.............................................................. 650 Infection control nurses, see: Registered nurses....................................303 Information and record clerks, see: Brokerage clerks................................................................................. 441 Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks.............................................. 442 Customer service representatives........................................................ 444 File clerks.............................................................................................447 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks....................................................448 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping............449 Interviewers..........................................................................................451 Library assistants, clerical.................. 453 Order clerks................................................................................... 454 Receptionists and information clerks..................................................455 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...........457 Information architect librarians, see: Librarians.................................... 214 696 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information architects, see: Librarians...................................................214 Information clerks, see: Receptionists and information clerks............. 455 Information officers, see: Public relations specialists............................ 271 Information processing workers, see: Data entry and information processing workers...........................................................475 Information security specialists, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators...................................................................113 Information specialists, see: Public relations specialists....................... 271 Information specialists, geographic, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................130 Information systems managers, see: Computer and information systems managers................................................................................... 30 Information technology trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................ 50 Infusion nurses, see: Registered nurses..................................................303 Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists................................... 307 Inorganic chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists....................162 Inside order clerks, see: Order clerks.....................................................454 Inspectors, construction, see: Construction and building inspectors............................................................................................. 504 Inspectors, customs, see: Police and detectives......................................362 Inspectors, farm products, see: Agricultural workers............................ 485 Inspectors, fire, see: Fire fighting occupations.......................................359 Inspectors, health, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians..................................................................................... 331 Inspectors, immigration, see: Police and detectives.............................. 362 Inspectors, occupational health and safety, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians..................................................331 Inspectors, safety, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians..................................................................................... 331 Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers.'.............................. 614 Inspectors, transportation, see: Transportation inspectors..................... 673 Installers, automotive glass, see: Automotive body and related repairers.................................................................................... 547 Institution and cafeteria cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers..................................................................... 371 Instructional aides, see: Teacher assistants.............................................219 Instructional assistants, see: Teacher assistants..................................... 219 Instructional coordinators.......................................................................213 Instructional designers, see: Instructional coordinators......................... 213 Instructional specialists, see: Instructional coordinators....................... 213 Instructors, college and university, see: Teachers—Postsecondary...... 223 Instructors, sports, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.....................................................................................252 Instrumentation technicians, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers..............................................................................575 Insulation workers...................................................................................522 Insurance adjusters, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.................................................................................... 80 Insurance brokers, see: Insurance sales agents.......................................411 Insurance claims and policy processing clerks.......................................666 Insurance investigators, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators..................................................................80 Insurance managers, see: Financial managers......................................... 42 Insurance sales agents............................................................................. 411 Insurance underwriters.............................................................................. 88 Intercity bus drivers, see: Bus drivers.....................................................634 Interior decorators, see: Interior designers.............................................245 Interior designers....................................................................................245 Internal auditors, see: Accountants and auditors..................................... 70 International economists, see: Economists............................................. 173 International human resources managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................... 50 Internet developers, see: Computer scientists and database administrators........................................................................ 114 Internists, general, see: Physicians and surgeons.................................. 295 Interpreters and translators......................................................................263 Interviewers.............................................................................................451 Investigators, corporate, see: Private detectives and investigators....... 366 Investigators, criminal, see: Police and detectives.................................362 Investigators, financial, see: Private detectives and investigators......... 366 Investigators, fire, see: Fire fighting occupations...................................359 Investigators, gaming, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers............................................................................. 368 Investigators, insurance, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.................................................................................... 80 Investigators, legal, see: Private detectives and investigators............... 366 Investigators, private, see: Private detectives and investigators........... 366 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Investment analysts, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors...............................................................................85 Ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers................................................................................................... 534 J Jailers, see: Correctional officers.................................................................... 357 Janitors, see: Building cleaning workers...................................................... 378 Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers........................................ 616 Job analysis managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.....................................................50 Job analysts, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Job binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers................ 596 Job developers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Job development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................. 50 Job estimators, see: Cost estimators.................................................................83 Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.........................................................653 Job placement officers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Job placement specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Job printers, see: Prepress technicians and workers......................................... Job service consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Job service specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................50 Job training specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Journalists, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents..............267 Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers...........................................201 Judiciary interpreters and translators, see: Interpreters and translators..................................................................................................263 Junior high school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary............................................................. 227 Justices of the peace, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers......................................................................................201 K Keepers, see: Animal care and service workers..........................................384 Kennel attendants, see: Animal care and service workers........................ 384 Key punch operator, see: Data entry and information processing workers.......................................................................................... 475 Keying machine operator, see: Data entry and information processing workers................................................................... 475 Keypunch technicians, see: Data entry and information processing workers................................................................... 475 Keypunchers, see: Data entry and information processing workers......475 Kindergarten teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary....................................227 Knitting machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.................................................................................. 602 L Labor contractors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Labor economists, see: Economists........................................................ 173 Labor relations directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Labor relations managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Labor trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Labor training managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Laboratory animal technologists and technicians, see: Veterinary technologists and technicians.............................................341 Laboratory scientists, clinical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............................................................... 318 Laboratory technicians, clinical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...............................................................318 Laboratory technicians, dental, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................619 Index Laboratory technicians, ophthalmic, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians............................................................. 619 Laboratory technologists, clinical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................................................... 318 Laborers, see: Construction laborers..................................................... 509 Laborers, agricultural, see: Agricultural workers.......................................485 Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Material moving occupations....................................................................... 650 LAN administrators, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators................................................................................... 113 LAN managers, see: Computer and information systems managers----- 30 Land acquisition managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers................................................................. 61 Land acquisition specialists, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers................................................................. 61 Land agents, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.........................................................................................61 Land agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents............... 414 Land surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians............................................................................. 130 Landlords, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.........................................................................................61 Landscape architects.......................................................................................... 128 Landscape contractors, see: Grounds maintenance workers....................380 Landscape designers, see: Grounds maintenance workers....................... 380 Landscaping workers, see: Grounds maintenance workers......................380 Language pathologists, see: Speech-language pathologists.....................309 Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders— metal and plastic.............................................................................................. 589 Lathers, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers......... 511 Laundry and dry-cleaning workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..................................................................................602 Law clerks............................................................................................................ 663 Law librarians, see: Librarians....................................................................... 214 Lawyers.................................................................................................................204 Layout artists, see: Desktop publishers........................................................ 477 Lay-out workers, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic....................................................................589 Lead abatement workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers.................................................................................. 519 Lease buyers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers..............................................................................61 Lease drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs..................................... 637 Lease operators, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.............................................................................. 61 Leasing consultants, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents............ 414 Leasing managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.............. 61 Leather workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.... 602 Legal assistants, see: Paralegals and legal assistants............................ 207 Legal investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators............... 366 Legal nurse consultants, see: Registered nurses....................................303 Legal secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants...........482 Legislators.............................................................................................. 661 Lens grinders and polishers, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technician: ...................................................... 619 Letterpress setters and set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators............................................................................................... 600 Librarians................................................................................................ 214 Library aides, see: Library assistants, clerical....................................... 453 Library assistants, clerical.......................................................................453 Library binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers......... 596 Library clerks, see: Library assistants, clerical...................................... 453 Library media assistants, see: Library assistants, clerical..................... 453 Library media specialists, see: Librarians............................................. 214 Library technical assistants, see: Library technicians............................ 217 Library technicians.................................................................................. 217 License clerks, see: Court, municipal, and license clerks..................... 666 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses................................. 326 Licensed vocational nurses, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses....................................................................326 Life skill counselors, see: Social and human service assistants............ 194 Lifeguards, ski patrol, and other recreational protective service workers.................................................................................... 664 Lift truck operators, see: Material moving occupations........................ 650 Light or delivery services truck drivers, see: Tmck drivers and driver/sales workers............................................................................. 643 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 697 Limnologists, see: Biological scientists................................................ 150 Limousine drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................ 637 Line cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers..............371 Line erectors, see: Line installers and repairers.................................... 569 Line installers and repairers.................................................................. 569 Linguistic anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other....................... 182 Liquid waste treatment plant and system operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators......................612 Literary interpreters, see: Interpreters and translators.......................... 263 Lithographers, see: Prepress technicians and workers......................... 598 Livestock farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................ 40 Load dispatchers, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.....................................................................................608 Loaders, tank car, truck, and ship, see: Material moving occupations.............................................................................650 Loading machine operators, underground mining, see: Material moving occupations.............................................................. 650 Loan authorizers, see: Loan officers........................................................ 90 Loan closers, see: Interviewers.............................................................. 451 Loan collection officers, see: Loan officers.............................................90 Loan counselors......................................................................................662 Loan interviewers and clerks, see: Interviewers....................................451 Loan officers.,...........................................................................................90 Loan processing clerks, see: Interviewers............................................. 