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o? LAfiO Occupational Outlook Handbook 2006-07 Edition '•, IV Ipin - Rl ,L-'L.'’i.4y l| K2 ? '1 v„ ^ j H , ^ K7 i Im py ill n https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis - ‘'fH. r®P ■\ ,v:, IscT^ & ■ jp^Y jO i < i| . B~ | v.. J : - JB. r I ■ ' K !■■« ■-V ■* ■ j: February 2006 U.S. Department of Labor Bulletin 2600 BUP i 1 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Guide to the Handbook • Highlights of the job outlook between 2004 and 2014 are pre sented in Tomorrow’s Jobs, page 1. • A list of occupations growing the fastest and having the largest numerical increases in employment, by the most significant source of postsecondary education or training, appears on page 8. • Additional sources of information on careers and State occu pational employment projections, are described in Sources of Career Information, page 9. • Additional sources of information are described in Sources of Education, Training, and Financial Aid on page 14. • Job-search methods and tips on applying for a job and evaluat ing a job offer are discussed in Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer, page 17. • Highlights and an explanation of information presented in the Handbook, how the information was acquired, and hints on how to interpret this information, appear in Occupational Informa tion Included in the Handbook, page 22. • Brief descriptions of the nature of the work, the number of jobs in 2004, the projected employment change over the 2004-14 period, and the most significant source of postsecondary edu cation or training, are presented in Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail, page 661. • The assumptions and methods used to prepare BLS employ ment projections are described briefly on page 674. • A list of Occupational Information Network (0*NET) codes that are related to Handbook occupations are found on page 676. • An alphabetical index of occupations found in the Handbook is on page 684. • See page 711 for a description of BLS employment outlook information on the Internet. • Information about publications closely related to the HandbookCareer Guide to Industries, 2006-07 Edition, Bulletin 2601; Occupational Projections and Training Data, 2006-07 Edition, Bulletin 2602; and Occupational Outlook Quarterly—appears on page 712 and the inside back cover. Occupational Outlook Handbook 2006-07 Edition U.S. Department of Labor Elaine L. Chao, Secretary U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Kathleen Utgoff, Commissioner February 2006 Bulletin 2600 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis U.S. OEPOS^OP- U.S. GOVERNMENT OFFICIAL EDITION NOTICE Legal Status and Use of Trademarks, Logos and Seals LA&o The seal of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) authenticates this publication as the Official U.S. Government edition of the BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook, a nationally recognized source of career information describing the job duties, working conditions, training requirements, earnings, and job prospects in a wide variety of occupations. Under the provisions of 15 U.S.C § 1125 and 18 U.S.C. § 709, the unauthorized use of this seal is prohibited and subject to civil and criminal penalties including fines and imprisonment. Use of ISBN Prefix AUTHENTICATED U.S. GOVERNMENT INFORMATION GPO This is the Official U.S. Government edition of this publication and is herein identified to certify its authenticity. Use of the 0-16 ISBN prefix is for U.S. Government Printing Office Official Editions only. The Superintendent of Documents of the U.S. Government Printing Office requests that any reprinted edition be labeled clearly as a copy of the authentic work with a new ISBN. ISBN 0-16-072941-6 90000 9 60 729416 Suggested citation: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006-07 Edition, Bulletin 2600. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 2006. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800 Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001 ISBN 0-16-072941-6 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Acknowledgments The Bureau of Labor Statistics produced the Handbook under the general guidance and direction of Mike Pilot, Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office ofOccupational Statistics and Employment Projections. ChesterC. Levine and Jon Q. Sargent, Managers of Occupa tional Outlook Studies, provided planning and day-to-day direction. Supervisors overseeing the research and preparation of material were Douglas Braddock, Theresa Cosca, Arlene K. Dohm, and Terry Schau. Occupational analysts who contributed material were Andrew D. Alpert, Sadie Blanchard, Hall Dillon, Tamara Dillon, Thomas DiVincenzo, Diana Gehlhaus, Henry T. Kasper, Jonathan Kelinson, Jill Lacey, William Lawhom, C. Brett Lockard, Kevin M. McCarron, Roger J. Moncarz, Michelle Murillo, Gregory Niemesh, Brian Roberts, Lynn Shniper, Patricia Tate, Dave Terkanian, Nicho las Terrell, Michael Wolf, Benjamin Wright, and Ian Wyatt. Editorial work was provided by Edith Baker, Monica Gabor, Lori Pastro, and Allison Tarmann, under the supervision of Mary K. Rieg. Word processing support was provided by Monique Smith and Beverly A. Williams. Computer programming support was provided by David S. Frank and Erik A. Savisaar. The cover and other art were designed by Bruce Boyd. T. Alan Lacey also contributed art. Photographs were taken by Shawn Moore, Department of Labor Photographic Services; Barry Gardner; Kevin Kennedy; Freddie Lieberman; Doug Sonders; and James Tkatch. The Bureau of Labor Statistics also wishes to express its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many organizations and individuals who either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to photogra phers working for or under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Situations portrayed in the photographs may not be free of every pos sible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. Note Many trade associations, professional societies, unions, industrial organizations, and government agencies provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations and, in some cases, their Internet addresses are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations or the information or publications that may be sent in response to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either of the organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The Handbook describes the job outlook over a projected 10-year period for occupations across the Nation; consequently, short-term labor market fluctuations and regional differences in job outlook generally are not discussed. Similarly, the Handbook provides a general, composite description ofjobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours of work, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving work injuries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit, may be reproduced without permission. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE, Room 2135, Washington, DC 20212. Phone: (202) 691-5700. FAX; (202) 691-5745. E-mail: oohinfo@bls.gov. Addtional information is available on the Internet: http://www.bls.gov/oco. Information in the Handbook is available to sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice telephone: (202) 691-5200; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. iii https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Contents Special Features Tomorrow’s Jobs .................................................................... 001 Sources of Career Information .......................................... 009 Sources of Education, Training, and Financial Aid ......................................................................................... 014 Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer ..................... 017 Occupational Information Included in the Handbook.............................................................................. 022 Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail ................... 661 Computer scientists and database administrators ......................... Computer software engineers.......................................................... Computer support specialists and systems administrators............ Computer systems analysts.............................................................. Mathematicians................................................................................. Operations research analysts............................................................ Statisticians........................................................................................ 107 Ill 113 116 119 121 123 Architects, surveyors, and cartographers Architects, except landscape and naval......................................... 125 Landscape architects......................................................................... 128 Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians..................................................................................... 130 Engineers ......................................................................................... 133 Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections ................................................. 674 Drafters and engineering technicians Drafters.............................................................................................. Engineering technicians................................................................... 141 144 Occupational Information Network Coverage ................. 676 Life scientists Agricultural and food scientists....................................................... Biological scientists.......................................................................... Conservation scientists and foresters.............................................. Medical scientists.............................................................................. 147 150 153 156 Physical scientists Atmospheric scientists...................................................................... Chemists and materials scientists.................................................... Environmental scientists and hydrologists..................................... Geoscientists...................................................................................... Physicists and astronomers.............................................................. 159 162 164 167 170 Social scientists and related occupations Economists........................................................................................ Market and survey researchers......................................................... Psychologists..................................................................................... Urban and regional planners............................................................ Social scientists, other....................................................................... Science technicians......................................................................... 173 175 177 180 182 185 Index.......................................................................................... 684 Occupational Coverage Management, business, and financial occupations Management occupations Administrative services managers.................................................. Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers........................................................................................ Computer and information systems managers............................... Construction managers...................................................................... Education administrators................................................................. Engineering and natural sciences managers.................................. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................... Financial managers........................................................................... Food service managers...................................................................... Funeral directors............................................................................... Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists....................................................................................... Industrial production managers........................................................ Lodging managers............................................................................. Medical and health services managers............................................ Property, real estate, and community association managers......... Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.................. Top executives................................................................................... Business and financial operations occupations Accountants and auditors................................................................. Appraisers and assessors of real estate........................................... Budget analysts.................................................................................. Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.......... Cost estimators................................................................................... Financial analysts and personal financial advisors........................ Insurance underwriters...................................................................... Loan officers...................................................................................... Management analysts........................................................................ Meeting and convention planners.................................................... Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.............................. 025 027 030 032 034 038 040 042 045 048 050 054 056 059 061 064 067 070 074 077 080 083 085 088 090 092 095 098 Professional and related occupations Computer and mathematical occupations Actuaries............................................................................................ 102 Computer programmers.................................................................... 104 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Community and social services occupations Counselors.......................................................................................... Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists.............. Social and human service assistants............................................... Social workers.................................................................................... Legal occupations Court reporters.................................................................................. Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.............................. Lawyers................................................................................................ Paralegals and legal assistants.......................................................... Education, training, library, and museum occupations Archivists, curators, and museum technicians................................. Instructional coordinators.................................................................. Librarians............................................................................................. Library technicians.............................................................................. Teacher assistants................................................................................ Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education........................... Teachers—postsecondary.................................................................. Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary......................................................................................... Teachers—self-enrichment education.............................................. Teachers—special education............................................................. Art and design occupations Artists and related workers................................................................ Commercial and industrial designers............................................... Fashion designers................................................................................ Floral designers................................................................................... 189 192 194 196 199 201 204 207 210 213 214 217 219 221 223 227 231 232 235 238 240 242 Graphic designers.............................................................................. Interior designers.............................................................................. 243 245 Entertainers and performers, sports and related occupations Actors, producers, and directors...................................................... Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers........................... Dancers and choreographers............................................................ Musicians, singers, and related workers......................................... Police and detectives......................................................................... 362 Private detectives and investigators................................................. 366 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers......................... 368 249 252 255 257 Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers................................... 371 Food and beverage serving and related workers............................ 374 259 Building cleaning workers................................................................ 378 Grounds maintenance workers......................................................... 380 Pest control workers.......................................................................... 382 Media and communication-related occupations Announcers........................................................................................ Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators........................................................................................ Interpreters and translators............................................................... News analysts, reporters, and correspondents............................... Photographers.................................................................................... Public relations specialists................................................................ Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors............................................................................................ Writers and editors............................................................................ Food preparation and serving related occupations Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations 261 263 267 269 271 Personal care and service occupations Animal care and service workers..................................................... Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers........................................................................................... Child care workers............................................................................. Fitness workers.................................................................................. Flight attendants................................................................................. Gaming services occupations............................................................ Personal and home care aides.......................................................... Recreation workers............................................................................ 274 275 Health diagnosing and treating practitioners Audiologists....................................................................................... Chiropractors...................................................................................... Dentists.............................................................................................. Dietitians and nutritionists................................................................ Occupational therapists..................................................................... Optometrists....................................................................................... Pharmacists........................................................................................ Physical therapists............................................................................. Physician assistants........................................................................... Physicians and surgeons................................................................... Podiatrists........................................................................................... Radiation therapists........................................................................... Recreational therapists...................................................................... Registered nurses.............................................................................. Respiratory therapists........................................................................ Speech-language pathologists.......................................................... Veterinarians...................................................................................... 278 280 282 284 285 287 289 292 293 295 298 300 302 303 307 309 311 Health technologists and technicians Athletic trainers................................................................................. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................... Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians......................... Dental hygienists............................................................................... Diagnostic medical sonographers.................................................... Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.......................... Licensed practical and licensed vocationalnurses......................... Medical records and health information technicians..................... Nuclear medicine technologists....................................................... Occupational health and safety specialistsand technicians........... Opticians, dispensing........................................................................ Pharmacy technicians........................................................................ Radiologic technologists and technicians....................................... Surgical technologists....................................................................... Veterinary technologists and technicians........................................ 314 316 318 320 322 324 326 328 330 331 334 336 337 339 341 403 405 407 408 411 414 417 419 421 423 426 429 Office and administrative support occupations Healthcare support occupations 343 344 347 348 350 353 354 356 Protective service occupations Correctional officers.......................................................................... 357 Fire fighting occupations.................................................................. 359 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 387 389 392 394 397 399 400 Sales and related occupations Advertising sales agents.................................................................... Cashiers............................................................................................... Counter and rental clerks.................................................................. Demonstrators, product promoters, and models............................ Insurance sales agents....................................................................... Real estate brokers and sales agents................................................ Retail salespersons............................................................................. Sales engineers................................................................................... Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing..................... Sales worker supervisors................................................................... Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents........ Travel agents...................................................................................... Service occupations Dental assistants................................................................................ Massage therapists............................................................................ Medical assistants............................................................................. Medical transcriptionists................................................................... Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................. Occupational therapist assistantsand aides..................................... Pharmacy aides................................................................................. Physical therapist assistantsand aides............................................. 384 VI Financial clerks Bill and account collectors................................................................ Billing and posting clerks and machine operators......................... Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................. Gaming cage workers....................................................................... Payroll and timekeeping clerks........................................................ Procurement clerks............................................................................. Tellers.................................................................................................. 431 432 434 435 437 438 440 Information and record clerks Brokerage clerks................................................................................ Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks......................................... Customer service representatives..................................................... File clerks............................................................................................ Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks................................................. Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..... Interviewers........................................................................................ Library assistants, clerical................................................................. Order clerks........................................................................................ Receptionists and information clerks.............................................. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.... 441 442 444 447 448 449 451 453 454 455 457 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations Cargo and freight agents................................................................... Couriers and messengers................................................................... Dispatchers......................................................................................... Meter readers, utilities...................................................................... Postal Service workers...................................................................... Production, planning, and expediting clerks................................... Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks............................................ 459 460 461 463 464 466 467 Stock clerks and order fillers............................................................ 469 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping.... 470 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics...................................................................................... 555 Small engine mechanics................................................................... 558 Other office and administrative support occupations Communications equipment operators........................................... Computer operators........................................................................... Data entry and information processing workers............................ Desktop publishers............................................................................ Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................................................ Office clerks, general........................................................................ Secretaries and administrative assistants........................................ 471 473 475 477 Other installation, maintenance, and repair occupations Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers...... Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers......................................................................................... Home appliance repairers................................................................ Industrial machinery mechanics and maintenance workers.......... Line installers and repairers............................................................. Maintenance and repair workers, general...................................... Millwrights......................................................................................... Precision instrument and equipment repairers............................... 479 481 482 Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations Agricultural workers......................................................................... 485 Fishers and fishing vessel operators................................................ 487 Forest, conservation, and logging workers.................................... 490 Production occupations 494 495 497 499 502 504 507 509 511 513 516 517 519 522 523 525 528 530 531 534 Printing occupations Bookbinders and bindery workers.................................................. Prepress technicians and workers................................................... Printing machine operators.............................................................. Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.......................... Woodworkers.................................................................................. 596 598 600 602 606 614 616 619 622 625 626 Transportation and material moving occupations Air transportation occupations 536 538 Aircraft pilots and flight engineers................................................. 629 Air traffic controllers......................................................................... 632 540 Motor vehicle operators Bus drivers......................................................................................... Taxi drivers and chauffeurs.............................................................. Truck drivers and driver/sales workers........................................... Rail transportation occupations ................................................. Water transportation occupations.............................................. Material moving occupations........................................................ 542 Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 585 587 589 592 594 Other production occupations Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers..................... Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers............................ Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............. Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance.................................................................................. Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.... Semiconductor processors............................................................... Electrical and electronic equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians..................................................................................... Automotive body and related repairers........................................... Automotive service technicians and mechanics............................ Diesel service technicians and mechanics...................................... Metal workers and plastic workers Computer control programmers and operators.............................. Machinists.......................................................................................... Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic......... Tool and die makers.......................................................................... Welding, soldering, and brazing workers....................................... Plant and system operators Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.................... 608 Stationary engineers and boiler operators...................................... 610 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators..... 612 Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers............ Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.......................... Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers......................................................................................... Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers......................................................................................... 562 565 567 569 572 573 575 Assemblers and fabricators.......................................................... 579 Food processing occupations........................................................ 581 Construction trades and related workers Boilermakers...................................................................................... Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons............................... Carpenters.......................................................................................... Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers................................. Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers........................................................................... Construction and building inspectors.............................................. Construction equipment operators.................................................. Construction laborers........................................................................ Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers...................... Electricians......................................................................................... Elevator installers and repairers....................................................... Glaziers............................................................................................... Hazardous materials removal workers............................................ Insulation workers............................................................................. Painters and paperhangers................................................................. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters......................... Plasterers and stucco masons........................................................... Roofers................................................................................................ Sheet metal workers.......................................................................... Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers........................ 560 544 547 549 552 634 637 640 644 647 650 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces.......................... 653 vii https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Additional Information About the 2004-14 Projections Readers interested in more information about the projections; about the methods and assumptions that underlie them; or about details on economic growth, the labor force, or industry and occupational employment, should consult the November 2005 Monthly Labor Review, or the Winter 2005-06 Occupational Outlook Quarterly. For more information about employment change, job openings, earnings, unemployment rates, and training requirements by occupation, consult Occupational Projections and Training Data, 2006-07 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2602. For occupational information from an industry perspective, including discussions of some occupations and career paths that the Occupational Outlook Handbook does not cover, consult the Career Guide to Industries, 2006-07 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2601. Tomorrow’s Jobs Making informed career decisions requires reliable information about opportunities in the future. Opportunities result from the relationships between the population, labor force, and the demand for goods and services. Population ultimately limits the size of the labor force—in dividuals working or looking for work—which constrains how much can be produced. Demand for various goods and ser vices determines employment in the industries providing them. Occupational employment opportunities, in turn, result from demand for skills needed within specific industries. Opportuni ties for medical assistants and other healthcare occupations, for example, have surged in response to rapid growth in demand for health services. Examining the past and projecting changes in these relation ships is the foundation of the Occupational Outlook Program. This chapter presents highlights of Bureau of Labor Statistics projections of the labor force and occupational and industry employment that can help to guide your career plans. Sources of detailed information about the projections appear on page viii. Population Population trends affect employment opportunities in a number of ways. Changes in population influence the demand for goods and services. For example, a growing and aging population has increased the demand for health services. Equally important, population changes produce corresponding changes in the size and demographic composition of the labor force. The U.S. civilian noninstitutional population is expected to increase by 23.9 million over the 2004-14 period, at a slower rate of growth than during both the 1994-2004 and 1984-94 periods (chart 1). Continued growth will mean more consumers of goods and services, spurring demand for workers in a wide range of occupations and industries. The effects of population growth on various occupations will differ. The differences are partially accounted for by the age distribution of the future population. The youth population, aged 16 to 24, will grow 2.9 percent over the 2004-14 period. As the baby boomers continue to age, the group aged 55 to 64 will increase by 36 percent or 10.4 mil lion persons, more than any other group. The group aged 35 to 44 will decrease in size, reflecting the birth dearth following the baby boom generation. Minorities and immigrants will constitute a larger share of the U.S. population in 2014. The number of Hispanics is projected to continue to grow much faster than those of all other racial and ethnic groups. Labor force Population is the single most important factor in determining the size and composition of the labor force—that is, people who are either working or looking for work. The civilian labor force is projected to increase by 14.7 million, or 10 percent, to 162.1 million over the 2004-14 period. The U.S. workforce will become more diverse by 2014. White, non-Hispanic persons will continue to make up a decreas ing share of the labor force, falling from 70 percent in 2004 to 65.6 percent in 2014 (chart 2). However, despite relatively slow growth, white, non-Hispanics will remain the largest group in the labor force in 2014. Asians are projected to account for an increasing share of the labor force by 2014, growing from 4.3 to 5.1 percent. Hispanics are projected be the fastest growing of the four labor force groups, growing by 33.7 percent. By 2014, Hispanics will continue to constitute a larger proportion of the labor force than will blacks, whose share will grow from 11.3 percent to 12.0 percent. The numbers of men and women in the labor force will grow, but the number of women will grow at a faster rate than the number of men. The male labor force is projected to grow by 9.1 percent from 2004 to 2014, compared with 10.9 percent for Chart 2. Percent of labor force by race and ethnic origin, 2004 and projected 2014 Chart 1. Percent change in the population and labor force, 1984-1994,1994-2004, and projected 2004-2014 Percent change , nn Percent of labor force ■ 2004 □ 2014 ■ Labor force □ Civilian noninstitutional Hi III 1984-1994 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1994-2004 Period 2004-2014 White Black Asian All other racial groups Other than Hispanic origin Hispanic origin Race and ethnic origin Note: The four race groups add to the total labor force. The two ethnic origin groups also add to the total labor force. Hispanics may be of any race. 1 2 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chart 3. Percent of labor force by age group, 2004 and projected 2014 20 Percent of labor force Chart 4. Percent change in wage and salary employment, service-providing industry divisions, 1994-2004 and projected 2004-2014 ■ 2004 □ 2014 Education and health services Professional and business services Leisure and hospitality Other services (except government) Information 16 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 54 years 55 years and older Financial activities Age group Trade, transporation, and utilities women. As a result, men’s share of the labor force is expected to decrease from 53.6 to 53.2 percent, while women’s share is expected to increase from 46.4 to 46.8 percent. The youth labor force, aged 16 to 24, is expected to slightly decrease its share of the labor force to 13.7 percent by 2014. The primary working age group, between 25 and 54 years old, is pro jected to decline from 69.3 percent of the labor force in 2004 to 65.2 percent by 2014. Workers 55 and older, on the other hand, are projected to increase from 15.6 percent to 21.2 percent of the labor force between 2004 and 2014, due to the aging of the babyboom generation (chart 3). Employment Total employment is expected to increase from 145.6 million in 2004 to 164.5 million in 2014, or by 13 percent. The 18.9 million jobs that will be added by 2014 will not be evenly distributed across major industrial and occupational groups. Changes in consumer demand, technology, and many other factors will contribute to the continually changing employment structure in the U.S. economy. The following two sections examine projected employment change from both industrial and occupational perspectives. The industrial profile is discussed in terms of primary wage and sal ary employment. Primary employment excludes secondary jobs for those who hold multiple jobs. The exception is employment in agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers in addition to wage and salary workers. The occupational profile is viewed in terms of total employ ment—including primary and secondary jobs for wage and sal ary, self-employed, and unpaid family workers. Of the nearly 146 million jobs in the U.S. economy in 2004, wage and salary workers accounted for 133.5 million; self-employed workers ac counted for 12.1 million; and unpaid family workers accounted for about 141,000. Secondary employment accounted for 1.7 million jobs. Self-employed workers held 9 out of 10 secondary jobs; wage and salary workers held most of the remainder. Industry Service-providing industries. The long-term shift from goodsproducing to service-providing employment is expected to con https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■ 1994-2004 □ 2004-2014 Government 0 10 20 30 40 Percent change tinue. Service-providing industries are expected to account for approximately 18.7 million of the 18.9 million new wage and salary jobs generated over the 2004-14 period (chart 4). Education and health services. This industry supersector is projected to grow faster, 30.6 percent, and add more jobs than any other industry supersector. About 3 out of every 10 new jobs created in the U.S. economy will be in either the healthcare and social assistance or private educational services sectors. Healthcare and social assistance—including private hospitals, nursing and residential care facilities, and individual and family services—will grow by 30.3 percent and add 4.3 million new jobs. Employment growth will be driven by increasing demand for healthcare and social assistance because of an aging popula tion and longer life expectancies. Also, as more women enter the labor force, demand for childcare services is expected to grow. Private educational services will grow by 32.5 percent and add 898,000 new jobs through 2014. Rising student enrollments at all levels of education will create demand for educational services. Professional and business services. This industry supersec tor, which includes some of the fastest growing industries in the U.S. economy, will grow by 27.8 percent and add more than 4.5 million new jobs. Employment in administrative and support and waste man agement and remediation services will grow by 31 percent and add 2.5 million new jobs to the economy by 2014. The fastest growing industry in this sector will be employment services, which will grow by 45.5 percent and will contribute almost twothirds of all new jobs in administrative and support and waste management and remediation services. Employment services ranks among the fastest growing industries in the Nation and is expected to be among those that provide the most new jobs. Employment in professional, scientific, and technical services will grow by 28.4 percent and add 1.9 million new jobs by 2014. Employment in computer systems design and related services will grow by 39.5 percent and add almost one-fourth of all new jobs in professional, scientific, and technical services. Employment growth will be driven by the increasing reliance of businesses on information technology and the continuing importance of main taining system and network security. Management, scientific, and technical consulting services also will grow very rapidly, by 60.5 percent, spurred by the increased use of new technology and computer software and the growing complexity of business. Management of companies and enterprises will grow by 10.6 percent and add 182,000 new jobs. Information. Employment in the information supersector is expected to increase by 11.6 percent, adding 364,000 jobs by 2014. Information contains some of the fast-growing com puter-related industries such as software publishers; Internet publishing and broadcasting; and Internet service providers, Web search portals, and data processing services. Employment in these industries is expected to grow by 67.6 percent, 43.5 per cent, and 27.8 percent, respectively. The information supersector also includes telecommunications, broadcasting, and newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Increased demand for residential and business land-line and wireless services, cable service, high-speed Internet connections, and software will fuel job growth among these industries. Leisure and hospitality. Overall employment will grow by 17.7 percent. Arts, entertainment, and recreation will grow by 25 percent and add 460,000 new jobs by 2014. Most of these new job openings will come from the amusement, gambling, and recreation sector. Job growth will stem from public participa tion in arts, entertainment, and recreation activities—reflecting increasing incomes, leisure time, and awareness of the health benefits of physical fitness. Accommodation and food services is expected to grow by 16.5 percent and add 1.8 million new jobs through 2014. Job growth will be concentrated in food services and drinking places, reflecting increases in population, dual-income families, and dining sophistication. Trade, transportation, and utilities. Overall employment in this industry supersector will grow by 10.3 percent between 2004 and 2014. Transportation and warehousing is expected to increase by 506,000 jobs, or by 11.9 percent through 2014. Truck transportation will grow by 9.6 percent, adding 129,000 new jobs, while rail transportation is projected to decline. The warehousing and storage sector is projected to grow rapidly at 24.8 percent, adding 138,000 jobs. Demand for truck transportation and warehousing services will expand as many manufacturers concentrate on their core competen cies and contract out their product transportation and storage functions. Employment in retail trade is expected to increase by 11 percent, from 15 million to 16.7 million. Increases in population, personal income, and leisure time will contribute to employment growth in this industry, as consumers demand more goods. Wholesale trade is expected to increase by 8.4 percent, growing from 5.7 million to 6.1 million jobs. Employment in utilities is projected to decrease by 1.3 percent through 2014. Despite increased output, employment in electric power generation, transmission, and distribution and natural gas distribution is expected to decline through 2014 due to improved technology that increases worker productivity. However, em ployment in water, sewage, and other systems is expected to increase 21 percent by 2014. Jobs are not easily eliminated by technological gains in this industry because water treatment and disposal are very labor-intensive activities. Digitized forwaste FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tomorrow’s Jobs 3 Financial activities. Employment is projected to grow 10.5 percent over the 2004-14 period. Real estate and rental and leas ing is expected to grow by 16.9 percent and add 353,000 jobs by 2014. Growth will be due, in part, to increased demand for housing as the population grows. The fastest growing industry in the financial activities supersector will be activities related to real estate, which will grow by 32.1 percent, reflecting the housing boom that persists throughout most of the Nation. Finance and insurance is expected to increase by 496,000 jobs, or 8.3 percent, by 2014. Employment in securities, com modity contracts, and other financial investments and related activities is expected to grow 15.8 percent by 2014, reflecting the increased number of baby boomers in their peak savings years, the growth of tax-favorable retirement plans, and the globalization of the securities markets. Employment in credit intermediation and related services, including banks, will grow by 5.4 percent and add about one-third of all new jobs within finance and insurance. Insurance carriers and related activities is expected to grow by 9.5 percent and add 215,000 new jobs by 2014. The number of jobs within agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities is expected to grow about 19.4 percent, as many insurance carriers downsize their sales staffs and as agents set up their own businesses. Government. Between 2004 and 2014, government em ployment, including that in public education and hospitals, is expected to increase by 10 percent, from 21.6 million to 23.8 million jobs. Growth in government employment will be fueled by growth in State and local educational services and the shift of responsibilities from the Federal Government to the State and local governments. Local government educational services is projected to increase 10 percent, adding 783,000 jobs. State government educational services is projected to grow by 19.6 percent, adding 442,000 jobs. Federal Government employment, including the Postal Service, is expected to increase by only 1.6 percent as the Federal Government continues to contract out many government jobs to private companies. Other services (except government). Employment will grow by 14 percent. More than 1 out of every 4 new jobs in this su persector will be in religious organizations, which is expected to grow by 11.9 percent. Other automotive repair and maintenance will be the fastest growing industry at 30.7 percent. Also included among other services is personal care services, which is expected to increase by 19.5 percent Goods-producing industries. Employment in the goodsproducing industries has been relatively stagnant since the early 1980s. Overall, this sector is expected to decline 0.4 percent over the 2004-14 period. Although employment is expected to decline or increase more slowly than in the service-providing industries, projected growth among goods-producing industries varies considerably (chart 5). Construction. Employment in construction is expected to increase by 11.4 percent, from 7 million to 7.8 million. Demand for new housing and an increase in road, bridge, and tunnel construction will account for the bulk of job growth in this supersector. Manufacturing. Employment change in manufacturing will vary by individual industry, but overall employment in this supersector will decline by 5.4 percent or 777,000 jobs. For example, employment in transportation equipment manufacturing is expected to grow by 95,000 jobs. Due to an aging population and increasing life expectancies, pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing is expected to grow by 26.1 percent and add 76,000 jobs through 2014. However, productivity gains, job automation, and international competition will adversely affect 4 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chart 5. Percent change in wage and salary employment, goods-producing industry divisions, 1994-2004 and projected 2004-2014 Chart 6. Percent change in total employment by major occupational group, projected 2004-2014 Percent change ■ 1994-2004 □ 2004-2014 Professional and related Service Management, business, and financial Construction and extraction Installation, maintenance, and repair Transportation and material moving Construction I | 1 Manufacturing Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Sales and related Office and administrative support Mining Production Farming, fishing, and forestry employment in many other manufacturing industries. Employ ment in textile mills and apparel manufacturing will decline by 119,000 and 170,000jobs, respectively. Employment in computer and electronic product manufacturing also will decline by 94,000 jobs through 2014. Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting. Overall employ ment in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting is expected to decrease by 5.2 percent. Employment is expected to continue to decline due to advancements in technology. The only industry within this supersector expected to grow is support activities for agriculture and forestry, which includes farm labor contractors and farm management services. This industry is expected to grow by 18.2 percent and add 19,000 new jobs. Mining. Employment in mining is expected to decrease 8.8 percent, or by some 46,000 jobs, by 2014. Employment in coal mining and metal ore mining is expected to decline by 23.3 per cent and 29.3 percent, respectively. Employment in oil and gas extraction also is projected to decline by 13.1 percent through 2014. Employment decreases in these industries are attribut able mainly to technology gains that boost worker productivity, growing international competition, restricted access to Federal lands, and strict environmental regulations that require cleaning of burning fuels. Occupation Expansion of service-providing industries is expected to continue, creating demand for many occupations. However, projected job growth varies among major occupational groups (chart 6). Professional and related occupations. Professional and re lated occupations will grow the fastest and add more new jobs than any other major occupational group. Over the 2004-14 period, a 21.2 percent increase in the number of professional and related jobs is projected, which translates into 6 million new jobs. Professional and related workers perform a wide variety of duties, and are employed throughout private industry and government. About three-quarters of the job growth will come from three groups of professional occupations—computer and mathematical occupations, healthcare practitioners and technical occupations, and education, training, and library occupations—which will add 4.5 for million jobs combined. Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 Percent change Service occupations. Service workers perform services for the public. Employment in service occupations is projected to increase by 5.3 million, or 19 percent, the second largest numerical gain and second highest rate of growth among the major occupational groups. Food preparation and serving related occupations are expected to add the most jobs among the service occupations, 1.7 million by 2014. However, healthcare support occupations are expected to grow the fastest, 33.3 percent, adding 1.2 million new jobs. Management, business, andfinancial occupations. Workers in management, business, and financial occupations plan and direct the activities of business, government, and other organizations. Their employment is expected to increase by 2.2 million, or 14.4 percent, by 2014. Among managers, the numbers of preschool and childcare center/program educational administrators and of computer and information systems managers will grow the fast est, by 27.9 percent and 25.9 percent, respectively. General and operations managers will add the most new jobs, 308,000, by 2014. Farmers and ranchers are the only workers in this major occupational group whose numbers are expected to decline, los ing 155,000 jobs. Among business and financial occupations, accountants and auditors and management analysts will add the most jobs, 386,000 combined. Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists and personal financial advisors will be the fastest growing occupations in this group, with job increases of 30.5 percent and 25.9 percent, respectively. Construction and extraction occupations. Construction and extraction workers construct new residential and commercial buildings, and also work in mines, quarries, and oil and gas fields. Employment of these workers is expected to grow 12 percent, adding 931,000 new jobs. Construction trades and related work ers will account for more than three-fourths of these new jobs, 699,000, by 2014. Many extraction occupations will decline, reflecting overall employment losses in the mining and oil and gas extraction industries. Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Workers in installation, maintenance, and repair occupations install new equipment and maintain and repair older equipment. These occupations will add 657,000 jobs by 2014, growing by 11.4 percent. Automotive service technicians and mechanics and general maintenance and repair workers will account for half of all new installation, maintenance, and repair jobs. The fast est growth rate will be among security and fire alarm systems installers, an occupation that is expected to grow 21.7 percent over the 2004-14 period. Transportation and material moving occupations. Transporta tion and material moving workers transport people and materials by land, sea, or air. The number of these workers should grow 11.1 percent, accounting for 1.1 million additional jobs by 2014. Among transportation occupations, motor vehicle operators will add the most jobs, 629,000. Material moving occupations will grow 8.3 percent and will add 405,000 jobs. Rail transportation occupations are the only group in which employment is projected to decline, by 1.1 percent, through 2014. Sales and related occupations. Sales and related workers transfer goods and services among businesses and consumers. Sales and related occupations are expected to add 1.5 million new jobs by 2014, growing by 9.6 percent. The majority of these jobs will be among retail salespersons and cashiers, occupations that will add 849,000 jobs combined. Office and administrative support occupations. Office and administrative support workers perform the day-to-day activities of the office, such as preparing and filing documents, dealing with the public, and distributing information. Employment in these occupations is expected to grow by 5.8 percent, adding 1.4 mil lion new jobs by 2014. Customer service representatives will add the most new jobs, 471,000. Desktop publishers will be among the fastest growing occupations in this group, increasing by 23.2 percent over the decade. However, due to rising productivity and increased automation, office and administrative support occupations also account for 11 of the 20 occupations with the largest employment declines. Farming, fishing, andforestry occupations. Farming, fishing, and forestry workers cultivate plants, breed and raise livestock, and catch animals. These occupations will decline 1.3 percent and lose 13,000 jobs by 2014. Agricultural workers, including farmworkers and laborers, accounted for the overwhelming majority of new jobs in this group. The number of fishing and hunting workers is expected to decline, by 16.6, percent, while the number of logging workers is expected to increase by less than 1 percent. Production occupations. Production workers are employed mainly in manufacturing, where they assemble goods and oper ate plants. Production occupations are expected to decline less than 1 percent, losing 79,000 jobs by 2014. Jobs will be created for many production occupations, including food processing workers, machinists, and welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers. Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations, as well as assemblers and fabricators, will account for much of the job losses among production occupations. Among all occupations in the economy, computer and healthcare occupations are expected to grow the fastest over the projection period (chart 7). In fact, healthcare occupa tions make up 12 of the 20 fastest growing occupations, while computer occupations account for 5 out of the 20 fastest grow ing occupations in the economy. In addition to high growth rates, these 17 computer and healthcare occupations combined will add more than 1.8 million new jobs. High growth rates Digitized for among FRASERcomputer and healthcare occupations reflect projected https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tomorrow’s Jobs 5 Chart 7. Percent change in employment in occupations projected to grow fastest, 2004-2014 Home health aides Network systems and data communications analysts Medical assistants Physician assistants Computer software engineers, applications Physical therapist assistants Dental hygienists Computer software engineers, systems software Dental assistants Personal and home care aides Network and computer systems administrators Database administrators Physical therapists Forensic science technicians Veterinary technologists and technicians Diagnostic medical sonographers Physical therapist aides Occupational therapist assistants Medical scientists, except epidemiologists Occupational therapists 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Percent change rapid growth in the computer and data processing and health services industries. The 20 occupations listed in chart 8 will account for more than one-third of all new jobs, 7.1 million combined, over the 2004-14 period. The occupations with the largest numerical increases cover a wider range of occupational categories than do those occupations with the fastest growth rates. Health occupa tions will account for some of these increases in employment, as well as occupations in education, sales, transportation, office and administrative support, and food service. Many of these occupations are very large, and will create more new jobs than will those with high growth rates. Only 3 out of the 20 fastest 6 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chart 8. Occupations with the largest numerical increases in employment, projected 2004-2014 Chart 9. Job declines in occupations with the largest numerical decreases in employment, projected 2004-2014 Retail salespersons Farmers and ranchers Registered nurses Stock clerks and order fillers Postsecondary teachers Sewing machine operators Customer service representatives File clerks Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners Order clerks | Mail derks and mail machine Waiters and waitresses operators, except postal service Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food Computer operators Secretaries, except legal, medical, and Home health aides executive Cutting, punching, and press machine | setters, operators, and tenders, Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants metal and plastic General and operations managers Telemarketers Personal and home care aides Word processors and typists Elementary school teachers, except special education I Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks Accountants and auditors Machine feeders and offbearers I Office clerks, general Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand Receptionists and information clerks Landscaping and groundskeeping workers setters, operators, and tenders Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders I Meter readers, utilities Truck drivers, heavy and tractor-trailer | Office machine operators, except I computer Computer software engineers, applications J Extruding and drawing machine setters, I operators, and tenders, metal and plastic Maintenance and repair workers, general ■ Switchboard operators, including answering service 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Increase (in thousands) growing occupations—home health aides, personal and home care aides, and computer software application engineers—also are projected to be among the 20 occupations with the largest numerical increases in employment. Declining occupational employment stems from declining industry employment, technological advancements, changes in business practices, and other factors. For example, increased productivity and farm consolidations are expected to result in a decline of 155,000 farmers and ranchers over the 2004-14 period (chart 9). The majority of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical decreases are office and administrative support and production occupations, which are affected by increasing plant https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Textile knitting and weaving machine -200 -150 -100 -50 0| Door-to-door sales workers, news and vendors, and related workers Decrease (instreet thousands) and factory automation and the implementation of office tech nology that reduces the needs for these workers. For example, employment of word processors and typists is expected to decline due to the proliferation of personal computers, which allows other workers to perform duties formerly assigned to word processors and typists. Education and training Among the *20 fastest growing occupations, a bachelor’s or as sociate degree is the most significant source of postsecondary education or training for 12 of them—network systems and data communications analysts; physician assistants; computer soft- Tomorrow’s Jobs Chart occupations with the largest numerical decreases. Table 1 lists the fastest growing occupations and occupations projected to have the largest numerical increases in employment between 2004 and 2014, by level of postsecondary education or training. 