451 Loan service clerks, see: Interviewers...................................................451 Loan underwriters, see: Loan officers..................................................... 90 Lobby attendants, see: Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers..........................................................................................665 Lobbyists, see: Public relations specialists............................................271 Local account executive, see: Advertising sales agents.........................403 Local controllers, see: Air traffic controllers......................................... 632 Local operators, see: Communications equipment operators................471 Local transit bus drivers, see: Bus drivers............................................. 634 Local truck drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers......... 640 Localization translators, see: Interpreters and translators......................263 Locker room attendants, see: Locker room, coatroom, and dressing room attendants..................................................................... 665 Locksmiths and safe repairers................................................................ 670 Locomotive engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations................644 Lodging managers.....................................................................................56 Log graders, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers................490 Log sorters, markers, movers, debarkers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.............................................................................490 Logging equipment operators, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers....................................................................................490 Logisticians.............................................................................................662 Long distance operators, see: Communications equipment operators... 471 Long haul tmck drivers, see: Tmck drivers and driver/sales workers... 640 Longshoremen, see: Material moving occupations...............................650 Long-term care facility nurses, see: Registered nurses.........................303 Loss prevention agents, see: Private detectives and investigators........ 366 LPNs, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.............326 LVNs, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.............326 Lyricists, see: Writers and editors.......................................................... 275 M Machine feeders and offbearers, see: Material moving occupations....650 Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic................. 589 Machinery maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers.................................................. 567 Machinists...............................................................................................587 Macroeconomists, see: Economists........................................................173 Macromolecular chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists.......162 Magistrates, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.......201 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technologists, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians........................................... 337 Maids and housekeeping cleaners, see: Building cleaning workers..... 378 Mail carriers, see: Postal Service workers.............................................464 Mail clerks and mail machine operators, except Postal Service............666 Mail handlers, see: Postal Service workers........................................... 464 Mail machine operators, see: Mail clerks and mail machine operators, except Postal Service.......................................................... 666 Mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators, see: Postal Service workers........................................................................ 464 Mail superintendents, see: Postmasters and mail superintendents....... 662 Maintenance and repair workers, general.............................................. 572 698 Occupational Outlook Handbook Maintenance electricians, see: Electricians............................................513 Maintenance machinists, see: Machinists...............................................587 Maintenance technicians, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................ 261 Maitre d’s, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers......... 374 Management accountants, see: Accountants and auditors....................... 70 Management analysts................................................................................ 92 Management analysts, see: Operations research analysts.....................121 Management assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants....................................................................... 482 Management consultants, see: Management analysts............................. 92 Management development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................... 50 Management dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists....................... 284 Management of information systems directors, see: Computer and information systems managers........................................................30 Management scientists, see: Operations research analysts.....................121 Managers, see: Administrative services managers.........................................................25 Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers...................................................................................... 27 Computer and information systems managers.......................................30 Construction managers........................................................................... 32 Engineering and natural sciences managers...........................................38 Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.......................................40 Financial managers................................................................................ 42 Food service managers........................................................................... 45 Funeral directors.................................................................................... 48 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.................................................................................... 449 Lodging managers.................................................................................. 56 Medical and health services managers................................................... 59 Property, real estate, and community association managers................ 61 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.......................... 64 Top executives........................................................................................ 67 Managers, support services, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.......................................... 479 Managing editors, see: Writers and editors............................................275 Manicurists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................................. 387 Manifold binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers..... 596 Manpower development advisors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................50 Manpower development managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................50 Manpower development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................................50 Manufactured building and mobile home installers............................... 670 Manufacturers’ agents, see: Sales engineers.......................................... 419 Manufacturers’ representatives, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing...............................................................421 Manufacturing opticians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians ......................................................619 Map editors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................................................... 130 Mapping technicians, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................130 Marble setters, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers........ 499 Margin clerks, see: Brokerage clerks......................................................441 Marine biologists, see: Biological scientists........................................... 150 Marine Corps, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.................. 653 Marine equipment mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics................ 558 Marine oilers, see: Water transportation occupations............................ 647 Marine or hydrographic surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................130 Mariners, see: Water transportation occupations....................................647 Marines, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces........................... 653 Market and survey researchers................................................................ 175 Market research analysts, see: Market and survey researchers............. 175 Market research managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers......................................................27 Marketing coordinators, see: Public relations specialists...................... 271 Marketing managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers......................................................27 Marketing research analysts, see: Market and survey researchers....... 175 Marketing specialists, see: Public relations specialists.......................... 271 Marking and identification printing machine setters and set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators......................................... 600 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Marriage and family therapists, see: Counselors....................................... 189 Marshals, see: Correctional officers............................................................. 357 Marshals and deputy marshals, U.S., see: Police and detectives........... 362 Masons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons.................. 495 Masons, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers...................................................502 Massage therapists............................................................................................. 344 Masseuses, see: Massage therapists............................................................... 344 Masters, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations....................................................................................................... 647 Material moving occupations.......................................................................... 650 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers, see: Cargo and freight agents............................................................................... 459 Couriers and messengers............................................................................... 460 Dispatchers....................................................................................................... 461 Meter readers, utilities....................................................................................463 Production, planning, and expediting clerks............................................ 466 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks................................................... 467 Stock clerks and order fillers........................................................................ 469 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping............. 470 Materials engineers, see: Engineers............................................................... 133 Materials scientists, see: Chemists and materials scientists.....................162 Mates, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations.....647 Mathematical statisticians, see: Statisticians................................................123 Mathematical technicians..................................................................................663 Mathematicians................................................................................................... 119 Measurers, see: Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping................................................................................. 470 Meat cutters, see: Food processing occupations..........................................581 Mechanical door repairers.................................................................................670 Mechanical drafters, see: Drafters.................................................................. 141 Mechanical engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians......144 Mechanical engineers, see: Engineers........................................................... 133 Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.......504 Mechanics and repairers, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians....................................................................................................... 544 Automotive body repairers and related workers...................................... 547 Automotive service technicians and mechanics........................................549 Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers..................... 536 Diesel service technicians and mechanics.................................................552 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.................................... 538 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers............................................................................................................540 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics.................................................................................................555 Home appliance repairers............................................................................... 565 Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers................... 567 Line installers and repairers...........................................................................569 Maintenance and repair workers, general...................................................572 Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians........................ 619 Millwrights............................................................... Precision instrument and equipment repairers...........................................575 Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.................................................................................................... 542 Small engine mechanics..................................................................................558 Media aides, library, see: Library technicians.............................................. 217 Media directors, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers............................................................. 27 Media outreach specialists, see: Public relations specialists................... 271 Media planners, see: Public relations specialists........................................ 271 Media specialists, see: Public relations specialists.....................................271 Mediators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................................... 449 Mediators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.............201 Medical and health services managers............................................................. 59 Medical appliance technicians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................................. 619 Medical assistants............................................................................................... 347 Medical coders, see: Medical records and health information technicians......................................................................................................... 328 Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians...........................619 Medical equipment preparers........................................................................... 665 Medical equipment repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers......................................................................................... 575 Medical geographers, see: Social scientists, other...................................... 182 Medical illustrators, see: Artists and related workers................................ 235 Index Medical interpreters and translators, see: Interpreters and translators..................................................................................... 263 Medical laboratory technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................. 318 Medical laboratory technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................. 318 Medical record coders, see: Medical records and health information technicians....................................................................... 328 Medical records and health information technicians............................ 328 Medical records technicians, see: Medical records and health information technicians............................................................ 328 Medical scientists................................................................................... 156 Medical secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants...... 482 Medical social workers, see: Social workers........................................ 196 Medical technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... 318 Medical technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................... .318 Medical transcriptionists......................................................................... 348 Medical writers, see: Writers and editors............................................. . 275 Medical-surgical nurses, see: Registered nurses.................................. .303 Medicinal chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists................. . 162 Meeting and convention planners............................................................. 95 Meeting directors, see: Meeting and convention planners................... ... 95 Meeting managers, see: Meeting and convention planners ................. .. 95 Member services counselors, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks............................................................. 457 Mental health aides, see: Social and human service assistants............. 194 Mental health assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides............................................................................... 350 Mental health counselors, see: Counselors.......................................... 189 Mental health social workers, see: Social workers.............................. 196 Merchandise displayers and window trimmers.................................... 663 Merchandise distributors, see: Stock clerks and order fillers.............. 469 Merchandise managers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents............................................................................... ..64 Messengers, see: Couriers and messengers......................................... Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............. 589 Metallurgical engineers, see: Engineers.............................................. 133 Metalworking machine operators, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.......................................................... 589 Meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists........................................ 159 Meter readers, utilities.......................................................................... 463 Microbiologists, see: Biological scientists.......................................... 150 Microbiology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................................................................... 318 Microeconomists, see: Economists....................................................... 