10. Number of jobs due to growth and replacement needs by major occupational group, projected 2004-2014 Service Total job openings Professional and related Office and administrative support Sales and related Management, business, and financial Transportation and material moving Production Construction and extraction Installation, maintenance, and repair Farming, fishing, and forestry ■ Growth □ Replacement needs 8 10 12 14 Millions of jobs ware engineers, applications; physical therapist assistants; dental hygienists; computer software engineers, systems software; net work and computer systems administrators; database administra tors; forensic science technicians; veterinary technologists and technicians; diagnostic medical sonographers; and occupational therapists assistants. On-the-job training is the most significant source of postsecondary education or training for another 5 of the 20 fastest growing occupations—physical therapist aides, medical assistants, home health aides, dental assistants, and personal and home care aides. In contrast, on-the-job training is the most significant source of postsecondary education or training for 13 of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical increases; 6 of these 20 occupations have an associate or higher degree as the most significant source of postsecondary educa tion or training. On-the-job training also is the most significant source of postsecondary education or training for all 20 of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 Job openings stem from both employment growth and replace ment needs (chart 10). Replacement needs arise as workers leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupations while others retire, return to school, or quit to assume household responsibil ities. Replacement needs are projected to account for more than 60 percent of the approximately 55 million job openings between 2004 and 2014. Thus, even occupations projected to experience slower than average growth or to decline in employment still may offer many job openings. Professional and related occupations are projected to grow faster and add more jobs than any other major occupational group, with 6 million new jobs by 2014. Three-fourths of the job growth in professional and related occupations is expected among computer and mathematical occupations; healthcare practitioners and technical occupations; and education, training, and library occupations. With 5.5 million job openings due to replacement needs, professional and related occupations are the only major group projected to generate more openings from job growth than from replacement needs. Service occupations are projected to have the l argest number of total job openings, 13.2 million, reflecting high replacement needs. A large number of replacements will be necessary as young workers leave food preparation and service occupations. Replacement needs generally are greatest in the largest occupa tions and in those with relatively low pay or limited training requirements. Office automation will significantly affect many individual office and administrative support occupations. Overall, these oc cupations are projected to grow more slowly than average, while some are projected to decline. Office and administrative support occupations are projected to create 7.5 million job openings over the 2004-14 period, ranking third behind service and professional and related occupations. Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations are projected to have the fewest job openings, approximately 286,000. Because job growth is expected to be slow, and levels of retirement and job turnover high, more than 95 percent of these projected job openings are due to replacement needs. 8 Occupational Outlook Handbook Table 1. Fastest growing occupations and occupations projected to have the largest numerical increases in employment between 2004 and 2014, by level of postsecondary education or training Fastest growing occupations Occupations having the largest Postsecondary education or training level numerical job growth First-professional degree Physicians and surgeons Lawyers Pharmacists Dentists Chiropractors Doctoral degree Medical scientists, except epidemiologists Postsecondary teachers Postsecondary teachers Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists Computer and information scientists, research Medical scientists, except epidemiologists Biochemists and biophysicists Computer and information scientists, research Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists Biochemists and biophysicists Master’s degree Physical therapists Physical therapists Occupational therapists Clergy Hydrologists Educational, vocational, and school counselors Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors Instructional coordinators Instructional coordinators Rehabilitation counselors Bachelor’s or higher degree, plus work experience Education administrators, preschool and child care General and operations managers center/program Management analysts Computer and information systems managers Financial managers Training and development managers Computer and information systems managers Actuaries Sales managers Medical and health services managers Bachelor’s degree Network systems and data communications analysts Elementary school teachers, except special education Physician assistants Accountants and auditors Computer software engineers, applications Computer software engineers, applications Computer software engineers, systems software Computer systems analysts Network and computer systems administrators Secondary school teachers, except special and vocational education Associate degree Physical therapist assistant Registered nurses Dental hygienists Computer support specialists Forensic science technicians Dental hygienists Veterinary technologists and technicians Paralegals and legal assistants Diagnostic medical sonographers Medical records and health information technicians Postsecondary vocational award Preschool teachers, except special education Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants Surgical technologists Preschool teachers, except special education Gaming dealers Automotive service technicians and mechanics Emergency medical technicians and paramedics Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists Work experience in a related occupation Self-enrichment education teachers First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers Emergency management specialists First-line supervisors/managers of office and administrative support workers Gaming managers First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers Construction and building inspectors Self-enrichment education teachers First-line supervisors/managers of fire fighting and prevention First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers workers Long-term on-the-job training Fire fighters Carpenters Tile and marble setters Cooks, restaurant Athletes and sports competitors Police and sheriff’s patrol officers Coaches and scouts Plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters Interpreters and translators Electricians Moderate-term on-the-job training Medical assistants Customer service representatives Dental assistants Truck drivers, heavy and tractor-trailer Hazardous materials removal workers Maintenance and repair workers, general Social and human service assistants Medical assistants Residential advisors Executive secretaries and administrative assistants Short-term on-the-job training Home health aides Retail salespersons Personal and home care aides Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners Physical therapist aides Waiters and waitresses Amusement and recreation attendants Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food Occupational therapist aides Home health aides Pharmacists Physicians and surgeons Chiropractors Optometrists Veterinarians https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Career Information This section identifies some major sources of information on careers. These sources are meant to be used in addition to those listed at the end of each Handbook statement, and may provide additional information. Career information Like any major decision, selecting a career involves a lot of fact finding. Fortunately, some of the best informational resources are easily accessible. You should assess career guidance materials carefully. Information that seems out of date or glamorizes an occupation—overstates its earnings or exaggerates the demand for workers, for example—should be evaluated with skepticism. Gathering as much information as possible will help you make a more informed decision. People you know. One of the best resources can be those you know, such as friends and family. They may answer some questions about a particular occupation or put you in touch with someone who has some experience in the field. This personal networking can be invaluable in evaluating an occupation or an employer. These people will be able to tell you about their specific duties and training, as well as what they did or did not like about a job. People who have worked in an occupation lo cally also may be able to recommend and get you in touch with specific employers. Local libraries. Libraries can be an invaluable source of informa tion. Since most areas have libraries, they can be a convenient place to look for information. Also, for those who do not otherwise have access to the Internet or e-mail, many libraries provide this access. Libraries may have information on job openings, locally and nationally; potential contacts within occupations or industries; colleges and financial aid; vocational training; individual busi nesses or careers; and writing resumes. Libraries frequently have subscriptions to various trade magazines that can provide information on occupations and industries. These sources often have references to organizations which can provide additional information about training and employment opportunities. Your local library also may have video materials. If you need help getting started or finding a resource, ask your librarian for assistance. Professional societies, trade groups, and labor unions. These groups have information on an occupation or various related oc cupations with which they are associated or which they actively represent. This information may cover training requirements, earnings, and listings of local employers. These groups may train members or potential members themselves, or may be able to put you in contact with organizations or individuals who perform such training. Each occupational statement in the Handbook concludes with a section on sources of additional information, which lists orga nizations that may be contacted for more information. Another valuable source for finding organizations associated with occupa tions is The Encyclopedia ofAssociations, an annual publication that lists trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employers. This is the primary source of information on specific jobs. Employers may post lists of job openings and applica tion requirements, including the exact training and experience required, starting wages and benefits, and advancement oppor tunities and career paths. Postsecondary institutions. Colleges, universities, and other postsecondary institutions may put a lot of effort into helping place their graduates in good jobs, because the success of their graduates may indicate the quality of their institution and affect their ability to attract new students. Postsecondary institutions frequently have career centers with libraries of information on different careers, listings of related jobs, and alumni contacts in various professions. Career centers frequently employ career counselors who generally provide their services only to their students and alumni. Career centers can help you build your resume, find internships and co-ops which can lead to full-time positions, and tailor your course selection or program to make you a more attractive job applicant. Guidance and career counselors. Counselors can help you make choices about which careers might suit you best. Counsel ors can help you determine what occupations suit your skills by testing your aptitude for various types of work, and determining your strengths and interests. Counselors can help you evalu ate your options and search for a job in your field or help you select a new field altogether. They can also help you determine which educational or training institutions best fit your goals, and find ways to finance them. Some counselors offer other services such as interview coaching, resume building, and help in filling out various forms. Counselors in secondary schools and postsecondary institutions may arrange guest speakers, field trips, or job fairs. Common places where guidance and career counselors are employed include: • High school guidance offices • College career planning and placement offices • Placement offices in private vocational or technical schools and institutions • Vocational rehabilitation agencies • Counseling services offered by community organizations • Private counseling agencies and private practices • State employment service offices When using a private counselor, check to see if the counselor is experienced. One way to do so is to ask people who have used their services in the past. The National Board of Certified Counselors and Affiliates is an institution which accredits career counselors. To verify the credentials of a career counselor and to find a career counselor in your area, contact: >- National Board for Certified Counselor and Affiliates, 3 Terrace Way, Suite D, Greensboro, NC 27403-3660. Internet: http://www.nbcc.org/cfind Internet resources. With the growing popularity of the In ternet, a wide verity of career information has become easily accessible. Many online resources include job listings, resume posting services, and information on job fairs, training, and local 9 10 Occupational Outlook Handbook wages. Many of the resources listed elsewhere in this section have Internet sites that include valuable information on poten tial careers. Since no single source contains all information on an occupation, field, or employer, you will likely need to use a variety of sources. When using Internet resources, be sure that the organization is a credible, established source of information on the particular occupation. Individual companies may include job listings on their Web sites, and may include information about required credentials, wages and benefits, and the job’s location. Contact information, such as whom to call or where to send a resume, is typically included. Some sources exist primarily as a Web service. These services often have information on specific jobs, and can greatly aid in the job hunting process. Some commercial sites offer these services, as do Federal, State, and some local governments. Career OneStop, a joint program by the Department of Labor and the States as well as local agencies, provides these services free of charge. Online Sources from the Department of Labor. A major por tion of the U.S. Department of Labor’s Labor Market Informa tion System is the Career OneStop site. This site includes: • America’s Job Bank allows you to search over a million job open ings listed with State employment agencies. • America’s Career InfoNet provides data on employment growth and wages by occupation; the knowledge, skills, and abilities required by an occupation; and links to employers. • America’s Service Locator is a comprehensive database of career centers and information on unemployment benefits, job train ing, youth programs, seminars, educational opportunities, and disabled or older worker programs. Career OneStop, along with the National Tollfree Helpline (877-USA-JOBS) and the local One-Stop Career Centers in each State, combine to provide a wide range of workforce assistance and resources: >- Career OneStop. Internet: http://www.careeronestop.org For information on occupational wages: ► Wage Data. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/bls/blswage.htm For information on training, workers’ rights, and job listings: >- Education and Training Administration. Internet: http ://www.doleta.gov/jobseekers Organizationsfor specific groups. Some organizations provide information designed to help specific groups of people. Consult directories in your library’s reference center or a career guidance office for information on additional organizations associated with specific groups. Disabled workers: State counseling, training, and placement services for those with disabilities are available from: >- State Vocational Rehabilitation Agency. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/Programs/EROD Information on employment opportunities, transportation, and other considerations for people with all types of disabilities is available from: ► National Organization on Disability, 910 Sixteenth St. NW., Suite 600, Wash ington, DC 20006. Telephone: (202) 293-5960. TTY: (202) 293-5968. Internet: http://www.nod.org/economic For information on making accommodations in the work place for people with disabilities: >- Job Accommodation Network (JAN), P.O. Box 6080, Morgantown, WV 26506. Internet: http://www.jan.wvu.edu A comprehensive Federal Web site of disability-related resources is accessible at: http://www.disabilityinfo.gov Blind workers: Information on the free national reference and referral service for the blind can be obtained by contacting: >- National Federation of the Blind, Job Opportunities for the Blind (JOB), 1800 Johnson St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Telephone: (410) 659-9314. Internet: http://www.nfb.org Use the 0*NET numbers at the start of each Handbook statement to find more information on specific occupations: >- 0*NET Online. Internet: http://www.onetcenter.org Provided in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Educa tion, Career Voyages has information on certain high-demand occupations: >- Career Voyages. Internet: http://www.careervoyages.org The Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes a wide range of labor market information, from regional wages for specific occupations to statistics on National, State, and area employment. >• Bureau of Labor Statistics. Internet: http://www.bls.gov While the Handbook discusses careers from an occupational perspective, a companion publication—Career Guide to Industries—discusses careers from an industry perspective. The Career Guide is also available at your local career center and library: ► Career Guide to Industries. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/home.htm https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Older workers: ► National Council on the Aging, 300 D St. SW., Suite 801, Washington, DC 20024. Telephone: (202) 479-1200. Internet: http://www.ncoa.org ► National Caucus and Center on Black Aged, Inc., Senior Employ ment Programs, 1220 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20005. Telephone: (202) 637-8400. Fax: (202) 347-0895. Internet: http ://www.ncba-aged.org Veterans: Contact the nearest regional office of the U.S. Department of Labor’s Veterans Employment and Training Service or: >- Credentialing Opportunities Online (COOL), which explains how Army soldiers can meet civilian certification and license requirements related to their Military Occupational Specialty (MOS). Internet: http://www.cool.army.mil/index.htm Women: ► Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Telephone: (800) 827-5335. Internet: http://www.dol.gov/wb Sources of Career Information Federal laws, executive orders, and selected Federal grant programs bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Information on how to file a charge of discrimination is available from U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under: ► U.S. Government, EEOC. Telephone: (800) 669-4000. TTY: (800) 669-6820. Internet: http://www.eeoc.gov Office of Personnel Management. Information on obtaining civilian positions within the Federal Government is available from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management through USA Jobs, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. ► USA Jobs: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov Military. The military employs and has information on hundreds of occupations. Information is available on the Montgomery G.I. Bill, which provides money for school and educational debt repayments. Information on military service can be provided by your local recruiting office. Also see the Handbook statement on Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces. For more information on careers in the military: 11 Colorado Director, Labor Market Information, Colorado Department of Labor and Employment, 633 17th St., Suite 600, Denver, CO 80202-3660. Telephone: (303) 318-8850. Internet: http://www.coworkforce.com/lmi Connecticut Director, Office of Research, Connecticut Department of Labor, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Wethersfield, CT 06109-1114. Telephone: (860) 263-6275. Internet: http://www.ctdol.state.ct.us/lmi Delaware Chief, Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Department of Labor, 4425 N. Market St.-Fox Valley Annex, Wilmington, DE 19809-1307. Telephone: (302) 761-8069. Internet: http://www.delawareworks.com/oolmi/welcome.shtml District of Columbia Chief, Office of Labor Market Research and Information, 64 New York Ave. NE., Suite 3035, Washington, D.C. 20002. Telephone: (202) 671-1633. Internet: http://www.does.dc.gov/does Florida Director, Labor Market Statistics, Agency for Workforce Innovation, MSC G-020, 107 E. Madison St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-4111. Telephone: (850) 245-7205. Internet: http://www.labormarketinfo.com Georgia Director, Workforce Information and Analysis, Room 300, Department of Labor, 223 Courtland St., CWC Building, Atlanta, GA 30303. Telephone: (404) 232-3875. Internet: http://www.dol.state.ga.us/em/get_labor_market_information.htm Guam >- Today’s Military. Internet: http://www.todaysmilitary.com Chief Economist, Guam Department of Labor, P.O. Box 9970, Tamuning, Guam 96931. Telephone: (671)475-7062. State Sources. Most States have career information delivery Hawaii systems (CIDS), which may be found in secondary and post secondary institutions, as well as libraries, job training sites, vocational-technical schools, and employment offices. A wide range of information is provided, from employment opportunities to unemployment insurance claims. Whereas the Handbook provides information for occupa tions on a national level, each State has detailed informati'on on occupations and labor markets within their respective jurisdictions. State occupational projections are available at: http://www.projectionscentral.com Chief, Research and Statistics Office, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 830 Punchbowl St., Room 304, Honolulu, HI 96813. Telephone: (808) 586-8999. Internet: http://www.hiwi.org Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis Bureau, Department of Commerce and Labor, 317 West Main St., Boise, ID 83735-0670. Telephone: (208) 332-3570. Internet: http://lmi.idaho.gov Illinois Deputy Director of Workforce and Career Information, Illinois Department of Employment Security, Economic Information and Analysis Division, 33 S. State St., 9th Floor, Chicago, IL 60603. Telephone: (312) 793-2316. Internet: http ://lmi.ides.state.il.us Alabama Director, Labor Market Information Division, Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, 649 Monroe St., Room 422, Montgomery, AL 36131. Telephone: (334) 242-8859. Internet: http://dir.alabama.gov Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis Section, Department of Labor and Workforce Development, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Telephone: (907) 465-4518. Internet: http://almis.labor.state.ak.us Arizona Research Administrator, Arizona Department of Economic Security, RO. Box 6123 SC733A, Phoenix, AZ 85005-6123. Telephone: (602) 542-5984. Internet: http://www.workforce.az.gov Arkansas Division Chief, Labor Market Information, Department of Workforce Services, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203-2981. Telephone: (501) 682-3198. Internet: http://www.arkansas.gov/esd California Chief, State of California Employment Development Department, Labor Market Information Division, P.O. Box 826880, Sacramento, CA 94280-0001. Tele phone: (916) 262-2160. Internet: http://www.calmis.cahwnet.gov https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Indiana Director, Research and Analysis—Indiana Workforce Development, SE211,10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46204-2277. Telephone: (317) 232-7460. Internet: http://www.in.gov/dwd Iowa Policy and Information Division, Iowa Workforce Development, 1000 East GrandAve.,DesMoines,IA50319-0209. Telephone: (515)281-6642. Internet: http://www.iowaworkforce.org/lmi Kansas Director, Kansas Department of Labor, Labor Market Information Services, 401 SW Topeka Blvd., Topeka, KS 66603-3182. Telephone: (785) 296-5058. Intemet:http://laborstats.dol.ks.gov Kentucky Research and Statistics Branch, Office of Employment and Training, 275 East Main St.—Mail Stop 2-WG, Frankfort, KY 40621. Telephone: (502) 564-7976. Internet: http://www.workforcekentucky.ky.gov Louisiana Director, Research and Statistics Division, Department of Labor, 1001 North 23rd St., Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Telephone: (225) 342-3141. Internet: http://www.laworks.net 12 Occupational Outlook Handbook Maine Director, Labor Market Information Services Division, Maine Department of Labor, 19 Union St., Augusta, ME 04332. Telephone: (207) 287-2271. Internet: http://www.state.me.us/labor/lmis/index.html North Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Division, Employment Security Commis sion, 700 Wade Ave., Raleigh, NC 27605. Telephone: (919)733-2936. Internet: http://www.ncesc.com Maryland North Dakota Maryland Department of Labor Licensing and Regulation, Office of Labor Market Analysis and Information, Room 316, 1100 N. Eutaw, Baltimore, MD 21201. Telephone: (410) 767-2250. Internet: Labor Market Information Manager, Job Service North Dakota, P.O. Box 5507, Bismarck, ND 58506-5507. Telephone: (701) 328-3136. Internet: http://www.dllr.state.md.us/lmi/index.htm http://www.jobsnd.com/data/index.html Ohio Massachusetts Assistant Director of Economic Research, Massachusetts Division of Unemployment Assistance, 19 Stamford St., Boston, MA 02421. Telephone: (617)626-6556. Internet: http://www.detma.org/LMIdataprog.htm Michigan Director, Bureau of Labor Market Information and Strategic Initiatives, Department of Labor and Economic Growth, 3032 West Grand Blvd., Suite 9-100, Detroit, MI 48202. Telephone: (313) 456-3100. Internet: Director, Bureau of Labor Market Information, Office of Workforce Development, Ohio Department of Job and Family Services, 4300 Kim berly Pkwy., Columbus, OH 43232. Telephone: (614) 752-9494. Internet: http://www.ohioworkforceinformer.org Oklahoma Labor Market Information, Oklahoma Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 52003, Oklahoma City, OK 73152. Telephone: (405) 557-7221. Internet: http://www.oesc.state.ok.us/lmi/default.htm http://www.michlmi.org Oregon Minnesota Research Director, Department of Employment and Economic Development, Labor Market Information Office, 1st National Bank Building, 332 Minnesota St., Suite E200, St. Paul, MN55101-1351. Telephone: (651) 296-6545. Internet: http://www.deed.state.mn.us/lmi Mississippi Chief, Labor Market Information Division, Mississippi Department of Employ ment Security, 1235 Echelon Pkwy., Jackson, MS 39213. Telephone: (601) 321-6262. Internet: http://mdes.ms.gov Oregon Employment Department, Attention: Research Division, Room 207, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, OR 97311. Telephone: (503) 947-1200. Internet: http://www.qualityinfo.org/olmisj/01misZine Pennsylvania Director, Center for Workforce Information & Analysis, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, 220 Labor and Industry Building, Seventh and Forster Sts., Harrisburg, PA 17121. Telephone: (877) 493-3282. Internet: http://www.paworkstats.state.pa.us Puerto Rico Missouri LMI Research Manager, Missouri Economic Research and Information Center, P.O. Box 3150, Jefferson City, MO 65101-3150. Telephone: (573) 751-3637. Internet: http://www.missourieconomy.org Economist, Labor Market Information Office, P.O. Box 195540, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00919-5540. Telephone: (787) 754-5347. Internet: http://www.net-empleopr.org/almis23/index.jsp Rhode Island Montana Research and Analysis Bureau, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624. Telephone: (406) 444-2430. Internet: http://www.ourfactsyourfuture.org Nebraska Administrator, Nebraska Workforce Development—Labor Market Information, Nebraska Department of Labor, P.O. Box 4600, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Tele phone: (402) 471-2600. Internet: http://www.dol.state.ne.us/nelmi.htm Nevada Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Employment Training and Reha bilitation, 500 East Third St., Carson City, NV 89713-0020. Telephone: (775) 684-0387. Internet: http://www.detr.state.nv.us/lmi/index.htm New Hampshire Director, Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau, New Hampshire Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, NH 03301-4857. Telephone: (603) 228-4123. Internet: http://www.nhes.state.nh.us/elmi New Jersey Director, Division of Labor Market and Demographic Research, Department of Labor and Workforce Development, P.O. Box 388, Trenton, NJ 08625-0388. Telephone: (609) 984-2593. Internet: http://www.state.nj.us/Iabor/lra New Mexico Research Chief, New Mexico Department of Labor , Economic Research and Analysis, 501 Mountain Road NE., Albuquerque, NM 87102. Telephone: (505) 222-4684. Internet: http://www.dol.state.nm.us/dolJmif.html New York Director, Research and Statistics, New York State Department of Labor, State Office Campus, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240. Telephone: (518) 457-3805. Internet: http://www.labor.state.ny.us/workforceindustrydata/index.asp https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Assistant Director, Labor Market Information, Rhode Island Department of Labor and Training, 1511 Pontiac Ave., Cranston, RI02920. Telephone: (401) 462-8767. Internet: http://www.dlt.ri.gov/lmi South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information Department, South Carolina Employment Security Commission, 631 Hampton St., Columbia, SC 29202. Telephone: (803) 737-2660. Internet: http://www.sces.org/lmi/index.asp South Dakota Director, Labor Market Information Center, Department of Labor, 420 S. Roos evelt St., Aberdeen, SD 57402-4730. Telephone: (605) 626-2314. Internet: http://www.state.sd.us/dol/lmic/index.htm Tennessee Director, Research and Statistics Division, Department of Labor and Workforce Development, 500 James Robertson Pkwy., 11th Floor, Nashville, TN 37245-1000. Telephone: (615) 741-2284. Internet: http://www.state.tn.us/labor-wfd/lmi.htm Texas Labor Market Information, Texas Workforce Commission, 9001 North IH-35, Suite 103A, Austin, TX 75753. Telephone: (512) 491-4800. Internet: http://www.tracer2.com Utah Director of Workforce Information, Utah Department of Workforce Services, 140 East 300 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84111. Telephone: (801) 526-9401. Internet: http://jobs.utah.gov/opencms/wi Vermont Chief, Research and Analysis, Vermont Department of Labor, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05601-0488. Telephone: (802) 828-4202. Internet: http://www.labor.vermont.gov Sources of Career Information Virgin Islands Chief, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 303359, St Thomas, VI 00803-3359. Telephone: (340) 776-3700. Internet: http://www.vidol.gov Virginia 13 West Virginia WORKFORCE West Virginia, Research, Information and Analysis Division, 112 California Ave., Charleston, WV 25303-0112. Telephone: (304) 558-2660. Internet: http://www.wvbep.org/bep/lmi Wisconsin Director, Economic Information Services, Virginia Employment Commission, 703 East Main St., Room 327, Richmond, VA23218. Telephone: (804) 786-5496. Internet: http://velma.virtuallmi.com Director, Bureau of Workforce Information, Department of Workforce Develop ment, 201 E. Washington Ave., Madison, WI53702. Telephone: (608)266-8212. Internet: http://worknet.wisconsin.gov/worknet Washington Wyoming Director, Labor Market and Economic Analysis, Washington Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 9046, Olympia, WA 98507-9046. Telephone: (360) 438-4804. Internet: http://www.workforceexplorer.com http://doe.state.wy.us/lmi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Manager, Research and Planning, Wyoming Department of Employment, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, WY 82602-2760. Telephone: (307) 473-3807.Intemet: Sources of Education, Training, and Financial Aid Education can open doors for those looking to start a new career or change specialty within their current occupation. This section outlines some major sources of education and training required to enter many occupations, as well as some ways to finance the education or training. For information on the specific training and educational requirements for a particular occupation, and what training is typically provided by an employer, consult the Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement section of the appropriate Handbook statement. Sources of Education and Training Four-year colleges and universities. These institutions provide detailed information on theory and practice for a wide variety of subjects. Colleges and universities can provide one with the knowledge and background necessary to be successful in many fields. They also can help to place students in cooperative educa tion programs—often called “co-ops”—or internships. Co-ops and internships are short-term jobs with firms related to one’s field of study that lead to college credit. In co-ops and intern ships, students leam the specifics of a job while making valuable contacts that can lead to a permanent position. For more information on colleges and universities, go to your local library, consult your high school guidance counselor, or contact individual colleges. Also check with your State’s higher education agency. A list of these agencies is available on the Internet: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD. Junior and community colleges. Junior and community col leges offer a mixture of programs that lead to associate degrees and training certificates. Community colleges tend to be less expensive than 4-year colleges and universities. They typically are more willing to accommodate part-time students, and their programs are more tailored to the needs of local employers. Many have an open admissions policy, and often these institutions offer weekend and night classes. Many community colleges form partnerships with local businesses that allow students to gain job-specific training. For students who may not be able to enroll in a college or university because of their academic record, limited finances, or distance from such an institution, junior or community colleges are often used as a place to earn credits that can be applied toward a degree at a 4-year college. Junior and community colleges also are noted for their extensive role in continuing and adult education. For more information on junior and community colleges, go to your local library, consult your high school guidance counselor, or contact individual schools. Also check with your State’s higher education agency. A list of these agencies is available on the Internet: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD. Vocational and trade schools. These institutions train people in specific trades. They offer courses designed to provide hands-on experience. Vocational and trade schools tend to concentrate on trades, services, and other types of skilled work. 14 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Vocational and trade schools frequently engage students in real-world projects, allowing them to apply field methods while learning theory in classrooms. Graduates of vocational and trade schools have an advantage over informally trained or self-trained job seekers because graduates have an independent organization certifying that they have the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform the duties of a particular occupa tion. These schools also help students to acquire any license or other credentials needed to enter the job market. For more information on vocational and trade schools, go to your local library, consult your high school guidance counselor, or contact individual schools. Also check with your State’s director of vocational-technical education. A list of State direc tors of vocational-technical education is available on the Internet: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD. Apprenticeships. An apprenticeship provides work experience as well as education and training for those entering certain oc cupations. Apprenticeships are offered by sponsors, who employ and train the apprentice. The apprentice follows a training course under close supervision and receives some formal education to leam the theory related to the job. Apprenticeships are a way for inexperienced people to become skilled workers. Apprenticeships are an agreement between the apprentice and the sponsor and generally last between 1 and 4 years. Some apprenticeships allow the apprentice to earn an associate degree. An Apprenticeship Completion Certificate is granted to those completing programs. This certificate is admin istered by federally approved State agencies. Information on apprenticeships is available from the Office of Apprenticeship Training, Employer, and Labor Services on the Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat. For assistance finding an apprenticeship program, go to: http://www.doleta.gov/atels_bat/fndprgm.cfm. Professional societies, trade associations, and labor unions. These groups are made up of people with common interests, usually in related occupations or industries. The groups frequently are able to provide training, access to training through their affiliates, or information on acceptable sources of training for their field. If licensing or certification is re quired, they also may be able to assist you in meeting those requirements. For a listing of professional societies, trade associations, and labor unions related to an occupation, check the Sources of Additional Information section at the end of that occupational statement in the Handbook. Employers. Many employers provide on-the-job training. On-the-job training can range from spending a few minutes watching another employee demonstrate a task to participating in formal training programs that may last for several months. In some jobs, employees may continually undergo training to stay up to date with new developments and technologies, or to add new skills. Sources of Education, Training, and Financial Aid 15 Military. The United States Armed Forces trains and employs Scholarships. A scholarship is a sum of money donated to a people in more than 4,100 different occupations. For more in formation, see the Handbook statement on “Job Opportunities in The Armed Forces.” For detailed answers to specific questions, contact your local recruiting office. Valuable resources also are available on the Internet: http://www.todaysmilitary.com. student to help pay for his or her education or training and any associated costs. Scholarships can range from small amounts up to the full cost of schooling. They are based on financial need, academic merit, athletic ability, or a wide variety of other criteria set by the organizations that provide the scholarships. Frequently, students must meet minimum academic requirements to be considered for a scholarship. Other qualifying require ments—such as intended major field of study, heritage, or group membership—may be added by the organization providing the scholarship. Scholarships can be provided by a wide variety of institu tions, including educational institutions, State and local gov ernments, private associations, social groups, and individuals. There are no federally awarded scholarships based on academic merit. Most large scholarships are awarded to students by the institution they plan to attend. Students who have received State scholarships and plan to attend a school in another State should check with their State to see if the scholarship can be transferred. Information on scholarships is typically available from high school guidance counselors and local libraries. Ad ditional scholarship information is available from State higher education agencies. A list of these agencies is available at: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD. The Col lege Board has information on available scholarships at: Sources of Financial Aid Many people fund their education or training through financial aid or tuition assistance programs. Federal student aid comes in three forms—grants, work-study programs, and loans. All Federal stu dent aid applicants must first fill out a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), which provides a Student Aid Report (SAR) and eligibility rating. Forms must be submitted to desired institutions of study, which determine the amount of aid you will receive. For information on applying for Federal financial aid, visit the FAFSA Internet site: http://www.fafsa.ed.gov. A U.S. Department of Education publication describing Federal financial aid programs, called The Student Guide, is available at: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov/students/publications/ student_guide/index.html. Information on Federal programs is available from: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov and www.students.gov. http ://www.collegeboard.com/pay. Student loans. Many institutions, both public and private, Information on State programs is available from your State’s higher education agency. A list of these agencies is available at: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD. Grants. A grant is money which is given to a student or the in stitution they are attending in order to pay for their education or training and any associated expenses. Grants are typically given on the basis of financial need. Grants are considered gifts and are not paid back. Federal grants are almost exclusively for under graduate students. They include Pell Grants, which can be worth up to $4,050 annually, and Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants (FSEOG), which can be worth up to $4,000 annually. Priority for FSEOG awards is given to those who have also received the Pell Grant and have exceptional financial need. Additional information on grants is available on the Internet: http ://www.studentaid.ed.gov. Information also is available from your State Higher Education agency. A list of these agencies is available at: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD. FederalWork-Study program. The Federal Work-Study program is offered at most institutions and consists of Federal sponsor ship of a student who works part time at the institution he or she is attending. The money a student earns through this program goes directly toward the cost of attending the institution. There are no set minimum or maximum amounts for this type of aid, although, on average, a student can expect to earn about $2,000 per school year. For additional information on work-study opportunities offered, check with individual institutions. General infor mation on the Federal Work-Study program is available at: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov/students/publications/ Digitized forstudent_guide/2005-2006/english/types-fed-workstudy.htm. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis provide low-interest loans to students and their parents or guardians. The Federal Government also provides several types of student loans based on the applicant’s level of financial need. The amount of money a student can receive in loans varies by the distributing institution and depends on whether the student is claimed by a parent or guardian as a dependent. Since the process of applying for a loan may take several months, it is a good idea to start applying for Federal student loans well in advance. The available Federal loan programs can accommodate prospective undergraduate, graduate, vocational, and disabled students. Federal loans can be distributed through the school that the student is attending, from the Federal Government directly, or from a third-party private lender or bank. Perkins loans are distributed through the school the student is attending. Loans coming from the Federal Government directly from the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program are dispersed by the De partment of Education. Third-party loans through a private lender or bank are from the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) program. For all federally funded loans, payments are made to the institution that originally dispersed the funds. For those with financial need, Federal Perkins loans and both Direct and FFEL-subsidized Stafford loans are available. Perkins loans have no minimum amount, but they are capped at $4,000 per year for undergraduates and $6,000 per year for graduate students. Subsidized Stafford loans can range in value from $2,625 to $8,500 per year and can increase as a student completes more years of undergraduate, graduate, or professional education. Interest rates remain at a flat 5 percent for all Perkins loans, while rates can fluctuate up to 8.25 percent for subsidized Stafford loans. Those with Perkins loans are not responsible for starting to repay the loan until they have been out of school for 9 months. Those with subsidized Stafford loans must begin pay ments within 6 to 9 months of leaving school but are not charged monthly interest while in school. 16 Occupational Outlook Handbook For those who do not demonstrate financial need, Direct and FFEL-unsubsidized Stafford Loans and Federal Parent Loans for Students (PLUS) are available. Unsubsidized Stafford loans can range in value from $2,625 to $18,500 per year. PLUS loans are capped at the cost of attendance. With Federal unsubsidized Stafford Loans, interest payments start almost immediately and can be paid monthly or accrued until the completion of studies. The latter option results in a larger total loan cost but may be more convenient for some students. With PLUS loans, the parent must pay interest and principal payments while the student is enrolled in school and must continue payments after completion. Check with your lender for available repayment schedules. Typically, students have 10 years to repay Perkins loans and from 10 to 30 years for unsubsidized Stafford loans. Subsidized and unsubsidized Stafford loans are only available to students who are enrolled in an academic program at least half time. As with any loan, be sure to investigate different lenders, and understand what your loan contract requires of you before agreeing to any loan. Check with established financial institu tions to compare the terms of available private student loans. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Comparisons of the various types of loans are available on the Internet: http ://www.studentaid.ed.gov/students/publications/ student_guide/index.html. The College Board has information on available loans at: http://www.collegeboard.com/pay. Employer tuition support programs. Some employers offer tuition assistance programs as part of their employee benefits package. The terms of these programs depend on the firm and can vary by the type and amount of training subsidized, as well as by eligibility requirements. Consult your human resources department for information on tuition support programs offered by your employer. Military tuition support programs. The United States Armed Forces offer various tuition assistance and loan repayment programs for military personnel. See the Handbook statement on “Job Op portunities in the Armed Forces” for more information. Also go to: http://www.todaysmilitary.com/app/tin/get/collegehelp/support. I Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer Finding information on available jobs Employers. Through your library and Internet research, de It often takes months of time and effort to find a job that matches your qualifications and desires. Actively pursuing multiple leads will maximize your search efforts and reduce the time it takes you to find employment. This means devoting as much time as you can to your job search. If you are unemployed, treat your job search like a full-time job, waking up early and working a full day. If you are working or in school, it is still important to devote time every day to your job search. Inform people you know that you are looking for a job. Read the classified ads. Use the Internet, including general job search sites, special interest sites, company Web sites, and trade and professional association Web sites. Directly contact employers in which you are interested, even if they are not advertising a job opening. You may also wish to consult State employment service offices and to consider private employment agencies. velop a list of potential employers in your desired career field. Employer Web sites often contain lists of job openings. Web sites and business directories can provide you with information on how to apply for a position or whom to contact. Even if no open positions are posted, do not hesitate to contact the employer and the relevant department. Set up an interview with someone working in the same area in which you wish to work. Ask them how they got started, what they like and dislike about the work, what type of qualifications are necessary for the job, and what type of personality succeeds in that position. Even if they don’t have a position available, they may be able to put you in contact with other people who might hire you, and they can keep you in mind if a position opens up. Make sure to send them your resume and a cover letter. If you are able to obtain an interview, be sure to send a thank-you note. Directly contacting employers is one of the most successful means of job hunting. Where to learn about job openings Personal contacts School career planning and placement offices Employers Classified ads —National and local newspapers —Professional journals —Trade magazines Internet networks and resources State employment service offices Federal Government Professional associations Labor unions Private employment agencies and career consultants Community agencies Classified ads. The “Help Wanted” ads in newspapers list nu merous jobs. You should realize, however, that many other job openings are not listed, and that the classified ads sometimes do not give all of the important information. They may offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. They may simply give a post office box to which you can mail your resume, making follow-up inquiries very difficult. Some ads offer out-of-town jobs; others advertise employment agencies rather than actual employment opportunities. When using classified ads, keep the following in mind: • • Job search methods • Personal contacts. Eighty percent of available jobs are never advertised, and over half of all employees get their jobs through networking, according to BH Careers International. Therefore, the people you know—friends, family, neighbors, acquaintances, teachers, and former coworkers—are some of the most effective resources for your job search. The network of people that you know and the people that they know can lead to information about specific job openings that are not publicly posted. To develop new contacts, join student, community, or professional organizations. School career planning and placement offices. High school and college placement offices help their students and alumni find jobs. They allow recruiters to use their facilities for interviews or career fairs. Placement offices usually have a list of part-time, temporary, and summer jobs offered on campus. They also may have lists ofjobs for regional, nonprofit, and government organi zations. In addition to linking you to potential employers, career planning offices usually provide career counseling, career testing, and job search advice. Some have career resource libraries; host workshops on job search strategy, resume writing, letter writing, and effective interviewing; critique drafts of resumes; conduct mock interviews; and sponsor job fairs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • Do not rely solely on the classifieds to find a job; follow other leads as well. Answer ads promptly, because openings may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops appearing in the paper. Read the ads every day, particularly the Sunday edition, which usually includes the most listings. Beware of “no experience necessary” ads. These ads often signal low wages, poor working conditions, or commission work. Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded, including the specific skills, educational background, and personal qualifications required for the position. Internet networks and resources. The Internet is an invaluable resource. Use it to find advice on conducting your job search more effectively; to search for a job; to research prospective employers; and to communicate with people who can help you with your job search. No single Web site will contain all the information available on employment or career opportunities, so in addition to the Web sites listed below, use a search engine to find what you need. The different types of sites that may be useful include general career advice sites, job search sites, com pany Web sites, trade and professional association Web sites, and forums. Internet forums, also called message boards, are online discussion groups where anyone may post and read messages. Use forums specific to your profession or to career-related topics to post questions or messages and to read about other peoples’ job searches or career experiences. 17 18 Occupational Outlook Handbook In job databases, remember that job listings may be posted by field or discipline, so begin your search using keywords. Some Web sites provide national or local classified listings and allow job seekers to post their resumes online. When searching employ ment databases on the Internet, it usually is possible to send your resume to an employer by e-mail or to post it online. CareerOneStop is a database consisting of three separate career resource tools. It can be accessed on the Internet at: http://www.CareerOneStop.org, or by telephone at: (877) 348-0502. Alternatively, each resource tool can be accessed directly at its own Internet address. America's Job Bank allows you to search through a database of more than 1 million jobs nationwide, create and post your resume online, and set up an automated job search. The database contains a wide range of mostly full-time private sector jobs that are avail able all over the country. Job seekers can access America’s Job Bank at: http://www.ajb.org, America’s Career InfoNet provides information on educa tional, licensing, and certification requirements for different oc cupations by State. It also provides information on wages, cost of living, and employment trends, and helps job seekers identify their skills and write resumes and cover letters. Job seekers can access America’s Career InfoNet at: http://www.acinet.org. America’s Service Locator provides listings of local employ ment service offices which help job seekers find jobs and help employers find qualified workers at no cost to either. At the State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are “job ready” or if you need help from counseling and testing services to assess your occupational aptitudes and interests and to help you choose and prepare for a career. After you are “job ready,” you may examine available job listings and select open ings that interest you. A staff member can then describe the job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Job seekers can access America’s Service Locator at: http://www.servicelocator.org. A list of offices is also in the State government telephone listings under “Job Service” or “Employment.” Using Internet Resources to Plan your Future, a U.S. Depart ment of Labor publication, offers advice on organizing your Inter net job search. It is primarily intended to provide instruction for job seekers on how to use the Internet to their best advantage, but recruiters and other career service industry professionals will find information here to help them also. How to Use the Internet in your Job Search', The Job Search Process', and the Career-Related Pages, other U.S. Department of Labor Internet publications, each discusses specific steps that job seekers can follow to identify employment opportunities. Included are daily tips and hints, plus a large database of links and job search engines. Check with your State employment service office, or order a copy of these and other publications from the U.S. Government Printing Office’s Super intendent of Documents. Telephone: (202) 512-1800. Internet: http://bookstore.gpo.gov or http://www.doleta.gov. State employment service offices. The State employment service, sometimes called the Job Service, operates in coordination with the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administra tion. Local offices, found nationwide, help job seekers to find jobs and help employers to find qualified workers at no cost to either. To find the office nearest you, look in the State government telephone listings under “Job Service” or “Employment.” Job matching and referral. At the State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are “job ready” or if you need help from counseling and testing ser vices to assess your occupational aptitudes and interests and to help you choose and prepare for a career. After you are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis “job ready,” you may examine available job listings and select openings that interest you. A staff member can then describe the job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Services for special groups. By law, veterans are entitled to priority for job placement at State employment service centers. If you are a veteran, a veterans’ employment representative can inform you of available assistance and help you to deal with problems. State employment service offices refer people to opportuni ties available under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998. WIA reforms Federal employment, adult education, and vocational rehabilitation programs to create an integrated, “onestop” system of workforce investment and education activities for adults and youths. Services are provided to employers and job seekers, including adults, dislocated workers, and youths. WIA’s primary purpose is to increase the employment, retention, skills, and earnings of participants. These programs help to pre pare people to participate in the State’s workforce, increase their employment and earnings potential, improve their educational and occupational skills, and reduce their dependency on welfare, which will improve the quality of the workforce and enhance the productivity and competitiveness of the Nation’s economy. Federal Government. Information on obtaining a position with the Federal Government is available from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Professional associations. Many professions have associations that offer employment information, including career planning, educational programs, job listings, and job placement. To use these services, associations usually require that you be a member; information can be obtained directly from an association through the Internet, by telephone, or by mail. Labor unions. Labor unions provide various employment ser vices to members, including apprenticeship programs that teach a specific trade or skill. Contact the appropriate labor union or State apprenticeship council for more information. Private employment agencies and career consultants. These agencies can be helpful, but they may charge you for their services. Most operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a percentage of the salary paid to a successful applicant. You or the hiring company will pay the fee. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying associated fees before using the service. Although employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise might be difficult to locate, the costs may outweigh the benefits if you are responsible for the fee. Contacting employers directly often will generate the same type of leads that a private employment agency will provide. Consider any guarantees that the agency offers when determining if the service is worth the cost. Community agencies. Many nonprofit organizations, including religious institutions and vocational rehabilitation agencies, of fer counseling, career development, and job placement services, generally targeted to a particular group, such as women, youths, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers. Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer Applying for a job Resumes and application forms. Resumes and application forms are two ways to provide employers with written evidence of your qualifications and skills. Generally, the same information appears on both the resume and the application form, but the way in which it is presented differs. Some employers prefer a resume and others require an application form. The accompanying box presents the basic information you should include in your resume. There are many ways of organizing a resume; choose the format that best showcases your skills and experience. It may be helpful to look for examples on the Internet or in books at your local library or bookstore. Typically, an employer has a very limited amount of time to review your resume. It is important to make sure it is clear and concise and highlights your skills and experiences effectively through the use of formatting, ordering, and headings. Many employers scan resumes into databases, which they then search for specific keywords or phrases. The keywords are usually nouns referring to experience, education, personal characteristics, or industry buzz words. Identify keywords by reading the job de scription and qualifications; use the same words in your resume that are used in the job ad. For example, if the job description includes customer service tasks, use the words “customer service” on your resume. Scanners sometimes misread paper resumes, which could mean some of your keywords don’t get into the database. So, if you know that your resume will be scanned, and you have the option, e-mail an electronic version. If you must submit a paper resume, make it scannable by using a simple font and avoiding underlines, italics, and graphics. It is also a good idea to send a traditionally formatted resume along with your scannable resume, with a note on each marking its purpose. What usually goes into a resume • Name, address, e-mail address, and telephone number. • Employment objective. State the type of work or specific job you are seeking. • Education, including school name and address, dates of attendance, major, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. Consider including any courses or areas of focus that might be relevant to the position. • Experience, paid and volunteer. For each job, include the job title, name and location of employer, and dates of employment. Briefly describe your job duties. • Special skills, computer skills, proficiency in foreign lan guages, achievements, and membership in organizations. • References, only when requested. • Keep it short; only one page for less experienced applicants. • Avoid long paragraphs; use bullets to highlight key skills and accomplishments. • Have several people review your resume for any spelling or grammatical errors. • Print it on high quality paper. When you fill out an application form, make sure you fill it out completely and follow all instructions. Do not omit any requested in formation and make sure that the information you provide is correct. Cover letters. A cover letter is sent with a resume or application form, as a way of introducing yourself to prospective employers. As with your resume, it may be helpful to look for examples on the Internet or in books at your local library or bookstore, but be sure not to copy letters directly from other sources. Your cover letter should be original, capture the employer’s attention, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 19 follow a business letter format, and usually should include the following information: • • • • • Name and address of the specific person to whom the letter is addressed. Reason for your interest in the company or position. Your main qualifications for the position. Request for an interview. Your home and work telephone numbers. If you send a scannable resume, you should also include a scan nable cover letter, which is created similarly to a scannable resume, by avoiding graphics, fancy fonts, italics, and underlines. Interviewing. An interview gives you the opportunity to show case your qualifications to an employer, so it pays to be well prepared. The information in the accompanying box provides some helpful hints. Job interview tips Preparation: Learn about the organization. Have a specific job or jobs in mind. Review your qualifications for the job. Prepare answers to broad questions about yourself. Review your resume. Practice an interview with a friend or relative. Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview. Personal appearance: Be well groomed. Dress appropriately. Do not chew gum or smoke. The interview: Relax and answer each question concisely. Respond promptly. Use good manners. Learn the name of your interviewer and greet him or her with a firm handshake. Use proper English—avoid slang. Be cooperative and enthusiastic. Use body language to show interest. Ask questions about the position and the organization, but avoid questions whose answers can easily be found on the company Web site. Also avoid asking questions about salary and benefits unless a job offer is made. Thank the interviewer when you leave and, as a follow-up, in writing. Test (if employer gives one): Listen closely to instructions. Read each question carefully. Write legibly and clearly. Budget your time wisely and don’t dwell on one question. Information to bring to an interview: Social Security card. Government-issued identification (driver’s license). Resume. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a resume, you should be able to furnish the interviewer information about your education, training, and previousemployment. References. Employers typically require three references. Get permission before using anyone as a reference. Make sure that they will give you a good reference. Try to avoid using relatives as references. Transcripts. Employers may require an official copy of tran scripts to verify grades, coursework, dates ofattendance, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. 20 Occupational Outlook Handbook Evaluating a job offer Does the organization’s business or activity match your own interests and beliefs? Once you receive a job offer, you are faced with a difficult deci sion and must evaluate the offer carefully. Fortunately, most organizations will not expect you to accept or reject an offer immediately. There are many issues to consider when assessing a job offer. Will the organization be a good place to work? Will the job be interesting? Are there opportunities for advancement? Is the sal ary fair? Does the employer offer good benefits? If you have not already figured out exactly what you want, the following discussion may help you to develop a set of criteria for judging job offers, whether you are starting a career, reentering the labor force after a long absence, or planning a career change. It is easier to apply yourself to the work if you are enthusiastic about what the organization does. The organization. Background information on an organization can help you to decide whether it is a good place for you to work. Factors to consider include the organization’s business or activity, financial condition, age, size, and location. You generally can get background information on an orga nization, particularly a large organization, on its Internet site or by telephoning its public relations office. A public company’s annual report to the stockholders tells about its corporate phi losophy, history, products or services, goals, and financial status. Most government agencies can furnish reports that describe their programs and missions. Press releases, company newsletters or magazines, and recruitment brochures also can be useful. Ask the organization for any other items that might interest a prospective employee. If possible, speak to current or former employees of the organization. Background information on the organization may be available at your public or school library. If you cannot get an annual report, check the library for reference directories that may provide basic facts about the company, such as earnings, products and services, and number of employees. Some directories widely available in libraries either in print or as online databases include: • Dun & Bradstreet’s Million Dollar Directory • Standard and Poor’s Register of Corporations • Mergent’s Industry Review (formerly Moody’s Industrial Manual) • Thomas Register ofAmerican Manufacturers • Ward's Business Directory Stories about an organization in magazines and newspapers can tell a great deal about its successes, failures, and plans for the future. You can identify articles on a company by looking under its name in periodical or computerized indexes in librar ies. However, it probably will not be useful to look back more than 2 or 3 years. The library also may have government publications that pres ent projections of growth for the industry in which the organi zation is classified. Long-term projections of employment and output for detailed industries, covering the entire U.S. economy, are developed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and revised every 2 years. See the November 2005 Monthly Labor Review for the most recent projections, covering the 2004-14 period, on the Internet at: http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/inlrhome.htm. Trade magazines also may include articles on the trends for specific industries. Career centers at colleges and universities often have infor mation on employers that is not available in libraries. Ask a career center representative how to find out about a particular organization. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis How will the size of the organization affect you? Large firms generally offer a greater variety of training programs and career paths, more managerial levels for advancement, and better employee benefits than do small firms. Large employers also may have more advanced technologies. However, many jobs in large firms tend to be highly specialized. Jobs in small firms may offer broader authority and responsi bility, a closer working relationship with top management, and a chance to clearly see your contribution to the success of the organization. Should you work for a relatively new organization or one that is well established? New businesses have a high failure rate, but for many people, the excitement of helping to create a company and the potential for sharing in its success more than offset the risk of job loss. However, it may be just as exciting and rewarding to work for a young firm that already has a foothold on success. Does it make a difference if the company is private or public? An individual or a family may control a privately owned company and key jobs may be reserved for relatives and friends. A board of directors responsible to the stockholders controls a publicly owned company and key jobs usually are open to anyone. Is the organization in an industry with favorable long-term prospects? The most successful firms tend to be in industries that are grow ing rapidly. Nature of the job. Even if everything else about the job is at tractive, you will be unhappy if you dislike the day-to-day work. Determining in advance whether you will like the work may be difficult. However, the more you find out about the job before accepting or rejecting the offer, the more likely you are to make the right choice. Actually working in the industry and, if possible, for the company would provide considerable insight. You can gain work experience through part-time, temporary, or summer jobs, or through internship or work-study programs while in school, all of which can lead to permanent job offers. Where is the job located? If the job is in another section of the country, you need to consider the cost of living, the availability of housing and transportation, and the quality of educational and recreational facilities in that section of the country. Even if the job loca tion is in your area, you should consider the time and expense of commuting. Does the work match your interests and make good use of your skills? The duties and responsibilities of the job should be explained in enough detail to answer this question. How important is the job in this company? An explanation of where you fit in the organization and how you are supposed to contribute to its overall objectives should give you an idea of the job’s importance. Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer Are you comfortable with the hours? Most jobs involve regular hours—for example, 40 hours a week, during the day, Monday through Friday. Other jobs require night, weekend, or holiday work. In addition, some jobs routinely require overtime to meet deadlines or sales or production goals, or to better serve customers. Consider the effect that the work hours will have on your personal life. How long do most people who enter this job stay with the company? High turnover can mean dissatisfaction with the nature of the work or something else about the job. Opportunities offered by employers. A good job offers you op portunities to learn new skills, increase your earnings, and rise to positions of greater authority, responsibility, and prestige. A lack of opportunities can dampen interest in the work and result in frustration and boredom. The company should have a training plan for you. What valu able new skills does the company plan to teach you? The employer should give you some idea of promotion pos sibilities within the organization. What is the next step on the career ladder? If you have to wait for a job to become vacant before you can be promoted, how long does this usually take? When opportunities for advancement do arise, will you compete with applicants from outside the company? Can you apply for jobs for which you qualify elsewhere within the organization, or is mobility within the firm limited? 21 offices about starting pay for graduates with your qualifications. Help-wanted ads in newspapers sometimes give salary ranges for similar positions. Check the library or your school’s career center for salary surveys such as those conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers or various professional associations. If you are considering the salary and benefits for a job in another geographic area, make allowances for differences in the cost of living, which may be significantly higher in a large metropolitan area than in a smaller city, town, or rural area. You also should learn the organization’s policy regarding over time. Depending on the job, you may or may not be exempt from laws requiring the employer to compensate you for overtime. Find out how many hours you will be expected to work each week and whether you receive overtime pay or compensatory time off for working more than the specified number of hours in a week. Also take into account that the starting salary is just that—the start. Your salary should be reviewed on a regular basis; many organizations do it every year. How much can you expect to earn after 1,2, or 3 or more years? An employer cannot be specific about the amount of pay if it includes commissions and bonuses. Benefits also can add a lot to your base pay, but they vary widely. Find out exactly what the benefit package includes and how much of the cost you must bear. National, State, and metropolitan area data from the Bureau’s National Compensation Survey are available from: >- Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Compensation Levels and Trends, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 4175, Washington, DC 20212-0001. Telephone: (202) 691-6199. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/ncs. Salaries and benefits. Wait for the employer to introduce these subjects. Some companies will not talk about pay until they have decided to hire you. In order to know if their offer is reason able, you need a rough estimate of what the job should pay. You may have to go to several sources for this information. Try to find family, friends, or acquaintances who recently were hired in similar jobs. Ask your teachers and the staff in placement https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Data on earnings by detailed occupation from the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) Survey are available from: >■ Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, 2 Massachusetts Ave, NE., Room 2135, Washington, DC 20212-0001. Telephone: (202) 691-6569. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/oes. Occupational Information Included in the Handbook The Occupational Outlook Handbook is best used as a reference; it is not meant to be read from cover to cover. Instead, start by looking at the table of contents, in which related occupations are grouped in clusters, or look in the alphabetical index in the back of the Handbook for specific occupations that interest you. For any occupation that seems interesting, use the Handbook to learn about the type of work that is performed in the occupation, the working conditions, the edu cation and training requirements, the possibilities for advancement, earnings in the occupation, the job outlook, and related occupations. Each occupational statement in the Handbook follows a standard format, making it easier for you to compare occupations. Three previous sections—‘Tomorrow’s Jobs,” “Sources of Career Information,” and “Sources of Education, Training, and Financial Aid”—highlight the forces that are likely to determine employment opportunities in industries and occupations through the year 2014 and indicate where to obtain additional information. The current section is an overview of how the occupational statements are developed and organized. It highlights information presented in each section of a Handbook statement, explains the source of the information, gives examples of specific occupations in some cases, and offers some hints on how to interpret the information provided. Unless otherwise noted, the source of employment and earnings data presented in the Handbook is the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Nearly all Handbook statements cite employ ment and earnings data from the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) survey. Some statements include data from outside sources. OES data may be used to compare earnings among occupations; however, outside data may not be used in this manner, because characteristics of these data vary widely. About those numbers at the beginning of each statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of every detailed occupational statement are from the Occupational Information Network (0*NET)—a system used by State employ ment service offices to classify applicants and job openings, and by some career information centers and libraries to file occupa tional information. You can use 0*NET to search for occupations that match your skills, or you may search by keyword or 0*NET code. For each occupation, 0*NET reports information about differ ent aspects of the job, including tasks performed, knowledge, skills, abilities, and work activities. It also lists interests, work styles, such as independence, and work values, such as achieve ment, that are well suited to the occupation. 0*NET ranks and scores the descriptors in each category by their importance to the occupation. Occupational Information Network Coverage, a sec tion beginning on page 676, cross-references 0*NET codes to occupations covered in the Handbook. 0*NET codes are based on the 2000 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system. You can access 0*NET on the Internet at http://www.online.onetcenter.org. Significant Points This section highlights key occupational characteristics discussed in the statement. Digitized 22 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work This section discusses what workers do on the job, what tools and equipment they use, and how closely they are supervised. Individual job duties may vary by industry or employer. For instance, workers in larger firms tend to be more specialized, whereas those in smaller firms often have a wider variety of du ties. Most occupations have several levels of skills and respon sibilities through which workers may progress. Beginners may start as trainees performing routine tasks under close supervision. Experienced workers usually undertake more difficult tasks and are expected to perform with less supervision. Some statements mention common alternative job titles or occupational specialties. For example, the statement on accoun tants and auditors discusses a few specialties, such as public ac countants, management accountants, and internal auditors. Some statements—such as that on advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers—discuss titles or specialties that are detailed OES survey occupations. For these occupa tions, such as sales managers or marketing managers, separate employment projections are developed and their 0*NET codes appear at the beginning of the statement. Information in this section may be updated for several reasons. One is the emergence of occupational specialties. For instance, webmasters—who are responsible for the technical aspects of operating a Web site—constitute a specialty within computer scientists and database administrators. Information also may be updated due to changing technology that affects the way in which a job is performed. For example, the Internet allows purchasers to acquire supplies with a click of the mouse, saving time and money. Furthermore, job duties may be affected by modifica tions to business practices, such as organizational restructuring or changes in response to government regulations. An example is paralegals and legal assistants, who are increasingly being utilized by law firms in order to lower costs and increase the efficiency and quality of legal services. Many sources are consulted in researching changes to the nature of the work section or any other section of a Handbook statement. Usual sources include articles in newspapers, maga zines, and professional journals. Useful information also appears on the Web sites of professional associations, unions, and trade groups. Information found on the Internet or in periodicals is verified through interviews with individuals employed in the occupation, professional associations, unions, and others with occupational knowledge, such as university professors and counselors in career centers. Working Conditions This section identifies the typical hours worked, the workplace environment, physical activities and susceptibility to injury, special equipment, and the extent of travel required. In many occupations, people work regular business hours—40 hours a week, Monday through Friday—but many do not. For example, waiters and waitresses often work evenings and weekends. The work setting can range from a hospital, to a mall, to an offshore oil rig. Truck drivers might be susceptible to injury, while paramedics have high job-related stress. Semiconductor processors may wear protective clothing or equipment, some Occupational Information Included in the Handbook 23 construction laborers do physically demanding work, and top executives may travel frequently. Information on various worker characteristics, such as the average number of hours worked per week, is obtained from the Current Population Survey (CPS)—a survey of households conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for BLS. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement After knowing what a job is all about, it is important to under stand how to prepare for it. This section describes the most significant sources of education and training, including the education or training preferred by employers, the typical length of training, and the possibilities for advancement. Job skills sometimes are acquired through high school, informal on-thejob training, formal training (including apprenticeships), the U.S. Armed Forces, home study, hobbies, or previous work ex perience. For example, sales experience is particularly impor tant for many sales jobs. Many professional jobs, on the other hand, require formal postsecondary education—postsecondary vocational or technical training, or college, postgraduate, or professional education. In addition to training requirements, the Handbook mentions desirable skills, aptitudes, and personal characteristics. For example, meeting and convention planners must have excellent interpersonal skills, organizational skills, attention to detail, and the ability to work underpressure. For some entry-level jobs, personal characteristics are more important than formal training. Employers generally seek people who read, write, and speak well; compute accurately; think logically; learn quickly; get along with others; and demonstrate dependability. Some occupations require certification or licensing for entry, advancement, or independent practice. Certification or licensing usually requires completing courses and passing examinations. Some occupations have numerous professional credentials granted by different organizations. In this case, the most widely recognized organizations are listed in the Handbook. Many occupations increasingly are requiring workers to participate in continuing education or training in relevant skills, either to keep up with the changes in their occupation or to im prove their advancement opportunities. Some statements list the number of training programs. For example, the statement on pharmacists indicates the number of colleges of pharmacy accredited by the American Council on Phar maceutical Education. The minimum requirements for Federal Government employment cited in some statements are based on standards set by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Revisions to the training section may focus on changes in educational, certification, or licensing requirements, such as an increase in the number of hours of required training or in the number of States requiring a license. Information also is updated if new skills are needed to complete the job, such as those arising from the adoption of new technology. Information in this section comes from personal interviews with individuals employed in the occupation, Web sites, pub lished training materials, and interviews with the organizations that grant degrees, certifications, or licenses, or are otherwise associated with the occupation. Employment This section reports the number of jobs that the occupation pro vided in 2004, the key industries in which those jobs were found, and the number or proportion of self-employed workers in the occupation, if significant. Self-employed workers accounted for about 8 percent of the workforce in 2004; however, they were concentrated in a small number of occupations, such as farmers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and ranchers, childcare workers, lawyers, health practitioners, and the construction trades. BLS develops the National Employment Matrix, which presents current and projected employment for 336 detailed industries and 754 detailed occupations over the 2004—14 period. Data in the matrix come primarily from the OES survey, which reports employ ment of wage and salary workers for each occupation in almost all industries. The CPS survey provides information on the total number of self-employed and unpaid family workers in each occupation. The CPS also provides employment data on agriculture and private households. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) furnishes employment data on Federal Government workers. Because total employment in each occupation combines data from several different sources, employment numbers cited in the Handbook often differ from employment data provided by the OES, CPS, and other employment surveys. This may be a source of confusion for some readers. When significant, the geographic distribution of jobs and the proportion of part-time workers (those working less than 35 hours a week) are mentioned, reflecting CPS data. On the basis of OES survey data, some Handbook statements, such as those on textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations, list States that employ substantial numbers of workers in the occupation. Job Outlook In planning for the future, it is important to consider potential job opportunities. This section describes the factors that will result in employment growth or decline. Projecting occupational em ployment is the final step in the employment projections process. (A more detailed description of the projections process is discussed in the Handbook section entitled “Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections.”) The job outlook section reflects the occupational projections in the National Employment Matrix. Each occupation is assigned a descriptive phrase based on its projected percent change in employment over the 2004-14 period. This phrase describes the occupation’s projected employ ment change relative to the projected average employment change for all occupations combined. (These phrases are listed at the end of this section.) Many factors are examined in developing employment projec tions and updating the job outlook section. One is job growth or decline in industries that employ a significant percentage of work ers in the occupation. If workers are concentrated in an industry that is growing rapidly, their employment will likely also grow rapidly. For example, the growing need for business expertise is fueling demand for consulting services. Hence, management, scientific, and technical consulting services is projected to be among the fastest growing industries through 2014. Projected rapid growth in this industry helps to spur faster than average growth in employment of management analysts. Demographic changes, which affect what services are required, can influence occupational growth or decline. For example, an ag ing population demands more health care workers, from registered nurses to pharmacists. Technological change is another key factor. New technology can either create new job opportunities or eliminate jobs by mak ing workers obsolete. The Internet has increased the demand for workers in the computer and information technology fields, such as computer support specialists and systems administrators. How ever, the Internet also has adversely affected travel agents, because many people now book tickets, hotels, and rental cars online. Another factor affecting job growth or decline is changes in business practices, such as restructuring businesses or outsourcing (contracting out) work. Corporate restructuring has made many 24 Occupational Outlook Handbook organizations “flatter,” resulting in fewer middle management positions. Also, in the past few years, insurance carriers have been outsourcing sales and claims adjuster jobs to large, 24-hour call centers in order to reduce costs. Jobs in some occupations, such as computer programmers and customer service representatives, have been “offshored”—moved to low-wage foreign countries. The substitution of one product or service for another can affect employment projections. For example, consumption of plastic products has grown as they have been substituted for metal goods in consumer and manufactured products in recent years. The process is likely to continue and should result in stronger demand for machine operators in plastics than in metal. Competition from foreign trade usually has a negative impact on employment in an occupation. Often, foreign manufacturers can produce goods more cheaply than they can be produced in the United States, and the cost savings can be passed on in the form of lower prices with which U.S. manufacturers cannot compete. In creased international competition is a major reason for the decline in employment among textile, apparel, and furnishings workers. In some cases, the Handbook mentions that an occupation is likely to provide numerous job openings or, in others, that an occupation likely will have relatively few openings. This infor mation reflects the projected change in employment, as well as replacement needs. Large occupations that have high turnover, such as food and beverage serving occupations, generally provide the most job openings—reflecting the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who stop working. Some Handbook statements discuss the relationship between the number of job seekers and the number of job openings. (The phrases used to describe that relationship appear at the end of this section.) In some occupations, there is a rough balance between job seekers and job openings, resulting in good opportunities. In other occupations, employers may report difficulty finding quali fied applicants, resulting in excellent job opportunities. Still other occupations are characterized by a surplus of applicants, leading to keen competition for jobs. On the one hand, because many young people who have the educational and personal qualifications neces sary to learn tool and die making may prefer to attend college or may not wish to enter production occupations, employers report an insufficient number of entrants to fill all job openings for tool and die makers and some other production occupations. On the other hand, glamorous or potentially high-paying occupations, such as actors or musicians, generally have surpluses of job seekers. Variation in job opportunities by industry, educational attainment, size of firm, or geographic location also may be discussed. Even in crowded occupations, job openings do exist. Good students or highly qualified individuals should not be deterred from undertak ing training for, or seeking entry into, those occupations. Earnings This section discusses typical earnings and how workers are com pensated—by means of annual salaries, hourly wages, commissions, piece rates, tips, or bonuses. Within every occupation, earnings vary by experience, responsibility, performance, tenure, and geographic area. Almost every statement in the Handbook contains 2004 OESsurvey earnings data for wage and salary workers. Information on earnings in the major industries in which the occupation is employed, also supplied by the OES survey, may be given as well. In addition to presenting earnings data from the OES survey, some statements contain additional earnings data from non-BLS sources. Starting and average salaries of Federal workers are based on 2005 data from the U.S. Office of Personnel Manage ment. The National Association of Colleges and Employers supplies information on average salary offers in 2005 for students https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis graduating with a bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree in certain fields. A few statements contain additional earnings information from other sources, such as unions, professional associations, and private companies. These data sources are cited in the text. Benefits account for a significant portion of total compensation costs to employers. Benefits such as paid vacation, health insur ance, and sick leave may not be mentioned, because they are so widespread. In some occupational statements, the absence of these traditional benefits is pointed out. Although not as common as tradi tional benefits, flexible hours and profit-sharing plans may be offered to attract and retain highly qualified workers. Less common benefits also include childcare, tuition for dependents, housing assistance, summers off, and free or discounted merchandise or services. For certain occupations, the percentage of workers affiliated with a union is listed. These data come from the CPS survey. Related Occupations Occupations involving similar duties, skills, interests, education, and training are listed. Sources of Additional Information No single publication can describe all aspects of an occupation. Thus, the Handbook lists the mailing addresses of associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide occupational information. In some cases, toll free tele phone numbers and Internet addresses also are listed. Free or relatively inexpensive publications offering more information may be mentioned; some of these publications also may be avail able in libraries, in school career centers, in guidance offices, or on the Internet. Most of the organizations listed in this section were sources of information on the nature of the work, training, and job outlook discussed in the Handbook. For additional sources of information, also read the earlier chapters, “Sources of Career Information” and “Sources of In formation on Education, Training, and Financial Aid.” Key phrases in the Handbook This box explains how to interpret the key phrases used to describe projected changes in employment. It also explains the terms used to describe the relationship between the number of job openings and the number of job seekers. The description of this relationship in a particular occupation reflects the knowledge and judgment of economists in the BLS Office of Occupational Statistics and Em ployment Projections. Changing employment between 2004 and 2014 If the statement reads: Employment is projected to: Grow much faster than average Grow faster than average Grow about as fast as average Grow more slowly than average Decline increase 27 percent or more increase 18 to 26 percent increase 9 to 17 percent increase 0 to 8 percent decrease any amount Opportunities and competition for jobs If the statement reads: Very good to excellent opportunities Good or favorable opportunities May face, or can expect, keen competition Job openings compared with job seekers may be: More numerous In rough balance Fewer Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Management Occupations Administrative Services Managers (0*NET 11-3011.00) Significant Points • Applicants will face keen competition because of the substantial supply of competent, experienced workers seeking managerial jobs. • Administrative services managers work throughout private industry and government and have a wide range of responsibilities, experience, earnings, and education. • Administrative services managers should be analytical, detail-oriented, flexible, decisive, and have good com munication skills. Nature of the Work Administrative services managers perform a broad range of duties in virtually every sector of the economy. They coordinate and direct support services to organizations as diverse as insurance companies, computer manufacturers, and government offices. These workers manage the many services that allow organizations to operate ef ficiently, such as secretarial and reception, administration, payroll, conference planning and travel, information and data processing, mail, materials scheduling and distribution, printing and reproduction, records management, telecommunications management, security, parking, and personal property procurement, supply, and disposal. Specific duties for these managers vary by degree of responsibility and authority. First-line administrative services managers directly supervise a staff that performs various support services. Mid-level managers, on the other hand, develop departmental plans, set goals and deadlines, implement procedures to improve productivity and customer service, and define the responsibilities of supervisorylevel managers. Some mid-level administrative services managers oversee first-line supervisors from various departments, including the clerical staff. Mid-level managers also may be involved in the hiring and dismissal of employees, but they generally have no role in the formulation of personnel policy. Some of these managers advance to upper level positions, such as vice president of adminis trative services, which are discussed in the Handbook statement on top executives. In small organizations, a single administrative services manager may oversee all support services. In larger ones, however, first-line administrative services managers often report to mid-level managers who, in turn, report to owners or top-level managers. As the size of the firm increases, administrative services managers are more likely to specialize in specific support activities. For example, some administrative services managers work primarily as office managers, contract administrators, or unclaimed property officers. In many cases, the duties of these administrative services managers are similar to those of other managers and supervisors, some of which are discussed in other Handbook statements. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The nature of managerial jobs varies as significantly as the range of administrative services required by organizations. For example, administrative services managers who work as contract administrators oversee the preparation, analysis, negotiation, and review of contracts related to the purchase or sale of equipment, materials, supplies, products, or services. In addition, some admin istrative services managers acquire, distribute, and store supplies, while others dispose of surplus property or oversee the disposal of unclaimed property. Administrative services managers who work as facility manag ers plan, design, and manage buildings and grounds in addition to people. This task requires integrating the principles of busi ness administration, architecture, and behavioral and engineering science. Although the specific tasks assigned to facility managers vary substantially depending on the organization, the duties fall into several categories, relating to operations and maintenance, real estate, project planning and management, communication, finance, quality assessment, facility function, technology integration, and manage ment of human and environmental factors. Tasks within these broad categories may include space and workplace planning, budgeting, purchase and sale of real estate, lease management, renovations, or architectural planning and design. Facility managers may suggest and oversee renovation projects for a variety of reasons, ranging from improving efficiency to ensuring that facilities meet government regulations and environmental, health, and security standards. Addi tionally, facility managers continually monitor the facility to ensure that it remains safe, secure, and well-maintained. Often, the facility Administrative services managers supervise a staff that performs various support services. 25 26 Occupational Outlook Handbook manager is responsible for directing staff, including maintenance, grounds, and custodial workers. Working Conditions Administrative services managers generally work in comfortable offices. Managers involved in contract administration and personal property procurement, use, and disposal may travel between their home office, branch offices, vendors’ offices, and property sales sites. Also, facility managers who are responsible for the design of workspaces may spend time at construction sites and may travel between different facilities while monitoring the work of mainte nance, grounds, and custodial staffs. However, new technology has increased the number of managers who telecommute from home or other offices, and teleconferencing has reduced the need for travel. Most administrative services managers work a standard 40-hour week. However, uncompensated overtime frequently is required to resolve problems and meet deadlines. Facility managers often are “on call” to address a variety of problems that can arise in a facility during nonwork hours. TYaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for these managers vary widely, depending on the size and complexity of the organization. In small organizations, experience may be the only requirement needed to enter a position as office manager. When an opening in administrative services man agement occurs, the office manager may be promoted to the position based on past performance. In large organizations, however, admin istrative services managers normally are hired from outside and each position has formal education and experience requirements. Some administrative services managers have advanced degrees. Specific requirements vary by job responsibility. For first-line administrative services managers of secretarial, mailroom, and related support activities, many employers prefer an associate de gree in business or management, although a high school diploma may suffice when combined with appropriate experience. For managers of audiovisual, graphics, and other technical activities, postsecondary technical school training is preferred. Managers of highly complex services, such as contract administration, generally need at least a bachelor’s degree in business, human resources, or finance. Regardless of major, the curriculum should include courses in office technology, accounting, business mathematics, computer applications, human resources, and business law. Most facility managers have an undergraduate or graduate degree in engineering, architecture, construction management, business administration, or facility management. Many have a background in real estate, con struction, or interior design, in addition to managerial experience. Whatever the manager’s educational background, it must be accompanied by related work experience reflecting demonstrated ability. For this reason, many administrative services managers have advanced through the ranks of their organization, acquiring work expe rience in various administrative positions before assuming first-line su pervisory duties. All managers who oversee departmental supervisors should be familiar with office procedures and equipment. Managers of personal property acquisition and disposal need experience in purchas ing and sales, and knowledge of a variety of supplies, machinery, and equipment. Managers concerned with supply, inventory, and distribu tion should be experienced in receiving, warehousing, packaging, ship ping, transportation, and related operations. Contract administrators may have worked as contract specialists, cost analysts, or procurement specialists. Managers of unclaimed property often have experience in insurance claims analysis and records management. Persons interested in becoming administrative services manag ers should have good communication skills and be able to establish effective working relationships with many different people, ranging https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis from managers, supervisors, and professionals, to clerks and bluecollar workers. They should be analytical, detail-oriented, flexible, and decisive. They must be able to coordinate several activities at once, quickly analyze and resolve specific problems, and cope with deadlines. Most administrative services managers in small organizations advance by moving to other management positions or to a larger organization. Advancement is easier in large firms that employ several levels of administrative services managers. Attainment of the Certified Manager (CM) designation offered by the Institute of Certified Professional Managers (ICPM), through education, work experience, and successful completion of examinations, can enhance a manager’s advancement potential. In addition, a master’s degree in business administration or a related field enhances a first-level manager’s opportunities to advance to a mid-level management posi tion, such as director of administrative services, and eventually to a top-level management position, such as executive vice president for administrative services. Those with enough money and experience can establish their own management consulting firm. Advancement of facility managers is based on the practices and size of individual companies. Some facility managers transfer from other departments within the organization or work their way up from technical positions. Others advance through a progression of facility management positions that offer additional responsibilities. Com pletion of the competency-based professional certification program offered by the International Facility Management Association can give prospective candidates an advantage. In order to qualify for this Certified Facility Manager (CFM) designation, applicants must meet certain educational and experience requirements. People entering the profession also may obtain the Facility Management Professional (FMP) credential, a stepping stone to the CFM. Employment Administrative services managers held about 268,000 jobs in 2004. About 80 percent worked in service-providing industries, including Federal, State, and local government; health care; financial services; professional, scientific, and technical services; administra tive and support services; and education. Most of the remaining managers worked in wholesale and retail trade, in management of companies and enterprises, or in manufacturing. Job Outlook Employment of administrative services managers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Like persons seeking other managerial positions, applicants will face keen competition because there will be more competent, experienced workers seeking jobs than there will be positions available. However, demand should be strong for facility managers because businesses increasingly are realizing the im portance of maintaining, securing, and efficiently operating their facilities, which are very large investments for most organizations. Administrative services managers employed in management services and management consulting also should be in demand, as public and private organizations continue to streamline and, in some cases, contract out administrative services functions in an effort to cut costs. At the same time, continuing corporate restructuring and increasing utilization of office technology should result in a flatter organizational structure with fewer levels of management, reducing the need for some middle management positions. This should adversely affect adminis trative services managers who oversee first-line mangers. However, the effects of these changes on employment should be less severe for administrative services managers, who have a wide range of respon sibilities, than for other middle managers who specialize in certain functions. In addition to new administrative services management jobs created over the 2004-14 projection period, many job openings Management, Business, and Financial Occupations will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings Earnings of administrative services managers vary greatly depending on the employer, the specialty, and the geographic area. In general, however, median annual earnings of administrative services man agers in May 2004 were $60,290. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,680 and $83,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $110,270. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these managers in May 2004 were: Management of companies and enterprises................................. $71,870 Elementary and secondary schools................................................. 65,850 Colleges, universities, and professional schools............................. 61,020 Local government .......................................................................... 59,380 State government ........................................................................... 55,500 In the Federal Government, industrial specialists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $69,802 a year in 2005. Corresponding averages were $69,211 for facility opera tions services managers, $67,185 for industrial property managers, $63,614 for property disposal specialists, $67,855 for administrative officers, and $60,370 for support services administrators. Related Occupations Administrative services managers direct and coordinate support services and oversee the purchase, use, and disposal of personal property. Occupations with similar functions include office and ad ministrative support worker supervisors and managers; cost estimators; property, real estate, and community association managers; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; and top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers and education and degree programs in facility management, as well as the Certified Facility Manager designation, contact: > International Facility Management Association, 1 East Greenway Plaza, Suite 1100, Houston, TX 77046-0194. Internet: http://ww w.ifma.org General information regarding facility management and a list of facility management education and degree programs may be obtained from: ► Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers, 1643 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2818. Internet: http://www.appa.org For information about the Certified Manager (CM) designation, contact: >- Institute of Certified Professional Managers, James Madison University, MSC 5504, Harrisonburg, VA 22807. Advertising, Marketing, Promotions, Public Relations, and Sales Managers (0*NET 11-2011.00, 11-2021.00, 11-2022.00, 11-2031.00) Significant Points • Keen competition for jobs is expected. • College graduates with related experience, a high level of creativity, strong communication skills, and com puter skills should have the best job opportunities. • High earnings, substantial travel, and long hours, in cluding evenings and weekends, are common. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 27 Nature of the Work The objective of any firm is to market and sell its products or services profitably. In small firms, the owner or chief executive officer might assume all advertising, promotions, marketing, sales, and public relations responsibilities. In large firms, which may of fer numerous products and services nationally or even worldwide, an executive vice president directs overall advertising, promotions, marketing, sales, and public relations policies. (Executive vice presidents are included in the Handbook statement on top execu tives.) Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers coordinate the market research, marketing strategy, sales, advertising, promotion, pricing, product development, and public relations activities. Advertising managers oversee advertising and promotion staffs, which usually are small, except in the largest firms. In a small firm, managers may serve as liaisons between the firm and the advertising or promotion agency to which many advertis ing or promotional functions are contracted out. In larger firms, advertising managers oversee in-house account, creative, and media services departments. The account executive manages the account services department, assesses the need for advertising, and, in ad vertising agencies, maintains the accounts of clients. The creative services department develops the subject matter and presentation of advertising. The creative director oversees the copy chief, art director, and associated staff. The media director oversees plan ning groups that select the communication media—for example, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, or outdoor signs—to disseminate the advertising. Promotions managers supervise staffs of promotion specialists. These managers direct promotion programs that combine adver tising with purchase incentives to increase sales. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—dealers, distributors, or consumers—promotion programs may use direct mail, telemarket ing, television or radio advertising, catalogs, exhibits, inserts in newspapers, Internet advertisements or Web sites, in-store displays or product endorsements, and special events. Purchasing incentives may include discounts, samples, gifts, rebates, coupons, sweep stakes, and contests. Marketing managers develop the firm’s marketing strategy in detail. With the help of subordinates, including product develop ment managers and market research managers, they estimate the demand for products and services offered by the firm and its competitors. In addition, they identify potential markets—for example, business firms, wholesalers, retailers, government, or the general public. Marketing managers develop pricing strategy to help firms maximize profits and market share while ensuring that the firm’s customers are satisfied. In collaboration with sales, product development, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services, and they oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and promotion managers to promote the firm’s products and services and to attract potential users. Public relations managers supervise public relations specialists. (See the Handbook statement on public relations specialists.) These managers direct publicity programs to a targeted audience. They often specialize in a specific area, such as crisis management, or in a specific industry, such as health care. They use every available communication medium to maintain the support of the specific group upon whom their organization’s success depends, such as consumers, stockholders, or the general public. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firm’s point of view on health or environmental issues to community or special-interest groups. Public relations managers also evaluate advertising and promo tion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts and 28 Occupational Outlook Handbook officials. Job transfers between headquarters and regional offices are common, particularly among sales managers. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications : ■ 4 : a - a Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers have a wide range of educational backgrounds. serve as the eyes and ears of top management. They observe social, economic, and political trends that might ultimately affect the firm, and they make recommendations to enhance the firm’s image on the basis of those trends. Public relations managers may confer with labor relations managers to produce internal company communications—such as newsletters about employee-management relations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. They assist company executives in drafting speeches, arranging interviews, and maintaining other forms of public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to requests for information. In addition, some of these managers handle special events, such as the sponsorship of races, parties introducing new products, or other activities that the firm supports in order to gain public attention through the press without advertising directly. Sales managers direct the firm’s sales program. They assign sales territories, set goals, and establish training programs for the sales representatives. (See the Handbook statement on sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.) Sales managers advise the sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their staffs. Sales managers maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and to monitor customers’ preferences. Such informa tion is vital in the development of products and the maximization of profits. Working Conditions Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers work in offices close to those of top managers. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are common. In 2004, about two-thirds of advertising, marketing, and public relations managers worked more than 40 hours a week. Working under pres sure is unavoidable when schedules change and problems arise, but deadlines and goals must still be met. Substantial travel may be involved. For example, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries often is mandatory. Sales managers travel to national, regional, and local offices and to the offices of various dealers and distributors. Adver tising and promotions managers may travel to meet with clients or representatives of communications media. At times, public relations managers travel to meet with special-interest groups or government https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A wide range of educational backgrounds is suitable for entry into advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managerial jobs, but many employers prefer those with experience in related occupations plus a broad liberal arts background. A bachelor’s degree in sociology, psychology, literature, journalism, or philosophy, among other subjects, is acceptable. However, requirements vary, depending upon the particular job. For marketing, sales, and promotions management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in business administration with an emphasis on marketing. Courses in business law, economics, accounting, finance, mathematics, and statistics are advantageous. In highly technical industries, such as computer and electronics manufacturing, a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science, combined with a master’s degree in business administra tion, is preferred. For advertising management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s degree in advertising or journalism. A course of study should include marketing, consumer behavior, market research, sales, communication methods and technology, and visual arts—for example, art history and photography. For public relations management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in public relations or journalism. The applicant’s curriculum should include courses in advertising, business administration, public affairs, public speaking, political science, and creative and technical writing. For all these specialties, courses in management and the comple tion of an internship while the candidate is in school are highly recommended. Familiarity with word-processing and database ap plications also is important for many positions. Computer skills are vital because marketing, product promotion, and advertising on the Internet are increasingly common. Also, the ability to communicate in a foreign language may open up employment opportunities in many rapidly growing areas around the country, especially cities with large Spanish-speaking populations. Most advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales management positions are filled by promoting experienced staff or related professional personnel. For example, many manag ers are former sales representatives, purchasing agents, buyers, or product, advertising, promotions, or public relations specialists. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a management position usually comes slowly. In large firms, promotion may occur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement can be accelerated by participation in management training programs conducted by larger firms. Many firms also provide their employees with continuing education op portunities—either in-house or at local colleges and universities— and encourage employee participation in seminars and conferences, often held by professional societies. In collaboration with colleges and universities, numerous marketing and related associations sponsor national or local management training programs. Course subjects include brand and product management, international marketing, sales management evaluation, telemarketing and direct sales, interactive marketing, promotion, marketing com munication, market research, organizational communication, and data-processing systems procedures and management. Many firms pay all or part of the cost for employees who successfully complete courses. Some associations offer certification programs for these managers. Certification—an indication of competence and Management, Business, and Financial Occupations achievement—is particularly important in a competitive job market. While relatively few advertising, marketing, promo tions, public relations, and sales managers currently are certified, the number of managers who seek certification is expected to grow. Today, there are numerous management certification programs based on education and job performance. In addition, The Public Relations Society of America offers a certification program for public relations practitioners based on years of experience and performance on an examination. Persons interested in becoming advertising, marketing, promo tions, public relations, and sales managers should be mature, creative, highly motivated, resistant to stress, flexible, and decisive. The ability to communicate persuasively, both orally and in writing, with other managers, staff, and the public is vital. These managers also need tact, good judgment, and exceptional ability to establish and maintain effective personal relationships with supervisory and professional staff members and client firms. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers often are prime candidates for advancement to the high est ranks. Well-trained, experienced, and successful managers may be promoted to higher positions in their own or another firm; some become top executives. Managers with extensive experience and sufficient capital may open their own businesses. Employment Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers held about 646,000jobs in 2004. The following tabulation shows the distribution of jobs by occupational specialty: Sales managers......................................................................................... 337,000 Marketing managers................................................................................ 188,000 Advertising and promotions managers.............................................. 64,000 Public relations managers..................................................................... 58,000 These managers were found in virtually every industry. Sales managers held almost half of the jobs; most were employed in wholesale and retail trade, and finance and insurance industries. Marketing managers held more than fourth of the jobs; the professional, scientific, and technical services industries employed almost one-third of marketing managers. About onefourth of advertising and promotions managers worked in the professional, scientific, and technical services industries, and the, information industries, including advertising and related services, and publishing industries. Most public relations managers were employed in service-providing industries, such as professional, scientific, and technical services, finance and insurance, health care and social assistance, and educational services. Job Outlook Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales manager jobs are highly coveted and will be sought by other managers or highly experienced professionals, resulting in keen competition. College graduates with related experience, a high level of creativity, and strong communication skills should have the best job opportunities. In particular, employers will seek those who have the computer skills to conduct advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales activities on the Internet. Employment of advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, spurred by intense domestic and global competition in products and services of fered to consumers. However, projected employment growth https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 29 varies by industry. For example, employment is projected to grow much faster than average in scientific, professional, and related services, such as computer systems design and related services, and in advertising and related services, as businesses increasingly hire contractors for these services instead of ad ditional full-time staff. By contrast, a decline in employment is expected in many manufacturing industries. Earnings Median annual earnings in May 2004 were $63,610 for advertising and promotions managers, $87,640 for marketing managers, $84,220 sales managers, and $70,000 for public relations managers. Median annual earnings of advertising and promotions managers in May 2004 in the advertising and related services industry were $89,570. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of marketing managers in May 2004 were as follows: Computer systems design and related services............................. $107,030 Management of companies and enterprises.................................... 98,700 Insurance carriers.................................................................................. 86,810 Architectural, engineering, and related services........................... 83,610 Depository credit intermediation...................................................... 76,450 Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales managers in May 2004 were as follows: Computer systems design and related services.............................. $119,140 Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers................ 101,930 Automobile dealers.............................................................................. 97,460 Management of companies and enterprises...................................... 95,410 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers........ 84,680 According to a National Association of Colleges and Employers survey, starting salaries for marketing majors graduating in 2005 averaged $33,873; starting salaries for advertising majors averaged $31,340. Salary levels vary substantially, depending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, education, size of firm, location, and industry. For example, manufacturing firms usu ally pay these managers higher salaries than do nonmanufacturing firms. For sales managers, the size of their sales territory is another important determinant of salary. Many managers earn bonuses equal to 10 percent or more of their salaries. Related Occupations Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers direct the sale of products and services offered by their firms and the communication of information about their firms’ activities. Other workers involved with advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales include actors, producers, and directors; advertising sales agents; artists and related workers; demonstrators, product promoters, and models; market and survey researchers; public relations specialists; sales representatives, whole sale and manufacturing; and writers and editors. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in advertising management, con tact: >- American Association of Advertising Agencies, 405 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10174-1801. Internet: http://www.aaaa.org Information about careers and professional certification in public relations management is available from: >• Public Relations Society of America, 33 Maiden Lane, New York, NY 10038-5150. Internet: http://www.prsa.org 30 Occupational Outlook Handbook Computer and Information Systems Managers (0*NET 11-3021.00) Significant Points • Employment of computer and information systems managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. • Many managers possess advanced technical knowledge gained from working in a computer occupation. • Job opportunities will be best for applicants with computer-related work experience; a master’s degree in business administration (MBA) with technology as a core component, or a management information systems degree; and strong communication and administrative skills. Nature of the Work How and when companies and organizations use technology are critical to remaining competitive. Computer and information systems managers play a vital role in the technological direction of their organizations. They do everything from constructing the business plan to overseeing network security to directing Internet operations. Computer and information systems managers plan, coordinate, and direct research and facilitate the computer-related activities of firms. They help determine both technical and business goals in consultation with top management and make detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goals. For example, working with their staff, they may develop the overall concepts and re quirements of a new product or service, or may identify how an organization’s computing capabilities can effectively aid project management. Computer and information systems managers direct the work of systems analysts, computer programmers, support specialists, and other computer-related workers. These managers plan and coordinate activities such as installation and upgrading of hardware and software, programming and systems design, development of computer networks, and implementation of Internet and intranet sites. They are increasingly involved with the upkeep, maintenance, and security of networks. They analyze the computer and informa tion needs of their organizations from an operational and strategic perspective and determine immediate and long-range personnel and equipment requirements. They assign and review the work of their subordinates and stay abreast of the latest technology to ensure the organization does not lag behind competitors. The duties of computer and information systems managers vary with their specific titles. Chief technology officers, for example, evaluate the newest and most innovative technologies and determine how these can help their organizations. The chief technology offi cer, who often reports to the organization’s chief information officer, manages and plans technical standards and tends to the daily infor mation technology issues of the firm. (Chief information officers are covered in a separateHandbook statement on top executives.) Because of the rapid pace of technological change, chief technology officers must constantly be on the lookout for developments that could benefit their organizations. They are responsible for demon strating to a company how information technology can be used as a competitive tool that not only cuts costs, but also increases revenue andfor maintains Digitized FRASERor increases competitive advantage. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 7 ■» ■■ y I 'toaa-J Computer and information systems managers plan, coordinate, and direct the computing resources offirms. Management information systems (MIS) directors manage information systems and computing resources for their organiza tions. They also may work under the chief information officer and plan and direct the work of subordinate information technology employees. These managers oversee a variety of user services such as an organization’s help desk, which employees can call with questions or problems. MIS directors also may make hardware and software upgrade recommendations based on their experience with an organization’s technology. Helping ensure the availability, continuity, and security of data and information technology services is the primary responsibility of these workers. Project managers develop requirements, budgets, and schedules for their firms’ information technology projects. They coordinate such projects from development through implementation, working with internal and external clients, vendors, consultants, and computer specialists. These managers are increasingly involved in projects that upgrade the information security of an organization. LAN/WAN (local area network/wide area network) managers provide a variety of services, from design to administration of the lo cal area network, which connects staff within an organization. These managers direct the network and its computing environment, includ ing hardware, systems software, applications software, and all other computer-related configurations. Computer and information systems managers need strong com munication skills. They coordinate the activities of their unit with those of other units or organizations. They confer with top execu tives; financial, production, marketing, and other managers; and contractors and equipment and materials suppliers. Working Conditions Computer and information systems managers spend most of their time in an office. Most work at least 40 hours a week and may have to work evenings and weekends to meet deadlines or solve unex pected problems. Some computer and information systems manag ers may experience considerable pressure in meeting technical goals within short timeframes or tight budgets. As networks continue to expand and more work is done remotely, computer and information systems managers have to communicate with and oversee offsite employees using modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet. Like other workers who sit continuously in front of a keyboard, computer and information systems managers are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations 31 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job Outlook Advanced technical knowledge is essential for computer and in formation systems managers, who must understand and guide the work of their subordinates yet also explain the work in nontechnical terms to senior managers and potential customers. Therefore, many computer and information systems managers have experience in a computer occupation such as systems analyst; other managers may have worked as a computer support specialist, programmer, or other information technology professional. A bachelor’s degree usually is required for management posi tions, although employers often prefer a graduate degree, espe cially an MBA with technology as a core component. This degree differs from a traditional MBA in that there is a heavy emphasis on information technology in addition to the standard business curriculum. This preparation is becoming important because more computer and information systems managers are making important technology decisions as well as business decisions for their organizations. Some universities specialize in offering degrees in management information systems, which blend techni cal core subjects with business, accounting, and communications courses. A few computer and information systems managers attain their positions with only an associate degree, but they must have sufficient experience and must have acquired additional skills on the job. To aid their professional advancement, though, many managers with an associate degree eventually earn a bachelor’s or master’s degree while working. Computer and information systems managers need a broad range of skills. Employers want managers who have experience with the specific software or technology used on the job, as well as a background in either consulting or business management. The expansion of electronic commerce has elevated the im portance of business insight; many computer and information systems managers are called on to make important business decisions. Managers need a keen understanding of people, man agement processes, and customers’ needs. Computer and information systems managers must possess strong interpersonal, communication, and leadership skills because they are required to interact not only with their staff, but also with other people inside and outside their organizations. They also must possess team skills to work on group projects and other collaborative efforts. Computer and information systems manag ers increasingly interact with persons outside their organizations, reflecting their emerging role as vital parts of their firms’ executive teams. Computer and information systems managers may advance to progressively higher leadership positions in their field. Some may become managers in nontechnical areas such as marketing, human resources, or sales. In high-technology firms, managers in nontech nical areas often must possess the same specialized knowledge as do managers in technical areas. Employment of computer and information systems managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Technological advancements will boost the employment of computer-related workers; as a result, the demand for managers to direct these workers also will increase. In addition, job openings will result from the need to replace managers who retire or move into other occupations. Opportunities for obtaining a management position will be best for those with computer-related work experience; an MBA with technology as a core component, or a management information systems degree; and strong com munication and administrative skills. Despite the downturn in the technology sector in the early part of the decade, the outlook for computer and information systems man agers remains strong. To remain competitive, firms will continue to install sophisticated computer networks and set up more complex Internet and intranet sites. Keeping a computer network running smoothly is essential to almost every organization. Firms will be more willing to hire managers who can accomplish that. Similarly, the security of computer networks will continue to increase in importance as more business is conducted over the Internet. The security of the Nation’s entire electronic infrastructure has come under renewed scrutiny in light of recent threats. Organi zations need to understand how their systems are vulnerable and how to protect their infrastructure and Internet sites from hackers, vimses, and other acts of cyberterrorism. The emergence of cybersecurity as a key issue facing most organizations should lead to strong growth for computer managers. Firms will increasingly hire cybersecurity experts to fill key leadership roles in their information technology departments because the integrity of their computing environments is of utmost concern. As a result, there will be a high demand for managers proficient in computer security issues. With the explosive growth of electronic commerce and the capac ity of the Internet to create new relationships with customers, the role of computer and information systems managers will continue to evolve. Persons in these jobs will become increasingly vital to their companies. The expansion of the wireless Internet will spur the need for computer and information systems managers with both business savvy and technical proficiency. Opportunities for those who wish to become computer and information systems managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and the industries in which they are found. (See the statements on computer programmers, com puter software engineers, computer support specialists and systems administrators, computer systems analysts, and computer scientists and database administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Computer and information systems managers held about 280,000 jobs in 2004. About 9 in 10 computer managers worked in ser vice-providing industries, mainly in computer systems design and related services. This industry provides services related to the commercial use of computers on a contract basis, including custom computer programming services; computer systems inte gration design services; computer facilities management services, including computer systems or data-processing facilities support services; and other computer-related services, such as disaster recovery services and software installation. Other large employ ers include insurance and financial firms, government agencies, and manufacturers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Earnings for computer and information systems managers vary by specialty and level of responsibility. Median annual earnings of these managers in May 2004 were $92,570. The middle 50 percent earned between $71,650 and $118,330. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer and information systems managers in May 2004 were as follows: Software publishers..................................................................... $107,870 Computer systems design and related services.......................... 103,850 Management of companies and enterprises............................... 99,880 Insurance carriers........................................................................ 97,900 Depository credit intermediation............................................... 86,450 According to Robert Half International, a professional staff ing and consulting services firm, average starting salaries in 2005 for high-level information technology managers ranged from 32 Occupational Outlook Handbook $80,250 to $112,250. According to a 2005 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for those with an MBA, a technical undergraduate degree, and 1 year or less of experience averaged $52,300; for those with a master’s degree in management information systems/business data process ing, the starting salary averaged $56,909. In addition, computer and information systems managers, especially those at higher levels, often receive more employ ment-related benefits—such as expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses—than do nonmanagerial workers in their organizations. Related Occupations The work of computer and information systems managers is closely related to that of computer programmers, computer software en gineers, computer systems analysts, computer scientists and data base administrators, and computer support specialists and systems administrators. Computer and information systems managers also have some high-level responsibilities similar to those of top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a computer and information systems manager, contact the sources of additional information for the various computer occupations discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Construction Managers (0*NET 11-9021.00) Significant Points • Construction managers must be available—often 24 hours a day—to deal with delays, bad weather, or emergencies at the jobsite. • Employers prefer individuals who combine construc tion industry work experience with a bachelor’s degree in construction science, construction management, or civil engineering. • Excellent employment opportunities are expected as the increasing complexity of many construction proj ects requires more managers to oversee them. Construction managers coordinate and supervise the construc tion process from the conceptual development stage through final construction, making sure that the project gets done on time and within budget. They often work with owners, engineers, architects, and others who are involved in the construction process. Given the designs for buildings, roads, bridges, or other projects, construction managers oversee the planning, scheduling, and implementation of the project to execute those designs. Large construction projects, such as an office building or industrial complex, are often too complicated for one person to manage. Therefore, these projects are divided into many segments: Site preparation, including land clearing and earth moving; sewage systems; landscaping and road construction; building construction, including excavation and laying of foundations and erection of the structural framework, floors, walls, and roofs; and building systems, including fire-protection, electrical, plumbing, air-conditioning, and heating. Construction managers may be in charge of one or more of these activities. Construction managers evaluate and help determine appropri ate construction delivery systems and the most cost-effective plan and schedule for completing the project. They divide all required construction site activities into logical steps, budgeting the time re quired to meet established deadlines. This may require sophisticated estimating and scheduling techniques and use of computers with specialized software. (See the section on cost estimators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Construction managers oversee the selection of general contractors and trade contractors to complete specific pieces of the project— which could include everything from structural metalworking and plumbing to painting and carpet installation. Construction manag ers determine the labor requirements and, in some cases, supervise or monitor the hiring and dismissal of workers. They oversee the performance of all trade contractors and are responsible for ensuring that all work is completed on schedule. Construction managers direct and monitor the progress of con struction activities, sometimes through construction supervisors or other construction managers. They oversee the delivery and use of materials, tools, and equipment; and the quality of construction, worker productivity, and safety. They are responsible for obtaining all necessary permits and licenses and, depending upon the contrac tual arrangements, direct or monitor compliance with building and safety codes and other regulations. And they continually track and control construction costs to avoid cost overruns. They may direct Nature of the Work Construction managers plan, direct, and coordinate a wide variety of construction projects, including the building of all types of resi dential, commercial, and industrial structures, roads, bridges, waste water treatment plants, and schools and hospitals. Construction managers may oversee an entire project or just part of a project and, although they usually play no direct role in the actual construction of a structure, they typically schedule and coordinate all design and construction processes, including the selection, hiring, and oversight of specialty trade contractors. Construction managers are salaried or self-employed managers who oversee construction supervisors and workers. They often go by the job titles program manager, constructor, constmction superintendent, project engineer, project manager, construction su pervisor, general contractor, or similar designations. Construction managers may be owners or salaried employees of a construction management or contracting firm, or may work under contract or as a salaried employee of the property owner, developer, or contracting firm Digitized foroverseeing FRASER the construction project. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction managers diagnose construction-related problems and determine the most cost-effective method to solve them. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations the work of several subordinates, such as assistant managers or superintendents, field engineers, or crew supervisors. Working Conditions Construction managers work out of a main office from which the overall construction project is monitored, or out of a field office at the construction site. Advances in telecommunications and Internet access allow construction managers to be onsite without being out of contact of the main office. Management decisions regarding daily construction activities generally are made at the jobsite. Managers may travel extensively when the construction site is not close to their main office or when they are responsible for activities at two or more sites. Management of overseas construction projects usually entails temporary residence in another country. Construction managers may be “on call”—often 24 hours a day—to deal with delays, the effects of bad weather, or emergencies at the site. Most work more than a standard 40-hour week because construction may proceed around-the-clock. They may have to work this type of schedule for days, even weeks, to meet special project deadlines, especially if there are delays. Although the work usually is not considered inherently danger ous, construction managers must be careful while performing onsite services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming a construction manager need a solid background in building science, business and management, as well as related work experience within the construction industry. They need to understand contracts, plans, and specifications, and to be knowledgeable about construction methods, materials, and regulations. Familiarity with computers and software programs for job costing, online collaboration, scheduling, and estimating also is important. The ability to converse fluently in Spanish is also an asset because Spanish is the first language of many workers in the construction industry. Construction managers should be flexible and work effectively in a fast-paccd environment. They should be decisive and work well under pressure, particularly when faced with unexpected occurrences or delays. The ability to coordinate several major activities at once, while analyzing and resolving specific problems, is essential, as is an understanding of engineering, architectural, and other construction drawings. Good oral and written communication skills also are im portant, as are leadership skills. Managers must be able to establish a good working relationship with many different people, including owners, other managers, designers, supervisors, and craftworkers. For construction manager jobs, employers increasingly prefer to hire individuals with a bachelor’s degree in construction science, construction management, or civil engineering, as well as industry work experience. Practical industry experience is very important, whether it is acquired through an internship, a cooperative educa tion program, or work experience in a trade or another job in the industry. Traditionally, persons advanced to construction manage ment positions after having substantial experience as construction craftworkers—carpenters, masons, plumbers, or electricians, for example—or after having worked as construction supervisors or as owners of independent specialty contracting firms, overseeing work ers in one or more construction trades. However, as construction processes become increasingly complex, employers are placing a growing importance on postsecondary education. Many colleges and universities offer 4-year degree programs in construction management, construction science, and construction engineering. These programs include courses in project control and development, site planning, design, construction methods, construction materials, value analysis, cost estimating, scheduling, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 33 contract administration, accounting, business and financial manage ment, safety, building codes and standards, inspection procedures, engineering and architectural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and information technology. Graduates from 4-year degree programs usually are hired as assistants to project managers, field engineers, schedulers, or cost estimators. An increasing number of graduates in related fields—engineering or architecture, for example—also enter construction management, often after acquiring substantial experience on construction projects or after completing graduate studies in construction management or building science. Several colleges and universities offer a master’s degree program in construction management or construction science. Master’s degree recipients, especially those with work experience in construction, typically become construction managers in very large construction or construction management companies. Often, individuals who hold a bachelor’s degree in an unrelated field seek a master’s degree in construction management or construction science in order to work in the construction industry. Some construction managers obtain a master’s degree in business administration or finance to further their career prospects. Doctoral degree recipients usually become college professors or conduct research. Many individuals also attend training and educational programs sponsored by industry associations, often in collaboration with postsecondary institutions. A number of 2-year colleges throughout the country offer construction management or construction technol ogy programs. There is a growing movement towards certification of construc tion managers to ensure that a construction manager has a certain body of knowledge, abilities, and experience. Although certification is not required to work in the construction industry, voluntary certi fication can be valuable because it provides evidence of competence and experience. Both the American Institute of Constructors (AIC) and the Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) have established voluntary certification programs for construction managers. Requirements combine written examinations with veri fication of education and professional experience. AIC awards the Associate Constructor (AC) and Certified Professional Constructor (CPC) designations to candidates who meet its requirements and pass the appropriate construction examinations. CMAA awards the Certified Construction Manager (CCM) designation to prac titioners who meet its requirements through work performed in a construction management organization and by passing a technical examination. Applicants for the CMAA certification also must com plete a self-study course that covers a broad range of topics central to construction management, including the professional role of a construction manager, legal issues, and allocation of risk. Advancement opportunities for construction managers vary de pending upon an individual’s performance and the size and type of company for which they work. Within large firms, managers may eventually become top-level managers or executives. Highly experi enced individuals may become independent consultants; some serve as expert witnesses in court or as arbitrators in disputes. Those with the required capital may establish their own construction manage ment services, specialty contracting, or general contracting firm. Employment Construction managers held 431,000 jobs in 2004. Over half were self-employed, many as owners of general or specialty trade con struction firms. Most of the rest were employed in the construction industry, 13 percent by specialty trade contractors—for example, plumbing, heating and air-conditioning and electrical contrac tors—and 18 percent by general building contractors. Others were employed by architectural, engineering, and related services firms and by local governments. 34 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Excellent employment opportunities for construction managers are expected through 2014 because the number of job openings will exceed the number of qualified individuals seeking to enter the occupation. This situation is expected to continue even as college construction management programs expand to meet the current high demand for graduates. The construction industry often does not attract sufficient numbers of qualified job seekers because it is often seen as having poor working conditions. Employment of construction managers is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to job openings arising from employment growth, many additional openings should result annually from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. More construction man agers will be needed as the level of construction activity continues to grow. In addition, opportunities will increase for construction managers to start their own firms. However, employment of construction managers can be sensitive to the short-term nature of many projects and to cyclical fluctuations in construction activity. The increasing complexity of construction projects is boosting the demand for management-level personnel with in the construction industry. Sophisticated technology and the proliferation of laws setting standards for buildings and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and environmental protection have further complicated the construction process. Advances in building materials and construction methods; the need to replace portions the Nation’s infrastructure; and the growing number of multipurpose buildings and energy-efficient structures will further add to the demand for more construction managers. More opportunities for construction managers also will result from the need for greater cost control and financial manage ment of projects and to oversee the numerous subcontractors being employed. Prospects for individuals seeking construction manager jobs in construction management, architectural and engineering services, and construction contracting firms should be best for persons who have a bachelor’s or higher degree in construction science, con struction management, or civil engineering—but also practical experience working in construction. Employers will increasingly prefer applicants with college degrees, previous construction work experience, including internships, and a strong background in build ing technology. Earnings Earnings of salaried construction managers and self-employed independent construction contractors vary depending upon the size and nature of the construction project, its geographic location, and economic conditions. In addition to typical benefits, many salaried construction managers receive benefits such as bonuses and use of company motor vehicles. Median annual earnings of construction managers in May 2004 were $69,870. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,430 and $92,350. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $42,120, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $126,330. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of construction managers in 2004 were as follows: Building equipment contractors.................................................... $72,560 Nonresidential building construction............................................ 71,700 Other specialty trade contractors................................................. 68,110 Residential building construction................................................. 67,190 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors............. 64,250 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis According to a July 2005 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, candidates with a bache lor’s degree in construction science/management received job offers averaging $42,923 a year. Related Occupations Construction managers participate in the conceptual development of a construction project and oversee its organization, scheduling, and implementation. Other workers who perform similar functions include architects, except landscape and naval; civil engineers; cost estimators; landscape architects; and engineering and natural sci ences managers. Sources of Information For information about constructor certification, contact: >- American Institute of Constructors, 717 Princess St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.constructorcertification.org or http://www.aicnet.org For information about construction management and construction manager certification, contact: ► Construction Management Association of America, 7918 Jones Branch Dr., Suite 540, McLean, VA 22102-3307. Internet: http://www.cmaanet.org Information on accredited construction science and management educational programs and accreditation requirements is available from: ► American Council for Construction Education, 1717 North Loop 1604 E, Ste 320, San Antonio, TX 78232 Internet: http://www.acce-hq.org ► National Center for Construction Education and Research, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614. Internet: http://www.nccer.org Education Administrators (0*NET 11-9031.00, 11-9032.00, 11-9033.00, 11-9039.99) Significant Points • Many jobs require a master’s or doctoral degree and experience in a related occupation, such as a teacher or admissions counselor. • Strong interpersonal and communication skills are es sential because much of an administrator’s job involves working and collaborating with others. • Excellent opportunities are expected since a large pro portion of education administrators is expected to retire over the next 10 years. Nature of the Work Smooth operation of an educational institution requires competent administrators. Education administrators provide instructional leadership as well as manage the day-to-day activities in schools, preschools, daycare centers, and colleges and universities. They also direct the educational programs of businesses, correctional institutions, museums, and job training and community service organizations. (College presidents and school superintendents are covered in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) Education administrators set educational standards and goals and establish the policies and procedures to carry them out. They also supervise managers, support staff, teachers, counselors, librar ians, coaches, and others. They develop academic programs; monitor students’ educational progress; train and motivate teachers and other staff; manage career counseling and other student services; adminis ter recordkeeping; prepare budgets; handle relations with parents, Management, Business, and Financial Occupations prospective and current students, employers, and the community; and perform many other duties. In an organization such as a small daycare center, one administrator may handle all these functions. In universities or large school systems, responsibilities are divided among many administrators, each with a specific function. Educational administrators who manage elementary, middle, and secondary schools are called principals. They set the academic tone and hire, evaluate, and help improve the skills of teachers and other staff. Principals confer with staff to advise, explain, or answer procedural questions. They visit classrooms, observe teaching methods, review instructional objectives, and examine learning materials. They actively work with teachers to develop and main tain high curriculum standards, develop mission statements, and set performance goals and objectives. Principals must use clear, objec tive guidelines for teacher appraisals, because pay often is based on performance ratings. Principals also meet and interact with other administrators, students, parents, and representatives of community organizations. Decision-making authority has increasingly shifted from school district central offices to individual schools. School principals have greater flexibility in setting school policies and goals, but when mak ing administrative decisions they must pay attention to the concerns of parents, teachers, and other members of the community. Principals prepare budgets and reports on various subjects, includ ing finances and attendance, and oversee the requisition and alloca tion of supplies. As school budgets become tighter, many principals have become more involved in public relations and fundraising to secure financial support for their schools from local businesses and the community. Principals must take an active role to ensure that students meet national, State, and local academic standards. Many principals develop school/business partnerships and school-to-work transition programs for students. Increasingly, principals must be sensitive to the needs of the rising number of non-English speaking and cultur ally diverse students. In some areas growing enrollments also are a cause for concern because they are leading to overcrowding at many schools. When addressing problems of inadequate resources, administrators serve as advocates for the building of new schools or the repair of existing ones. During summer months, principals are responsible for planning for the upcoming year, overseeing summer school, participating in workshops for teachers and administrators, supervising building repairs and improvements, and working to be sure the school has adequate staff for the school year. Schools continue to be involved with students’ emotional wel fare as well as their academic achievement. As a result, principals face responsibilities outside the academic realm. For example, in response to the growing numbers of dual-income and single-parent families and teenage parents, schools have established before- and after-school childcare programs or family resource centers, which also may offer parenting classes and social service referrals. With the help of community organizations, some principals have established programs to combat increases in crime, drug and alcohol abuse, and sexually transmitted diseases among students. Assistant principals aid the principal in the overall administra tion of the school. Some assistant principals hold this position for several years to prepare for advancement to principal jobs; others are career assistant principals. They are primarily responsible for scheduling student classes, ordering textbooks and supplies, and coordinating transportation, custodial, cafeteria, and other support services. They usually handle student discipline and attendance problems, social and recreational programs, and health and safety matters. They also may counsel students on personal, educational, or vocational matters. With the advent of site-based management, assistant principals are playing a greater role in ensuring the academic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 35 success of students by helping to develop new curriculums, evaluating teachers, and dealing with school-community relations—respon sibilities previously assumed solely by the principal. The number of assistant principals that a school employs may vary, depending on the number of students. Administrators in school district central offices oversee public schools under their jurisdiction. This group includes those who direct subject-area programs such as English, music, vocational education, special education, and mathematics. They supervise instructional coordinators and curriculum specialists, and work with them to evaluate curriculums and teaching techniques and improve them. (Instructional coordinators are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Administrators also may oversee career counseling programs and testing that measures students’ abilities and helps to place them in appropriate classes. Others may also direct programs such as school psychology, athletics, curriculum and instruction, and professional development. With site-based management, administrators have transferred primary responsibility for many of these programs to the principals, assistant principals, teachers, instructional coordinators, and other staff in the schools. In preschools and childcare centers, education administrators are the director or supervisor of the school or center. Their job is similar to that of other school administrators in that they oversee daily activities and operation of the schools, hire and develop staff, and make sure that the school meets required regulations. In colleges and universities, provosts also known as chiefacademic officers assist presidents, make faculty appointments and tenure decisions, develop budgets, and establish academic policies and programs. With the assistance of academic deans and deans offacul ty, they also direct and coordinate the activities of deans of individual colleges and chairpersons of academic departments. Fundraising is the chief responsibility of the director of development and also is becoming an essential part of the job for all administrators. College or university department heads or chairpersons are in charge of departments that specialize in particular fields of study, such as English, biological science, or mathematics. In addition to teaching, they coordinate schedules of classes and teaching assign ments; propose budgets; recruit, interview, and hire applicants for teaching positions; evaluate faculty members; encourage faculty development; serve on committees; and perform other administrative duties. In overseeing their departments, chairpersons must consider and balance the concerns of faculty, administrators, and students. mm PsS Education administrators manage the day-to-day operations of schools. 36 Occupational Outlook Handbook Higher education administrators also direct and coordinate the provision of student services. Vice presidents ofstudent affairs or student life, deans of students, and directors of student services may direct and coordinate admissions, foreign student services, health and counseling services, career services, financial aid, and housing and residential life, as well as social, recreational, and related programs. In small colleges, they may counsel students. In larger colleges and universities, separate administrators may handle each of these services. Registrars are custodians of students’ records. They register students, record grades, prepare student transcripts, evaluate academic records, assess and collect tuition and fees, plan and implement commencement, oversee the prepa ration of college catalogs and schedules of classes, and analyze enrollment and demographic statistics. Directors of admissions manage the process of recruiting, evaluating, and admitting stu dents, and work closely with financial aid directors, who oversee scholarship, fellowship, and loan programs. Registrars and admis sions officers at most institutions need computer skills because they use electronic student information systems. For example, for those whose institutions present college catalogs, schedules, and other information on the Internet, knowledge of online resources, imaging, and other computer skills is important. Athletic directors plan and direct intramural and intercollegiate athletic activities, seeing to publicity for athletic events, preparation of budgets, and supervision of coaches. Other increasingly important administra tors direct public relations, distance learning, and technology. Working Conditions Education administrators hold leadership positions with significant responsibility. Most find working with students extremely reward ing, but as the responsibilities of administrators have increased in recent years, so has the stress. Coordinating and interacting with faculty, parents, students, community members, business leaders, and State and local policymakers can be fast-paced and stimulat ing, but also stressful and demanding. Principals and assistant principals, whose varied duties include discipline, may find working with difficult students to be challenging. They are also increasingly being held accountable for ensuring that their schools meet recently imposed State and Federal guidelines for student performance and teacher qualifications. Many education administrators work more than 40 hours a week, often including school activities at night and on weekends. Most administrators work 11 or 12 months out of the year. Some jobs include travel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most education administrators begin their careers in related occupa tions, often as teachers, and prepare for advancement into education admi nistration by completing a master’s or doctoral degree. Because of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility, their educational backgrounds and experience vary considerably. Principals, assistant principals, central office administrators, academic deans, and pre school directors usually have held teaching positions before moving into administration. Some teachers move directly into principal positions; others first become assistant principals, or gain experience in other administrative jobs at either the school or district level in positions such as department head, curriculum specialist, or subject matter advisor. In some cases, administrators move up from related staffjobs such as recruiter, school counselor, librarian, residence hall director, or financial aid or admissions counselor. To be considered for education administrator positions, workers must first prove themselves in their current jobs. In evaluating can didates, supervisors look for leadership, determination, confidence, innovativeness, and motivation. The ability to make sound decisions https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and to organize and coordinate work efficiently is essential. Because much of an administrator’s job involves interacting with others—such as students, parents, teachers, and the community— a person in such a position must have strong interpersonal skills and be an effective communicator and motivator. Knowledge of leadership principles and practices, gained through work experience and formal education, is important. A familiarity with computer technology is a necessity for principals, who are required to gather information and coordinate technical resources for their students, teachers, and classrooms. In most public schools, principals, assistant principals, and school district administrators need a master’s degree in education administration or educational leadership. Some principals and central office administrators have a doctorate or specialized degree in education administration. Most States require principals to be li censed as school administrators. License requirements vary by State, but nearly all States require either a master’s degree or some other graduate-level training. Some States also require candidates for licensure to pass a test. Increasingly, on-the-job training, often with a mentor, is required or recommended for new school leaders. Some States require administrators to take continuing education courses to keep their license, thus ensuring that administrators have the most up-to-date skills. The number and types of courses required to maintain licensure vary by State. In private schools, which are not subject to State licensure requirements, some principals and assistant principals hold only a bachelor’s degree, but the majority have a master’s or doctoral degree. Educational requirements for administrators of preschools and childcare centers vary depending on the setting of the program and the State of employment. Administrators who oversee preschool programs in public schools are often required to have at least a bachelor’s degree. Child care directors are generally not required to have a degree; however, most States require a general preschool education credential, such as the Child Development Associate credential (CDA) sponsored by the Council for Professional Recog nition, or a credential specifically designed for administrators. The National Child Care Association, offers a National Administration Credential, which some recent college graduates voluntarily earn to better qualify for positions as child care center directors. Academic deans and chairpersons usually have a doctorate in their specialty. Most have held a professorship in their department before advancing. Admissions, student affairs, and financial aid directors and registrars sometimes start in related staff jobs with bachelor’s degrees—any field usually is acceptable—and obtain advanced degrees in college student affairs, counseling, or higher education administration. A Ph.D. or Ed.D. usually is necessary for top student affairs positions. Computer literacy and a background in accounting or statistics may be assets in admissions, records, and financial work. Advanced degrees in higher education administration, educa tional leadership, and college student affairs are offered in many colleges and universities. Education administration degree programs include courses in school leadership, school law, school finance and budgeting, curriculum development and evaluation, research design and data analysis, community relations, politics in education, and counseling. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and the Educational Leadership Constituent Council accredit programs designed for elementary and secondary school administrators. While completion of an accredited program is not required, it may assist in fulfilling licensure requirements. Education administrators advance through promotion to more responsible administrative positions or by transferring to more responsible positions at larger schools or systems. They also may become superintendents of school systems or presidents of educa tional institutions. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Employment Education administrators held about 442,000jobs in 2004. Of these, 58,000 were preschool or child care administrators, 225,000 were elementary or secondary school administrators, and 132,000 were postsecondary administrators. About 2 in 10 worked for private education institutions, and 6 in 10 worked for State and local govern ments, mainly in schools, colleges and universities, and departments of education. Less than 4 percent were self-employed. The rest worked in child daycare centers, religious organizations, job train ing centers, and businesses and other organizations that provided training for their employees. Job Outlook Employment of education administrators is projected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. As education and training take on greater importance in everyone’s lives, the need for people to administer education programs will grow. Job opportuni ties for many of these positions should also be excellent because a large proportion of education administrators are expected to retire over the next 10 years. Enrollments of school-age children are the primary factor de termining the demand for education administrators. Enrollment of students in elementary and secondary schools is expected to grow slowly over the next decade, which will limit the growth of princi pals and other administrators in these schools. However, preschool and childcare center administrators are expected to experience substantial growth as enrollments in formal child care programs continue to expand as fewer private households care for young children. Additionally, as more States begin implementing public preschool programs, more preschool directors will be needed. The number of postsecondary school students is projected to grow more rapidly than other student populations, creating significant demand for administrators at that level. Opportunities may vary by geographical area, as enrollments are expected to increase the fast est in the West and South, where the population is growing, and to decline or remain stable in the Northeast and the Midwest. School administrators also are in greater demand in rural and urban areas, where pay is generally lower than in the suburbs. Principals and assistant principals should have very favorable job prospects. A sharp increase in responsibilities in recent years has made the job more stressful, and has discouraged some teachers from taking positions in administration. Principals are now being held more accountable for the performance of students and teachers, while at the same time they are required to adhere to a growing number of government regulations. In addition, overcrowded classrooms, safety issues, budgetary concerns, and teacher shortages in some areas all are creating additional stress for administrators. Many teachers feel the higher pay of administrators is not high enough to compensate for the greater responsibilities. Job prospects also are expected to be favorable for college and university administrators, particularly those seeking nonacademic positions. Public colleges and universities may be subject to funding shortfalls during economic downturns, but increasing enrollments over the projection period will require that institutions replace the large numbers of administrators who retire, and even hire additional administrators. In addition, a significant portion of growth will stem from growth in the private and for-profit segments of higher education. Many of these schools cater to working adults who might not ordinarily participate in postsecondary education. These schools allow students to earn a degree, receive job-specific train ing, or update their skills in a convenient manner, such as through part-time programs or distance learning. As the number of these schools continues to grow, more administrators will be needed to oversee them. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 37 While competition among faculty for prestigious positions as academic deans and department heads is likely to remain keen, fewer applicants are expected for nonacademic administrative jobs, such as director of admissions or student affairs. Furthermore, many people are discouraged from seeking administrator jobs by the requirement that they have a master’s or doctoral degree in education administration—as well as by the opportunity to earn higher salaries in other occupations. Earnings In May 2004, elementary and secondary school administrators had median annual earnings of $74,190; postsecondary school administrators had median annual earnings of $68,340, while preschool and childcare center administrators earned a median of $35,730 per year. Salaries of education administrators depend on several factors, including the location and enrollment level in the school or school district. According to a survey of public schools, conducted by the Educational Research Service, average salaries for principals and assistant principals in the 2004-05 school year were as follows: Principals: Senior high school............................................................................. $82,225 Jr. high/middle school...................................................................... 78,160 Elementary school............................................................................. 74,062 Assistant principals: Senior high school............................................................................. $68,945 Jr. high/middle school...................................................................... 66,319 Elementary school............................................................................. 63,398 According to the College and University Professional Association for Human Resources, median annual salaries for selected adminis trators in higher education in 2004-05 were as follows: Chief academic officer........................................................................ $127,066 Academic deans: Business............................................................................................. $120,460 Arts and sciences............................................................................. 110,412 Graduate programs......................................................................... 109,309 Education........................................................................................... 107,660 Nursing.............................................................................................. 100,314 Health-related professions............................................................. 100,185 Continuing education..................................................................... 91,800 Occupational or vocational education........................................ 79,845 Other administrators: Chief development officer............................................................. $114,400 Dean of students.............................................................................. 75,245 Director, student financial aid...................................................... 63,130 Registrar............................................................................................ 61,953 Director, student activities............................................................ 45,636 Benefits for education administrators are generally very good. Many get 4 or 5 weeks vacation every year and have generous health and pension packages. Many colleges and universities offer free tuition to employees and their families. Related Occupations Education administrators apply organizational and leadership skills to provide services to individuals. Workers in related occupations include administrative services managers; office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers; and human resource, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Education administrators also work with students and have backgrounds similar to those of counselors; librarians; instructional coordinators; teach ers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and teachers—postsecondary. 38 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information on principals, contact: >• The National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3483. Internet: http://www.naesp.org >- The National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1904 Associa tion Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1537. Internet: http://www.nassp.org For a list of nationally recognized programs in elementary and secondary educational administration, contact: >• The Educational Leadership Constituent Council, 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191. Internet: http://www.npbea.org/ELCC/index.html For information on collegiate registrars and admissions officers, contact: >■ American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, One Dupont Circle NW„ Suite 520, Washington, DC 20036-1171. Internet: http://www.aacrao.org For information on professional development and graduate pro grams for college student affairs administrators, contact: >- NASPA, Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education, 1875 Connecticut Ave. NW„ Suite 418, Washington, DC 20009. Internet: http ://www.naspa.org Engineering and Natural Sciences Managers (0*NET 11-9041.00, 11-9121.00) Significant Points • Most engineering and natural sciences managers have previous experience as engineers, scientists, or math ematicians. • Projected employment growth for engineering and natural sciences managers should be closely related to growth in employment of the engineers and scientists they supervise and of the industries in which they are found. • Opportunities will be best for workers with strong communication and business management skills. In addition, these managers use communication skills extensively. They spend a great deal of time coordinating the activi ties of their unit with those of other units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of management; with financial, production, marketing, and other managers; and with contractors and equipment and materials suppliers. Engineering managers may supervise people who design and develop machinery, products, systems, and processes, or they may di rect and coordinate production, operations, quality assurance, testing, or maintenance in industrial plants. Many are plant engineers, who direct and coordinate the design, installation, operation, and main tenance of equipment and machinery in industrial plants. Others manage research and development teams that produce new products and processes or improve existing ones. Natural sciences managers oversee the work of life and physical scientists (including agricultural scientists, chemists, biologists, ge ologists, medical scientists, and physicists). These managers direct research and development projects and coordinate activities such as testing, quality control, and production. They may work on basic research projects or on commercial activities. Science managers sometimes conduct their own research in addition to managing the work of others. Working Conditions Engineering and natural sciences managers spend most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, also may work in laborato ries, where they may be exposed to the same conditions as research scientists, or in industrial plants, where they may be exposed to the same conditions as production workers. Most managers work at least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occasion to meet project deadlines. Some may experience considerable pressure to meet technical or scientific goals on a short deadline or within a tight budget. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Strong technical knowledge is essential for engineering and natural sciences managers, who must understand and guide the work of their subordinates and explain the work in nontechnical terms to senior management and potential customers. Therefore, these management positions usually require work experience and formal education as an engineer, scientist, or mathematician. Nature of the Work Engineering and natural sciences managers plan, coordinate, and direct research, design, and production activities. They may supervise engineers, scientists, and technicians, along with support personnel. These managers use their knowledge of engineering and natural sciences to oversee a variety of activities. They determine scientific and technical goals within broad outlines provided by top executives, who are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. These goals may include improv ing manufacturing processes, advancing scientific research, or developing new products. Managers make detailed plans to accomplish these goals. For example, they may develop the overall concepts of a new product or identify technical problems preventing the completion of a project. To perform effectively, they also must acquire knowledge of admin istrative procedures, such as budgeting, hiring, and supervision. These managers propose budgets for projects and programs and determine staff, training, and equipment needs. They hire and assign scientists, engineers, and support personnel to carry out specific parts of each project. They also supervise the work of these employees, review their output, and establish administrative procedures and policies— including environmental standards, for example. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis M. Engineering and natural sciences managers must have people skills to effectively coordinate work on the many aspects of each project. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Most engineering managers begin their careers as engineers, after completing a bachelor’s degree in the field. To advance to higher level positions, engineers generally must assume manage ment responsibility. To fill management positions, employers seek engineers who possess administrative and communication skills in addition to technical knowledge in their specialty. Many engineers gain these skills by obtaining a master’s degree in engi neering management or a master’s degree in business administra tion (MBA). Employers often pay for such training. In large firms, some courses required in these degree programs may be offered onsite. Typically, engineers who prefer to manage in technical areas pursue a master’s degree in engineering management, while those interested in nontechnical management earn an MBA. Many science managers begin their careers as scientists, such as chemists, biologists, geologists, or mathematicians. Most scientists or mathematicians engaged in basic research have a Ph.D.; some in applied research and other activities may have a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Science managers must be specialists in the work they supervise. In addition, employers prefer managers with good communication and administrative skills. Graduate programs allow scientists to augment their undergraduate training with instruction in other fields, such as management or computer technology. Given the rapid pace of scientific developments, science managers must continuously upgrade their knowledge. Engineering and natural sciences managers may advance to pro gressively higher leadership positions within their discipline. Some may become managers in nontechnical areas such as marketing, human resources, or sales. In high technology firms, managers in nontechnical areas often must possess the same specialized knowl edge as do managers in technical areas. For example, employers in an engineering firm may prefer to hire experienced engineers as sales workers because the complex services offered by the firm can be marketed only by someone with specialized engineering knowledge. Such sales workers could eventually advance to jobs as sales managers. Employment Engineering and natural sciences managers held about 233,000 jobs in 2004. About 27 percent worked in professional, scientific, and technical services industries, primarily for firms providing architectural, engineering, and related services; computer systems design and related services; and scientific research and development services. Manufacturing industries employed 37 percent of engi neering and natural sciences managers. Manufacturing industries with the largest employment include those producing computer and electronic equipment; transportation equipment, including aerospace products and parts; chemicals, including pharmaceuticals; and ma chinery manufacturing. Other large employers include government agencies and telecommunications and utilities companies. Job Outlook Employment of engineering and natural sciences managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014—in line with projected employment growth in engineering and most sciences. However, many additional jobs will result from the need to replace managers who retire or move into other occupations. Opportunities for obtaining a management position will be best for workers with advanced technical knowledge and strong communication skills. Because engineering and natural sciences managers are involved in their firms’ financial, produc tion, and marketing activities, business management skills are also important. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 39 Projected employment growth for engineering and natural sciences managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and of the industries in which they are found. For example, opportunities for managers should be better in rapidly growing areas of engineering—such as environmental and biomedical engineering—than in more slowly growing areas, such as nuclear and aerospace engineering. (See the statements on engineers and on life and physical scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition, many employers are finding it more ef ficient to contract engineering and science management services to outside companies and consultants, creating good opportunities for managers in management services and management, scientific, and technical consulting firms. Earnings Earnings for engineering and natural sciences managers vary by specialty and by level of responsibility. Median annual earnings of engineering managers were $97,630 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $78,820 and $121,090. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of engi neering managers in May 2004 were: Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing $116,400 Navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments manufacturing..................................................... 107,160 Aerospace product and parts manufacturing............................... 103,570 Federal government...................................................................... 97,000 Architectural, engineering, and related services......................... 96,020 Median annual earnings of natural sciences managers were $88,660 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $64,550 and $118,210. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of natural sciences managers in May 2004 were: Scientific research and development services............................ $106,530 Federal government.................................................................... 81,460 A survey of manufacturing firms, conducted by Abbot, Langer & Associates, found that engineering department managers and superintendents earned a median annual income of $89,232 in 2004, while research and development managers earned $90,377. In addition, engineering and natural sciences managers, especially those at higher levels, often receive more benefits—such as expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses—than do nonmanagerial workers in their organizations. Related Occupations The work of engineering and natural sciences managers is closely related to that of engineers; mathematicians; and physical and life scientists, including agricultural and food scientists, atmospheric scientists, biological scientists, conservation scientists and forest ers, chemists and materials scientists, environmental scientists and hydrologists, geoscientists, medical scientists, and physicists and astronomers. It also is related to the work of other managers, especially top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as an engineering and natural sci ences manager, contact the sources of additional information for engineers, life scientists, and physical scientists that are listed at the end of statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. 40 Occupational Outlook Handbook Farmers, Ranchers, and Agricultural Managers (0*NET 11-9011.01, 11-9011.02, 11-9011.03, 11-9012.00) Significant Points • Modem farming requires knowledge of new devel opments in agriculture, as well as work experience acquired through growing up on a farm or through postsecondary education. • Overall employment is projected to decline because of increasing productivity and consolidation of farms. • Horticulture and organic farming will provide better employment opportunities. • Small-scale farming is a major growth area and offers the best opportunity for entering the occupation. Nature of the Work American farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers direct the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive agricul tural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of the United States and for export. Farmers and ranchers own and operate mainly family-owned farms. They also may lease land from a landowner and operate it as a working farm. The type of farm they operate determines their specific tasks. On crop farms—farms growing grain, cot ton, other fibers, fruit, and vegetables—farmers are responsible for preparing, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure that the crops are properly packaged, stored, or marketed. Livestock, dairy, and poultry farmers must feed and care for the animals and keep bams, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in good condition. They also plan and oversee breeding and marketing activities. Horticultural specialty farmers oversee the produc tion of ornamental plants, nursery products—such as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouses. Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in ma rine, brackish, or fresh water, usually in ponds, floating net pens, raceways, or recirculating systems. They stock, feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life sold for consumption or used for recreational fishing. Responsibilities of farmers and ranchers range from caring for livestock, to operating machinery, to maintaining equipment and facilities. The size of the farm or ranch often determines which of these tasks farmers and ranchers will handle themselves. Operators of small farms usually perform all tasks, physical and administrative. They keep records for management and tax purposes, service machinery, maintain buildings, and grow vegetables and raise animals. Operators of large farms, by contrast, have employ ees who help with the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Although employment on most farms is limited to the farmer and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full-time and seasonal workers. Some of these employees are in nonfarm occupations, working as truck driv ers, sales representatives, bookkeepers, and computer specialists. Agricultural managers manage the day-to-day activities of one or more farms, ranches, nurseries, timber tracts, greenhous es, and other agricultural establishments for farmers, absentee landowners, or corporations. Their duties and responsibilities vary widely, but focus on the business aspects of running a farm. On small farms, they may oversee the entire operation; on https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis larger farms, they may oversee a single activity, such as marketing. Agricultural managers usually do not perform production activities; instead, they hire and supervise farm and livestock workers, who perform most of the daily production tasks. In these cases, managers may establish output goals; determine financial constraints; monitor production and marketing; hire, assign, and supervise workers; determine crop transportation and storage requirements; and oversee maintenance of the property and equipment. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers make many mana gerial decisions. Farm output and income are strongly influenced by the weather, disease, fluctuations in prices of domestic and foreign farm products, and Federal farm programs. In crop production operations, farmers and managers usually determine the best time to plant seed, apply fertilizer and chemicals, and harvest and market the crops. They use different strategies to protect themselves from un predictable changes in the markets for agricultural products. Many farmers and managers carefully plan the combination of crops they grow, so that if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another crop to make up for the loss. While most farm output is sold directly to food-processing companies, some farmers—particularly operators of smaller farms—may choose to sell their goods directly through farmers’ markets or may use coop eratives to reduce their financial risk and to gain a larger share of the retail dollar. For example, in community-supported agriculture (CSA), cooperatives sell shares of a harvest to consumers prior to the planting season, thus freeing the farmer from having to bear all the financial risks and ensuring the farmer a market for the produce of the coming season. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers also negotiate with banks and other credit lenders to get the best financing deals for their equipment, livestock, and seed. They also must keep abreast of constantly changing prices for their products and manage the risk of fluctuating prices. Those who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of higher prices later in the year. Those who participate in the risky futures market, where contracts on future production of agricultural goods are bought and sold, can minimize the risk of sudden price changes by buying futures contracts which guarantee that they will get at least a certain price for their agricultural goods when they are ready to sell. Like other businesses, farming operations have become more complex in recent years, so many farmers use computers to keep financial and inventory records. They also use computer databases and spreadsheets to manage breeding, dairy, and other farm operations. mmm fjs i BISMII rt , -■ spii < - mm ,, • Many farmers work part time on small farms. - .V- AvV’,-, Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Working Conditions The work of full-time farmers, ranchers, and agricultural manag ers is often strenuous; work hours are frequently long, and they rarely have days off during the planting, growing, and harvesting seasons. Nevertheless, for those who enter farming or ranching, the disadvantages are counterbalanced by the quality of life in a rural area, working outdoors, being self-employed, and making a living off the land. Farmers and farm managers on crop farms usually work from sunrise to sunset during the planting and harvesting seasons. The rest of the year, they plan next season’s crops, market their output, and repair machinery. On livestock-producing farms and ranches, work goes on throughout the year. Animals, unless they are grazing, must be fed and watered every day, and dairy cows must be milked two or three times a day. Many livestock and dairy farmers monitor and attend to the health of their herds, which may include assisting in the birthing of animals. Such farmers rarely get the chance to get away, unless they hire an assistant or arrange for a temporary substitute. Farmers who grow produce and perishables have different de mands on their time. For example, organic farmers must maintain cover crops during the cold months, thus keeping them occupied with farming beyond the typical growing season. Farmwork also can be hazardous. Tractors and other farm machin ery can cause serious injury, and workers must be constantly alert on the job. The proper operation of equipment and handling of chemicals are necessary to avoid accidents, safeguard one’s health, and protect the environment. On very large farms, farmers spend substantial time meeting with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various activities. Professional farm managers overseeing several farms may divide their time between traveling to meet farmers or landown ers and planning the farm operations in their offices. As farming practices and agricultural technology become more sophisticated, farmers and farm managers are spending more time in offices and at computers, where they electronically manage many aspects of their businesses. Some farmers also spend time at conferences exchanging information, particularly during the winter months. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in agricultural programs for young people, such as the National FFA Organization or the 4-H youth educational programs, are important sources of train ing for those interested in pursuing agriculture as a career. However, modem farming requires increasingly complex scientific, business, and financial decisions, so postsecondary education in agriculture is important even for people who were raised on farms. The completion of a 2-year degree, or better, a 4-year bachelor’s degree program in a college of agriculture, is becoming increasingly important for farm managers and for farmers and ranchers who expect to make a living at farming. A degree in business or farm manage ment with a concentration in agriculture is important, but even after obtaining formal education, novices may need to spend time working under an experienced farmer to learn how to put into practice the skills learned through academic training. A small number of farms offer, on a formal basis, apprenticeships to help young people acquire such practical skills. Students should select the college most appropriate to their specific interests and location. All State university systems have at least one land-grant college or university with a school of agriculture. Common programs of study include agronomy, dairy science, agricultural economics and business, horticulture, crop and fruit science, and animal science. For students interested in aquaculture, formal programs also are available and include coursework in fisheries biology, fish culture, hatchery management https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 41 and maintenance, and hydrology. Whatever one’s interest, the college curriculum should include courses in agricultural production, marketing, and economics. Agricultural managers can enhance their professional status through voluntary certification as an Accredited Farm Manager (AFM) by the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers. Accreditation requires several years of farm man agement experience, the appropriate academic background—a bachelor’s degree or, preferably, a master’s degree in a field of agricultural science—and the passing of courses and examinations relating to the business, financial, and legal aspects of farm and ranch management. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers need to keep abreast of continuing advances in agricultural methods both in the United States and abroad, as well as monitor changes in govern mental regulations that may affect methods or markets for particular crops. Besides print journals that inform the agricultural commu nity, the spread of the Internet allows quick access to the latest devel opments in areas such as agricultural marketing, legal arrangements, and growing crops, vegetables, and livestock. Electronic mail, online journals, and newsletters from agricultural organizations also speed the exchange of information directly between farming associations and individual farmers. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers also must have enough technical knowledge of crops, growing conditions, and plant diseases to make decisions that ensure the successful opera tion of their farms. A rudimentary knowledge of veterinary science, as well as animal husbandry, is important for livestock and dairy farmers. Knowledge of the relationship between farm operations— for example, the use of pesticides—and environmental conditions is essential. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for a small-farm operator, who often maintains and repairs machinery or farm structures. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers need the managerial skills necessary to organize and operate a business. A basic knowl edge of accounting and bookkeeping is essential in keeping financial records, while knowledge of sources of credit is vital for buying seed, fertilizer, and other inputs necessary for planting. It also is neces sary to be familiar with complex safety regulations and requirements of governmental agricultural support programs. Computer skills are becoming increasingly important, especially on large farms, where computers are widely used for recordkeeping and business analysis. For example, some farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers use personal computers to access the Internet to get the latest information on prices of farm products and other agricultural news. In addition, skills in personnel management, communication, and conflict resolution are equally important in the operation of a farm or ranch business. Employment Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers held nearly 1.3 million jobs in 2004. About 83 percent were self-employed. Most farm ers, ranchers, and agricultural managers oversee crop production activities, while others manage livestock and dairy production. Most farmers and ranchers operate small farms on a part-time basis. The soil, topography of the land, and climate often determine the type of farming and ranching done in a particular area. California, Texas, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas are the leading agricultural States. Job Outlook Market pressures and low prices for many agricultural goods will cause more farms to go out of business over the 2004-14 period. The complexity of modem farming and keen competition 42 Occupational Outlook Handbook among farmers leave little room for the marginally successful farmer. Therefore, the long-term trend toward the consolidation of farms into fewer and larger ones is expected to continue over the 2004-14 period and result in a continued decline in employment of self-employed farmers and ranchers and slower-than-average growth in employment of salaried agricultural managers. As land, machinery, seed, and chemicals become more expensive, only wellcapitalized farmers and corporations will be able to acquire many of the farms that become available. The larger, more productive farms are better able to withstand the adverse effects of climate and price fluctuations upon farm output and income. Larger farms also may have advantages in obtaining government subsidies and payments as these payments are usually based on per-unit production. In addition, the agriculture sector continues to produce more with fewer workers. Increasing productivity in the U.S. agriculture industry is expected to allow greater domestic consumption needs and export requirements to be met with fewer farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers overall. The overwhelming majority of job openings for self-employed farmers and ranchers will result from the need to replace farmers who retire or leave the occupation for economic or other reasons. Despite the expected continued consolidation of farmland and the projected decline in overall employment of farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers, an increasing number of small-scale farmers have developed successful market niches that involve personalized, direct contact with their customers. Many are finding opportunities in organic food production, as more consumers demand food grown without pesticides or chemicals. Others use farmers’ markets that cater directly to urban and suburban consumers, allowing the farmers to capture a greater share of consumers’ food dollars. Some smallscale farmers belong to collectively owned marketing cooperatives that process and sell their product. Other farmers participate in community-supported agriculture cooperatives that allow consumers to directly buy a share of the farmer’s harvest. Aquaculture may continue to provide some new employment opportunities over the 2004-14 period. New concerns about over fishing and the depletion of the stock of some wild fish species will likely lead to more restrictions on deep-sea fishing, even as public demand for the consumption of seafood continues to grow. This de mand has spurred the growth of aquaculture farms that raise selected aquatic species—such as shrimp, salmon, trout and catfish— in pens or ponds. Aquaculture’s presence even in landlocked States has increased as farmers attempt to diversify and cater to the growing demand for fish by consumers. In addition, growing demand for horticulture products, such as flowers, ornamentals, trees, shrubs, and other nonedibles, is expected to produce better employment opportunities for greenhouse and nursery farmers and managers. The highest paid 10 percent earned more than $1,264, and the lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $350. Farmers and self-employed farm managers make their own provisions for benefits. As members of farm organizations, they may derive benefits such as group discounts on health and life insurance premiums. Related Occupations Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers strive to improve the quality of agricultural products and the efficiency of farms. Others whose work is related to agricultural products include agricultural engineers, agricultural and food scientists, agricultural workers, and purchasing agents and buyers of farm products. Sources of Additional Information For general information about farming and agricultural occupations, contact either of the following organizations: >- Center for Rural Affairs, P.O. Box 406, Walthill, NE 68067. Internet: http://www.cfra.org > National FFA Organization, The National FFA Center, Attention Career Information Requests, P.O. Box 68690, Indianapolis, IN 46268-0960. Internet: http://www.ffa.org For information about certification as an accredited farm man ager, contact: > American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, 950 Cherry St., Suite 508, Denver, CO 80222. Internet: http://www.asfmra.org For information on the USDA’s program to help small farmers get started, contact: >■ Small Farm Program, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State, Research, Education, and Extension Service, Stop 2220, Washington, DC 20250-2220. Internet: http://www.csrees.usda.gov/nea/ag_systems/ part/smaIlfarms_part_directory.html For information on aquaculture, diversified agriculture, educa tion, training, or community-supported agriculture, contact either of the following organizations: > Alternative Farming System Information Center (AFSIC), National Ag ricultural Library USDA, 10301 Baltimore Ave., Room 132, Beltsville, MD 20705-2351. Internet: http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic >- Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA), the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702. Internet: http://www.attra.ncat.org Financial Managers (0*NET 11-3031.01, 11-3031.02) Significant Points • About 3 out of 10 work in finance and insurance industries. • A bachelor’s degree in finance, accounting, or a related field is the minimum academic preparation, but many employers increasingly seek graduates with a master’s degree in business administration, economics, finance, or risk management. • Experience may be more important than formal edu cation for some financial manager positions—most notably, branch managers in banks. • Jobseekers are likely to face competition. Earnings Incomes of farmers and ranchers vary greatly from year to year because prices of farm products fluctuate with weather conditions and other factors influencing the quantity and quality of farm out put and the demand for those products. A farm that shows a large profit one year may show a loss the following year. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the average net cash farm business income for farm operator households in 2004 was $15,603. This figure, however, does not reflect that farmers often receive government subsidies or other payments that supplement their incomes and reduce some of the risk of farming. Additionally, most farmers—primarily operators of small farms—have income from off-farm business activities or careers, often greater than that of their farm income. Full-time, salaried farm managers had median weekly earnings of $621 in 2004. The middle half earned between $464 and $890. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Almost every firm, government agency, and other type of organiza tion has one or more financial managers who oversee the preparation of financial reports, direct investment activities, and implement cash Management, Business, and Financial Occupations management strategies. Because computers are increasingly used to record and organize data, many financial managers are spending more time developing strategies and implementing the long-term goals of their organization. The duties of financial managers vary with their specific titles, which include controller, treasurer or finance officer, credit manager, cash manager, and risk and insurance manager. Controllers direct the preparation of financial reports that summarize and forecast the organization’s financial position, such as income statements, balance sheets, and analyses of future earnings or expenses. Controllers also are in charge of preparing special reports required by regula tory authorities. Often, controllers oversee the accounting, audit, and budget departments. Treasurers and finance officers direct the organization’s financial goals, objectives, and budgets. They oversee the investment of funds, manage associated risks, supervise cash management activities, execute capital-raising strategies to support a firm’s expansion, and deal with mergers and acquisitions. Credit managers oversee the firm’s issuance of credit, establishing credit rating criteria, determining credit ceilings, and monitoring the collections of past-due accounts. Managers specializing in inter national finance develop financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. Cash managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements to meet the business and investment needs of the firm. For example, cash flow projections are needed to determine whether loans must be obtained to meet cash requirements or whether surplus cash should be invested in interest-bearing instruments. Risk and insurance managers oversee programs to minimize risks and losses that might arise from financial transactions and business operations undertaken by the institution. They also manage the organization’s insurance budget. Financial institutions, such as commercial banks, savings and loan associations, credit unions, and mortgage and finance companies, employ additional financial managers who oversee various functions, such as lending, trusts, mortgages, and investments, or programs, including sales, operations, or electronic financial services. These managers may be required to solicit business, authorize loans, and direct the investment of funds, always adhering to Federal and State laws and regulations. (Chief financial officers and other executives are included with top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Branch managers of financial institutions administer and manage all of the functions of a branch office, which may include hiring person nel, approving loans and lines of credit, establishing a rapport with the community to attract business, and assisting customers with account problems. The trend is for branch mangers to become more oriented toward sales and marketing. It is important that they have substantial knowledge about all types of products that the bank sells. Financial managers who work for financial institutions must keep abreast of the rapidly growing array of financial services and products. In addition to carrying out the preceding general duties, all financial managers perform tasks unique to their organization or industry. For example, government financial managers must be experts on the gov ernment appropriations and budgeting processes, whereas health care financial managers must be knowledgeable about issues surrounding health care financing. Moreover, financial managers must be aware of special tax laws and regulations that affect their industry. Financial managers play an increasingly important role in mergers and consolidations and in global expansion and related financing. These areas require extensive, specialized knowledge on the part of the financial manager to reduce risks and maximize profit. Financial managers increasingly are hired on a temporary basis to advise senior managers on these and other matters. In fact, some small firms contract out all their accounting and financial functions to companies that provide such services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 43 fiJgflflBiJI Financial managers oversee the preparation of financial reports and investment activities. The role of the financial manager, particularly in business, is changing in response to technological advances that have significantly reduced the amount of time it takes to produce financial reports. Financial managers now perform more data analysis and use it to offer senior managers ideas on how to maximize profits. They often work on teams, acting as business advisors to top management. Financial managers need to keep abreast of the latest computer technology in order to increase the efficiency of their firm’s financial operations. Working Conditions Working in comfortable offices, often close to top managers and to departments that develop the financial data those managers need, fi nancial managers typically have direct access to state-of-the-art com puter systems and information services. They commonly work long hours, often up to 50 or 60 per week. Financial managers generally are required to attend meetings of financial and economic associations and may travel to visit subsidiary firms or to meet customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in finance, accounting, economics, or business administration is the minimum academic preparation for financial managers. However, many employers now seek graduates with a master’s degree, preferably in business administration, economics, finance, or risk management. These academic programs develop analytical skills and provide knowledge of the latest financial analysis methods and technology. Experience may be more important than formal education for some financial manager positions—most notably, branch managers in banks. Banks typically fill branch manager positions by promoting experienced loan officers and other professionals who excel at their jobs. Other financial managers may enter the profession through formal management training programs offered by the company. The American Institute of Banking, which is affiliated with the American Bankers As sociation, sponsors educational and training programs for bank officers through a wide range of banking schools and educational conferences. Continuing education is vital to financial managers, who must cope with the growing complexity of global trade, changes in Federal and State laws and regulations, and the proliferation of new and complex financial instruments. Firms often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills by encouraging them to take graduate courses at colleges and universities or attend conferences related to their specialty. Financial management, banking, and credit union associations, often in cooperation with colleges and universities, 44 Occupational Outlook Handbook sponsor numerous national and local training programs. Persons enrolled prepare extensively at home and then attend sessions on subjects such as accounting management, budget management, cor porate cash management, financial analysis, international banking, and information systems. Many firms pay all or part of the costs for employees who successfully complete courses. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by this type of special study. In some cases, financial managers also may broaden their skills and exhibit their competency by attaining professional certification. Many different associations offer professional certifica tion programs. For example, the CFA Institute confers the Chartered Financial Analyst designation on investment professionals who have a bachelor’s degree, pass three sequential examinations, and meet work experience requirements. The Association for Financial Profes sionals (AFP) confers the Certified Cash Manager credential to those who pass a computer-based exam and have a minimum of 2 years of relevant experience. The Institute of Management Accountants offers a Certified in Financial Management designation to members with a bachelor’s degree, with at least 2 years of work experience, and who pass the institute’s four-part examination and fulfill continuing education requirements. Also, financial managers who specialize in accounting may earn the Certified Public Accountant (CPA) or Certi fied Management Accountant (CMA) designation. (See accountants and auditors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Candidates for financial management positions need a broad range of skills. Interpersonal skills are important because these jobs involve managing people and working as part of a team to solve problems. Financial managers must have excellent communication skills to explain complex financial data. Because financial manag ers work extensively with various departments in their firm, a broad overview of the business is essential. Financial managers should be creative thinkers and problemsolvers, applying their analytical skills to business. They must be comfortable with the latest computer technology. Financial operations are increasingly being affected by the global economy, so financial managers must have knowledge of international finance. Proficiency in a foreign language also may be important. Because financial management is critical to efficient business operations, well-trained, experienced financial managers who display a strong grasp of the operations of various departments within their organization are prime candidates for promotion to top management positions. Some financial managers transfer to closely related posi tions in other industries. Those with extensive experience and access to sufficient capital may start their own consulting firms. As in other managerial occupations, jobseekers are likely to face competition, because the number of job openings is expected to be less than the number of applicants. Candidates with exper tise in accounting and finance—particularly those with a master’s degree—should enjoy the best job prospects. Strong computer skills and knowledge of international finance are important; so are excellent communication skills, because financial management jobs involve working on strategic planning teams. In addition, a good knowledge of compliance procedures is essential because of the many regulatory changes instituted in recent years. Over the short term, employment growth in this occupation may slow or even reverse due to economic downturns, during which companies are more likely to close departments or even go out of business—decreasing the need for financial managers. The banking industry will continue to consolidate, although at a slower rate than in previous years. In spite of this trend, employment of bank branch managers is expected to increase, because banks are refocusing on the importance of their existing branches and are creat ing new branches to service a growing population. As banks expand the range of products and services they offer to include insurance and investment products, branch managers with knowledge in these areas will be needed. As a result, candidates who are licensed to sell insurance or securities will have the most favorable prospects. (See the Handbook statements on insurance sales agents; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.) The long-run prospects for financial managers in the securities and commodities industry should be favorable, because more people will be needed to handle increasingly complex financial transactions and manage a growing amount of investments. Financial manag ers also will be needed to handle mergers and acquisitions, raise capital, and assess global financial transactions. Risk managers, who assess risks for insurance and investment purposes, also will be in demand. Some companies may hire financial managers on a temporary basis, to see the organization through a short-term crisis or to offer suggestions for boosting profits. Other companies may contract out all accounting and financial operations. Even in these cases, how ever, financial managers may be needed to oversee the contracts. Computer technology has reduced the amount of time and the staff required to produce financial reports. As a result, forecasting earnings, profits, and costs and generating ideas and creative ways to increase profitability will become a major role of corporate financial managers over the next decade. Financial managers who are familiar with computer software that can assist them in this role will be needed. Employment Earnings Financial managers held about 528,000 jobs in 2004. Although they can be found in every industry, approximately 3 out of 10 are employed by finance and insurance establishments, such as banks, savings institutions, finance companies, credit unions, insurance carriers, and securities dealers. About 1 in 10 works for Federal, State, or local government. Job Outlook Employment of financial managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. The increasing need for financial expertise as a result of regulatory reforms and the expansion of the economy will drive job growth over the next decade. As the economy expands, both the growth of established companies and the creation of new businesses will spur demand for financial managers. However, mergers, acquisitions, and cor porate downsizing are likely to restrict the employment growth to some extent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual earnings of financial managers were $81,880 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $59,490 and $112,320. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of financial managers in 2004 were as follows: Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage $129,770 Management of companies and enterprises.................................... 97,730 Nondepository credit intermediation............................................... 88,870 Local government .................................................................................. 67,260 Depository credit intermediation........................................................ 64,530 According to a 2005 survey by Robert Half International, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance professionals, directors of finance earned between $78,500 and $178,250,and corporate controllers earned between $61,250 and $147,250. A 2004 survey of manufacturing firms conducted by Abbot, Langer, and Associates, Inc., a human resources management consulting firm, Management, Business, and Financial Occupations reported the following median annual incomes: chief corporate finan cial officers, $ 130,000; corporate controllers, $86,150; cost accounting managers, $67,161; and general accounting managers, $64,100. Large organizations often pay more than small ones, and salary levels also can depend on the type of industry and location. Many financial managers in both public and private industry receive ad ditional compensation in the form of bonuses, which, like salaries, vary substantially by size of firm. Deferred compensation in the form of stock options is becoming more common, especially for senior-level executives. Related Occupations Financial managers combine formal education with experience in one or more areas of finance, such as asset management, lending, credit operations, securities investment, or insurance risk and loss control. Workers in other occupations requiring similar training and skills include accountants and auditors; budget analysts; financial ana lysts and personal financial advisors; insurance sales agents; insurance underwriters; loan officers; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; and real estate brokers and sales agents. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers and certification in financial manage ment, contact: ► Financial Management Association International, College of Business Administration, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620-5500. Internet: http://www.fma.org For information about careers in financial and treasury manage ment and the Certified Cash Manager program, contact: >■ Association for Financial Professionals, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Suite 600 West, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.afponline.org For information about the Chartered Financial Analyst program, contact: >- CFA Institute, P.O. Box 3668, 560 Ray Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22903-0668. Internet: http://www.cfainstitute.org For information on the Financial Risk Manager program, contact: >■ Global Association of Risk Professionals, 100 Pavonia Ave., Suite 405, Jersey City, NJ 07310. For information about the Certified in Financial Management designation, contact: >■ Institute of Management Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ, 07645-1718 Internet: http://www.imanet.org Food Service Managers (0*NET 11-9051.00) Significant Points • Experience as food and beverage preparation and ser vice workers is essential for promotion into managerial positions, however, applicants with a college degree in restaurant and institutional food service management should have the best job opportunities. • Many new food service manager jobs will arise in the food services and drinking places industry as the number of establishments increases along with the population. • Job opportunities for salaried food service manag ers should be better than for self-employed managers because more restaurant managers will be employed by regional or national restaurant chains to run their establishments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 45 Nature of the Work Food service managers are responsible for the daily operations of restaurants and other establishments that prepare and serve meals and beverages to customers. Besides coordinating activities among various departments, such as kitchen, dining room, and banquet op erations, food service managers ensure that customers are satisfied with their dining experience. In addition, they oversee the inventory and ordering of food, equipment, and supplies and arrange for the routine maintenance and upkeep of the restaurant, its equipment, and facilities. Managers generally are responsible for all of the administrative and human-resource functions of running the busi ness, including recruiting new employees and monitoring employee performance and training. In most full-service restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the management team consists of a general manager, one or more assistant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is responsible for all food preparation activities, including run ning kitchen operations, planning menus, and maintaining quality standards for food service. In limited-service eating places, such as sandwich shops, coffee bars, or fast-food establishments, managers, not executive chefs, are responsible for supervising routine food preparation operations. Assistant managers in full-service facilities generally oversee service in the dining rooms and banquet areas. In larger restaurants and fast-food or other food service facilities that serve meals daily and maintain longer hours, individual assistant managers may supervise different shifts of workers. In smaller restaurants, formal titles may be less important, and one person may undertake the work of one or more food service positions. For example, the executive chef also may be the general manager or even sometimes an owner. (For additional information on these other workers, see material on top executives and chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) One of the most important tasks of food service managers is assisting executive chefs as they select successful menu items. This task varies by establishment depending on the seasonality of menu items, the frequency with which restaurants change their menus, and the introduction of daily or weekly specials. Many restaurants rarely change their menus while others make frequent alterations. Managers or executive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers and the past popularity of dishes. Other issues considered when planning a menu include whether there was any unserved food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety, and the seasonal avail ability of foods. Managers or executive chefs analyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, and overhead costs and to assign prices to various dishes. Menus must be developed far enough in advance that supplies can be ordered and received in time. Managers or executive chefs estimate food needs, place orders with distributors, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and supplies. They plan for routine services or deliveries, such as linen services or the heavy cleaning of dining rooms or kitchen equipment, to occur during slow times or when the dining room is closed. Managers also arrange for equipment maintenance and repairs, and coordinate a variety of services such as waste removal and pest control. Managers or executive chefs receive deliveries and check the contents against order records. They inspect the quality of fresh meats, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods to ensure that expectations are met. They meet with representatives from restaurant supply companies and place orders to replenish stocks of tableware, linens, paper products, cleaning supplies, cook ing utensils, and furniture and fixtures. Managers must be good communicators. They need to speak well, often in several languages, with a diverse clientele and staff. They must motivate employees to work as a team, to ensure that food and 46 Occupational Outlook Handbook service meet appropriate standards. Managers also must ensure that written supply orders are clear and unambiguous. Managers interview, hire, train, and, when necessary, fire employees. Retaining good employees is a major challenge facing food service managers. Managers recruit employees at career fairs, contact schools that offer academic programs in hospitality or culi nary arts, and arrange for newspaper advertising to attract additional applicants. Managers oversee the training of new employees and explain the establishment’s policies and practices. They schedule work hours, making sure that enough workers are present to cover each shift. If employees are unable to work, managers may have to call in alternates to cover for them or fill in themselves when needed. Some managers may help with cooking, clearing tables, or other tasks when the restaurant becomes extremely busy. Food service managers ensure that diners are served properly and in a timely manner. They investigate and resolve customers’ complaints about food quality or service. They monitor orders in the kitchen to determine where backups may occur, and they work with the chef to remedy any delays in service. Managers direct the cleaning of the dining areas and the washing of tableware, kitchen utensils, and equipment to comply with company and government sanitation standards. Managers also monitor the actions of their employees and patrons on a continual basis to ensure the personal safety of everyone. They make sure that health and safety standards and local liquor regulations are obeyed. In addition to their regular duties, food service managers perform a variety of administrative assignments, such as keeping employee work records, preparing the payroll, and completing paperwork to comply with licensing laws and reporting requirements of tax, wage and hour, unemployment compensation, and Social Security laws. Some of this work may be delegated to an assistant manager or bookkeeper, or it may be contracted out, but most general managers retain responsibility for the accuracy of business records. Managers also maintain records of supply and equipment purchases and ensure that accounts with suppliers are paid. Technology influences the jobs of food service managers in many ways, enhancing efficiency and productivity. Many restau rants use computers to track orders, inventory, and the seating of patrons. Point-of-service (POS) systems allow servers to key in a customer’s order, either at the table, using a hand-held device, or from a computer terminal in the dining room, and send the order to the kitchen instantaneously so preparation can begin. The same system totals and prints checks, functions as a cash register, connects to credit card authorizes, and tracks sales. To minimize food costs and spoilage, many managers use inventory-tracking software to compare the record of sales from the POS with a record of the cur rent inventory. Some establishments enter an inventory of standard ingredients and suppliers into their POS system. When supplies of particular ingredients run low, they can be ordered directly from the supplier using preprogrammed information. Computers also allow restaurant and food service managers to keep track of employee schedules and paychecks more efficiently. Food service managers use the Internet to track industry news, find recipes, conduct market research, purchase supplies or equip ment, recruit employees, and train staff. Internet access also makes service to customers more efficient. Many restaurants maintain Web sites that include menus and online promotions, provide informa tion about the restaurant’s location, and offer patrons the option to make a reservation. Managers tally the cash and charge receipts received and balance them against the record of sales. They are responsible for depositing the day’s receipts at the bank or securing them in a safe place. Finally, managers are responsible for locking up the establishment, checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off, and switching on alarm systems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Food service managers schedule employees to assure adequate staffing. Working Conditions Food service managers are among the first to arrive in the morning and the last to leave at night. Long hours—12 to 15 per day, 50 or more per week, and sometimes 7 days a week—are common. Managers of institutional food service facilities, such as school, factory, or office cafeterias, work more regular hours because the operating hours of these establishments usually conform to the operating hours of the business or facility they serve. However, hours for many managers are unpredictable. Managers should be calm, flexible, and able to work through emergencies, such as a fire or flood, in order to ensure everyone’s safety. Managers also should be able to fill in for absent workers on short notice. Managers often experience the pressures of simul taneously coordinating a wide range of activities. When problems occur, it is the manager’s responsibility to resolve them with minimal disruption to customers. The job can be hectic, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be stressful. Managers also may experience the typical minor injuries of other restaurant workers, such as muscle aches, cuts, or burns. They might endure physical discomfort from moving tables or chairs to accommodate large parties, receiving and storing daily supplies from vendors, or making minor repairs to furniture or equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience in the food services industry, whether as a full-time waiter or waitress or as a part-time or seasonal counter attendant, Management, Business, and Financial Occupations 47 is essential training for a food services manger. Many food service management companies and national or regional restaurant chains recruit management trainees from 2- and 4-year college hospitality management programs which require internships and real-life experience to graduate. Some restaurant chains prefer to hire people with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but they often hire graduates with degrees in other fields who have demonstrated experience, interest and aptitude. Many restaurant and food service manager posi tions—particularly self-service and fast-food—are filled by promoting experienced food and beverage preparation and ser vice workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food workers demonstrating potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs. Executive chefs need extensive experience working as chefs, and general managers need prior restaurant experience, usually as assistant managers. A bachelor’s degree in restaurant and food service manage ment provides particularly strong preparation for a career in this occupation. Almost 1,000 colleges and universities offer 4-year programs in restaurant and hospitality management or institu tional food service management; a growing number of university programs offer graduate degrees in hospitality management or similar fields. For those not interested in pursuing a 4-year degree, community and junior colleges, technical institutes, and other institutions offer programs in the field leading to an associate degree or other formal certification. Both 2- and 4-year programs provide instruction in subjects such as nutrition, sanitation, and food planning and preparation, as well as accounting, business law and management, and computer science. Some programs combine classroom and laboratory study with internships providing on-thejob experience. In addition, many educational institutions offer culinary programs in food preparation. Such training can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for advance ment to an executive chef position. Many larger food service operations will provide, or offer to pay for, technical training, such as computer or business courses, so that employees can acquire the business skills necessary to read a spreadsheet or understand the concepts and practices of running a business. Generally, this requires a long-term commitment on the employee’s part to both the employer and to the profession. Most restaurant chains and food service management companies have rigorous training programs for management positions. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, trainees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operation of a restaurant or institutional food service facility. Areas include food preparation, nutrition, sanitation, security, company policies and procedures, personnel management, recordkeeping, and preparation of reports. Training on use of the restaurant’s computer system is increasingly important as well. Usually, after 6 months or a year, trainees receive their first permanent assignment as an assistant advancement in the occupation, voluntary certification provides recognition of professional competence, particularly for manag ers who acquired their skills largely on the job. The National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation awards the FMP designation to managers who achieve a qualifying score on a writ ten examination, complete a series of courses that cover a range of food service management topics, and meet standards of work experience in the field. Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to positions with greater responsibility. Managers typically advance to larger establishments or regional management positions within restaurant chains. Some eventually open their own food service establishments. manager. Most employers emphasize personal qualities when hiring managers. For example, self-discipline, initiative, and leadership ability are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with customers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their staff. A neat and clean appearance is important, because manag ers must convey self-confidence and show respect in dealing with the public. Becasuse food service management can be physically demanding, good health and stamina are important. The certified Foodservice Management Professional (FMP) designation is a measure of professional achievement for food managers. Although not a requirement for employment or Digitized forservice FRASER common. Job opportunities should be better for salaried managers than for self-employed managers. More new restaurants are affiliated with national or regional chains than are independently owned and operated. As this trend continues, fewer owners will manage restau rants themselves, and more restaurant managers will be employed by larger companies to run individual establishments. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Food service managers held about 371,000 jobs in 2004. Most managers were salaried, but more than 40 per cent were selfemployed in independent restaurants or other small food service establishments. About 70 percent of all salaried jobs for food service managers were in full-service restaurants or limited-service eating places, such as fast-food restaurants and cafeterias. Other salaried jobs were in drinking places (alco holic beverages) and in special food services—an industry that includes food service contractors who supply food services at institutional, governmental, commercial, or industrial loca tions. A small number of salaried jobs were in traveler accom modation (hotels); educational services; amusement, gambling, and recreation industries; nursing care facilities; and hospitals. Jobs are located throughout the country, with large cities and tourist areas providing more opportunities for full-service dining positions. Job Outlook Employment of food service managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to job openings arising out of employment growth, the need to re place managers who transfer to other occupations or stop working will create many job opportunities. Although practical experience is an integral part of finding a food service management position, applicants with a degree in restaurant, hospitality or institutional food service management will have an edge; those with higher-level degrees should have the best opportunities. Projected employment growth varies by industry. Most new jobs will arise in full-service restaurants and limited-service eating places as the number of these establishments increase along with the population. Manager jobs in special food services, an industry that includes food service contractors, will increase as hotels, schools, healthcare facilities, and other businesses contract out their food services to firms in this industry. Food service manager jobs still are expected to increase in hotels, schools, and health-care facili ties, but growth will be slowed as contracting out becomes more Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried food service managers were $39,610 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,010 and $51,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,860. 48 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of food service managers in May 2004 were as follows: Traveler accommodation............................................................. Special food services................................................................... Full-service restaurants............................................................... Limited-service eating places..................................................... Elementary and secondary schools............................................. $43,660 43,530 41,490 36,400 36,290 In addition to receiving typical benefits, most salaried food service managers are provided free meals and the opportunity for additional training, depending on their length of service. Some food service managers, especially those in full-service restaurants, may earn bonuses depending on sales volume or revenue. Related Occupations Food service managers direct the activities of a hospitality-indus try business and provide a service to customers. Other managers and supervisors in hospitality-oriented businesses include gaming managers, lodging managers, sales worker supervisors, and first-line supervisors or managers of food preparation and serving workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a food service manager, 2- and 4-year college programs in restaurant and food service management, and certification as a Foodservice Management Professional is avail able from: ► National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation, 175 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 1500, Chicago, IL 60604-2702. Internet: http://www.nraef.org General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from: >- The International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Educa tion, 2613 North Parham Rd., 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA 23294. Internet: http://www.chrie.org Additional information about job opportunities in food service management may be obtained from local employers and from local offices of State employment services agencies. Funeral Directors (0*NET 11-9061.