173 Middle school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.................................................... .227 Midwives, certified nurse, see: Registered nurses............................... .303 Military occupations, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces...... .653 Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic........................................................................................... 589 Millwrights............................................................................................ 573 Mine cutting and channeling machine operators................................. 668 Mine examiners, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................................................................................... 331 Mine safety engineers, see: Engineers................................................. 133 Mineralogists, see: Geoscientists......................................................... 167 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, see: Engineers................................................................................... 133 Mining machine operators, see: Continuous mining machine operators............................................................................................ .667 Ministers, Protestant, see: Clergy........................................................ .662 Mixing and blending machine setters, operators, and tenders............ .672 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics and service technicians, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics................................................................................... .555 Mobile home installers, see: Manufactured building and mobile home installers...................................................................... .670 Model makers and patternmakers, see: Woodworkers....................... .606 Model makers, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic......................................................... .589 Models, see: Demonstrators, product promoters, and models............ .408 Mold and model makers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers.................................................................................... ..616 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 699 Molders, shapers, and casters, except metal and plastic....................... 672 Molding, coremaking, and casting machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic................................................................... 589 Monetary economists, see: Economists.................................................173 Mortgage bankers, see: Loan officers....................................................... 90 Mortgage brokers, see: Loan officers................................................... 90 Mortgage loan officers, see: Loan officers............................................... 90 Morticians, see: Funeral directors............................................................. 48 Motel desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks................ 448 Motion picture camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.......................................274 Motion picture projectionists.................................................................665 Motorboat mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics............................. 558 Motorboat operators, see: Water transportation occupations................647 Motorcoach drivers, see: Bus drivers..................................................... 634 Motorcycle mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics.......................... 558 Multimedia artists, see: Artists and related workers............................... 235 Multiple machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic...........................................................................................589 Municipal clerks, see: Court, municipal, and license clerks....................666 Municipal court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.......................................................................••• 201 Museum directors, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians.................................................................................. Museum technicians, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians................................................................ Music arrangers, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers..............257 Music conductors, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers............ 257 Music directors, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers.................257 Music instructors, see: Teachers—self-enrichment education.................231 Musical instrument repairers and tuners, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers..................... 575 Musicians, singers, and related workers......................................................257 Nail care artists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................. 387 Nail technicians, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................. 387 Nannies, see: Child care workers........................................................... 389 National account executive, see: Advertising sales agents...................403 Natural sciences managers, see: Engineering and natural sciences managers..................................................................... 38 Navy, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces............................... 653 Neonatal nurses, see: Registered nurses................................................ 303 Nephrology nurses, see: Registered nurses........................................... 303 Network and computer systems administrators, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators.................. 113 Network systems and data communications analysts, see: Computer scientists and database administrators................................ 107 Neuropsychologists, see: Psychologists................................................ 177 Neuroscience nurses, see: Registered nurses......................................... 303 Neurosonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers................. 322 New account clerks.................................................................................666 News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.......................................267 News anchors, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents...... 267 News camera operators , see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors...................................... 274 News photographers , see: Photographers............................................. 269 News vendors, see: Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers............................................................ 665 News writers, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents......... 267 Newscasters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.......... 267 Newsletter writers, see: Writers and editors................................................282 911 operators, see: Dispatchers..................................................................... 461 Notereaders, see: Data entry and information processing workers.......475 Nuclear engineers, see: Engineers................................................................. 133 Nuclear medicine technologists......................................................................330 Nuclear power reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers......................................................................... 608 Nuclear technicians, see: Science technicians.............................................185 Numerical tool and process control programmers, see: Computer control programmers and operators........................................585 Nurse administrators, see: Registered nurses..............................................303 Nurse educators, see: Registered nurses.......................................................303 700 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nurse informaticists, see: Registered nurses.............................................. 303 Nurse practitioners, see: Registered nurses.................................................303 Nurse specialists, clinical, see: Registered nurses..................................... 303 Nurse-midwives, certified, see: Registered nurses..................................... 303 Nursery and greenhouse managers, see: Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers................................................................................40 Nursery workers, see: Agricultural workers................................................ 485 Nurses, licensed practical, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses............................................................................. 326 Nurses, licensed vocational, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses............................................................................. 326 Nurses, registered, see: Registered nurses.................................................... 303 Nursing aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides...........350 Nursing assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides....................................................................................................... 350 Nursing assistants, certified, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides............................................................................................ 350 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.............................................. 350 Nutrition directors, see: Dietitians and nutritionists...................................284 Nutritionists, see: Dietitians and nutritionists.............................................. 284 o Obstetric sonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers..............322 Obstetricians and gynecologists, see: Physicians and surgeons.............295 Occupational analysts, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................... 449 Occupational health and safety inspectors, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................. 331 Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians...................... 331 Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses...................................303 Occupational social workers, see: Social workers.......................................196 Occupational therapist assistants and aides..................................................353 Occupational therapists..................................................................................... 285 Oceanographers, see: Geoscientists................................................................167 ODs, see: Optometrists..................................................................................... 287 Office administrative assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants................................................................................ 482 Office administrators, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers............................................................... 479 Office administrators, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants............................................................................................................482 Office aides, see: Office clerks, general........................................................ 481 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...........................................................................................................479 Office assistants, see: Office clerks, general................................................ 481 Office assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.............482 Office clerks, general.........................................................................................481 Office helpers, see: Office clerks, general....................................................481 Office machine and cash register servicers, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers.....................536 Office machine operators, except computer..................................................666 Office managers, see: Administrative services managers............................25 Office managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers............................................................... 479 Office managers, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.............482 Office specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants............482 Office support secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants............................................................................................................482 Office support team leaders, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers................................................ 479 Officers, correctional, see: Correctional officers........................................ 357 Officers, detention, see: Correctional officers............................................. 357 Officers, gaming surveillance, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers.........................................................................368 Officers, highway patrol, see: Police and detectives................................. 362 Officers, loan, see: Loan officers...................................................................... 90 Officers, merchant marine, see: Water transportation occupations.......647 Officers, military, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces................ 653 Officers, police, see: Police and detectives...................................................362 Officers, security, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers............................................................................................................... 368 Officials, sports, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers................................................................................................ 252 Offset lithographic press setters and set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators...........................................................................600 Oilers, marine, see: Water transportation occupations..............................647 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Older worker specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...............................................50 Oncology nurses, see: Registered nurses...............................................303 Operating engineers, see: Construction equipment operators.............. 507 Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technologists..................... 339 Operational meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists..................... 159 Operations analysts, see: Operations research analysts..........................121 Operations managers, see: Top executives...............................................67 Operations managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................479 Operations research analysts................................................................... 121 Operators, auxiliary equipment, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.................................................................608 Operators, boiler, see: Stationary engineers and boiler operators........ 610 Operators, computer control, see: Computer control programmers and operators........................................................................................ 585 Operators, control room, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Operators, crane and tower, see: Material moving occupations........... 650 Operators, dinkey, see: Rail transportation occupations........................ 644 Operators, dredge, excavating, and loading machine, see: Material moving occupations............................................................... 650 Operators, fork lift, see: Material moving occupations......................... 650 Operators, gas compressor and gas pumping station, see: Material moving occupations............................................................... 650 Operators, hoist and winch, see: Material moving occupations............ 650 Operators, industrial truck and tractor, see: Material moving occupations........................................................................................... 650 Operators, motorboat, see: Water transportation occupations............... 647 Operators, photographic processing machine, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.... 625 Operators, power plant, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Operators, pumping station, see: Material moving occupations............ 650 Operators, railroad brake, signal, and switch, see: Rail transportation occupations............................................................ 644 Operators, reactor, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Operators, semiconductor processing, see: Semiconductor processors..............................................................................................626 Operators, shuttle car, see: Material moving occupations..................... 650 Operators, subway and streetcar, see: Rail transportation occupations............................................................................................644 Operators, switchboard, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Operators, systems, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................................................................... 608 Operators, television, video, and motion picture camera, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors............................................................................................ 274 Operators, wastewater treatment plant, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.........................................612 Operators, water treatment plant, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators...................................................612 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................619 Ophthalmic medical assistants, see: Medical assistants........................ 347 Ophthalmic nurses, see: Registered nurses.............................................303 Ophthalmologic sonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........................................................................................ 322 Ophthalmologists, see: Physicians and surgeons................................... 295 Optical goods workers, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................................... 619 Optical instrument assemblers, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................619 Optical mechanics, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.......................................................................... 619 Opticians, dispensing.............................................................................. 334 Opticians, manufacturing, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians ......................................................619 Optometrists.............................................................................................287 Oral and maxillofacial radiologists, see: Dentists..................................282 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons, see: Dentists.......................................282 Oral hygienists, see: Dental hygienists...................................................320 Oral pathologists, see: Dentists............................................................... 282 Order clerks............................................................................................. 454 Order-entry clerks, see: Order clerks......................................................454 Order fillers, see: Material moving occupations.................................... 650 Index Order fillers, see: Stock clerks and order fillers.................................... 469 Order processors, see: Order clerks.......................................................454 Order takers, see: Order clerks..............................................................454 Orderlies, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................ 350 Ordnance handling experts, see: Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters............................................ 667 Organic chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists.................... 162 Organizational development consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................... 50 Organizational development consultants, see: Management analysts................................................................................................... 92 Organizational development managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................... 50 Organizational economists, see: Economists.......................................... 173 Ornamental ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers....................................................................................... 534 Orthodontists, see: Dentists....................................................................282 Orthopedic nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................. 303 Orthotics technicians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians..........................................................................619 Orthotists and prosthetists.......................................................................663 Osteopathic physicians and surgeons, see: Physicians and surgeons.... 295 Otorhinolaryngology nurses, see: Registered nurses............................. 303 Outdoor power equipment mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics............................................................................................. 558 Outside order clerks, see: Order clerks.................................................. 454 Oxy-gas cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers............ 594 Oxygen therapists, see: Respiratory therapists...................................... 307 P Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders............................ 672 Packers and packagers, hand, see: Material moving occupations......... 650 Painters, see: Artists and related workers.............................................. 235 Painters and paperhangers.......................................................................523 Painters, construction and maintenance, see: Painters and paperhangers........................................................................................ 523 Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance......................................................................................... 622 Painting, coating, and decorating workers, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance...................... 622 Painting restorers, see: Artists and related workers............................... 235 Paleomagnetists, see: Geoscientists........................................................ 167 Paleontologists, see: Geoscientists......................................................... 167 Palliative care nurses, see: Registered nurses........................................ 303 Pamphlet binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers..... 596 Paper coating machine operators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance................................... 622 Paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders............................. 589 Paperhangers, see: Painters and paperhangers....................................... 523 Paraeducators, see: Teacher assistants....................................................219 Paralegals and legal assistants................................................................209 Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics...... 324 Paraprofessionals, education, see: Teacher assistants............................ 219 Paratransit drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................. 637 Parking enforcement workers.................................................................665 Parking lot attendants.............................................................................. 673 Parole officers, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists............................................................................. 192 Parts salespersons.................................................................................... 666 Passenger booking clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................... 457 Passenger rate clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..............................................................457 Passenger service agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..............................................................457 Paste-up workers, see: Prepress technicians and workers..................... 598 Pathologists, see: Physicians and surgeons........................................... 295 Pathologists, oral, see: Dentists..............................................................282 Pathologists, speech-language, see: Speech-language pathologists ..... 309 Patient representatives, see: Interviewers.............................................. 451 Patternmakers, fabric and apparel, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................602 Patternmakers, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................................589 Paving equipment operators, see: Construction equipment operators... 507 Paymasters, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................................. 437 Payroll administrators, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks................. 437 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 701 Payroll analysts, see: Payroll and tirhekeeping clerks..............................437 Payroll and benefits specialists, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................................................................................. 437 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................................................................437 Payroll assistants, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................ 437 Payroll bookkeepers, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................437 Payroll clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks..................................437 Payroll coordinators, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks...................... 437 Payroll representatives, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.................. 437 Payroll secretaries, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks..........................437 Payroll specialists, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks..........................437 Payroll technicians, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.........................437 PBX installers and repairers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers...............................................................542 Pediatric dentists, see: Dentists.......................................................................282 Pediatric nurses, see: Registered nurses.......................................................303 Pediatricians, see: Physicians and surgeons................................................295 Pedicurists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers........................................................................................ 387 Perianesthesia nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................. 303 Periodontists, see: Dentists..............................................................................282 Perioperative nurses, see: Registered nurses...............................................303 Personal and home care aides...................... 399 Personal appearance workers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers............................................................ 387 Personal attendants, see: Personal and home care aides........................... 399 Personal care aides, see: Personal and home care aides........................... 399 Personal chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.......... 371 Personal financial advisors, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors..............................................................................85 Personal secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants......482 Personal trainers, see: Fitness workers......................................................... 392 Personnel administrators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Personnel analysts, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................................ 449 Personnel assistants, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................................449 Personnel associates, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................................449 Personnel clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................................449 Personnel consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Personnel coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................50 Personnel development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................. 50 Personnel directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................50 Personnel managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Personnel officers, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.................................................................. 449 Personnel officers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Personnel recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Personnel services specialists, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..................................................................449 Personnel technicians, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..................................................................449 Personnel training officers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Pest control technicians, see: Pest control workers................................... 382 Pest control workers.......................................................................................... 382 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation, see: Grounds maintenance workers.....................................................................380 Petroleum engineers, see: Engineers.............................................................133 Petroleum geologists, see: Geoscientists...................................................... 167 Petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and guagers...................................................................................................... 672 Petroleum technicians, see: Science technicians........................................ 185 Pharmacists..........................................................................................................289 Pharmacy aides...................................................................................................354 Pharmacy technicians........................................................................................ 336 Phlebotomists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................................................................................ 318 702 Occupational Outlook Handbook Photoengravers, see: Prepress technicians and workers........................598 Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................................................... 130 Photographers......................................................................................... 269 Photographic equipment repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.............................................................................. 575 Photographic process workers and processing machine operators....... 625 Photographic retouchers, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.............................................................. 625 Photographic spotters, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators..............................................................625 Photojoumalists, see: Photographers......................................................269 Physical chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists.................... 162 Physical geographers, see: Social scientists, other.................................182 Physical metallurgical engineers, see: Engineers...................................133 Physical meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists.............................159 Physical oceanographers, see: Geoscientists..........................................167 Physical therapist assistants and aides....................................................356 Physical therapists................................................................................... 292 Physician assistants.................................................................................293 Physicians and surgeons.........................................................................295 Physicians, chiropractic, see: Chiropractors...........................................280 Physicists and astronomers..................................................................... 170 Physiologists, see: Biological scientists................................................. 150 Piano repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers....575 Pilates instructors, see: Fitness workers.................................................392 Pile driver operators, see: Construction equipment operators............... 507 Pilots, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers......................................629 Pilots, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations..... 647 Pipe organ repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.............................................................................. 575 Pipefitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters...... 525 Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters..................................525 Placement counselors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Placement directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Placement officers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Placement specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Plan examiners, see: Construction and building inspectors................... 504 Planners, financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.................................................................................... 85 Planners, urban and regional, see: Urban and regional planners.......... 180 Plant managers, see: Industrial production managers.............................. 54 Plant operators, wastewater treatment, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators........................................612 Plant operators, water treatment, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators...................................................612 Plant scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................147 Plasma cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers............. 594 Plasterers and stucco masons..................................................................528 Plastics-working machine operators, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................................589 Plate finishers, see: Prepress technicians and workers......................... 598 Platemakers, see: Prepress technicians and workers............................. 598 Plating and coating machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................................................................589 Playwrights, see: Writers and editors.....................................................275 Plumbers, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters....... 525 Plumbing inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors......... 504 Podiatric medical assistants, see: Medical assistants..............................347 Podiatrists................................................................................................298 Poets, see: Writers and editors................................................................275 Police and detectives...............................................................................369 Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, see: Dispatchers.................... 461 Police officers, see: Police and detectives..............................................362 Police, transit and railroad, see: Police and detectives.......................... 362 Policy analysts, see: Operations research analysts.................................121 Polishers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers............ 616 Polishing workers, hand, see: Grinding and polishing workers, hand.......................................................................................672 Political analysts, see: Social scientists, other........................................182 Political geographers, see: Social scientists, other.................................182 Political scientists, see: Social scientists, other......................................182 Portrait photographers, see: Photographers............................................269 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Position classifiers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Postal Service workers.......................................................................................464 Postal workers, see: Postal Service workers................................................ 464 Posting clerks, see: Billing and posting clerks and machine operators........................................................................................... 432 Postmasters and mail superintendents...........................................................662 Postsecondary career-technical teachers, see: Teachers—postsecondary.............................................................................. 223 Postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers, see: Teachers— postsecondary............................................................................. 223 Poultry cutters and trimmers, see: Food processing occupations........... 581 Poultry farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................................................. 40 Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................147 Pourers and casters, metal, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................................................ 589 Power dispatchers, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.........................................................................................................608 Power distributors, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.........................................................................................................608 Power plant mechanics, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians.............................................................. 544 Power plant operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................................................................................................. 608 Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers..................................608 Power reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.................................................................................................608 Power tool repairers, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers..................................................................................................... 538 Power transformer repairers, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers..................................................................................................... 538 Powerhouse electricians, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers......................................................................................................538 Practical nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses............................................................................. 326 Practitioners, family and general, see: Physicians and surgeons.............295 Practitioners, nurse, see: Registered nurses..................................................303 Precious stone and metal workers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers........................................................................................... 616 Precision instrument and equipment repairers............................................. 