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be good, particularly for those who also embalm; however, mortuary science gradu ates may have to relocate to find jobs. • Funeral directors are licensed by their State. • Advancement opportunities generally are best in larger funeral homes. Nature of the Work Funeral practices and rites vary greatly among cultures and religions. Although the U.S. population is diverse, funeral practices usually share some common elements—removing the deceased to a mortuary; preparing the remains; performing a ceremony that honors the deceased and addresses the spiritual needs of the family; and carrying out final disposition of the remains. Funeral directors arrange and direct these tasks for grieving families. Funeral directors also are called morticians or undertakers. This career may not appeal to everyone, but those who work as funeral directors take great pride in their ability to provide efficient and appropriate services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Funeral directors arrange the details and handle the logistics of funerals. They interview the family to learn what family members desire with regard to the nature of the funeral, the clergy members or other persons who will officiate, and the final disposition of the remains. Sometimes, the deceased leaves detailed instructions for his or her own funeral. Together with the family, funeral direc tors establish the location, dates, and times of wakes, memorial services, and burials. They arrange for a hearse to carry the body to the funeral home or mortuary. They also comfort the family and friends of the deceased. Funeral directors also prepare obituary notices and have them placed in newspapers, arrange for pallbearers and clergy, schedule the opening and closing of a grave with a representative of the cemetery, decorate and prepare the sites of all services, and provide transporta tion for the remains, mourners, and flowers between sites. They also direct preparation and shipment of remains for out-of-State burial. Most funeral directors also are trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers. Embalming is a sanitary, cosmetic, and preservative process through which the body is prepared for interment. If more than 24 hours elapse between death and interment, State laws usually require that the remains be refrigerated or embalmed. When embalming a body, funeral directors wash the body with germicidal soap and replace the blood with embalming fluid to preserve the tissues. They may reshape and reconstruct disfigured or maimed bodies using materials such as clay, cot ton, plaster of paris, and wax. They also may apply cosmetics to provide a natural appearance, dress the body and place it in a casket. Funeral directors maintain records such as embalming reports and itemized lists of clothing or valuables delivered with the body. In large funeral homes, an embalming staff of two or more, plus several apprentices, may be employed. Funeral services may take place in a home, house of worship, or funeral home, or at the gravesite or crematory. Services may be nonreligious, but because they often reflect the religion of the family, funeral directors must be familiar with the funeral and burial customs of many faiths, ethnic groups, and fraternal organizations. For example, members of some religions seldom have the deceased embalmed or cremated. Burial in a casket is the most common method of disposing of remains in this country, although entombment also occurs. Cremation, which is the burning of the body in a special furnace, is increasingly selected because it can be less expensive and is becom ing more appealing. Memorial services can be held anywhere, and at any time, sometimes months later when all relatives and friends can get together. Even when the remains are cremated, many people still want a funeral service. A funeral service followed by cremation need not be any differ ent from a funeral service followed by a burial. Usually, cremated remains are placed in some type of permanent receptacle, or urn, before being committed to a final resting place. The urn may be buried, placed in an indoor or outdoor mausoleum or columbarium, or interred in a special urn garden that many cemeteries provide for cremated remains. Funeral directors handle the paperwork involved with the person’s death, such as submitting papers to State authorities so that a for mal death certificate may be issued and copies distributed to the heirs. They may help family members apply for veterans’ burial benefits, and they notify the Social Security Administration of the death. Also, funeral directors may apply for the transfer of any pen sions, insurance policies, or annuities on behalf of survivors. Funeral directors also work with those who want to plan their own funerals in advance. This provides peace of mind by ensuring that the client’s wishes will be taken care of in a way that is satisfying to the client and to the client’s survivors. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Most funeral homes are small, family-run businesses, and the funeral directors are either owner-operators or employees of the operation. Funeral directors, therefore, are responsible for the success and the profitability of their businesses. Directors keep records of expenses, purchases, and services rendered; prepare and send invoices for services; prepare and submit reports for unemployment insurance; prepare Federal, State, and local tax forms; and prepare itemized bills for customers. Funeral directors increasingly are using computers for billing, bookkeeping, and marketing. Some are beginning to use the Internet to communicate with clients who are planning their funerals in advance, or to assist them by developing electronic obituaries and guestbooks. Directors strive to foster a cooperative spirit and friendly attitude among employees and a compassionate demeanor toward the families. Increasingly, funeral directors also are involved in helping individuals adapt to changes in their lives following a death, through aftercare services or support-group activities. Most funeral homes have a chapel, one or more viewing rooms, a casket-selection room, and a preparation room. Many also have a crematory on the premises. Equipment may include a hearse, a flower car, limousines, and sometimes an ambulance. Funeral homes usually stock a selection of caskets and urns for families to purchase or rent. Working Conditions Funeral directors often work long, irregular hours, and the oc cupation can be highly stressful. Many are on call at all hours because they may be needed to remove remains in the middle of the night. Shiftwork sometimes is necessary because funeral home hours include evenings and weekends. In smaller funeral homes, working hours vary, but in larger homes employees usually work 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Funeral directors occasionally come into contact with the remains of persons who had contagious diseases, but the possibility of infec tion is remote if strict health regulations are followed. To show proper respect and consideration for the families and the dead, funeral directors must dress appropriately. The profes sion usually requires short, neat haircuts and trim beards, if any, for men. Suits and ties for men and dresses for women are customary for a conservative look. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Funeral directors are licensed in all States. Licensing laws vary from State to State, but most require applicants to be 21 years old, have 2 49 years of formal education that includes studies in mortuary science, serve a 1-year apprenticeship, and pass a qualifying examination. After becoming licensed, new funeral directors may join the staff of a funeral home. Funeral directors who embalm must be licensed in all States, and some States license only those who embalm. In States that have separate licensing requirements, most people in the field obtain both licenses. Persons interested in a career as a funeral director should contact their State licensing board for specific requirements. College programs in mortuary science usually last from 2 to 4 years. The American Board of Funeral Service Education accredits about 50 mortuary science programs. A few community and junior colleges offer 2-year programs, and a few colleges and universities offer both 2-year and 4-year programs. Mortuary science programs include courses in anatomy, physiology, pathology, embalming tech niques, restorative art, business management, accounting and use of computers in funeral home management, and client services. They also include courses in the social sciences and in legal, ethical, and regulatory subjects such as psychology, grief counseling, oral and writ ten communication, funeral service law, business law, and ethics. Many State and national associations offer continuing education programs designed for licensed funeral directors. These programs ad dress issues in communications, counseling, and management. More than 30 States have requirements that funeral directors receive con tinuing education credits to maintain their licenses. Apprenticeships must be completed under the direction of an ex perienced and licensed funeral director. Depending on State regula tions, apprenticeships last from 1 to 3 years and may be served before, during, or after mortuary school. Apprenticeships provide practical experience in all facets of the funeral service, from embalming to transporting remains. State board licensing examinations vary, but they usually consist of written and oral parts and include a demonstration of practical skills. Persons who want to work in another State may have to pass the examination for that State; however, some States have reciproc ity arrangements and will grant licenses to funeral directors from another State without further examination. High school students can start preparing for a career as a funeral director by taking courses in biology and chemistry and participat ing in public speaking or debate clubs. Part-time or summer jobs in funeral homes consist mostly of maintenance and cleanup tasks, such as washing and polishing limousines and hearses, but these tasks can help students become familiar with the operation of funeral homes. Important personal traits for funeral directors are composure, tact, and the ability to communicate easily with the public. Funeral directors also should have the desire and ability to comfort people in a time of sorrow. Advancement opportunities generally are best in larger funeral homes. Funeral directors may earn promotions to higher paying positions such as branch manager or general manager. Some direc tors eventually acquire enough money and experience to establish their own funeral home businesses. Employment Funeral directors held about 30,000 jobs in 2004. Twenty percent were self-employed. Nearly all worked in the death care services industry. Job Outlook Funeral directors explain burial options and arrange details of funerals with clients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment opportunities for funeral directors are expected to be good, particularly for those who also embalm. However, mortuary science graduates may have to relocate to find jobs. Employment of funeral directors is projected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, 50 Occupational Outlook Handbook reflecting slow growth in the death care services industry, where funeral directors are employed. The need to replace funeral direc tors who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons will account for more job openings than will employment growth. Funeral directors are older, on average, than workers in most other occu pations and should be retiring in greater numbers between 2004 and 2014. In addition, some funeral directors leave the profession because of the long and irregular hours. Earnings Median annual earnings for funeral directors were $45,960 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,880 and $60,860. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,470 and the top 10 percent earned more than $85,910. Salaries of funeral directors depend on the number of years of experience in funeral service, the number of services performed, the number of facilities operated, the area of the country, the size of the community, and the level of formal education. Funeral directors in large cities earn more than their counterparts in small towns and rural areas. Related Occupations The job of a funeral director requires tact, discretion, and compas sion when dealing with grieving people. Others who need these qualities include social workers, psychologists, physicians and surgeons, and other health practitioners involved in diagnosis and treatment. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited mortuary science programs and information on the funeral service profession, write to: >- The National Funeral Directors Association, 13625 Bishop’s Dr., Brook field, WI 53005. Internet: http://www.nfda.org For information about college programs in mortuary science, scholarships, and funeral service as a career, contact: ► The American Board of Funeral Service Education, 38 Florida Ave., Portland, ME 04103. Internet: http://www.abfse.org/index.html For information on specific State licensing requirements, contact the State’s licensing board. Human Resources, Training, and Labor Relations Managers and Specialists (0*NET 11-3040.00, 11-3041.00, 11-3042.00, 11-3049.99, 13-1071.01, 13-1071.02, 13-1072.00,13-1073.00, 13-1079.99) Significant Points • In filling entry-level jobs, many employers seek col lege graduates who have majored in human resources, human resources administration, or industrial and labor relations; other employers look for college graduates with a technical or business background or a wellrounded liberal arts education. • For many specialized jobs, previous experience is an asset; for more advanced positions, including those of managers, arbitrators, and mediators, it is essential. • Keen competition for jobs is expected because of the plentiful supply of qualified college graduates and experienced workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Attracting the most qualified employees and matching them to the jobs for which they are best suited is significant for the success of any organization. However, many enterprises are too large to permit close contact between top management and employees. Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and spe cialists provide this connection. In the past, these workers have been associated with performing the administrative function of an organization, such as handling employee benefits questions or recruiting, interviewing, and hiring new staff in accordance with policies and requirements that have been established in conjunction with top management. Today’s human resources workers manage these tasks and, increasingly, consult top executives regarding strategic planning. They have moved from behind-the-scenes staff work to leading the company in suggesting and changing policies. Senior management is recognizing the significance of the human resources department to their financial success. In an effort to enhance morale and productivity, limit job turnover, and help organizations increase performance and improve business results, they also help their firms effectively use employee skills, provide training and development opportunities to improve those skills, and increase employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and work ing conditions. Although some jobs in the human resources field require only limited contact with people outside the office, dealing with people is an important part of the job. In a small organization, a human resources generalist may handle all aspects of human resources work, and thus require an extensive range of knowledge. The responsibilities of human re sources generalists can vary widely, depending on their employer’s needs. In a large corporation, the top human resources executive usually develops and manages human resources programs and policies. (Executives are included in the Handbook statement on top executives.) These policies usually are implemented by a direc tor or manager of human resources and, in some cases, a director of industrial relations. The director of human resources may supervise several depart ments, each headed by an experienced manager who most likely specializes in one human resources activity, such as employment, compensation, benefits, training and development, or employee relations. Employment and placement managers supervise the hiring and separation of employees and supervise various workers, includ ing equal employment opportunity specialists and recruitment specialists. Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists recruit and place workers. Recruiters maintain contacts within the community and may travel considerably, often to college campuses, to search for promis ing job applicants. Recruiters screen, interview, and occasionally test applicants. They also may check references and extend job offers. These workers must be thoroughly familiar with the orga nization and its human resources policies in order to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective employees. They also must keep informed about equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action guidelines and laws, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act. EEO officers, representatives, or affirmative action coordinators handle EEO matters in large organizations. They investigate and resolve EEO grievances, examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports. Employer relations representatives, who usually work in government agencies, maintain working relationships with local employers and promote the use of public employment programs and services. Similarly, employment interviewers—whose many job titles include human resources consultants, human resources Management, Business, and Financial Occupations development specialists, and human resources coordinators—help to match employers with qualified jobseekers. Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists conduct programs for employers and may specialize in specific areas such as position classifications or pensions. Job analysts, occasionally called position classifiers, collect and examine detailed information about job duties in order to prepare job descriptions. These descriptions ex plain the duties, training, and skills that each job requires. Whenever a large organization introduces a new job or reviews existing jobs, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Occupational analysts conduct research, usually in large firms. They are concerned with occupational classification systems and study the effects of industry and occupational trends upon worker relationships. They may serve as technical liaison between the firm and other firms, government, and labor unions. Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay system is the principal job of the compensation manager. Assisted by staff specialists, compensation managers devise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their firm’s rates compare with others and to see that the firm’s pay scale complies with changing laws and regulations. In addition, compensation managers often manage their firm’s performance evaluation system, and they may design reward systems such as pay-for-performance plans. Employee benefits managers and specialists manage the company’s employee benefits program, notably its health insur ance and pension plans. Expertise in designing and administering benefits programs continues to take on importance as employerprovided benefits account for a growing proportion of overall compensation costs, and as benefit plans increase in number and complexity. For example, pension benefits might include savings and thrift, profit-sharing, and stock ownership plans; health benefits might include long-term catastrophic illness in surance and dental insurance. Familiarity with health benefits is a top priority for employee benefits managers and specialists, as more firms struggle to cope with the rising cost of health care for employees and retirees. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, some firms offer employees life and accidental death and dismemberment insurance, disability insurance, and relatively new benefits designed to meet the needs of a changing workforce, such as parental leave, child and elder care, long-term nursing home care insurance, employee assistance and wellness programs, and flexible benefits plans. Benefits managers must keep abreast of changing Federal and State regulations and leg islation that may affect employee benefits. Employee assistance plan managers, also called employee welfare managers, are responsible for a wide array of programs covering occupational safety and health standards and practices; health promotion and physical fitness, medical examinations, and minor health treatment, such as first aid; plant security; publications; food service and recreation activities; carpooling and transportation programs, such as transit subsidies; employee suggestion systems; child care and elder care; and counseling services. Child care and elder care are increasingly significant because of growth in the number of dual-income households and the elderly population. Counseling may help employees deal with emotional disorders, alcoholism, or marital, family, consumer, legal, and financial problems. Some employers offer career coun seling as well. In large firms, certain programs, such as those dealing with security and safety, may be in separate departments headed by other managers. Training and development managers and specialists conduct and supervise training and development programs for employees. Increasingly, management recognizes that training offers a way of FRASER developing skills, enhancing productivity and quality of work, and Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 51 building worker loyalty to the firm, and most importantly, increasing individual and organizational performance to achieve business results. While training is widely accepted as an employee benefit and a method of improving employee morale, enhancing employee skills has become a business imperative. Increasingly, managers and leaders realize that the key to business growth and success is through developing the skills and knowledge of its workforce. Other factors involved in determining whether training is needed include the complexity of the work environment, the rapid pace of organizational and technological change, and the growing number of jobs in fields that constantly generate new knowledge, and thus, require new skills. In addition, advances in learning theory have provided insights into how adults learn, and how training can be organized most effectively for them. Training managers provide worker training either in the class room or onsite. This includes setting up teaching materials prior to the class, involving the class, and issuing completion certificates at the end of the class. They have the responsibility for the entire learning process, and its environment, to ensure that the course meets its objectives and is measured and evaluated to understand how learning impacts business results. Training specialists plan, organize, and direct a wide range of training activities. Trainers respond to corporate and worker service requests. They consult with onsite supervisors regard ing available performance improvement services and conduct orientation sessions and arrange on-the-job training for new employees. They help all employees maintain and improve their job skills, and possibly prepare for jobs requiring greater skill. They help supervisors improve their interpersonal skills in order to deal effectively with employees. They may set up indi vidualized training plans to strengthen an employee’s existing skills or teach new ones. Training specialists in some companies set up leadership or executive development programs among employees in lower level positions. These programs are designed to develop leaders to replace those leaving the organization and as part of a succession plan. Trainers also lead programs to assist employees with job transitions as a result of mergers and acquisitions, as well as technological changes. In government-supported training pro grams, training specialists function as case managers. They first assess the training needs of clients and then guide them through the most appropriate training method. After training, clients may either be referred to employer relations representatives or receive job placement assistance. Planning and program development is an essential part of the training specialist’s job. In order to identify and assess training needs within the firm, trainers may confer with managers and supervisors or conduct surveys. They also evaluate training effectiveness to ensure that the training employees receive, helps the organization meet its strategic business goals and achieve results. Depending on the size, goals, and nature of the organization, train ers may differ considerably in their responsibilities and in the methods they use. Training methods include on-the-job training; operating schools that duplicate shop conditions for trainees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; classroom training; and electronic learning, which may involve interactive Internet-based training, multimedia programs, distance learning, satellite training, other computer-aided instructional technologies, videos, simulators, conferences, and workshops. An organization’s director of industrial relations forms labor policy, oversees industrial labor relations, negotiates collective bargaining agreements, and coordinates grievance procedures to handle complaints resulting from management disputes with union ized employees. The director of industrial relations also advises and collaborates with the director of human resources, other managers, 52 Occupational Outlook Handbook and members of their staff, because all aspects of human resources policy—such as wages, benefits, pensions, and work practices—may be involved in drawing up a new or revised union contract. Labor relations managers and their staffs implement industrial labor relations programs. Labor relations specialists prepare information for management to use during collective bargaining agreement negotiations, a process that requires the specialist to be familiar with economic and wage data and to have extensive knowledge of labor law and collective bargaining trends. The labor relations staff interprets and administers the contract with respect to grievances, wages and salaries, employee welfare, health care, pensions, union and management practices, and other contractual stipulations. As union membership continues to de cline in most industries, industrial relations personnel are working more often with employees who are not members of a labor union. Dispute resolution—attaining tacit or contractual agreements—has become increasingly significant as parties to a dispute attempt to avoid costly litigation, strikes, or other disruptions. Dispute resolution also has become more complex, involving employees, management, unions, other firms, and government agencies. Specialists involved in dispute resolution must be highly knowledgeable and experienced, and often report to the director of industrial relations. Conciliators, or mediators, advise and counsel labor and management to prevent and, when necessary, resolve disputes over labor agreements or other labor relations issues. Arbitrators, occasionally called umpires or referees, decide disputes that bind both labor and management to specific terms and conditions of labor contracts. Labor relations specialists who work for unions perform many of the same functions on behalf of the union and its members. Other emerging specialties include international human re sources managers, who handle human resources issues related to a company’s foreign operations; and human resources information system specialists, who develop and apply computer programs to process human resources information, match job seekers with job openings, and handle other human resources matters. Working Conditions Human resources work usually takes place in clean, pleasant, and comfortable office settings. Arbitrators and mediators may work out of their homes. Many human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists work a standard 35- to 40-hour week. However, longer hours might be necessary for some workers—for example, labor relations managers and specialists, arbitrators, and mediators—when contract agreements are being prepared and negotiated. ■—fs Human resources workers handle employee benefits, recruiting, interviewing, and hiring and training personnel. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Although most human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists work in the office, some travel extensively. For example, recruiters regularly attend professional meetings and visit college campuses to interview prospective em ployees; arbitrators and mediators often must travel to the site chosen for negotiations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational backgrounds of human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists vary considerably because of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility. In filling entry-level jobs, many employers seek college graduates who have majored in hu man resources, human resources administration, or industrial and labor relations. Other employers look for college graduates with a technical or business background or a well-rounded liberal arts education. Many colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in personnel, human resources, or labor relations. Some offer degree programs in human resources administration or human resources management, training and development, or compensation and benefits. Depending on the school, courses leading to a career in human resources management may be found in departments of business administration, education, instructional technology, organizational de velopment, human services, communication, or public administration, or within a separate human resources institution or department. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate in this field, a combination of courses in the social sciences, business, and behavioral sciences is useful. Some jobs may require a more technical or specialized background in engineering, science, finance, or law, for example. Most prospective human resources specialists should take courses in compensation, recruitment, training and development, and performance appraisal, as well as courses in principles of management, organizational structure, and industrial psychology. Other relevant courses include business administra tion, public administration, psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bargain ing, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psychology also provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. As in many other fields, knowledge of computers and information systems also is useful. An advanced degree is increasingly important for some jobs. Many labor relations jobs require graduate study in industrial or labor relations. A strong background in industrial relations and law is highly desirable for contract negotiators, mediators, and arbitrators; in fact, many people in these specialties are lawyers. A background in law also is desirable for employee benefits man agers and others who must interpret the growing number of laws and regulations. A master’s degree in human resources, labor rela tions, or in business administration with a concentration in human resources management is highly recommended for those seeking general and top management positions. For many specialized jobs in the human resources field, previ ous experience is an asset; for more advanced positions, including those of managers as well as arbitrators and mediators, it is essential. Many employers prefer entry-level workers who have gained some experience through an internship or work-study program while in school. Human resources administration and human resources development require the ability to work with individuals as well as a commitment to organizational goals. This field also demands other skills that people may develop elsewhere—using computers, selling, teaching, supervising, and volunteering, among others. The field of fers clerical workers opportunities for advancement to professional positions. Responsible positions occasionally are filled by experi enced individuals from other fields, including business, government, education, social services administration, and the military. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations The human resources field demands a range of personal qualities and skills. Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists must speak and write effectively. The growing diversity of the workforce requires that they work with or supervise people with various cultural backgrounds, levels of education, and experience. They must be able to cope with con flicting points of view, function under pressure, and demonstrate discretion, integrity, fair-mindedness, and a persuasive, congenial personality. The duties given to entry-level workers will vary, depending on whether the new workers have a degree in human resource manage ment, have completed an internship, or have some other type of hu man resources-related experience. Entry-level employees commonly learn the profession by performing administrative duties—helping to enter data into computer systems, compiling employee handbooks, researching information for a supervisor, or answering the phone and handling routine questions. Entry-level workers often enter formal or on-the-job training programs in which they learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or administer employee benefits. They then are assigned to specific areas in the human resources department to gain experience. Later, they may advance to a mana gerial position, supervising a major element of the human resources program—compensation or training, for example. Exceptional human resources workers may be promoted to direc tor of human resources or industrial relations, which can eventually lead to a top managerial or executive position. Others may join a consulting firm or open their own business. A Ph.D. is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work. Most organizations specializing in human resources offer classes intended to enhance the marketable skills of their members. Some organizations offer certification programs, which are signs of com petence and can enhance one’s advancement opportunities. For example, the International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans confers a designation to persons who complete a series of collegelevel courses and pass exams covering employee benefit plans. The American Society for Training & Development Certification Institute offers certification; it requires passing a knowledge-based exam and successful work product. The Society for Human Resource Manage ment has two levels of certification; both require experience and a passing score on a comprehensive exam. Employment Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and spe cialists held about 820,000 jobs in 2004. The following tabulation shows the distribution of jobs by occupational specialty; Training and development specialists........................................... 216,000 Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists................. 182,000 Human resources, training, and labor relations specialists, all other..................................................... 166,000 Human resources managers.......................................................... 157,000 Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialist....................... 99,000 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists were employed in virtually every industry. About 21,000 specialists were self-employed, working as consultants to public and private employers. The private sector accounted for more than 8 out of 10 salaried jobs, including 11 percent in administrative and support services; 9 percent in professional, scientific, and technical services; 9 percent in manufacturing; 9 percent in health care and social assistance; and 9 percent in finance and insurance firms. Government employed 17 percent of human resources managers and specialists. They handled the recruitment, interview ing, job classification, training, salary administration, benefits, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53 employee relations, and other matters related to the Nation’s public employees. Job Outlook The abundant supply of qualified college graduates and experienced workers should create keen competition for jobs. Overall employment of human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to openings due to growth, many job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Legislation and court rulings setting standards in various areas—occupational safety and health, equal employment oppor tunity, wages, health care, pensions, and family leave, among oth ers—will increase demand for human resources, training, and labor relations experts. Rising health care costs should continue to spur demand for specialists to develop creative compensation and benefits packages that firms can offer prospective employees. Employment of labor relations staff, including arbitrators and mediators, should grow as firms become more involved in labor relations, and attempt to resolve potentially costly labor-management disputes out of court. Additional job growth may stem from increasing demand for specialists in international human resources management and human resources information systems. Demand may be particularly strong for certain specialists. For example, employers are expected to devote greater resources to jobspecific training programs in response to the increasing complexity of many jobs, the aging of the workforce, and technological advances that can leave employees with obsolete skills. This should result in strong demand for training and development specialists. In addition, increasing efforts throughout industry to recruit and retain quality employees should create many jobs for employment, recruitment, and placement specialists. Among industries, firms involved in management, consulting, and employment services should offer many job opportunities, as businesses increasingly contract out human resources functions or hire human resources specialists on a temporary basis in order to deal with the increasing cost and complexity of training and development programs. Demand also should increase in firms that develop and administer complex employee benefits and compensation packages for other organizations. Demand for human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists also are governed by the staffing needs of the firms for which they work. A rapidly expanding business is likely to hire additional human resources workers—either as permanent employees or consultants—while a business that has experienced a merger or a reduction in its workforce will require fewer human resources workers. Also, as human resources management becomes increasingly important to the success of an organization, some small and medium-size businesses that do not have a human resources department may assign employees various human resources duties together with other unrelated responsibilities. In any particular firm, the size and the job du ties of the human resources staff are determined by the firm’s organizational philosophy and goals, skills of its workforce, pace of technological change, government regulations, collective bargaining agreements, standards of professional practice, and labor market conditions. Job growth could be limited by the widespread use of computer ized human resources information systems that make workers more productive. Like that of other workers, employment of human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists, particularly in larger firms, may be adversely affected by corporate downsizing, restructuring, and mergers. 54 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Annual salary rates for human resources workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, and size of the firm, and whether they are union members. Median annual earnings of compensation and benefits managers were $66,530 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $49,970 and $89,340. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $39,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $118,880. In May 2004, median annual earnings were $ 81,080 in the Manage ment companies and enterprises’ industry. Median annual earnings of training and development manag ers were $67,460 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $49,060 and $91,020. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,430, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $119,580. Median annual earnings of human resources managers, all other were $81,810 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $62,080 and $106,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $48,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $136,600. In May 2004, median annual earnings were $92,590, in the Manage ment companies and enterprises’ industry. Median annual earnings of employment, recruitment, and place ment specialists were $41,190 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,820 and $55,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $76,230. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of employment, recruitment, and placement specialists were: Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ........ $52,800 Management of companies and enterprises................................. 46,780 Local government ........................................................................ 40,540 Employment services.................................................................... 37,780 State government ......................................................................... 35,390 Median annual earnings of compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists were $47,490 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,050 and $59,860. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,650. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists were: Local government ........................................................................ $51,430 Management of companies and enterprises.................................... 50,970 State government ........................................................................... 39,150 Median annual earnings of training and development spe cialists were $44,570 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,530 and $58,750. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,800, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,650. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of training and development specialists were: Management of companies and enterprises.................................. $49,540 Insurance carriers.......................................................................... 47,300 Local government ........................................................................ 45,320 State government ......................................................................... 41,770 Federal Government...................................................................... 38,930 According to a 2005 salary survey conducted by the National As sociation of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates majoring in human resources, including labor relations, received starting offers averaging $36,967 a year. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The average salary for human resources managers employed by the Federal Government was $71,232 in 2005; for employee rela tions specialists, $84,847; for labor relations specialists, $93,895; and for employee development specialists, $80,958. Salaries were slightly higher in areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. There are no formal entry-level requirements for managerial positions. Applicants must possess a suitable combination of educational attainment, experience, and record of accomplishment. Related Occupations All human resources occupations are closely related. Other workers with skills and expertise in interpersonal relations include counselors, education administrators, public relations specialists, lawyers, psychologists, social and human service assistants, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about human resource management careers and certification, contact: >• Society for Human Resource Management, 1800 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.shrm.org For information about careers in employee training and develop ment and certification, contact: >• American Society for Training &Development, 1640 King St., Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313-2043. Internet: http://www.astd.org For information about careers and certification in employee compensation and benefits, contact: >• International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 18700 W. Bluemound Rd., P.O. Box 69, Brookfield, WI 53008-0069. Internet: http://www.ifebp.org ► World at Work, 14040 N. Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260. Internet: http://www.worldatwork.org For information about academic programs in labor and employ ment relations, write to: ► Labor and Employment Relations Association, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 121 Labor and Industrial Relations Bldg., 504 E. Armory Ave., Champaign, IL 61820. Intemet:http://www.lera.uiuc.edu Information about human resources careers in the health care industry is available from: >- American Society for Healthcare Human Resources Administra tion, One North Franklin, 31st Floor, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.ashhra.org Industrial Production Managers (0*NET 11-3051.00) Significant Points • While there is no standard preparation, a college degree is helpful. • Applicants with a college degree in industrial engi neering, management, or business administration, and particularly those with an undergraduate engineering degree and a master’s degree in business administration or industrial management, enjoy the best job prospects. • Employment of industrial production managers is expected to grow more slowly than average as over all employment in manufacturing declines; however, because production managers are so essential to the efficient operation of a plant, they have not been as af fected by efforts to flatten management structures. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations 55 Nature of the Work Industrial production managers plan, direct, and coordinate the pro duction activities required to produce millions of goods every year in the United States. They make sure that production proceeds smoothly and stays within budget. Depending on the size of the manufacturing plant, industrial production managers may oversee the entire plant or just one area. One of the main responsibilities of the industrial production man ager is to oversee the production process, reducing costs wherever possible and making sure products are produced on time and are of good quality. They do this by analyzing the plant’s personnel and capital resources to select the best way of meeting the production goals. Industrial production managers may determine which ma chines will be used, whether new machines need to be purchased, whether overtime or extra shifts are necessary, and what the sequence of production will be. They monitor the production run to make sure that it stays on schedule and correct any problems that may arise. Part of an industrial production manager’s job is to come up with ways to make the production process more efficient. In recent years, traditional mass assembly lines have given way to “lean” production techniques, which gives managers more flexibility. In a traditional assembly line, each worker is responsible for only a small portion of the assembly, repeating that task on every product. Lean production employs teams to build and assemble products in stations or cells, so rather than specializing in a specific task, workers are capable of performing all jobs within a team. Without the constraints of the traditional assembly line, industrial production managers can more easily change production levels and staffing on different product lines to minimize inventory levels and more quickly react to chang ing customer demands. Industrial production managers also monitor product standards and implement quality control programs. They make sure the fin ished product meets a certain level of quality, and if not, they try to find out what the problem is and find a solution. While traditional quality control programs reacted only to problems that reached a certain significant level, newer management techniques and programs, such as ISO 9000, Total Quality Management (TQM), or Six Sigma, emphasize continuous quality improvement. If the problem relates to the quality of work performed in the plant, the manager may implement better training programs or reorganize the manufacturing process, often based upon the suggestions of employee teams. If the cause is substandard materials or parts from outside suppliers, the industrial production manager may work with the supplier to improve their quality. Industrial production managers work closely with the other managers of the firm to implement the company’s policies and goals. They also must work with the financial departments in order to come up with a budget and spending plan. In particular, though, production managers work most closely with the heads of sales, procurement, and logistics. Sales managers relay the client’s needs and the price the client is willing to pay to the production depart ment, which must then fulfill the order. The logistics, or distribution department, handles the delivery of the goods, which often needs to be coordinated with the production department. The procure ment department orders the supplies that the production depart ment needs to make its products. It is also responsible for making sure that the inventories of supplies are maintained at their optimal levels in order for production to proceed without interruption. A breakdown in communications between the production manager and the procurement department can cause slowdowns and a failure to meet production schedules. Just-in-time production techniques have reduced inventory levels, making constant communication among the manager, suppliers, and procurement departments even more important. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Industrial production managers supervise all aspects of production. Industrial production managers must keep abreast of new tech nology that can be used in the production process. They must be computer savvy as computers increasingly play an integral role in the manufacturing process and in the coordination among depart ments, suppliers, and clients. Working Conditions Most industrial production managers divide their time between production areas and their offices. While in the production area, they must follow established health and safety practices and wear the required protective clothing and equipment. The time in the office, which often is located near production areas, usually is spent meeting with subordinates or other department managers, analyzing production data, and writing and reviewing reports. Most industrial production managers work more than 40 hours a week, especially when production deadlines must be met. In facilities that operate around-the-clock, managers often work late shifts and may be called at any hour to deal with emergencies. This could mean going to the plant to resolve the problem, regardless of the hour, and staying until the situation is under control. Dealing with production workers as well as superiors when working under the pressure of production deadlines or emergency situations can be stressful. Corporate restructuring has eliminated levels of management and support staff, thus shifting more responsibilities to production managers and compounding this stress. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of manufacturing operations and job require ments, there is no standard preparation for this occupation. Some employers require a college degree, while other employers train promising apprentices or workers. However, most employers would prefer a college degree, even for those who have worked their way up through the ranks. Many industrial production managers have a college degree in business administration, management, industrial technology, or industrial engineering. Some are former produc tion-line supervisors who have been promoted and have taken employer-sponsored training classes. Although many employers prefer candidates with a business or engineering background, some companies hire well-rounded liberal arts graduates, who are willing to spend time in a production-related job. As production operations become more sophisticated, increas ing numbers of employers are looking for candidates with gradu ate degrees in industrial management or business administration. 56 Occupational Outlook Handbook Combined with an undergraduate degree in engineering, either of these graduate degrees is considered particularly good preparation. Managers who do not have graduate degrees often take courses in decision sciences, which provide them with techniques and statistical formulas that can be used to maximize efficiency and improve quality. Companies also are placing greater importance on a candidate’s interpersonal skills. Because the job requires the ability to compromise, persuade, and negotiate, successful production manag ers must be well-rounded and have excellent communication skills. Those who enter the field directly from college or graduate school often are unfamiliar with the firm’s production process. As a result, they may spend their first few months in the company’s training program. These programs familiarize trainees with the production process, company policies, and the requirements of the job. In larger companies, they also may include assignments to other departments, such as purchasing and accounting. A number of companies hire college graduates as first-line supervisors and later promote them. Some industrial production managers have worked their way up through the ranks, perhaps after having worked as first-line supervisors. These workers already have an intimate knowledge of the production process and the firm’s organization. To be selected for promotion, workers can expand their skills by obtaining a college degree, demonstrating leadership qualities, or by taking companysponsored management and communication courses. In addition to formal training, industrial production managers must keep informed of new production technologies and manage ment practices. Many belong to professional organizations and attend trade shows at which new equipment is displayed; they also attend industry conferences and conventions at which changes in production methods and technological advances are discussed. Some take courses to become certified in various quality and management systems. Industrial production managers with a proven record of superior performance may advance to plant manager or vice president for manufacturing. Others transfer to jobs with more responsibilities at larger firms. Opportunities also exist for managers to become consultants. (For more information, see the statement on manage ment analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Industrial production managers held about 160,000 jobs in 2004. Almost all are employed in manufacturing industries, including the plastics product manufacturing, printing and related support activities, motor vehicle parts manufacturing, and semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing industries. Production managers work in all parts of the country, but jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated. those with an undergraduate engineering degree and a master’s degree in business administration or industrial management, will enjoy the best job prospects. Employers also are likely to seek candidates who have excellent communication skills, related work experience, and who are personable, flexible, and eager to enhance their knowledge and skills through ongoing training. Productivity gains that are occurring throughout the manufactur ing sector will also impact industrial production managers. With the increasing use of computers for scheduling, planning, and coordina tion among departments, their work is made much easier. In addition, more emphasis on quality in the production process has redistributed some of the production manager’s oversight responsibilities to su pervisors and workers on the production line. Earnings Median annual earnings for industrial production managers were $73,000 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $55,700 and $94,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $123,010. Median annual earnings in the manufacturing industries employ ing the largest numbers of industrial production managers in May 2004 were: Management of companies and enterprises.................................. $90,140 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing............................................... 76,490 Printing and related support activities........................................... 69,210 ■Plastics product manufacturing..................................................... 66,880 Related Occupations Industrial production managers oversee production staff and equip ment, ensure that production goals and quality standards are being met, and implement company policies. Other managerial occupations with similar responsibilities are general and operations managers, construction managers, and sales managers. Occupations requiring comparable training and problem-solving skills are engineers, man agement analysts, and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information For more information on industrial production management, con tact local manufacturers or schools with programs in industrial management. Lodging Managers (Q*NET 11-9081.00) Job Outlook Employment of industrial production managers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014, as overall employment in manufacturing declines. As more manu facturing plants move abroad and others are able to produce more with fewer people, there will be less need for industrial production managers. Also, new computerized machines are better able to con trol quality. However, because production managers are so essential to the efficient operation of a plant, they have not been as affected by efforts to flatten management structures. Nevertheless, this trend has led production managers to assume more responsibilities and has limited the creation of more employment opportunities. Despite slow growth, a number of jobs are expected to open due to the need to replace workers who will retire or who will transfer to other occupations. Applicants with a college degree in industrial engineering, management, or business administration, and particularly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Long hours, including night and weekend work, are • common. Employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. • College graduates with degrees in hotel or hospitality management should have the best job opportunities. Nature of the Work A comfortable room, good food, and a helpful staff can make be ing away from home an enjoyable experience for both vacationing families and business travelers. While most lodging managers work in traditional hotels and motels, some work in other lodging estab lishments, such as camps, inns, boardinghouses, dude ranches, and Management, Business, and Financial Occupations recreational resorts. In full-service hotels, lodging managers help their guests have a pleasant stay by providing many of the comforts of home, including cable television, fitness equipment, and voice mail, as well as specialized services such as health spas. For busi ness travelers, lodging managers often schedule available meeting rooms and electronic equipment, including slide projectors and fax machines. Lodging managers are responsible for keeping their establish ments efficient and profitable. In a small establishment with a lim ited staff, the manager may oversee all aspects of operations. How ever, large hotels may employ hundreds of workers, and the general manager usually is aided by a number of assistant managers assigned to the various departments of the operation. In hotels of every size, managerial duties vary significantly by job title. General managers have overall responsibility for the opera tion of the hotel. Within guidelines established by the owners of the hotel or executives of the hotel chain, the general manager sets room rates, allocates funds to departments, approves expenditures, and ensures expected standards for guest service, decor, housekeep ing, food quality, and banquet operations. Managers who work for chains also may organize and staff a newly built hotel, refurbish an older hotel, or reorganize a hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. In order to fill entry-level service and clerical jobs in hotels, some managers attend career fairs. Resident or hotel managers are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the property. In larger properties, more than one of these managers may assist the general manager, frequently dividing responsibilities between the food and beverage operations and the rooms or lodging services. At least one manager, either the general manager or a hotel manager, is on call 24 hours a day to resolve problems or emergencies. Assistant managers help run the day-to-day operations of the hotel. In large hotels, they may be responsible for activities such as personnel, accounting, office administration, marketing and sales, purchasing, security, maintenance, and pool, spa, or recreational facilities. In smaller hotels, these duties may be combined into one position. Assistant managers may adjust charges on a hotel guest’s bill when a manager is unavailable. An Executive Committee made up of a hotel’s senior managers advises the general manager, assists in setting hotel policy, coordi nates services that cross departmental boundaries, and collaborates on efforts to ensure consistent and efficient guest services throughout the hotel. The Committee may be comprised of the department heads for housekeeping, front office, food and beverage, security, sales and public relations, meetings and conventions, engineering and building maintenance, and human resources. Executive com mittee members bring a different perspective of guest service to the total management objective reflecting the unique expertise and training of their positions. Executive housekeepers ensure that guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms, and public areas are clean, orderly, and well maintained. They also train, schedule, and supervise the work of housekeepers, inspect rooms, and order cleaning supplies. Front office managers coordinate reservations and room assign ments, as well as train and direct the hotel’s front desk staff. They ensure that guests are treated courteously, complaints and problems are resolved, and requests for special services are carried out. Front office managers may adjust charges posted on a customer’s bill. Convention services managers coordinate the activities of various departments in larger hotels to accommodate meetings, conventions, and special events. They meet with representatives of groups or organizations to plan the number of rooms to reserve, the desired configuration of the meeting space, and banquet services. During the meeting or event, they resolve unexpected problems and monitor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 57 activities to ensure that hotel operations conform to the expectations of the group. Food and beverage managers oversee all food service operations maintained by the hotel. They coordinate menus with the Ex ecutive Chef for the hotel’s restaurants, lounges, and room service operations. They supervise the ordering of food and supplies, direct service and maintenance contracts within the kitchens and dining areas, and manage food service budgets. Catering managers arrange for food service in a hotel’s meeting and convention rooms. They coordinate menus and costs for ban quets, parties, and events with meeting and convention planners or individual clients. They coordinate staffing needs and arrange sched ules with kitchen personnel to ensure appropriate food service. Sales or marketing directors and public relations directors over see the advertising and promotion of hotel operations and functions, including lodging and dining specials and special events, such as holiday or seasonal specials. They direct the efforts of their staff to purchase advertising and market their property to organizations or groups seeking a venue for conferences, conventions, business meetings, trade shows, and special events. They also coordinate media relations and answer questions from the press. Human resources directors manage the personnel functions of a hotel, ensuring that all accounting, payroll, and employee relations matters are handled in compliance with hotel policy and applicable laws. They also oversee hiring practices and standards and ensure that training and promotion programs reflect appropriate employee development guidelines. Finance (or revenue) directors monitor room sales and reservations. In addition to overseeing accounting and cash-flow matters at the hotel, they also project occupancy levels, decide which rooms to discount and when to offer rate specials. Computers are used extensively by lodging managers and their assistants to keep track of guests’ bills, reservations, room assignments, meetings, and special events. In addition, computers are used to order food, beverages, and supplies, as well as to prepare reports for hotel own ers and top-level managers. Managers work with computer specialists to ensure that the hotel’s computer system functions properly. Should the hotel’s computer system fail, managers must continue to meet the needs of hotel guests and staff. Working Conditions Because hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Many lodging managers work more than 40 hours per week, ...... J Lodging managers ensure that the work of all departments meets guests’ expectations. 