576 Precision printing workers, see: Printing machine operators.................. 600 Prepress technicians and workers................................................................... 598 Preschool teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary............................................................. 227 Presidents, see: Top executives..........................................................................67 Press agents, see: Public relations specialists.............................................. 271 Press relations specialists, see: Public relations specialists......................271 Press secretaries, see: Public relations specialists...................................... 271 Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations...........................................602 Pretrial services officers, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists................................................................. 192 Priests, see: Clergy..............................................................................................662 Principal secretary, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants........ 482 Principals, see: Education administrators...........■...........................................34 Printing machine operators...............................................................................600 Printing press machine operators and tenders, see: Printing machine operators........................................................................... 600 Printmakers, see: Artists and related workers.............................................. 235 Prison guards, see: Correctional officers...................................................... 357 Private accountants, see: Accountants and auditors.....................................70 Private bankers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents...................................................................... 426 Private detectives and investigators............................................................... 366 Private household cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.............................................................................. 371 Private investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators............... 366 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists........................... 192 Process metallurgical engineers, see: Engineers.........................................133 Process piping or pipeline drafters, see: Drafters........................................141 Process technicians, see: Science technicians..............................................185 Procurement clerks..............................................................................................438 Procurement technicians, see: Cost estimators.............................................. 83 Producers, see: Actors, producers, and directors........................................ 249 Product designers, see: Commercial and industrial designers................. 238 Product development managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers......................................27 Index Product promoters, see: Demonstrators, product promoters, and models........................................................................................... 408 Production and planning clerks, see: Production, planning, and expediting clerks...........................................................................466 Production assistants, see: Writers and editors..................................... 275 Production cost estimators, see: Cost estimators..................................... 83 Production machinists, see: Machinists................................................. 587 Production managers, see: Industrial production managers.................... 54 Production, planning, and expediting clerks.......................................... 466 Professional athletes, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers..................................................................................... 252 Professional property managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers................................................... 61 Professional scouts, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers..................................................................................... 252 Professors, see: Teachers—postsecondary............................................ 223 Programmer-analysts, see: Computer programmers...............................104 Programmer-analysts, see: Computer systems analysts.........................116 Programmers, computer, see: Computer programmers......................... 104 Programmers, computer control, see: Computer control programmers and operators..................................................................585 Programmers, numerical tool and process control, see: Computer control programmers and operators................................... 585 Project control specialists, see: Cost estimators...................................... 83 Project managers, see: Computer and information systems managers.... 30 Project managers, see: Construction managers....................................... 32 Project managers, see: Cost estimators.....................................................83 Promoters, see: Public relations specialists........................................... 271 Promotions managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers..................................................... 27 Promotions specialists, see: Public relations specialists........................ 271 Proofreaders and copy markers...............................................................666 Property custodian, see: Stock clerks and order fillers......................... 469 Property disposal specialists, see: Administrative services managers................................................................................................ 25 Property managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers..........................................................61 Property, real estate, and community association managers.................... 61 Prosecutors, government, see: Lawyers..................................................204 Prosthetics technicians, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians...................................................... 619 Prosthetists, see: Orthotists and prosthetists.......................................... 663 Prosthodontists, see: Dentists.................................................................282 Protestant ministers see: Clergy..............................................................662 Provosts, see: Education administrators.................................................. 34 Psychiatric aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................................................................. 350 Psychiatric nurses, see: Registered nurses..............................................303 Psychiatric nursing assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................................................................. 350 Psychiatric technicians............................................................................ 663 Psychiatrists, see: Physicians and surgeons........................................... 295 Psychologists...........................................................................................177 Public accountants, see: Accountants and auditors................................. 70 Public address system announcers, see: Announcers............................ 259 Public adjusters, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.................................................................................... 80 Public affairs specialists, see: Public relations specialists.................... 271 Public defenders, see: Lawyers...............................................................204 Public finance economists, see: Economists...........................................173 Public health dentists, see: Dentists........................................................282 Public health dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists...................... 284 Public health social workers, see: Social workers..................................196 Public housing managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers..........................................................61 Public relations consultants, see: Public relations specialists................ 271 Public relations coordinators, see: Public relations specialists.............. 271 Public relations managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers................................. 27 Public relations representatives, see: Public relations specialists.......... 271 Public relations specialists......................................................................271 Public safety dispatchers, see: Dispatchers........................................... 461 Public works inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.... 504 Publication assistants, see: Writers and editors..................................... 275 Publications specialists, see: Desktop publishers.................................. 477 Publicists, see: Public relations specialists............................................ 271 Publicity agents, see: Public relations specialists.................................. 271 Publicity experts, see: Public relations specialists................................. 271 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 703 Publicity writers, see: Public relations specialists..................................... 271 Pulmonary function technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................................................................................................ 316 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers, see: Material moving occupations.......................................................................650 Pumping station operators, see: Material moving occupations...............650 Punch card operator, see: Data entry and information processing workers......................................................................................... 475 Purchase-and-sales clerks, see: Brokerage clerks.......................................441 Purchasing agents, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents..............................................................................................64 Purchasing clerks, see: Procurement clerks.................................................438 Purchasing directors, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents..............................................................................................64 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.................................64 Purchasing technicians, see: Procurement clerks...................................... 438 Q QMEDs, see: Water transportation occupations.........................................647 Qualified members of the engine department, see: Water transportation occupations................................................................647 Quality control inspectors, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers................................................................................. 614 R Rabbis, see: Clergy........................................................................................... 662 Radar controllers, see: Air traffic controllers.............................................. 632 Radiation protection technicians, see: Hazardous materials removal workers..............................................................................................519 Radiation therapists............................................................................................300 Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.............................................................................................................516 Radio announcers, see: Announcers..............................................................259 Radio mechanics, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers...............................................................542 Radio operators, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators......................................................................................... 261 Radiographers, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians...............337 Radiologic nurses, see: Registered nurses................................................... 303 Radiologic technologists and technicians.................................................... 337 Radiologists, see: Physicians and surgeons.................................................295 Radiologists, oral and maxillofacial, see: Dentists.................................... 282 Rail-track laying and maintenance equipment operators.......................... 668 Rail transportation occupations.......................................................................644 Rail yard engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................644 Railcar repairers, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics..............................................................555 Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators, see: Rail transportation occupations................................................................... 644 Railroad conductors, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................644 Railroad engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations.........................644 Ranchers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers................... 40 Range conservationists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters.......153 Range ecologists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters.................. 153 Range managers, see: Conservation scientists and foresters.................. 153 Range scientists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters................... 153 Ratings analysts, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors............................................................................................................... 85 Re-recording mixers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators................................................................... 261 Reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers........................................................................................................ 608 Readers, meter, see: Meter readers, utilities................................................463 Real estate agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents..................414 Real estate appraisers, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate....... 74 Real estate assessors, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate........... 74 Real estate asset managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.................................................................61 Real estate brokers and sales agents............................................................. 414 Real estate closers, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents.................414 Real estate managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers........................................................................................ 61 Real estate rental agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents....................................................................................................... 414 Real property appraisers, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate....................................................................................................... 74 704 Occupational Outlook Handbook Real property assessors, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate........................................................................................... 74 Real-time captioners, see: Court reporters.............................................199 Realtors, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents................................414 Rebuilders, transmission, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics...................................................................................... 549 Receive-and-deliver clerks, see: Brokerage clerks................................441 Receiving clerks, see: Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks.............. 467 Receptionists and information clerks......................................................455 Record center clerks, see: File clerks.....................................................447 Record clerks, see: File clerks................................................................447 Recording engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................261 Recreation attendants, see: Amusement and recreation attendants...... 664 Recreation leaders, see: Recreation workers......................................... 400 Recreation specialists, therapeutic, see: Recreational therapists........... 302 Recreation supervisors, see: Recreation workers.................................. 400 Recreation workers.................................................................................400 Recreational therapists............................................................................ 302 Recreational vehicle service technicians................................................670 Recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................................................ 50 Recruiting managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Recruitment consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Recruitment managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Referees, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers............ 252 Refractory masons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons.........................................................................................495 Refractory materials repairers, except brickmasons.............................. 670 Refrigeration mechanics, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers..................................................562 Refuse and recyclable material collectors, see: Material moving occupations...............................................................650 Regional geographers, see: Social scientists, other............. .................182 Regional planners, see: Urban and regional planners............................180 Registered dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists............................284 Registered nurse anesthetists, certified, see: Registered nurses............ 303 Registered nurses.................................................................................... 303 Registered representatives, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents..............................................................426 Registered respiratory therapists, see: Respiratory therapists............... 307 Registrars, see: Meeting and convention planners.................................. 95 Registrars, college or university, see: Education administrators............. 34 Registrars, tumor, see: Medical records and health information technicians........................................................................328 Rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors............................................189 Rehabilitation nurses, see: Registered nurses.........................................303 Reinforcing iron and rebar workers, see: Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers......................................................534 Relationship managers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents..............................................................426 Relay technicians, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers................................................................................................538 Religious priests, see: Clergy.................................................................662 Remedial education teachers, see: Teachers—Adult literacy and remedial education........................................................................221 Rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks......................................... 407 Rental managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers..........................................................61 Reporters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.............. 267 Reporters, court, see: Court reporters..................................................... 199 Research analysts, marketing, see: Market and survey researchers.....175 Research chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers....... 371 Research dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists............................. 284 Research psychologists, see: Psychologists............................................ 177 Researchers, survey, see: Market and survey researchers......................175 Reservation agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................457 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..............457 Residence leasing agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents.... 414 Resident managers, see: Lodging managers.............................................56 Residential advisors................................................................................665 Residential electricians, see: Electricians.............................................. 513 Resort desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks............... 448 Respiratory care practitioners, see: Respiratory therapists.................... 307 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Respiratory nurses, see: Registered nurses..................................................303 Respiratory therapists......................................................................................... 307 Respiratory therapy technicians, see: Respiratory therapists.................. 307 Responders, first, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics........................................................................................................ 324 Restaurant chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers......371 Restaurant managers, see: Food service managers.......................................45 Retail buyers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.............................................................................................. 64 Retail managers, see: Sales worker supervisors......................................... 423 Retail salespersons............................................................................................. 417 Retouchers, photographic, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.............................................................. 625 Revenue agents, see: Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.................................................................................................... 98 Revenue officers, see: Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.................................................................................................... 98 Riggers.................................................................................................................. 670 Rigging slingers and chasers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers................................................................................................490 Risk and insurance managers, see: Financial managers..............................43 Risk managers, see: Financial managers........................................................ 43 Rock splitters, quarry......................................................................................... 669 Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic........ 589 Roman Catholic priests, see: Clergy.............................................................. 662 Roof bolters, mining..........................................................................................669 Roofers.................................................................................................................. 530 Rooms managers, see: Lodging managers...................................................... 56 Rotary drill operators, oil and gas...................................................................669 Roustabouts, oil and gas................................................................................... 669 Route drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers......................640 Rural mail carriers, see: Postal Service workers........................................ 464 S Safe repairers, see: Locksmiths and safe repairers.....................................670 Safety and health practitioners, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.................................................................331 Safety engineers, see: Engineers...................................................................... 133 Safety inspectors, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................................................................................................. 331 Safety specialists and technicians, occupational, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians...................331 Sailors, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces...................................653 Sailors, merchant marine, see: Water transportation occupations...........647 Sales agents, advertising, see: Advertising sales agents............................403 Sales agents, real estate, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents....... 414 Sales assistants, see: Brokerage clerks..........................................................441 Sales engineers................................................................................................... 419 Sales engineers, see: Retail salespersons...................................................... 417 Sales managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers............................................................. 27 Sales representative, see: Advertising sales agents.....................................403 Sales representatives, see: Order clerks........................................................ 454 Sales representatives, see: Retail salespersons........................................... 417 Sales representatives, see: Sales engineers...................................................419 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing................................422 Sales worker supervisors...................................................................................423 Sales workers, see also: Cashiers............................................................................................................. 405 Counter and rental clerks.............................................................................. 407 Demonstrators, product promoters, and models......................................408 Insurance sales agents.................................................................................... 411 Real estate brokers and sales agents...........................................................414 Retail salespersons..........................................................................................417 Sales engineers.................................................................................................419 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing..............................421 Sales worker supervisors................................................................................423 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................ 426 Travel agents.................................................................................................... 429 Truck drivers and driver/sales workers...................................................... 643 Samplers, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers......614 Samplers, see: Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping................................................................................................... 470 Sauce cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers..............371 Sawing machine operators and tenders, see: Woodworkers.....................606 Scalers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.......................... 490 Index Scanner operators, see: Prepress technicians and workers......................598 School and college counselors, see: Counselors........................................ 189 School bus drivers, see: Bus drivers............................................................. 634 School librarians, see: Librarians..................................................................214 School psychologists, see: Psychologists....................................................177 School social workers, see: Social workers................................................ 196 School superintendents, see: Top executives................................................. 67 School teachers, see: Teachers— preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.............................................................227 Science technicians.............................................................................................185 Science writers, see: Writers and editors......................................................275 Scientific illustrators, see: Artists and related workers.............................235 Scientific photographers, see: Photographers.............................................. 269 Scouts, professional sports, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.................................................................................................252 Scraper operators, see: Construction equipment operators.............. 507 Screen printing machine setters and set-up operators, see: Printing machine operators...........................................................................600 Scrubs, see: Surgical technologists................................................................ 339 Sculptors, see: Artists and related workers.................................................. 235 Secondary school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.............................................................227 Secret Service agents, see: Police and detectives......................................362 Secretarial assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.....482 Secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.......................482 Secretaries and administrative assistants......................................................482 Securities analysts, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.............................................................................. 85 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................... 426 Security and fire alarm systems installers.....................................................670 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers......................................369 Security officers, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers........................................................................ 368 Segmental pavers, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers....................................................502 Seismologists, see: Geoscientists.................................................................... 167 Self enrichment teachers, see: Teachers—self-enrichment education........................................................................................................... 231 Semiconductor processors............................................................................... 626 Senators, see: Top executives............................................................................67 Senior administrative managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers................................................479 Senior administrators, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers...............................................................479 Senior reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.......................... 609 Separating, filtering, clarifying, precipitating, and still machine setters, operators, and tenders...................................................................... 672 Septic tank servicers and sewer pipe cleaners.............................................669 Servers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers................ 374 Service station attendants..................................................................................673 Service technicians, automotive, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics............................................................................549 Service technicians, diesel, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics..................................................................................................552 Service technicians, heavy vehicle and mobile equipment, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics............................................................................555 Service technicians, home appliances, see: Home appliance repairers............................................................................................................. 565 Service technicians, home entertainment, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers.....................................540 Service technicians, mobile heavy equipment, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics................... 555 Service unit operators, oil, gas, and mining................................................. 669 Set and exhibit designers................................................................................. 663 Sewage treatment plant operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators......................................................... 612 Sewers, hand, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.......... 602 Sewing machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..................................................................................602 Shampooers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers............................................................. 387 Sheet metal workers...........................................................................................531 Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs, see: Police and detectives............................362 Ship officers, see: Water transportation occupations................................. 647 Shipping-and-receiving supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.....................479 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 705 Shipping clerks, see: Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks................467 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks................................................... 467 Shoe and leather workers and repairers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................603 Shoe machine operators and tenders, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................603 Short haul or local truck drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers.............................................................................640 Short-order cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers ... 372 Show hosts, see: Announcers................................................................. 259 Shuttle car operators, see: Material moving occupations.....................650 Sign language interpreters, see: Interpreters and translators................263 Signal and track switch repairers........................................................... 670 Signal operators, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations........... 644 Silvering applicators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance................................................. 622 Silversmiths, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers...... 616 Simultaneous interpreters, see: Interpretersand translators................... 263 Singers, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers...........................257 Sketch artists, see: Artists and related workers......................................235 Skills trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 Skills training coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................................50 Skin care specialists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers................ '................................... 387 Slaughterers and meat packers, see: Food processing occupations...... 581 Slot key persons, see: Gaming services occupations............................397 Small engine mechanics......................................................................... 558 Smoke jumpers, see: Fire fighting occupations.....................................359 Social and community service managers............................................... 662 Social and human service assistants...................................................... 194 Social psychologists, see: Psychologists............................................... 177 Social science research assistants.......................................................... 663 Social scientists, other.............................................................................182 Social work assistants, see: Social and human service assistants.......... 194 Social work planners and policy makers, see: Social workers.............. 196 Social workers............................................. 196 Sociocultural anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other..................182 Sociologists, see: Social scientists, other............................................... 182 Software engineers, see: Computer software engineers.......................Ill Software quality assurance analysts, see: Computer systems analysts................................................................................... 116 Soil conservationists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters......... 153 Soil scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................. 147 Solderers, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers..................... 594 Soldiers, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces........................... 653 Songwriters, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers...................257 Sonographers, abdominal, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........................................................................................322 Sonographers, cardiac, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.....................................................................................316 Sonographers, diagnostic medical, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers....................................................... 322 Sonographers, gynecologic, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.... 322 Sonographers, obstetric, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........... 322 Sonographers, ophthalmologic, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........................................................................................322 Sonographers, vascular, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.............................................................. 316 Sorters, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers..........614 Sorters, agricultural products, see: Agricultural workers......................485 Sound engineering technicians, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................ 261 Sound mixers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators.............................................................................. 261 Sous chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.............. 371 Special education teachers, see: Teachers—special education..............232 Specialists, clinical nurse, see: Registered nurses................................. 