58 Occupational Outlook Handbook and may be called back to work at any time. Some managers of resort properties or other hotels where much of the business is seasonal have other duties on the property during the off-season or find work at other hotels or in other areas. Lodging managers experience the pressures of coordinating a wide range of activities. At larger hotels, they also carry the burden of managing a large staff and finding a way to satisfy guest needs while maintaining positive attitudes and employee morale. Conven tions and large groups of tourists may present unusual problems or require extended work hours. Moreover, dealing with irate guests can be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers during check-in and check-out times. Computer failures can further complicate processing and add to frustration levels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hotels increasingly emphasize specialized training. Postsecondary training in hotel, restaurant, or hospitality management is preferred for most hotel management positions; however, a college liberal arts degree may be sufficient when coupled with related hotel experience or business education. Internships or part-time or summer work experience in a hotel are an asset to students seeking a career in hotel management. The experience gained and the contacts made with employers can greatly benefit students after graduation. Most degree programs include work-study opportunities. Community colleges, junior colleges, and many universities offer certificate or degree programs in hotel, restaurant, or hospi tality management leading to an associate, bachelor, or graduate degree. Technical institutes, vocational and trade schools, and other academic institutions also offer courses leading to formal recognition in hospitality management. In total, more than 800 educational facilities provide academic training for would-be lodg ing managers. Hotel management programs include instruction in hotel administration, accounting, economics, marketing, housekeep ing, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Computer training also is an integral part of hotel management training, due to the widespread use of computers in reservations, billing, and housekeeping management. More than 450 high schools in 45 States offer the Lodging Management Program created by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association. This two-year program offered to high school juniors and seniors teaches management principles and leads to a professional certification called the “Cer tified Rooms Division Specialist.” Many colleges and universities grant participants credit towards a post-secondary degree in hotel management. Lodging managers must be able to get along with many different types of people, even in stressful situations. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Initiative, self-discipline, effective communication skills, and the ability to organize and direct the work of others also are essential for managers at all levels. Persons wishing to make a career in the hospitality industry may be promoted into a management trainee position sponsored by the hotel or a hotel chain’s corporate parent. Typically, trainees work as assistant managers and may rotate assignments among the hotel’s departments—front office, housekeeping, or food and beverage—to gain a wide range of experiences. Relocation to another property may be required to help round out the experience and to help grow a trainee into the position. Work experience in the hospitality industry at any level or in any segment, including summer jobs or part-time work in a hotel or restaurant, is good background for entering hotel management. Most employers require a bachelor’s degree with some education in busi ness and computer literacy, while some prefer a master’s degree for hotel management positions. However, employees who demonstrate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis leadership potential and possess sufficient length or breadth of experience may be invited to participate in a management training program and advance to hotel management positions without the education beyond high school. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned establish ments, but relocation every several years often is necessary for advancement. The large chains have more extensive career ladder programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office. Career advance ment can be accelerated by the completion of certification programs offered by various associations. These programs usually require a combination of course work, examinations, and experience. For example, outstanding lodging managers may advance to higher level manager positions. (For more information, see the material on top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Lodging managers held about 58,000 jobs in 2004. Self-employed managers—primarily owners of small hotels, motels, and inns—held about 45 percent of these jobs. Companies that manage hotels and motels under contract employed many managers. Job Outlook Employment of lodging managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Additional job openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force, in part because of the long hours and stressful working conditions. Job opportunities are expected to be best for persons with college degrees in hotel or hospitality management. Renewed business travel and domestic and foreign tourism will drive employment growth of lodging managers in full-service hotels. The numbers of economy-class rooms and extended-stay hotels also are expected to increase to accommodate leisure travelers and bargain-conscious guests. An increasing range of lodging accom modations is available to travelers, from economy hotels which offer clean, comfortable rooms and front desk services without costly extras such as restaurants and room service, to luxury and boutique inns that offer sumptuous furnishings and personal services. The accom modation industry is expected to continue to consolidate as lodging chains acquire independently owned establishments or undertake their operation on a contract basis. The increasing number of extended-stay hotels will moderate growth of manager jobs because these properties usually have fewer departments and require fewer managers. Also, these establishments often do not require a manager to be available 24 hours a day, instead assigning front desk clerks on duty at night some of the responsibilities previously reserved for managers. Additional demand for managers is expected in suite hotels, because some guests—especially business customers—are willing to pay higher prices for rooms with kitchens and suites that provide the space needed to conduct small meetings. In addition, large fullservice hotels—offering restaurants, fitness centers, large meeting rooms, and play areas for children, among other amenities—will continue to provide many trainee and managerial opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of lodging managers were $37,660 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,640 and $51,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,680, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,160. Median annual earnings for lodging managers in traveler accommodations were $37,420. Salaries of lodging managers vary greatly according to their responsibilities and the segment of the hotel industry in which they Management, Business, and Financial Occupations are employed, as well as the location and region where the hotel is located. Managers may earn bonuses of up to 25 percent of their basic salary in some hotels and also may be furnished with meals, parking, laundry, and other services. In addition to providing typi cal benefits, some hotels offer profit-sharing plans and educational assistance to their employees. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with organizing and directing a busi ness in which customer service is the cornerstone of their success include food service managers, gaming managers, sales worker supervisors, and property, real estate, and community association managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and scholarships in hotel management, contact >• American Hotel and Lodging Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW., Suite 600, Washington, DC 20005-3931. Information on careers in the lodging industry and professional development and training programs may be obtained from: > Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association, 800 N. Magnolia Ave., Suite 1800, Orlando, FL 32853-1126. Internet: http://www.ei-ahla.org For information on educational programs in hotel and restaurant management, including correspondence courses, write to: >- International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 2613 North Parham Rd., 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA 23294-4442. Internet: http://www.chrie.org Medical and Health Services Managers (0*NET 11-9111.00) Significant Points • Rapid employment growth is projected; job opportuni ties will be especially good in offices of health practi tioners, general medical and surgical hospitals, home health care services, and outpatient care centers. • Applicants with work experience in health care and strong business and management skills likely will have the best opportunities. • Earnings are high, but long work hours are common. • A master’s degree is the standard credential for most positions, although a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some entry-level positions in smaller facilities and in health information management. 59 pared to deal with evolving integrated health care delivery systems, technological innovations, an increasingly complex regulatory envi ronment, restructuring of work, and an increased focus on preventive care. They will be called on to improve efficiency in health cafe facilities and the quality of the health care provided. Increasingly, medical and health services managers will work in organizations in which they must optimize efficiency of a variety of related ser vices—for example, those ranging from inpatient care to outpatient followup care. Large facilities usually have several assistant administrators to aid the top administrator and to handle daily decisions. Assistant administrators may direct activities in clinical areas such as nursing, surgery, therapy, medical records, or health information. (Managers in nonhealth areas, such as administrative services, computer and information systems, finance, and human resources, are not included in this statement. For information about them, see the statements on management occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) In smaller facilities, top administrators handle more of the details of daily operations. For example, many nursing home administrators manage personnel, finances, facility operations, and admissions and also have a larger role in resident care. Clinical managers have training or experience in a specific clinical area and, accordingly, have more specific responsibilities than do generalists. For example, directors of physical therapy are experienced physical therapists, and most health information and medical record administrators have a bachelor’s degree in health information or medical record administration. Clinical managers establish and implement policies, objectives, and procedures for their departments; evaluate personnel and work; develop reports and budgets; and coordinate activities with other managers. Health information managers are responsible for the maintenance and security of all patient records. Recent regulations enacted by the Federal Government require that all health care providers maintain electronic patient records and that these records be secure. As a result, health information managers must keep up with current computer and software technology and with legislative requirements and developments. In addition, as patient data become more fre quently used for quality management and in medical research, health information managers ensure that databases are complete, accurate, and available only to authorized personnel. In group medical practices, managers work closely with physicians. Whereas an office manager might handle business affairs in S* Nature of the Work Health care is a business and, like every other business, it needs good management to keep it running smoothly. Medical and health services managers, also referred to as health care executives or health care administrators, plan, direct, coordinate, and supervise the delivery of health care. Medical and health services managers include specialists and generalists. Specialists are in charge of specific clinical departments or services, while generalists manage or help manage an entire facility or system. The structure and financing of health care are changing rapidly. Future medical and health services managers must be pre https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical and health services managersfrequently oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, budgeting, and the procurement of supplies. 60 Occupational Outlook Handbook small medical groups, leaving policy decisions to the physicians them selves, larger groups usually employ a full-time administrator to help formulate business strategies and coordinate day-to-day business. A small group of 10 to 15 physicians might employ 1 administra tor to oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, budgeting, planning, equipment outlays, and patient flow. A large practice of 40 to 50 physicians might have a chief administrator and several assistants, each responsible for different areas. Medical and health services managers in managed care settings perform functions similar to those of their counterparts in large group practices, except that they could have larger staffs to manage. In addition, they might do more community outreach and preventive care than do managers of a group practice. Some medical and health services managers oversee the activi ties of a number of facilities in health systems. Such systems might contain both inpatient and outpatient facilities and offer a wide range of patient services. Working Conditions Most medical and health services managers work long hours. Facil ities such as nursing care facilities and hospitals operate around the clock, and administrators and managers may be called at all hours to deal with problems. They also may travel to attend meetings or inspect satellite facilities. Some managers work in comfortable, private offices; others share space with other managers or staff. They may spend considerable time walking, to consult with coworkers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical and health services managers must be familiar with management principles and practices. A master’s degree in health services administration, long-term care administration, health sciences, public health, public administration, or business admin istration is the standard credential for most generalist positions in this field. However, a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some entry-level positions in smaller facilities, at the departmental level within health care organizations, and in health information management. Physicians’ offices and some other facilities may substitute on-the-job experience for formal education. Bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree programs in health administration are offered by colleges; universities; and schools of public health, medicine, allied health, public administration, and business administration. In 2005, 70 schools had accredited programs leading to the master’s degree in health services ad ministration, according to the Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education. For persons seeking to become heads of clinical departments, a degree in the appropriate field and work experience may be sufficient early in their career. However, a master’s degree in health services administration or a related field might be required to advance. For example, nursing service administrators usually are chosen from among supervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and graduate degrees in nursing or health services administration. Health information managers require a bachelor’s degree from an accredited program and a Registered Health Information Admin istrator (RHIA) certification from the American Health Informa tion Management Association. In 2005, there were 45 accredited bachelor’s programs in health information management according to the Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management Education. Some graduate programs seek students with undergraduate degrees in business or health administration; however, many gradu ate programs prefer students with a liberal arts or health profession background. Candidates with previous work experience in health https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis care also may have an advantage. Competition for entry into these programs is keen, and applicants need above-average grades to gain admission. Graduate programs usually last between 2 and 3 years. They may include up to 1 year of supervised administrative experience and coursework in areas such as hospital organization and management, marketing, accounting and budgeting, human resources administration, strategic planning, law and ethics, biostatistics or epidemiology, health economics, and health information systems. Some programs allow students to specialize in one type of facility—hospitals, nursing care facilities, mental health facilities, or medical groups. Other programs encourage a generalist approach to health administration education. New graduates with master’s degrees in health services admin istration may start as department managers or as staff. The level of the starting position varies with the experience of the applicant and the size of the organization. Hospitals and other health facilities offer postgraduate residencies and fellowships, which usually are staff positions. Graduates from master’s degree programs also take jobs in large medical group practices, clinics, mental health facilities, nursing care corporations, and consulting firms. Graduates with bachelor’s degrees in health administration usu ally begin as administrative assistants or assistant department heads in larger hospitals. They also may begin as department heads or as sistant administrators in small hospitals or nursing care facilities. All States and the District of Columbia require nursing care facility administrators to have a bachelor’s degree, pass a licens ing examination, complete a State-approved training program, and pursue continuing education. Some States also require licenses for administrators in assisted living facilities. A license is not required in other areas of medical and health services management. Medical and health services managers often are responsible for millions of dollars’ worth of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. To make effective decisions, they need to be open to dif ferent opinions and good at analyzing contradictory information. They must understand finance and information systems and be able to in terpret data. Motivating others to implement their decisions requires strong leadership abilities. Tact, diplomacy, flexibility, and com munication skills are essential because medical and health services managers spend most of their time interacting with others. Medical and health services managers advance by moving into more responsible and higher paying positions, such as assistant or associate administrator, department head, or CEO, or by moving to larger facilities. Some experienced managers also may become consultants or professors of health care management. Employment Medical and health services managers held about 248,000 jobs in 2004. About 30 percent worked in private hospitals, and an other 16 percent worked in offices of physicians or in nursing care facilities. The remainder worked mostly in home health care services, Federal Government health care facilities, ambulatory fa cilities run by State and local governments, outpatient care centers, insurance carriers, and community care facilities for the elderly. Job Outlook Employment of medical and health services managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, as the health care industry continues to expand and diversify. Job opportunities will be especially good in offices of health prac titioners, general medical and surgical hospitals, home health care services, and outpatient care centers. Applicants with work experience in the health care field and strong business and man agement skills should have the best opportunities. Competition for jobs at the highest management levels will be keen because of the high pay and prestige. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Managers in all settings will be needed to improve quality and efficiency of health care while controlling costs, as insurance companies and Medicare demand higher levels of accountability. Managers also will be needed to computerize patient records and to ensure their security as required by law. Additional demand for managers will stem from the need to recruit workers and increase employee retention, to comply with changing regulations, to implement new technology, and to help improve the health of their communities by emphasizing preventive care. Hospitals will continue to employ the most medical and health services managers over the 2004-14 projection period. However, the number of new jobs created is expected to increase at a slower rate in hospitals than in many other industries because of the growing utilization of clinics and other outpatient care sites. Despite relatively slow employment growth, a large num ber of new jobs will be created because of the industry’s large size. Medical and health services managers with experience in large facilities will enjoy the best job opportunities, as hospitals become larger and more complex. Employment will grow fastest in practitioners’ offices and in home health care agencies. Many services previously provided in hospitals will continue to shift to these sectors, especially as medical technologies improve. Demand in medical group practice manage ment will grow as medical group practices become larger and more complex. Managers with specialized experience in a particular field, such as reimbursement, should have good opportunities. Medical and health services managers also will be employed by health care management companies that provide management services to hospitals and other organizations, as well as to specific departments such as emergency, information management systems, managed care contract negotiations, and physician recruiting. Earnings Median annual earnings of medical and health services managers were $67,430 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $52,530 and $88,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $117,990. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and health services managers in May 2004 were as follows: Federal Government...................................................................... $87,200 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ 71,280 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 61,320 Nursing care facilities................................................................... 60,940 Home health care services............................................................ 60,320 Earnings of medical and health services managers vary by type and size of the facility, as well as by level of responsibility. For example, the Medical Group Management Association reported that, in 2004, median salaries for administrators were $72,875 in practices with 6 or fewer physicians, $95,766 in practices with 7 to 25 physi cians, and $132,955 in practices with 26 or more physicians. According to a survey by Modem Healthcare magazine, median annual compensation in 2004 for hospital administrators of selected clinical departments was $76,800 in respiratory care, $81,100 in physical therapy, $87,700 in home health care, $88,800 in labora tory services, $90,200 in long-term care, $93,500 in medical imag ing/diagnostic radiology, $94,400 in rehabilitation services, $95,200 in cancer treatment facilities, $96,200 in cardiology, $102,800 in nursing services, and $113,200 in pharmacies. Salaries also varied according to size of facility and geographic region. According to a survey by the Professional Association of Health Care Office Management, total 2004 median compensation for office managers in specialty physicians’ practices was $72,047 in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 61 gastroenterology, $66,946 in dermatology, $66,207 in cardiology, $64,543 in ophthalmology, $63,801 in obstetrics and gynecology, $62,545 in orthopedics, $58,595 in pediatrics, $52,211 in internal medicine, $50,924 in psychiatry, and $50,049 in family practice. Related Occupations Medical and health services managers have training or experience in both health and management. Other occupations requiring knowledge of both fields are insurance underwriters and social and community service managers. Sources of Additional Information Information about undergraduate and graduate academic programs in this field is available from: > Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 2000 North 14th St., Suite 780, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.aupha.org For a list of accredited graduate programs in medical and health services administration, contact: >- Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Educa tion, 2000 North 14th St., Suite 780, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.cahmeweb.org For information about career opportunities in health care man agement, contact: >- American College of Healthcare Executives, One N. Franklin St., Suite 1700, Chicago, IL 60606-4425. Internet: http://www.healthmanagementcareers.org For information about career opportunities in long-term care administration, contact: >- American College of Health Care Administrators, 300 N. Lee St., Suite 301, Alexandria, VA 22314. lntemet:http://www.achca.org For information about career opportunities in medical group practices and ambulatory care management, contact: >- Medical Group Management Association, 104 Inverness Terrace East, Englewood, CO 80112-5306. Internet: http://www.mgma.org For information about medical and health care office managers, contact: >• Professional Association of Health Care Office Management, 461 East Ten Mile Rd., Pensacola, FL 32534-9712. For information about career opportunities in health information management, contact: >■ American Health Information Management Association, 233 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 2150, Chicago, IL 60601-5800. Intemet:http://www.ahima.org Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers (0*NET 11-9141.00) Significant Points • Opportunities should be best for those with college de grees in business administration, real estate, or related fields and with professional designations. • Good speaking, writing, computer, and financial skills, as well as an ability to tactfully deal with people, are essential. • More than half of property, real estate, and community association managers are self-employed. Nature of the Work Buildings can be homes, stores, or offices to those who use them. To businesses and investors, properly managed real estate is a source of income and profits; to homeowners, it is a way to preserve and enhance resale values. Property, real estate, and community 62 Occupational Outlook Handbook association managers maintain and increase the value of real estate investments. Property and real estate managers oversee the performance of income-producing commercial or residential proper ties and ensure that real estate investments achieve their expected revenues. Community association managers manage the common property and services of condominiums, cooperatives, and planned communities through their homeowners’ or community associations. When owners of apartments, office buildings, or retail or indus trial properties lack the time or expertise needed for the day-to day management of their real estate investments or homeowners’ associations, they often hire a property or real estate manager or a community association manager. The manager is employed either directly by the owner or indirectly through a contract with a property management firm. Generally, property and real estate managers handle the financial operations of the property, ensuring that rent is collected and that mortgages, taxes, insurance premiums, payroll, and maintenance bills are paid on time. In community associations, although homeowners pay no rent and pay their own real estate taxes and mortgages, com munity association managers must collect association dues. Some property managers, called asset property managers, supervise the preparation of financial statements and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, expiration dates of leases, and other matters. Often, property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, security, groundskeeping, trash removal, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers solicit bids from sev eral contractors and advise the owners on which bid to accept. They monitor the performance of contractors and investigate and resolve complaints from residents and tenants when services are not properly provided. Managers also purchase supplies and equipment for the property and make arrangements with specialists for repairs that cannot be handled by regular property maintenance staff. In addition to fulfilling these duties, property managers must understand and comply with provisions of legislation, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Fair Housing Amendment Act, as well as local fair housing laws. They must en sure that their renting and advertising practices are not discriminatory and that the property itself complies with all of the local, State, and Federal regulations and building codes. Onsite property managers are responsible for the day-to-day operations of a single property, such as an office building, a shop ping center, a community association, or an apartment complex. To ensure that the property is safe and properly maintained, onsite managers routinely inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment to determine whether repairs or maintenance is needed. In handling requests for repairs or trying to resolve complaints they meet not only with current residents, but also with prospective residents or tenants to show vacant apartments or office space. Onsite manag ers also are responsible for enforcing the terms of rental or lease agreements, such as rent collection, parking and pet restrictions, and termination-of-lease procedures. Other important duties of onsite managers include keeping accurate, up-to-date records of income and expenditures from property operations and submitting regular expense reports to the asset property manager or owners. Property managers who do not work onsite act as a liaison be tween the onsite manager and the owner. They also market vacant space to prospective tenants through the use of a leasing agent or by advertising or other means, and they establish rental rates in accordance with prevailing local economic conditions. Some property and real estate managers, often called real estate asset managers, act as the property owners’ agent and adviser for the property. They plan and direct the purchase, development, and disposition of real estate on behalf of the business and investors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis These managers focus on long-term strategic financial planning, rather than on day-to-day operations of the property. In deciding to acquire property, real estate asset managers take several factors into consideration, such as property values, taxes, zoning, population growth, transportation, and traffic volume and patterns. Once a site is selected, they negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the property, securing the most beneficial terms. Real estate asset managers review their company’s real estate holdings periodically and identify properties that are no longer financially profitable. They then negotiate the sale of, or terminate the lease on, such properties. In many respects, the work of community association managers parallels that of property managers. They collect monthly assess ments, prepare financial statements and budgets, negotiate with contractors, and help to resolve complaints. In other respects, however, the work of these managers differs from that of other resi dential property and real estate managers. Community association managers interact with homeowners and other residents on a daily basis. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the association, they administer the daily affairs, and oversee the maintenance, of property and facilities that the homeowners own and use jointly through the association. They also assist the board and owners in complying with association and government rules and regulations. Some associations encompass thousands of homes and employ their own onsite staff and managers. In addition to administering the associations’ financial records and budget, managers may be The perfect site, mi / ’ ' ■: j Property, real estate, and community association managers are responsible for landscaping and parking areas. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations responsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, and community centers and for the maintenance of landscaping and parking areas. Community association managers also may meet with the elected boards of directors to discuss and resolve legal issues or disputes that may affect the owners, as well as to review any pro posed changes or improvements by homeowners to their properties, to make sure that they comply with community guidelines. Working Conditions The offices of most property, real estate, and community associa tion managers are clean, modern, and well lighted. However, many managers spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Onsite managers in particular may spend a large portion of their workday away from their offices, visiting the building engineer, showing apartments, checking on the janitorial and maintenance staff, or investigating problems reported by tenants. Property and real estate managers frequently visit the properties they oversee, sometimes on a daily basis when contractors are doing major repair or renovation work. Real estate asset managers may spend time away from home while traveling to company real estate holdings or searching for properties to acquire. Property, real estate, and community association managers often must attend evening meetings with residents, property owners, community association boards of directors, or civic groups. Not surprisingly, many managers put in long workweeks, especially before financial and tax reports are due and before board and an nual meetings. Some apartment managers are required to live in the apartment complexes where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs, even when they are off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off for working nights or weekends. Many apartment managers receive time off during the week so that they are available on weekends to show apartments to prospective residents. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for property management positions. Entrants with degrees in business admin istration, accounting, finance, real estate, public administration, or related fields are preferred, but those with degrees in the liberal arts also may qualify. Good speaking, writing, computer, and financial skills, as well as an ability to deal tactfully with people, are essential in all areas of property management. Many people enter property management as onsite managers of apartment buildings, office complexes, or community associations or as employees of property management firms or community association management companies. As they acquire experience working under the direction of a property manager, they may advance to positions greater responsibility at larger properties. Those who excel as onsite managers often transfer to assistant property manager positions, in which they can acquire experience handling a broad range of property management responsibilities. Previous employment as a real estate sales agent may be an asset to onsite managers because it provides experience that is useful in showing apartments or office space. In the past, those with back grounds in building maintenance have advanced to onsite manager positions on the strength of their knowledge of building mechanical systems, but this path is becoming less common as employers place greater emphasis on administrative, financial, and communication abilities for managerial jobs. Although many people entering jobs such as assistant property manager do so by having previously gained onsite management experience, employers increasingly are hiring inexperienced college graduates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in business administra tion, accounting, finance, or real estate for these positions. Assistants https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 63 work closely with a property manager and learn how to prepare budgets, analyze insurance coverage and risk options, market property to prospective tenants, and collect overdue rent payments. In time, many assistants advance to property manager positions. The responsibilities and compensation of property, real estate, and community association managers increase as these workers manage more and larger properties. Most property managers, often called portfolio managers, are responsible for several properties at a time. As their careers advance, they gradually are entrusted with larger properties that are more complex to manage. Many specialize in the management of one type of property, such as apartments, office buildings, condominiums, cooperatives, homeowners associations, or retail properties. Managers who excel at marketing properties to tenants might specialize in managing new properties, while those who are particularly knowledgeable about buildings and their mechanical systems might specialize in the manage ment of older properties requiring renovation or more frequent repairs. Some experienced managers open their own property management firms. Persons most commonly enter real estate asset manager jobs by transferring from positions as property managers or real estate brokers. Real estate asset managers must be good negotiators, adept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data in order to assess the fair-market value of property or its development potential. Resourcefulness and creativity in arranging financing are essential for managers who specialize in land development. Many employers encourage attendance at short-term formal training programs conducted by various professional and trade associations that are active in the real estate field. Employers send managers to these programs to improve their management skills and expand their knowledge of specialized subjects, such as the operation and maintenance of building mechanical sys tems, the enhancement of property values, insurance and risk management, personnel management, business and real estate law, community association risks and liabilities, tenant relations, communications, accounting and financial concepts, and reserve funding. Managers also participate in these programs to prepare themselves for positions of greater responsibility in property management. The completion of these programs, related job experience, and a satisfactory score on a written examination leads to certification, or the formal award of a professional designation, by the sponsoring association. (Some organiza tions offering such programs are listed as sources of additional information at the end of this statement.) In addition to seeking these qualifications, some associations require their members to adhere to a specific code of ethics. In a few States, community association managers must be licensed. Managers of public housing subsidized by the Federal Govern ment are required to be certified, but many property, real estate, and community association managers who work with all types of prop erty choose to earn a professional designation voluntarily, because it represents formal recognition of their achievements and status in the occupation. Real estate asset managers who buy or sell property are required to be licensed by the State in which they practice. Employment Property, real estate, and community association managers held about 361,000 jobs in 2004. More that one-third worked for real estate agents and brokers, lessors of real estate, or property manage ment firms. Others worked for real estate development companies, government agencies that manage public buildings, and corporations with extensive holdings of commercial properties. More than half of property, real estate, and community association managers were self-employed. 64 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of property, real estate, and community association managers is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. In addition to job growth, a number of openings are expected to occur as managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities should be best for those with a college degree in business administration, real estate, or a related field and for those who attain a professional designation. Job growth among onsite property managers in commercial real estate is expected to accompany the projected expansion of the real estate and rental and leasing industry. An increase in the Nation’s stock of apartments, houses, and offices also should require more property managers. Developments of new homes increasingly are being organized with community or homeowners’ associations that provide community services and oversee jointly owned common areas requiring professional management. To help properties be come more profitable or to enhance the resale values of homes, more commercial and residential property owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of professional managers. The changing demographic composition of the population also should create more jobs for property, real estate, and community association managers. The number of older people will grow during the 2004-14 projection period, increasing the need for various types of suitable housing, such as assisted-living facilities and retirement communities. Accordingly, demand will rise for property and real estate managers to operate these facilities—especially those indi viduals who have a background in the operation and administrative aspects of running a health unit. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried property, real estate, and com munity association managers were $39,980 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,190 and $59,360 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 18,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,840 a year. Median annual earnings of salaried prop erty, real estate, and community association managers in the largest industries that employed them in 2004 were as follows: Local government......................................................................... $51,980 Offices of real estate agents and brokers...................................... 40,000 Activities related to real estate...................................................... 38,370 Lessors of real estate..................................................................... 34,300 Many resident apartment managers and onsite association man agers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Managers often are reimbursed for the use of their personal vehicles, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in the projects that they develop. Related Occupations Property, real estate, and community association managers plan, organize, staff, and manage the real estate operations of businesses. Workers who perform similar functions in other fields include administrative services managers, education administra tors, food service managers, lodging managers, medical and health services managers, real estate brokers and sales agents, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information For information about education and careers in property manage ment, as well as information about professional designation and certification programs in both residential and commercial property management, contact: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis >• Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.irem.org For information on careers and certification programs in com mercial property management, contact: >• Building Owners and Managers Institute, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. Internet: http://www.bomi-edu.org For information on careers and professional designation and certification programs in residential property management and community association management, contact: >- Community Associations Institute, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 300, Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.caionline.org > National Board of Certification for Community Association Manag ers, 225 Reinekers Lane, Suite 310, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.nbccam.org Purchasing Managers, Buyers, and Purchasing Agents (0*NET 11-3061.00, 13-1021.00, 13-1022.00, 13-1023.00) Significant Points • • • • Forty-three percent are employed in wholesale trade or manufacturing establishments. Some firms promote qualified employees to these positions, while other employers recruit college graduates; regardless of academic preparation, new employees need 1 to 5 years to learn the specifics of their employer’s business. Overall employment growth is expected to be slower than average. Opportunities should be best for those with a college degree. Nature of the Work Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents make up a key component of a firm’s supply chain. They buy the goods and services the company or institution needs to either resell to cus tomers or for the establishment’s own use. Wholesale and retail buyers purchase goods for resale, such as clothing or electronics and purchasing agents buy goods and services for use by their own company or organization such as raw materials for manufacturing or office supplies. Purchasing agents and buyers offarm products purchase goods such as grain, Christmas trees, and tobacco for further processing or resale. Purchasing professionals consider price, quality, availability, reliability, and technical support when choosing suppliers and merchandise. They try to get the best deal for their company, meaning the highest quality goods and services at the lowest possible cost to their companies. In order to accomplish these tasks successfully, purchasing managers, buyers, and pur chasing agents study sales records and inventory levels of current stock, identify foreign and domestic suppliers, and keep abreast of changes affecting both the supply of, and demand for, needed products and materials. In large industrial organizations, a distinction often is drawn between the work of a buyer or purchasing agent and that of a pur chasing manager. Purchasing agents commonly focus on routine purchasing tasks, often specializing in a commodity or group of related commodities, such as steel, lumber, cotton, grains, fabricated metal products, or petroleum products. Purchasing agents usually track market conditions, price trends, and futures markets. Purchas ing managers usually handle the more complex or critical purchases and may supervise a group of purchasing agents handling other goods and services. Whether a person is titled purchasing manager, buyer, or purchasing agent depends more on specific industry and employer practices than on specific job duties. Purchasing specialists employed by government agencies or manufacturing firms usually are called purchasing directors, man agers, or agents; or contract specialists. These workers acquire materials, parts, machines, supplies, services, and other inputs to the production of a final product. Some purchasing managers specialize in negotiating and supervising supply contracts, and are called con tract or supply managers. Purchasing agents and managers obtain items ranging from raw materials, fabricated parts, machinery, and office supplies to construction services and airline tickets. Often, purchasing specialists in government place solicitations for services and accept bids and offers through the Internet. Government pur chasing agents and managers must follow strict laws and regulations in their work, in order to avoid any appearance of impropriety. To be effective, purchasing specialists must have a working technical knowledge of the goods or services to be purchased. Purchasing specialists who buy finished goods for resale are employed by wholesale and retail establishments, where they com monly are known as buyers or merchandise managers. Wholesale and retail buyers are an integral part of a complex system of distri bution and merchandising that caters to the vast array of consumer needs and desires. Wholesale buyers purchase goods directly from manufacturers or from other wholesale firms for resale to retail firms, commercial establishments, institutions, and other organizations. In retail firms, buyers purchase goods from wholesale firms or directly from manufacturers for resale to the public. Buyers largely deter mine which products their establishment will sell. Therefore, it is essential that they have the ability to predict what will appeal to consumers. They must constantly stay informed of the latest trends, because failure to do so could jeopardize profits and the reputa tion of their company. They keep track of inventories and sales levels through computer software that is linked to the store’s cash registers. Buyers also follow ads in newspapers and other media to check competitors’ sales activities, and they watch general economic conditions to anticipate consumer buying patterns. Buyers working for large and medium-sized firms usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of merchandise, whereas buyers work ing for small stores may purchase the establishment’s complete inventory. The use of private-label merchandise and the consolidation of buying departments have increased the responsibilities of retail buyers. Private-label merchandise, produced for a particular retailer, requires buyers to work closely with vendors to develop and obtain the desired product. The downsizing and consolidation of buying departments increases the demands placed on buyers because, although the amount of work remains unchanged, there are fewer people to accomplish it. The result is an increase in the workloads and levels of responsibility for all. Many merchandise managers assist in the planning and imple mentation of sales promotion programs. Working with merchandise executives, they determine the nature of the sale and purchase items accordingly. Merchandise managers may work with advertising personnel to create an ad campaign. For example, they may deter mine in which media the advertisement will be placed—newspapers, direct mail, television, or some combination of all three. In addition, merchandise managers often visit the selling floor to ensure that goods are properly displayed. Buyers stay in constant contact with store and department managers to find out what products are selling well and which items the customers are demanding to be added to the product line. Often, assistant buyers are responsible for placing and checking shipments. Digitized fororders FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Management, Business, and Financial Occupations 65 Evaluating suppliers is one of the most critical functions of a purchasing manager, buyer, or purchasing agent. Many firms now run on a lean manufacturing schedule and use just-in-time inven tories so any delays in the supply chain can shut down production and cost the firm its customers and reputation. Purchasing profes sionals use many resources to find out all they can about potential suppliers. The Internet has become an effective tool in searching catalogs, trade journals, and industry and company publications, and directories. Purchasing professionals will attend meetings, trade shows, and conferences to learn of new industry trends and make contacts with suppliers. Purchasing managers, agents, and buyers will usually interview prospective suppliers and visit their plants and distribution centers to asses their capabilities. It is important to make certain that the supplier is capable of delivering the desired goods or services on time, in the correct quantities without sacri ficing quality. Once all of the necessary information on suppliers is gathered, orders are placed and contracts are awarded to those suppliers who meet the purchaser’s needs. Most of the transaction process is now automated using electronic purchasing systems that link the supplier and firms together through the Internet. Purchasing professionals can gain instant access to the specifi cations for thousands of commodities, inventory records, and their customers’ purchase records to avoid overpaying for goods and to avoid shortages of popular goods or surpluses of goods that do not sell as well. These systems permit faster selection, customization, and ordering of products, and they allow buyers to concentrate on the qualitative and analytical aspects of the job. Long-term contracts are an important strategy of purchasing professionals because it allows purchasers to consolidate their supply bases around fewer suppliers. In today’s global economy purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents should expect to deal with foreign suppliers which may require travel to other countries and to be familiar with other cultures and languages. Changing business practices have altered the traditional roles of purchasing or supply management specialists in many industries. For example, manufacturing companies increasingly involve workers in this occupation at most stages of product development because of their ability to forecast a part’s or material’s cost, availability, and suitability for its intended purpose. Furthermore, potential problems with the supply of materials may be avoided by consulting the pur chasing department in the early stages of product design. Purchasing specialists often work closely with other employees in their own organization when deciding on purchases, an arrangement Wm.. j Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents are a key link in a firm’s supply chain. 66 Occupational Outlook Handbook sometimes called team buying. For example, before submitting an order, they may discuss the design of custom-made products with company design engineers, talk about problems involving the quality of purchased goods with quality assurance engineers and produc tion supervisors, or mention shipment problems to managers in the receiving department. Working Conditions Most purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents work in comfortable offices. They frequently work more than the standard 40-hour week, because of special sales, conferences, or production deadlines. Evening and weekend work also is common, before holiday and back-to-school seasons for those working in retail trade. Consequently, many retail firms discourage the use of vaca tion time during peak periods. Buyers and merchandise managers often work under great pressure. Because wholesale and retail stores are so competitive, buyers need physical stamina to keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work. Many purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents travel at least several days a month. Purchasers for worldwide manufactur ing companies and large retailers, as well as buyers of high fashion, may travel outside the United States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualified persons may begin as trainees, purchasing clerks, expedit ers, junior buyers, or assistant buyers. Retail and wholesale firms prefer to hire applicants who have a college degree and who are familiar with the merchandise they sell and with wholesaling and retailing practices. Some retail firms promote qualified employees to assistant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates as assistant buyers. Most employers use a combination of methods. Educational requirements tend to vary with the size of the organization. Large stores and distributors prefer applicants who have completed a bachelor’s degree program with a business emphasis. Many manufacturing firms put yet a greater emphasis on formal training, preferring applicants with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in engineering, business, economics, or one of the applied sciences. A master’s degree is essential for advancement to many top-level purchasing manager jobs. Regardless of academic preparation, new employees must learn the specifics of their employers’ business. Training periods vary in length, with most lasting 1 to 5 years. In wholesale and retail estab lishments, most trainees begin by selling merchandise, supervising sales workers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping track of stock. As they progress, retail trainees are given increased buying-related responsibilities. In manufacturing, new purchasing employees often are enrolled in company training programs and spend a considerable amount of time learning about their firm’s operations and purchasing practices. They work with experienced purchasers to learn about commodities, prices, suppliers, and markets. In addition, they may be assigned to the production planning department to learn about the material require ments system and the inventory system the company uses to keep production and replenishment functions working smoothly. Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents must know how to use both word processing and spreadsheet software, as well as the Internet. Other important qualities include the ability to analyze technical data in suppliers’ proposals; good communication, negotiation, and mathematical skills; knowledge of supply-chain management; and the ability to perform financial analyses. Persons who wish to become wholesale or retail buyers should be good at planning and decisionmaking and have, an interest in merchandising. Anticipating consumer preferences and ensuring https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis that goods are in stock when they are needed requires resourcefulness, good judgment, and self-confidence. Buyers must be able to make decisions quickly and to take risks. Marketing skills and the ability to identify products that will sell also are very important. Employers often look for leadership ability, too, because buyers spend a large portion of their time supervising assistant buyers and dealing with manufacturers’ representatives and store executives. Experienced buyers may advance by moving to a department that manages a larger volume or by becoming a merchandise manager. Oth ers may go to work in sales for a manufacturer or wholesaler. An experienced purchasing agent or buyer may become an assistant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing professionals before advancing to purchasing manager, supply man ager, or director of materials management. At the top levels, duties may overlap with other management functions, such as production, planning, logistics, and marketing. Regardless of industry, continuing education is essential for advancement. Many purchasers participate in seminars offered by professional societies and take college courses in supply management. Professional certification is becoming increasingly important, especially for those just entering the occupation. In private industry, recognized marks of experience and profes sional competence are the Accredited Purchasing Practitioner (APP) and Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM) designations, conferred by the Institute for Supply Management, and the Certified Purchasing Professional (CPP) and Certified Professional Purchasing Man ager (CPPM) designations, conferred by the American Purchasing Society. In Federal, State, and local government, the indications of professional competence are Certified Professional Public Buyer (CPPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing. Most of these certifications are awarded only after work-related experience and education requirements are met, and written or oral exams are successfully completed. Employment Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents held about 520,000 jobs in 2004. Forty-three percent worked in the wholesale trade and manufacturing industries, and another twelve percent worked in retail trade. The remainder worked mostly in service establish ments, such as hospitals, or different levels of government. A small number were self-employed. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by occupational specialty: Purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products .. 273,000 Wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products .................... 156,000 Purchasing managers.................................................................... 75,000 Purchasing agents and buyers, farm products.............................. 16,000 Job Outlook Overall employment of purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents is expected to grow slower than the average for all occupa tions through the year 2014. Offsetting some declines for purchasing workers in the manufacturing sector will be increases in the services sector. Companies in the services sector, which have typically made purchases on an ad hoc basis, are beginning to realize that centralized purchasing offices may be more efficient. Also, many purchasing agents are now charged with procuring services that were tradition ally done in-house in the past, such as computer and IT (information technology) support in addition to traditionally contracted services such as advertising. Demand for purchasing workers will be limited by improving software, which has eliminated much of the paperwork involved in ordering and procuring supplies, and also by the growing Management, Business, and Financial Occupations number of purchases being made electronically through the internet and electronic data interchange (EDI). Despite slower-than-average growth, some job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of purchasing managers is expected to grow more slowly than average. The use of the Internet to conduct electronic commerce has made information easier to obtain, thus increasing the productivity of purchasing managers. The Internet also allows both large and small companies to bid on contracts. Exclusive sup ply contracts and long-term contracting have allowed companies to negotiate with fewer suppliers less frequently. Employment of wholesale and retail buyers, except farm prod ucts, also is projected to grow more slowly than average. In the retail industry, mergers and acquisitions have caused buying departments to consolidate. In addition, larger retail stores are eliminating local buying departments and centralizing them at their headquarters. Employment of purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products, is expected to increase more slowly than average, limited by the increased globalization of the U.S. economy. As more materials and supplies come from abroad, firms have begun to outsource more of their purchasing duties to foreign purchasing agents who are located closer to the foreign suppliers of goods and materials they will need. This trend is expected to continue, but it will likely be limited to routine transactions with complex and critical purchases still being handled in-house. Finally, employment of purchasing agents and buyers, farm products, also is projected to increase more slowly than average, as overall growth in agricultural industries decreases and retailers in the grocery-related industries consolidate. Persons who have a bachelor’s degree in business should have the best chance of obtaining a buyer position in wholesale or retail trade or within government. A bachelor’s degree, combined with industry experience and knowledge of a technical field, will be an advantage for those interested in working for a manufacturing or industrial company. Government agencies and larger companies usually require a master’s degree in business or public administra tion for top-level purchasing positions. Earnings Median annual earnings of purchasing managers were $72,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,150 and $94,970 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $121,600 a year. Median annual earnings for purchasing agents and buyers, farm products were $43,720 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,100 and $59,420 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,330 a year. Median annual earnings for wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products, were $42,230 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,550 and $57,010 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $79,340 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products, in May 2004 were: Management of companies and enterprises................................. $49,770 Grocery and related product wholesalers..................................... 