303 Specialists, diesel engine, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics......................................................................................552 Specialists, fire prevention, see: Fire fighting occupations....................359 Specialists, occupational health and safety, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................................................. 331 Specialists, skin care, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers..................................................... 387 Specialists, therapeutic recreation, see: Recreational therapists............ 302 Specification inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors....504 706 Occupational Outlook Handbook Speech-language pathologists...............................................................309 Speech therapists, see: Speech-language pathologists.......................... 309 Speech writers, see: Public relations specialists....................................271 Sports book writers and runners, see: Gaming services occupations.... 398 Sports competitors, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers..................................................................................... 252 Sports instructors, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers..................................................................................... 252 Sports officials, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers..................................................................................... 252 Sports trainers, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.............................................. 252 Sportscasters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents........267 Spray machine operators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance..................................................622 Sprinklerfitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters........................................................................................... 525 Staff assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants............. 482 Staff development specialists, see: Instructional coordinators.............. 213 Staff managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers....................................................................479 Staff training and development, managers of, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................... 50 Staffing and assignments coordinators, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..........................................449 Staffing consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Staffing coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Staffing managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 Staffing specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists................................................50 State police officers, see: Police and detectives.................................... 362 State troopers, see: Police and detectives...............................................362 Station agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................457 Station installers and repairers, telephone, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers..................... 542 Stationary engineers and boiler operators.............................................. 610 Statistical assistants.................................................................................666 Statisticians............................................................................................. 123 Steadicam operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................274 Steamfitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters...........................................................................................525 Stenocaptioners, see: Court reporters..................................................... 199 Stevedores, see: Material moving occupations.......................................650 Stewardesses and stewards, airline, see: Flight attendants.................... 394 Stewards, passenger ship, see: Water transportation occupations......... 647 Stock clerks and order fillers...................................................................469 Stock-control clerks, see: Stock clerks and order fillers........................ 469 Stockbrokers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents..............................................................426 Stonemasons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons....... 495 Storage managers, see: Transportation, storage, and distribution managers...........................................................................662 Store detectives, see: Private detectives and investigators.................... 366 Stratigraphers, see: Geoscientists........................................................... 167 Street vendors, see: Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers......................................................665 Streetcar operators, see: Rail transportation occupations...................... 644 Strength trainers, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.....................................................................................252 Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers................................ 534 Structural engineers, see: Engineers....................................................... 133 Structural metal fabricators and fitters, see: Assemblers and fabricators.............................................................................................579 Stucco masons, see: Plasterers and stucco masons................................ 528 Student affairs administrators, see: Education administrators................. 34 Studio camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors...................................... 274 Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors, see: Counselors.................................................................................... 189 Substance abuse social workers, see: Social workers.............................196 Subway operators, see: Rail transportation occupations....................... 644 Superintendents, see: Top executives.......................................................67 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Superintendents, general, see: Construction managers................................ 32 Supervisors, farming, fishing, and forestry workers...................................667 Supervisors, non-retail sales workers, see: Sales worker supervisors..........................................................................................423 Supervisors, retail sales workers, see: Sales worker supervisors........... 423 Supply managers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents...............................................................................................64 Support clerks, see: Office clerks, general....................................................481 Support specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants............................................................................................................ 482 Support staff clerks, see: Office clerks, general......................................... 481 Support staff specialists, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants.................................................................................482 Surfacing equipment operators, see: Construction equipment operators............................................................................................................ 507 Surgeons, see: Physicians and surgeons....................................................... 295 Surgeons’ assistants, see: Physician assistants............................................293 Surgeons, dental, see: Dentists........................................................................282 Surgeons, oral and maxillofacial, see: Dentists...........................................282 Surgeons, podiatric, see: Podiatrists.............................................................. 298 Surgical technicians, see: Surgical technologists....................................... 339 Surgical technologists........................................................................................339 Surveillance agents, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers.........................................................................368 Surveillance officers, gaming, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers.........................................................................368 Survey researchers, see: Market and survey researchers........................... 175 Surveying technicians, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.........................................130 Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians......................................................................................130 Switch operators, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations........................................................................................................644 Switchboard operators, see: Communications equipment operators............................................................................................................ 471 Switchboard operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................................................................................................. 608 Synoptic meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists................................159 Systems administrators, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators............................................................................113 Systems analysts, see: Computer systems analysts.................................... 116 Systems analysts, see: Operations research analysts.................................. 121 Systems architects, see: Computer scientists and database administrators....................................................................................................107 Systems architects, see: Computer systems analysts.................................. 116 Systems developers, see: Computer systems analysts................................116 Systems operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................................................................................................. 608 Systems programmers, see: Computer programmers.................................104 Systems software engineers, see: Computer software engineers............. 111 T Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................ 602 Talking-books clerks, see: Library assistants, clerical........................... 453 Tamping equipment operators, see: Construction equipment operators............................................................................. 507 Tank car, truck, and ship loaders, see: Material moving occupations............................................................................................. 74 Tapers, see: Dry wall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers..........512 Tax accountants, see: Accountants and auditors...................................... 70 Tax assessors, see: Appraisers and assessors of real estate................... 650 Tax collectors, see: Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents..................................................................................................... 98 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.........................................98 Tax preparers........................................................................................... 662 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs..................................................................... 637 Taxicab dispatchers, see: Dispatchers.....................................................461 Teacher aides, see: Teacher assistants..................................................... 219 Teacher assistants.................................................................................... 219 Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education...................................221 Teachers—postsecondary....................................................................... 230 Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary............................................................................................. 235 Teachers—self-enrichment education.....................................................267 Teachers—special education................................................................... 232 Index Teaching assistants, graduate, see: Teachers—postsecondary................ 223 Team assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators....................................579 Technical education teachers, postsecondary, see: Teachers —postsecondary.............................................................................................. 223 Technical recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Technical sales support workers, see: Retail salespersons......................417 Technical sales support workers, see: Sales engineers.............................419 Technical support specialists, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators........................................................................... 113 Technical trainers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...................................................... 50 Technical training coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..............................................50 Technical writers, see: Writers and editors.................................................. 275 Technicians and technologists, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians............................................................................ Archivists, curators, and museum technicians......................................... 210 Automotive body and related repairers......................................................548 Automotive service technicians and mechanics.......................................549 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians...........................................316 Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators.....261 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians....................................318 Diagnostic medical sonographers............................................................... 322 Diesel service technicians and mechanics................................................ 552 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.....................................324 Engineering technicians.................................................................................144 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics................................................................................................555 Home appliance repairers.............................................................................. 565 Library technicians..........................................................................................217 Medical records and health information technicians..............................328 Nuclear medicine technologists...................................................................330 Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.................. 331 Pharmacy technicians..................................................................................... 336 Prepress technicians and workers............................................................... 598 Radiologic technologists and technicians................................................. 337 Respiratory therapists..................................................................................... 307 Science technicians......................................................................................... 185 Semiconductor processors.............................................................................626 Surgical technologists....................................................................................339 Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.......................................................................................................131 Veterinary technologists and technicians.................................................. 341 Technicians, dental laboratory, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................................. 619 Technicians, medial appliance, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................................. 619 Technicians, ophthalmic laboratory, see: Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................................. 619 Telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.....542 Telecommunications line installers, see: Line installers and repairers..................................................................................................... 569 Telecommunications service technicians, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers........................ 542 Telecommunications specialists, see: Computer scientists and database administrators.................................................................................. 107 Telemarketers...................................................................................................... 666 Telephone installers and repairers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers........................ 542 Telephone line installers, see: Line installers and repairers.....................569 Telephone operators, see: Communications equipment operators........ 471 Telephone service representatives, see: Customer service representatives..................................................................................................444 Teletype operator, see: Data entry and information processing workers.............................................................................................................. 475 Television announcers, see: Announcers......................................................259 Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.........................................................................................................274 Teller supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.............................................................................479 Tellers.................................................................................................................... 440 Terminal controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers......................632 Terrazzo workers, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers....................................................502 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 707 Testers, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers......... 614 Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations....................................... 603 Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.................................................. 602 Textile cutting machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................602 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................. 602 Textile machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations....................................................................... 602 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..................................... 602 Theoretical chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists............... 162 Theoretical mathematicians, see: Mathematicians.............. 119 Therapeutic recreation specialists, see: Recreational therapists........... 302 Therapists, hearing, see: Audiologists...................................................278 644 Therapists, industrial, see: Occupational therapists...............................285 Therapists, inhalation, see: Respiratory therapists................................307 Therapists, marriage and family, see: Counselors................................. 189 Therapists, occupational, see: Occupational therapists.........................285 Therapists, oxygen, see: Respiratory therapists..................................... 307 Therapists, physical, see: Physical therapists........................................292 Therapists, radiation, see: Radiation therapists.....................................300 Therapists, recreational, see: Recreational therapists............................ 302 Therapists, respiratory, see: Respiratory therapists...............................307 Therapists, speech, see: Speech-language pathologists.........................309 Ticket agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................457 Ticket clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................457 Ticket sellers, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................457 Ticket takers, see: Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers............. 665 Tile finishers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers......... 499 Tile installers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers.........499 Tilesetters, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers.............. 499 Timber cutting and logging workers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers............................................................................ 490 Time and attendance clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.........437 Time checkers, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.............................437 Time clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks..................................437 Time recorders, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................437 Timekeepers, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................437 Timekeeping clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.....................437 Tire builders............................................................................................672 Tire repairers and changers.................................................................... 670 Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers............................................ 663 Tool and die makers................................................................................592 Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic........................................................... 589 Toolmakers, see: Tool and die makers................................................... 592 Top executives..........................................................................................67 Tour bus drivers, see: Bus drivers.......................................................... 634 Tour guides and escorts.......................................................................... 665 Tow truck dispatchers, see: Dispatchers................................................ 461 Tower controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers.......................632 Tractor-trailer drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers.................................................................................................643 Traders, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents............................................................................ 426 Traffic clerks, see: Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks.....................467 Traffic technicians.................................................................................. 467 Train dispatchers, see: Dispatchers........................................................ 461 Trainers, athletic, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.....................................................................................253 Trainers, athletic, see: Athletic trainers................................................. 314 Trainers, fitness, see: Fitness workers................................................... 392 Training administrators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 Training and development coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................... 50 Training and development managers and specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................................................................50 Training assistants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................... 50 708 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Training coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Training development directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................. 50 Training directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................... 50 Training managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.....................................................50 Training specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.....................................................50 Transcribers, see: Data entry and information processing workers....... 475 Transcriptionists, medical, see: Medical transcriptionists....................... 348 Transfer clerks, see: Brokerage clerks..........................................................441 Transit and railroad police, see: Police and detectives............................. 364 Translators, see: Interpreters and translators.............................................. 263 Transmission engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators....................................................................261 Transmission technicians and rebuilders, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics...................................... 549 Transmitter operators, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators.................................................................... 261 Transplant nurses, see: Registered nurses..................................................... 303 Transportation attendants, see: Flight attendants....................................... 394 Transportation attendants, except flight attendants and baggage porters................................................................................................665 Transportation engineers, see: Engineers......................................................133 Transportation equipment painters, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance........................................ 622 Transportation inspectors..................................................................................673 Transportation, storage, and distribution managers....................................622 Transportation ticket agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................... 457 Trash collectors, see: Material moving occupations...................................650 Trauma nurses, see: Registered nurses..........................................................303 Travel agents....................................................................................................... 429 Travel clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.............................................................................................. 457 Travel consultants, see: Travel agents...........................................................429 Travel counselors, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks..................................................................................457 Travel guides....................................................................................................... 665 Treasurers, see: Financial managers.................................................................43 Treatment plant and system operators, wastewater, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.............612 Treatment plant and system operators, water, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators................................. 612 Treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers....................................................... 519 Tree planters, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers...............490 Tree trimmers and pruners, see: Grounds maintenance workers............380 Trial lawyers, see: Lawyers............................................................................. 204 Truck dispatchers, see: Dispatchers............................................................... 461 Truck drivers and driver/sales workers..........................................................641 Truck mechanics, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics......... 552 Tumbling barrel painters, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance........................................................ 622 Tumor registrars, see: Medical records and health information technicians..................................................................................328 Tune-up technicians, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics................................................................................................. 549 Tuners, musical instruments, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers........................................................................................ 576 Two-stroke engine mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics................. 558 Typesetting machine operators and tenders, see: Prepress technicians and workers.................................................................................598 Typists, see: Data entry and information processing workers................. 475 Typographers, see: Desktop publishers........................................................ 477 U U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Border Patrol agents, see: Police and detectives.............................. 364 Congress representatives, see: Top executives.....................................67 Marshals and deputy marshals, see: Police and detectives..............364 Secret Service special agents, see: Police and detectives................ 364 Senators, see: Top executives...................................................................67 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ultrasonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers................... 322 Ultrasound technologists, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........ 322 Umpires, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers........... 252 Unclaimed property officers, see: Administrative services managers.................................................................................................25 Undertakers, see: Funeral directors..........................................................48 Underwriters, see: Insurance underwriters...............................................88 Underwriters, loan, see: Loan officers......................................................90 Uniformed police officers, see: Police and detectives........................... 364 University deans, see: Education administrators..................................... 34 University professors, see: Teachers—postsecondary........................... 223 Unlicensed assistive personnel, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................................................................. 350 Upholsterers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..........603 Urban and regional planners................................................................... 180 Urban and transportation geographers, see: Social scientists, other.....182 Urology nurses, see: Registered nurses..................................................303 Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers.............................................665 V Vascular sonographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Vascular technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..................................................................................... 316 Vegetable cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers..... 371 Vending machine repairers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers........................................560 Vending machine servicers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers....................................... 560 Vending machine technicians, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers...... .................................560 Veterinarians............................................................................................311 Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers......................... 665 Veterinary technologists and technicians................................................341 Vice presidents, see: Top executives.........................................................67 Video camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................ 274 Video control engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators........................................261 Video editors, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................ 274 Videographers, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................ 274 Violin repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers .... 575 Vocational counselors, see: Counselors.................................................. 189 Vocational education teachers, secondary school, see: Teachers— preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary............. 227 Vocational nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.................................................................... 326 Vocational-technical education teachers, postsecondary, see: Teachers—postsecondary..................................................................... 223 Voice writers, see: Court reporters.......................................................... 199 Volcanologists, see: Geoscientists.......................................................... 167 W Wait staff, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers.......... 374 Waiters and waitresses, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers..................................................................................... 374 Wastewater treatment plant and system operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators........... 612 Watch repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.............................................................................. 575 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators............... 612 Water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators............ 612 Water conservationists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters...... 153 Water resources engineers, see: Engineers............................................. 133 Water transportation occupations............................................................647 Water treatment plant and system operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.........................................612 Weather forecasters, see: Atmospheric scientists................................... 159 Weathercasters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.....267 Weaving machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........................................................................ 602 Web designers, see: Computer scientists and database administrators........................................................................................107 Index Web developers, see: Computer scientists and database administrators........................................................................................107 Web programmers, see: Computer programmers...................................104 Web publications designers, see: Desktop publishers........................... 477 Web writers, see: Writers and editors.....................................................275 Webmasters, see: Computer scientists and database administrators.....107 Weighers, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers.....614 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping.............. 470 Welders, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers........................ 594 Welding machine setters, operators, and tenders, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers............................................................594 Welding, soldering, and brazing workers................................................594 Wellhead pumpers, see: Material moving occupations......................... 650 Wholesale buyers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................................................................................... 64 Wildlife biologists, see: Biological scientists.........................................150 Wildlife officers, see: Police and detectives.......................................... 362 Winch operators, see: Material moving occupations............................. 650 Window clerks, see: Postal Service workers......................................... 464 Window trimmers, see: Merchandise displayers and window trimmers.................................................................................663 Woodworkers.......................................................................................... 606 Woodworking machine operators and tenders, see: Woodworkers....................................................................................... 606 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 709 Word processors, see: Data entry and information processing workers..............................................................................................................475 Worker compensation coordinators, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.............................................. 449 Workforce development officers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................ 50 Workforce development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................ 50 Wound, ostomy, and continence nurses, see: Registered nurses............ 303 Writers and editors.............................................................................................275 X X-ray technicians, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians........337 Y Yardmasters, see: Rail transportation occupations.................................... 646 Yoga instructors, see: Fitness workers.......................................................... 392 Z Zookeepers, see: Animal care and service workers.................................. 384 Zoologists, see: Biological scientists.............................................................150 BLS Employment Projections Online fiffpiMlimr hill j Federal Government's Premier Career Guidance Publications • • • • Occupational Career Guide Occupational Occupational Outlook Handbook to Industries Outlook Quarterly Projections and Training Data People Are Asking • What are the fastest growing occupations and industries? • Which occupations will add the most new jobs? Publications Projections-related articles Special features: “Charting the projections” and “The job outlook in brief” ■ft—> Searchable Databases • Occupational Employment, Training, and Earnings • National Employment Matrix • Tables created by BLS iSt&ffl: Related Links • • BLS career information for young State employment projections % fSfc Contacts • Telephone listings for industry and occupational experts at the Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ilillil___ Uipipi m This publication provides statistical data to support information presented in the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Education and training planners, career counselors, and jobseekers can compare hundreds of occupations on factors such as employment change, self-employed workers, earnings, and the most significant source of postsecondary education or training. Users also will find awards and degree data, by field of study. '~yP-,Wfn#nt Q< t. Career Guide to Industries 2006-07 Edition . BLS Bulletin 2601 a: As a companion publication to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Career Guide discusses careers from an industry perspective. The 45 industries highlighted in this bulletin account for 3 of every 4 wage and salary jobs in the Nation. The Career Guide describes some occupations not covered by the Handbook, and discusses the nature of the industry, job qualifications and advancement opportunities, industry outlook, and earnings. Get the latest Digitized FRASER Forfor prices and ordering information, refer to the Employment Projections Internet site, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis http://www.bls.gov/emp Find your {MiDD reaching to our past... TfrrS-S- t'm m. x . L n A I o1oI a Click on Subscriptions for ordering information https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis i i. 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