43,910 Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers................ 43,860 Building material and supplies dealers......................................... 35,850 Grocery stores............................................................................... 32,790 Median annual earnings for purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products, were $47,680 in May 2004. The middle https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 67 50 percent earned between $36,760 and $62,600 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $79,710 a year. Median annual earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of purchasing agents, except of wholesale, retail, and farm products, in May 2004 were: Federal executive branch and United States Postal Service ....... $63,940 Aerospace product and parts manufacturing................................ 55,820 Management of companies and enterprises................................. 53,750 Local government ........................................................................ 44,730 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ 37,090 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents receive the same benefits package as other workers, including vacations, sick leave, life and health insurance, and pension plans. In addition to receiving standard benefits, retail buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance and may receive discounts on merchan dise bought from their employer. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of market ing and the ability to assess consumer demand include those in advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; food service managers: insurance sales agents; lodging managers; sales engineers; and sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing. Sources of Additional Information Further information about education, training, employment, and certification for purchasing careers is available from: >- American Purchasing Society, North Island Center, Suite 203, 8 East Galena Blvd., Aurora, IL 60506. ► Institute for Supply Management, P.O. Box 22160, Tempe, AZ 85285 2160. Internet: http://www.ism.ws > National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 151 Spring St., Suite 300, Herndon, VA 20170-5223. Internet: http://www.nigp.org Top Executives (Q*NET 11-1011.01, 11-1011.02, 11-1021.00) Significant Points • Keen competition is expected because the prestige and high pay attract a large number of qualified applicants. • Top executives are among the highest paid workers; however, long hours, considerable travel, and intense pressure to succeed are common. • The formal education and experience of top executives vary as widely as the nature of their responsibilities. Nature of the Work All organizations have specific goals and objectives that they strive to meet. Top executives devise strategies and formulate policies to ensure that these objectives are met. Although they have a wide range of titles—such as chief executive officer, chief operating officer, board chair, president, vice president, school superintendent, county administrator, or tax commissioner—all formulate policies and direct the operations of businesses and corporations, public sector organizations, nonprofit institutions, and other organizations. A corporation’s goals and policies are established by the chief executive officer in collaboration with other top executives, who are 68 Occupational Outlook Handbook overseen by a board of directors. In a large corporation, the chief executive officer meets frequently with subordinate executives to ensure that operations are conducted in accordance with these policies. The chief executive officer of a corporation retains overall accountability; however, a chiefoperating officer may be delegated several responsibilities, including the authority to oversee execu tives who direct the activities of various departments and implement the organization’s policies on a day-to-day basis. In publicly held and nonprofit corporations, the board of directors ultimately is ac countable for the success or failure of the enterprise, and the chief executive officer reports to the board. The nature of other high-level executives’ responsibilities depends on the size of the organization. In large organizations, the duties of such executives are highly specialized. Some managers, for instance, are responsible for the overall performance of one aspect of the organization, such as manufacturing, marketing, sales, purchasing, finance, personnel, training, administrative services, computer and information systems, property management, transportation, or legal services. (Some of these and other management occupations are discussed elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) In smaller organizations, such as independent retail stores or small manufacturers, a partner, owner, or general manager often is responsible for purchasing, hiring, training, quality control, and day-to-day supervisory duties. Chieffinancial officers direct the organization’s financial goals, objectives, and budgets. They oversee the investment of funds and manage associated risks, supervise cash management activities, execute capital-raising strategies to support a firm’s expansion, and deal with mergers and acquisitions. Chief information officers are responsible for the overall tech nological direction of their organizations. They are increasingly involved in the strategic business plan of a firm as part of the executive team. To perform effectively, they also need knowl edge of administrative procedures, such as budgeting, hiring, and supervision. These managers propose budgets for projects and programs and make decisions on staff training and equipment purchases. They hire and assign computer specialists, information technology workers, and support personnel to carry out specific parts of the projects. They supervise the work of these employees, review their output, and establish administrative procedures and policies. Chief information officers also provide organizations with the vision to master information technology as a competitive tool. Chief executives have overall responsibility for the operation of their organizations. Working with executive staff, they set goals and arrange programs to attain these goals. Executives also ap point department heads, who manage the employees who carry out programs. Chief executives also oversee budgets and ensure that resources are used properly and that programs are carried out as planned. Chief executive officers carry out a number of other important functions, such as meeting with staff and board members to de termine the level of support for proposed programs. In addition, they often nominate citizens to boards and commissions, encour age business investment, and promote economic development in their communities. To do all of these varied tasks effectively, chief executives rely on a staff of highly skilled personnel. Executives who control small companies, however, often do this work by themselves. General and operations managers plan, direct, or coordi nate the operations of companies or public and private sector organizations. Their duties include formulating policies, man aging daily operations, and planning the use of materials and human resources, but are too diverse and general in nature to be classified in any one area of management or administration, such https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Top executives devise strategies and formulate policies to ensure that objectives are met. as personnel, purchasing, or administrative services. In some organizations, the duties of general and operations managers may overlap the duties of chief executive officers. In addition to being responsible for the operational success of a company, top executives also are increasingly being held ac countable for the accuracy of their financial reporting, particularly among publicly traded companies. For example, recently enacted legislation contains provisions for corporate governance, internal control, and financial reporting. Working Conditions Top executives typically have spacious offices and numerous support staff. General managers in large firms or nonprofit organizations usually have comfortable offices close to those of the top executives to whom they report. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are standard for most top executives and general managers, although their schedules may be flexible. Substantial travel between international, national, regional, and local offices to monitor operations and meet with custom ers, staff, and other executives often is required of managers and executives. Many managers and executives also attend meetings and conferences sponsored by various associations. The confer ences provide an opportunity to meet with prospective donors, customers, contractors, or government officials and allow managers and executives to keep abreast of technological and managerial innovations. In large organizations, job transfers between local offices or subsidiaries are common for persons on the executive career track. Top executives are under intense pressure to succeed; de pending on the organization, this may mean earning higher profits, providing better service, or attaining fundraising and charitable goals. Executives in charge of poorly performing organizations or departments usually find their jobs in jeopardy. TVaining, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The formal education and experience of top executives vary as widely as the nature of their responsibilities. Many top executives have a bachelor’s or higher degree in business administration or liberal arts. College presidents typically have a doctorate in the field in which they originally taught, and school superintendents often have a master’s degree in education administration. (For information on lower-level managers in educational services, see the Handbook statement on education administrators.) A brokerage Management, Business, and Financial Occupations office manager needs a strong background in securities and finance, and department store executives generally have extensive experience in retail trade. Some top executives in the public sector have a background in public administration or liberal arts. Others might have a back ground related to their jobs. For example, a health commissioner might have a graduate degree in health services administration or business administration. (For information on lower-level manag ers in health services, see the Handbook statement on medical and health services managers.) Many top executive positions are filled from within the organization by promoting experienced, lower-level managers when an opening occurs. In industries such as retail trade or transportation, for instance, it is possible for individuals without a college degree to work their way up within the company and become managers. However, many companies prefer that their top executives have specialized back grounds and, therefore, hire individuals who have been managers in other organizations. Top executives must have highly developed personal skills. An analytical mind able to quickly assess large amounts of information and data is very important, as is the ability to consider and evalu ate the relationships between numerous factors. Top executives also must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively. Other qualities criti cal for managerial success include leadership, self confidence, motivation, decisiveness, flexibility, sound business judgment, and determination. Advancement may be accelerated by participation in company training programs that impart a broader knowledge of company policy and operations. Managers also can help their careers by becoming familiar with the latest developments in management techniques at national or local training programs sponsored by various industry and trade associations. Managers who have ex perience in a particular field, such as accounting or engineering, may attend executive development programs to facilitate their promotion to an even higher level. Participation in conferences and seminars can expand knowledge of national and international issues influencing the organization and can help the participants develop a network of useful contacts. General managers may advance to a top executive position, such as executive vice president, in their own firm or they may take a corresponding position in another firm. They may even advance to peak corporate positions such as chief operating of ficer or chief executive officer. Chief executive officers often become members of the board of directors of one or more firms, typically as a director of their own firm and often as chair of its board of directors. Some top executives establish their own firms or become independent consultants. Employment Top executives held about 2.3 million jobs in 2004. Employment by detailed occupation was distributed as follows: General and operations managers............................................... 1,807,000 Chief executives.......................................................................... 444,000 Legislators................................................................................... 66,000 Top executives are found in every industry, but service-providing industries, including government, employ 8 out of 10. 69 their own businesses, or retire. However, many executives who leave their jobs transfer to other executive positions, a pattern that tends to limit the number of job openings for new entrants. Experienced managers whose accomplishments reflect strong leadership qualities and the ability to improve the efficiency or competitive position of an organization will have the best opportunities. In an increasingly global economy, experience in international economics, marketing, information systems, and knowledge of several languages also may be beneficial. Employment of top executives—including chief executives and general and operations managers—is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Because top managers are essential to the success of any organization, their jobs are unlikely to be automated or to be eliminated through corporate restructuring—trends that are expected to adversely affect employ ment of lower-level managers. Projected employment growth of top executives over the 2004-14 period varies by industry. For example, employment growth is expected to be much faster than average in professional, scientific, and technical services and in administrative and support services. However, employment is projected to decline in some manufacturing industries. Earnings Top executives are among the highest paid workers in the U.S. economy. However, salary levels vary substantially depending on the level of managerial responsibility; length of service; and type, size, and location of the firm. For example, a top manager in a very large corpora tion can earn significantly more than a counterpart in a small firm. Median annual earnings of general and operations managers in May 2004 were $77,420. The middle 50 percent earned between $52,420 and $ 118,310. Because the specific responsibilities of general and operations managers vary significantly within industries, earn ings also tend to vary considerably. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of general and operations managers in May 2004 were: Computer systems design and related services.......................... $117,730 Management of companies and enterprises............................... 99,670 Building equipment contractors................................................. 83,080 Depository credit intermediation............................................... 76,060 Local government....................................................................... 68,590 Median annual earnings of chief executives in May 2004 were $140,350; although chief executives in some industries earned considerably more. Salaries vary substantially by type and level of responsibilities and by industry. According to a 2005 survey by Abbott, Langer, and Associates, the median income of chief executive officers in the nonprofit sector was $88,006 in 2005, but some of the highest paid made more than $700,000. In addition to salaries, total compensation often includes stock options, dividends, and other performance bonuses. The use of executive dining rooms and company aircraft and cars, expense allowances, and company-paid insurance premiums and physical examinations also are among benefits commonly enjoyed by top executives in private industry. A number of chief executive of ficers also are provided with company-paid club memberships and other amenities. Job Outlook Related Occupations Keen competition is expected for top executive positions because the prestige and high pay attract a large number of qualified applicants. Because this is a large occupation, numerous openings will occur each year as executives transfer to other positions, start Top executives plan, organize, direct, control, and coordinate the oper ations of an organization and its major departments or programs. The members of the board of directors and lower-level managers also are involved in these activities. Many other management occupations https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 70 Occupational Outlook Handbook have similar responsibilities; however, they are concentrated in specific industries or are responsible for a specific department within an organization. A few examples are administrative services man agers; education administrators; financial managers; food service managers; and advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers. Legislators oversee their staffs and help set public policies in Federal, State, and local governments. Sources of Additional Information For a variety of information on top executives, including educational programs, certification programs, and job listings, contact: >• American Management Association, 1601 Broadway, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10019. Internet: http://www.amanet.org >- International Public Management Association for Human Resources, 1617 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ipma-hr.org >- National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. Internet: http://www.nmal.org For information on executive financial management careers and certification, contact: > Financial Executives International, 200 Campus Dr., P.O. Box 674, Florham Park, NJ 07932-0674. Intemet:http://www.fei.org ► Financial Management Association International, College of Business Administration, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Ave., BSN 3331, Tampa, FL 33620-5500. Intemet:http://www.fma.org Business and Financial Operations Occupations Accountants and Auditors (Q*NET 13-2011.01, 13-2011.02) Significant Points • Most jobs require at least a bachelor’s degree in ac counting or a related field. • Overall job opportunities should be favorable; jobseek ers who obtain professional recognition through certi fication or licensure, a master’s degree, proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or special ized expertise will have the best opportunities • An increase in the number of businesses, changing financial laws and regulations, and greater scrutiny of company finances will drive faster-than-average growth of accountants and auditors. Nature of the Work Accountants and auditors help to ensure that the Nation’s firms are ran efficiently, its public records kept accurately, and its taxes paid properly and on time. They perform these vital functions by offer ing an increasingly wide array of business and accounting services, including public, management, and government accounting, as well as internal auditing, to their clients. Beyond carrying out the funda mental tasks of the occupation—preparing, analyzing, and verifying financial documents in order to provide information to clients—many accountants now are required to possess a wide range of knowledge and skills. Accountants and auditors are broadening the services they offer to include budget analysis, financial and investment planning, information technology consulting, and limited legal services. Specific job duties vary widely among the four major fields of accounting: public, management, and government accounting and internal auditing. Public accountants perform a broad range of accounting, auditing, tax, and consulting activities for their clients, which may be corporations, governments, nonprofit organizations, or individuals. For example, some public accountants concentrate on tax matters, such as advising companies about the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions and preparing individual income tax returns. Others offer advice in areas such as compensation or employee health care benefits, the design of ac counting and data-processing systems, and the selection of controls to safeguard assets. Still others audit clients’ financial statements andfor inform investors and authorities that the statements have been Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis correctly prepared and reported. Public accountants, many of whom are Certified Public Accountants (CPAs), generally have their own businesses or work for public accounting firms. Some public accountants specialize in forensic accounting—in vestigating and interpreting white-collar crimes such as securities fraud and embezzlement, bankruptcies and contract disputes, and other complex and possibly criminal financial transactions, includ ing money laundering by organized criminals. Forensic accountants combine their knowledge of accounting and finance with law and investigative techniques in order to determine whether an activity is illegal. Many forensic accountants work closely with law enforce ment personnel and lawyers during investigations and often appear as expert witnesses during trials. In response to recent accounting scandals, new Federal legisla tion restricts the nonauditing services that public accountants can provide to clients. If an accounting firm audits a client’s financial statements, that same firm cannot provide advice on human re sources, technology, investment banking, or legal matters, although accountants may still advise on tax issues, such as establishing a tax shelter. Accountants may still advise other clients in these areas or may provide advice within their own firm. Management accountants—also called cost, managerial, in dustrial, corporate, or private accountants—record and analyze the financial information of the companies for which they work. Among their other responsibilities are budgeting, performance evaluation, cost management, and asset management. Usually, management accountants are part of executive teams involved in strategic planning or the development of new products. They analyze and interpret the financial information that corporate executives need in order to make sound business decisions. They also prepare financial reports for other groups, including stockholders, creditors, regulatory agencies, and tax authorities. Within accounting departments, management accountants may work in various areas, including financial analysis, planning and budgeting, and cost accounting. Government accountants and auditors work in the public sector, maintaining and examining the records of government agencies and auditing private businesses and individuals whose activities are subject to government regulations or taxation. Accountants employed by Federal, State, and local governments guarantee that revenues are received and expenditures are made in accordance with laws and regulations. Those employed by the Federal Govern ment may work as Internal Revenue Service agents or in financial management, financial institution examination, or budget analysis and administration. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization’s inter nal records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Internal auditing is an increasingly important area of accounting and auditing. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Internal auditors examine and evaluate their firms’ financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations, eval uating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations. There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data-processing, environmental, engineering, legal, insurance pre mium, bank, and health care auditors. As computer systems make information timelier, internal auditors help managers to base their decisions on actual data, rather than personal observation. Internal auditors also may recommend controls for their organization’s computer system, to ensure the reliability of the system and the integrity of the data. Computers are rapidly changing the nature of the work of most accountants and auditors. With the aid of special software pack ages, accountants summarize transactions in standard formats used by financial records and organize data in special formats employed in financial analysis. These accounting packages greatly reduce the amount of tedious manual work associated with data management and recordkeeping. Computers enable accountants and auditors to be more mobile and to use their clients’ computer systems to extract information from databases and the Internet. As a result, a growing number of accountants and auditors with extensive com puter skills are specializing in correcting problems with software or in developing software to meet unique data management and analytical needs. Accountants also are beginning to perform more technical duties, such as implementing, controlling, and auditing systems and networks, developing technology plans, and analyzing and devising budgets. Increasingly, accountants also are assuming the role of a personal financial advisor. They not only provide clients with accounting and tax help, but also help them develop personal budgets, manage assets and investments, plan for retirement, and recognize and reduce their exposure to risks. This role is a response to clients’ demands for a single trustworthy individual or firm to meet all of their financial needs. However, accountants are Accountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial Digitized for information FRASER for individuals and businesses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 71 restricted from providing these services to clients whose financial statements they also prepare. (See financial analysts and personal financial advisors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most accountants and auditors work in a typical office setting. Self-employed accountants may be able to do part of their work at home. Accountants and auditors employed by public accounting firms and government agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at branches of their firm, clients’ places of business, or gov ernment facilities. Most accountants and auditors generally work a standard 40-hour week, but many work longer hours, particularly if they are selfemployed and have numerous clients. Tax specialists often work long hours during the tax season. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most accountant and auditor positions require at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a related field. Beginning accounting and auditing positions in the Federal Government, for example, usually require 4 years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience. Some employers prefer applicants with a master’s degree in accounting, or with a master’s degree in business admin istration with a concentration in accounting. Previous experience in accounting or auditing can help an applicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experience through summer or part-time internship programs conducted by public accounting or business firms. In addition, practical knowledge of computers and their applications in ac counting and internal auditing is a great asset for jobseekers in the accounting field. Professional recognition through certification or licensure pro vides a distinct advantage in the job market. CPAs are licensed by a State Board of Accountancy. The vast majority of States require CPA candidates to be college graduates, but a few States substitute a number of years of public accounting experience for a college degree. As of early 2005, on the basis of recommendations made by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), 42 States and the District of Columbia required CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of college coursework—an additional 30 hours beyond the usual 4-year bachelor’s degree. Another five States have adopted similar legislation that will become effective between 2006 and 2009. Colorado, Delaware, New Hampshire, and Vermont are the only States that do not require 150 semester hours. In response to this trend, many schools have altered their curricula accordingly, with most programs offering master’s degrees as part of the 150 hours, so prospective accounting majors should carefully research accounting curricula and the requirements of any States in which they hope to become licensed. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination prepared by the AICPA. The 2-day CPA examination is rigorous, and only about one-quarter of those who take it each year pass every part they attempt. Candidates are not required to pass all four parts at once, but most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit and to complete all four sections within a certain period. The CPA exam is now computerized and is offered quar terly at various testing centers throughout the United States. Most States also require applicants for a CPA certificate to have some accounting experience. The AICPA also offers members with valid CPA certificates the option to receive any or all of the Accredited in Business Valuation (ABV), Certified Information Technology Professional (CITP), 72 Occupational Outlook Handbook or Personal Financial Specialist (PFS) designations. CPA’s with these designations may claim a certain level of expertise in the nontraditional areas in which accountants are practicing ever more frequently. The ABV designation requires a written exam, as well as the completion of a minimum of 10 business valuation projects that demonstrate a candidate’s experience and competence. The CITP requires payment of a fee, a written statement of intent, and the achievement of a set number of points awarded for business experience and education. Those who do not meet the required number of points may substitute a written exam. Candidates for the PFS designation also must achieve a certain level of points, based on experience and education, and must pass a written exam and submit references. Nearly all States require CPAs and other public accountants to complete a certain number of hours of continuing professional education before their licenses can be renewed. The professional associations representing accountants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. Accountants and auditors also can seek to obtain other forms of credentials from professional societies on a voluntary basis. Voluntary certification can attest to professional compe tence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. It also can certify that a recognized level of professional competence has been achieved by accountants and auditors who have acquired some skills on the job, without the formal education or public ac counting work experience needed to meet the rigorous standards required to take the CPA examination. The Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) confers the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) designation upon applicants who complete a bachelor’s degree or who attain a minimum score or higher on specified graduate school entrance exams. Applicants, who must have worked at least 2 years in management accounting, also must pass a four-part examination, agree to meet continuing education requirements, and comply with standards of professional conduct. The CMA exam provides an in-depth measure of competence in areas such as financial state ment analysis, working-capital policy, capital structure, valuation issues, and risk management. The CMA program is administered by the Institute of Certified Management Accountants, an affiliate of the IMA. Graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have worked for 2 years as internal auditors and have passed a four-part examination may earn the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) designa tion from the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA). The IIA recently implemented three new specialty designations: Certification in Control Self-Assessment (CCSA), Certified Government Auditing Professional (CGAP), and Certified Financial Services Auditor (CFSA). Requirements are similar to those of the CIA. The Infor mation Systems Audit and Control Association confers the Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) designation upon candidates who pass an examination and have 5 years of experience auditing information systems. Auditing or data-processing experience and a college education may be substituted for up to 2 years of work experience in this program. Accountants and auditors may hold multiple designations. For instance, an internal auditor might be a CPA, CIA, and CISA. The Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, a satellite organization of the National Society of Public Accountants, confers four designations—Accredited Business Accountant (ABA), Accredited Tax Advisor (ATA), Accredited Tax Preparer (ATP) and Elder Care Specialist (ECS)—on accountants specializing in tax preparation for small and medium-sized businesses. Candidates for the ABA must pass an exam; candidates for the ATA, ATP, and ECS https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis must complete the required coursework and pass an exam. Often, a practitioner will hold multiple licenses and designations. The Association of Government Accountants grants the Certified Government Financial Manager (CGFM) designation for accoun tants, auditors, and other government financial personnel at the Federal, State, and local levels. Candidates must have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, 24 hours of study in financial management, and 2 years’ experience in government and must pass a series of three exams. The exams cover topics in governmental environment; governmental accounting, financial reporting, and budgeting; and financial management and control. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics and be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures quickly. They must be able to clearly communicate the results of their work to clients and managers both verbally and in writing. Accountants and auditors must be good at working with people, as well as with business systems and computers. At a mini mum, accountants should be familiar with basic accounting software packages. Because financial decisions are made on the basis of their statements and services, accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity. Capable accountants and auditors may advance rapidly; those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Many graduates ofjunior colleges or business or correspondence schools, as well as bookkeepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience require ments set by their employers, can obtain junior accounting positions and advance to positions with more responsibilities by demonstrating their accounting skills on the job. Beginning public accountants usually start by assisting with work for several clients. They may advance to positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who excel may become supervisors, managers, or partners; open their own public accounting firm; or transfer to executive positions in man agement accounting or internal auditing in private firms. Management accountants often start as cost accountants, junior internal auditors, or trainees for other accounting positions. As they rise through the organization, they may advance to accounting manager, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager of in ternal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presidents, chief financial officers, or corporation presidents. Many senior corporation executives have a background in accounting, internal auditing, or finance. In general, public accountants, management accountants, and inter nal auditors have much occupational mobility. Practitioners often shift into management accounting or internal auditing from public account ing, or between internal auditing and management accounting. It is less common for accountants and auditors to move from either management accounting or internal auditing into public accounting. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 1.2 million jobs in 2004. They worked throughout private industry and government, but 1 out of 4 wage and salary accountants worked for accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services firms. Approximately 1 out of 10 accountants or auditors was self-employed. Many accountants and auditors are unlicensed management ac countants, internal auditors, or government accountants and auditors; however, a large number are licensed CPAs. Most accountants and auditors work in urban areas, where public accounting firms and central or regional offices of businesses are concentrated. Some individuals with backgrounds in accounting and auditing are full-time college and university faculty; others teach part time while working as self-employed accountants or as accountants for private Management, Business, and Financial Occupations industry or government. (See teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of accountants and auditors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. An increase in the number of businesses, changing financial laws and regulations, and increased scrutiny of company finances will drive growth. In addition to openings resulting from growth, the need to replace accountants and auditors who retire or transfer to other occupations will produce numerous job openings in this large occupation. As the economy grows, the number of business establishments will increase, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up books, prepare taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information devel oped by accountants and auditors regarding costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. An increased need for accountants and auditors will arise from changes in legislation related to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investments, mergers, and other financial events. The growth of international business also has led to more demand for accounting expertise and services related to international trade and accounting rules, as well as to international mergers and acquisitions. These trends should create more jobs for accountants and auditors. As a result of accounting scandals at several large corporate companies, Congress passed legislation in an effort to curb corporate accounting fraud. This legislation requires public companies to maintain well-functioning internal controls to ensure the accuracy and reliability of their financial reporting. It also holds the com pany’s chief executive personally responsible for falsely reporting financial information. These changes should lead to increased scrutiny of company finances and accounting procedures and should create opportunities for accountants and auditors, particularly CPAs, to audit financial records more thoroughly. In order to ensure that finances comply with the law before public accountants conduct audits, management accountants and internal auditors increasingly will be needed to dis cover and eliminate fraud. Also, in an effort to make government agencies more efficient and accountable, demand for government accountants should increase. Increased awareness of financial crimes such as embezzlement, bribery, and securities fraud will increase the demand for forensic accountants, to detect illegal financial activity by individuals, com panies, and organized crime rings. Computer technology has made these crimes easier to commit, and they are on the rise. At the same time, the development of new computer software and electronic surveillance technology has made tracking down financial criminals easier, thus increasing the ease with which, and likelihood that, foren sic accountants will discover their crimes. As success rates of inves tigations grow, demand also will grow for forensic accountants. The changing role of accountants and auditors also will spur job growth, although this growth will be limited as a result of financial scandals. In response to demand, some accountants were offering more financial management and consulting services as they assumed a greater advisory role and developed more sophisticated accounting systems. Because Federal legislation now prohibits accountants from providing nontraditional services to clients whose books they audit, opportunities for accountants to offer such services could be limited. However, accountants will still be able to advise on other financial matters for clients that are not publicly traded companies and for nonaudit clients, but growth in these areas will be slower than in the past. Also, due to the increasing popularity of tax preparation firms and computer software, accountants will shift away from tax https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 73 preparation. As computer programs continue to simplify some ac counting-related tasks, clerical staff will increasingly handle many routine calculations. Overall, job opportunities for accountants and auditors should be favorable. After most States instituted the 150-hour rule for CPAs, enrollment in accounting programs declined; however, enrollment is slowly beginning to grow again as more students become attracted to the profession because of the attention from the accounting scandals. Those who earn a CPA should have excellent job prospects. However, many accounting graduates are instead pursuing other certifications, such as the CMA and CIA, so job prospects may not be as favorable in management account ing and internal auditing as in public accounting. Regardless of specialty, accountants and auditors who have earned professional recognition through certification or licensure should have the best job prospects. Applicants with a master’s degree in accounting, or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting, also will have an advantage. In the aftermath of the accounting scandals, professional certification is even more important in order to ensure that accountants’ credentials and ethics are sound. Proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or expertise in specialized areas such as international business, specific industries, or current legislation, may be helpful in land ing certain accounting and auditing jobs. In addition, employers increasingly are seeking applicants with strong interpersonal and communication skills. Because many accountants work on teams with others from different backgrounds, they must be able to communicate accounting and financial information clearly and concisely. Regardless of one’s qualifications, however, competition will remain keen for the most prestigious jobs in major accounting and business firms. Earnings Median annual wage and salary earnings of accountants and auditors were $50,770 in May 2004. The middle half of the occupation earned between $39,890 and $66,900. The top 10 percent of accountants and auditors earned more than $88,610, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $32,320. In May 2004, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of accountants and auditors were as follows: Federal executive branch and United States Postal Service........ $56,900 Accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping and payroll services ................................................................................... 53,870 Management of companies and enterprises................................. 52,260 Local government......................................................................... 47,440 State government.......................................................................... 43,400 According to a salary survey conducted by the National As sociation of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in accounting received starting offers averaging $43,269 a year in 2005; master’s degree candidates in accounting were offered $46,251 initially. According to a 2005 salary survey conducted by Robert Half International, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, accountants and auditors with up to 1 year of experience earned between $28,250 and $45,000 a year. Those with 1 to 3 years of experience earned between $ 33,000 and $52,000. Senior accountants and auditors earned between $40,750 and $69,750, man agers between $48,000 and $90,000, and directors of accounting and auditing between $64,750 and $200,750. The variation in salaries reflects differences in size of firm, location, level of education, and professional credentials. 74 Occupational Outlook Handbook In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for junior accountants and auditors was $24,677 in 2005. Candidates who had a superior academic record might start at $30,567, while applicants with a master’s degree or 2 years of professional experience usually began at $37,390. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Accountants employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $74,907 a year in 2005; auditors averaged $78,890. Appraisers and Assessors of Real Estate (0*NET 13-2021.01 and 13-2021.02) Significant Points • Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and analyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is valuable include budget analysts; cost estimators; loan officers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents; bill and account collectors; and bookkeep ing, accounting, and auditing clerks. Recently, accountants have assumed the role of management analysts and are involved in the design, implementation, and maintenance of accounting software systems. Others who perform similar work include computer programmers, computer software engineers, and computer support specialists and systems administrators. • • • Appraisers and assessors must meet licensing and/or certification requirements which vary by State, but gen erally include specific training requirements, a period of work as a trainee, and passing one or more examina tions. Although no specific degree is required to enter the occupation, most have at least a bachelor’s degree. Nearly 4 out of 10 are self-employed; salaried assessors worked primarily in local government, while salaried appraisers worked mainly for real estate firms. Employment is expected to grow faster than average. Nature of the Work Sources of Additional Information Information on accredited accounting programs can be obtained from: >- AACSB International—Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, 111 South Harbour Island Blvd., Suite 750, Tampa FL 33602-5730. Internet: http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/AccreditedMembers.asp Information about careers in certified public accounting and CPA standards and examinations may be obtained from: >• American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.aicpa.org Information on CPA licensure requirements by State may be obtained from: >■ National Association of State Boards ofAccountancy, 150 Fourth Ave. North, Suite 700, Nashville, TN 37219-2417. Internet: http://www.nasba.org Information on careers in management accounting and the CMA designation may be obtained from: >- Institute of Management Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ 07645-1718. Internet: http://www.imanet.org Information on the Accredited in Accountancy, Accredited Busi ness Accountant, Accredited Tax Advisor, or Accredited Tax Preparer designation may be obtained from: ► Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, 1010 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314.-1574 Internet: http://www.acatcredentials.org Information on careers in internal auditing and the CIA designa tion may be obtained from: ► The Institute of Internal Auditors, 247 MaitlandAve., Altamonte Springs, FL 32701-4201. Internet: http://www.theiia.org Information on careers in information systems auditing and the CISA designation may be obtained from: >- Information Systems Audit and Control Association, 3701 Algonquin Rd., Suite 1010, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. Internet: http://www.isaca.org Information on careers in government accounting and the CGFM designation may be obtained from: ► Association of Government Accountants, 2208 Mount Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22301. Internet: http://www.agacgfm.org Information on obtaining positions as an accountant or auditor with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Per sonnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locat ing and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Appraisers and assessors of real estate estimate the value of real property for a variety of purposes, such as to assess property tax, to determine a sales price, or to determine the amount of a mortgage that might be granted on a property. They may be called on to deter mine the value of any type of real estate, ranging from farmland to a major shopping center, although they often specialize in appraising or assessing only a certain type of real estate such as residential buildings or commercial properties. Assessors determine the value of all properties in a locality for property tax purposes whereas ap praisers appraise properties one at a time for a variety of purposes, such as to determine what a good sale price would be for a home or to settle an estate or aid in a divorce settlement. Valuations of all types of real property are conducted using similar methods, regardless of the type of property or who employs the ap praiser or assessor. Appraisers and assessors work in localities they are familiar with so they have a knowledge of any environmental or other concerns that may affect the value of a property. They note any unique characteristics of the property and of the surrounding area, such as a specific architectural style of a building or a major highway located next to the parcel. They also take into account additional aspects of a property like the condition of the foundation and roof of a building or any renovations that may have been done. Additionally, they may take pictures to document a certain room or feature, in addition to taking pictures of the exterior of the building. After visiting the property, the appraiser or assessor will determine the fair value of the property by taking into consideration such things as comparable home sales, lease records, location, previous appraisals, and income potential. They will then put all of their research and observations together in a detailed report, stating not only the value of the parcel but the precise reasoning and methodology of how they arrived at the estimate. Appraisers have independent clients and focus solely on valuing one property at a time. They primarily work on a client-to-client basis, and make appraisals for a variety of reasons. Real property appraisers often specialize by the type of real estate they appraise, such as residential properties, golf courses, or strip malls. In general, commercial appraisers have the ability to appraise any real property but may generally only appraise property used for commercial purposes, such as stores or hotels. Residential appraisers focus on appraising homes or other residences and only value those that house 1 to 4 families. Other appraisers have a general practice and value any type of real property. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Assessors predominately work for local governments and are responsible for valuing properties so a tax formula can be used to assess property taxes. Unlike appraisers, assessors value entire neighborhoods using mass appraisal techniques to value all the homes in a local neighborhood at one time. Although they do not usually focus on a single property they may assess a single property if the property owner challenges the assessment. They may use a computer-programmed automated valuation model specifically devel oped for their assigned jurisdictions. In most jurisdictions the entire community must be revalued annually or every few years. Depending on the size of the jurisdiction and the number of staff in an assessor’s office, an appraisal firm, often called a revaluation firm, may do much of the work of valuing the properties in the jurisdiction. These results are then officially certified by the assessor. When properties are reassessed, assessors issue notices of assessments and taxes that each property owner must pay. Assessors must be current on tax assessment procedures and must be able to defend their property assessments, either to the owner directly or at a public hearing, as accurate, since assessors are also responsible for dealing with tax payers who want to contest their assigned prop erty taxes. Assessors also keep a database of every parcel in their jurisdiction labeling the property owner, issued tax assessment, and size of the property, as well as property maps of the jurisdiction that detail the property distribution of the jurisdiction. Appraisers and assessors write a detailed report of each appraisal. Writing these reports has become faster and easier through the use of laptop computers, allowing them to access data and write at least some of the report on-site. Another computer technology which has impacted this occupation are electronic maps, made by assessor’s offices, of a given jurisdiction and its respective property distribution. Appraisers and assessors use these maps to obtain an accurate perspective on the property and buildings surrounding a property. Digital cameras are also commonly used to document the physical appearance of a building or land at the time of appraisal, and the pictures are also used in the documentation of the report. Working Conditions Appraisers and assessors spend much of their time researching and writing reports. However, with the advancement of computers and other technologies, such as wireless Internet, time spent in the office has decreased as research can now be done in less time or on-site or at home. Records that once required a visit to a courthouse or city hall can often be found online. This has especially affected .ry Many real estate appraisers take pictures to document the property in their valuation reports. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 75 self-employed appraisers, often called independent fee appraisers, who make their own office hours, allowing them to spend much more time on-site doing research and less time in their office. Time spent on-site versus in the office also depends on the specialty. For example, residential appraisers tend to spend less time on office work than commercial appraisers, who could spend up to several weeks for one site analyzing documents and writing reports. Appraisers who work for private institutions generally spend most of their time inside the office, making on-site visits when necessary. Independent fee appraisers tend to work more than a standard 40 hour work week, in addition to working evenings and weekends writing reports. On-site visits usually occur during daylight hours, and according to the client’s schedule. Assessors and privately employed appraisers, on the other hand, usually work a standard 40-hour work week. Occasionally they work an evening or Saturday, to speak with a concerned tax payer, for example. Appraisers and assessors usually conduct on-site appraisal work alone. Their office may consist of just themselves or a small sup port staff. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The requirements that must be met to become a fully qualified ap praiser or assessor are complex and vary for appraisers and assessors, by State, and sometimes by the value or type of property to be assessed or appraised. In general, both appraisers and assessors must meet licensing and/or certification requirements which include specific training requirements, a period of work as a trainee, and passing one or more examination. Therefore it is essential that prospective apprais ers and assessors check with their State governments to determine the specific education and experience required in their State. There also are additional certifications or association designations that are helpful for advancement as well as continuing education requirements. Although there are currently no formal degree requirements to become an appraiser or assessor, the majority of practicing apprais ers and assessors have at least a bachelor’s degree, sometimes in a related field such as economics, finance, or real estate. The specific training courses necessary, however, are not commonly available as part of most bachelor’s programs and must be taken separately, usually at community colleges or through appraisal-related or assessor-related organizations. A Federal law requires that any appraiser involved in a Feder ally-related transaction with a loan amount of $250,000 or more must have a State-issued license or certification. All States also are required to conform to the licensing and certification require ments established by The Appraisal Foundation, a Congressionallyapproved organization dedicated to this purpose. The Appraisal Foundation requires that appraisers pass a Foundation-approved State examination as well as meet education and experience requirements. The education requirements include a course and examination on the Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice (USPAP) set forth by The Appraisal Foundation. Although Federal standards do not require an appraisal license for those appraisers valuing real property with loan amounts of less than $250,000, many States require any practicing appraiser to obtain a license or certification, regardless of transaction value. In addition, many States have different, more stringent requirements for licensure than The Appraisal Foundation. The qualifications necessary to become an assessor also vary by State but often are similar to the requirements for becoming an appraiser. In most States, the qualifications are established by a State assessor board that sets education and experience require ments that must be met to obtain a certificate to practice as an assessor. A few States have no State-wide requirements; in these States standards are set by each locality. 76 Occupational Outlook Handbook The State-issued appraiser licenses currently available are the State Certified General Real Property Appraiser license, which al lows an appraiser to value any type of real property regardless of value, and the State Certified Residential Real Property Appraiser license, which allows an appraiser to value any residential unit of 1 to 4 families regardless of value. An additional license, which is recommended or used by many States is the State Licensed Appraiser license, which permits its holder to appraise commercial property up to $250,000 and 1 to 4 family residential units worth up to $1 million. In most States, those working on their appraiser requirements for licensure are classified as a “trainee.” Some of these States have their own training programs while others use the recommended program of the Appraisal Foundation. This program requires 75 hours of specified appraisal education, 15 of which must be on the USPAP, before applying for a trainee position. The number of additional courses one must take while a trainee depends on the State requirements for the license they wish to obtain. For the State Licensed Appraiser license, which is available or required in a majority of States, the candidate must obtain 90 education hours, 15 of which must be on the USPAP, and 2,000 hours of onthe-job training. For the State Certified Residential Appraiser and State Certified General Appraiser licenses, the required education hours are much more rigorous. In addition, the candidate must pass an examination. Commencing in 2008, individuals wishing to become State certified appraisers will need to either possess a college degree or complete a specified number of hours in certain college-level courses. States mandating assessor certification have requirements simi lar to those for appraisers. Some States also have more than one level of certification. All candidates must attend State-approved schools and facilities and take basic appraisal courses. Although appraisers value one property at a time while an assessor values many, the methods and techniques used are the same, so the main courses assessors take are the same as those for appraisers. In addition, there is usually a set level of experience hours that must be obtained and all assessor candidates in these States must pass an examination. In some States, assessors must abide by the USPAP standards and are strongly encouraged to follow these standards in most other States. For those States not requiring certificates, the hiring assessor’s office will usually require the candidate to also take basic appraisal courses, and at the end of their on-the-job training the candidate often will have accrued sufficient experience hours to meet the requirements for appraisal licenses or certificates. Many assessors also possess a State ap praisal license. Obtaining on-the-job training is an essential part of becoming a fully qualified assessor or appraiser and is required for obtaining a license or certification. Although in the past many appraisers ob tained this experience working in financial institutions or real estate offices, a new trend for candidates is to get their initial experience in the office of an independent fee appraiser. Assessors tend to start out in an assessor’s office that is willing to provide on-the-job training, although smaller municipalities are unable to provide this experience. An alternate source of experience for aspiring assessors is through a revaluation firm. For both appraisers and assessors, continuing education is necessary to maintaining a license or certification. The minimum continuing education requirement for appraisers, as set by The Appraisal Foundation, is 14 hours per year. A State-approved course also must be taken on the USPAP every two years. Some States have further requirements. Continuing education can be obtained in any State-approved school or facility, as well as recognized seminars and conferences held by associations or related organizations. Assessors https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis must also fulfill a continuing education requirement in most States, but the amount varies by State. Appraisers and assessors must possess good analytical skills, mathematical skills, and the ability to pay attention to detail. They also must work well with people and alone. Since they will work with the public, politeness is a must, along with the ability to listen and thoroughly answer any questions about their work. Many appraisers and assessors choose to become a desig nated member of a regional or Nationally recognized appraisal or assessor association. Designations are particularly useful in States or types of practices where a license is not mandatory or a certificate has not been established. Designations are another way for an appraiser or assessor to establish themselves in the profession, and are recognizable credentials to show employers a higher level of education and experience. Obtaining a designa tion often requires much more training and experience than the minimum licensing requirements of The Appraisal Foundation, and usually are awarded after 5 to 10 years of experience. Many appraisers and assessors start with getting their license or cer tificate and work their way up to a designation. Many appraisal associations have a membership category specifically for trainees, who then can receive full membership after licensure. Since States differ greatly on the requirements to become an assessor, licensure is not necessarily required for membership or designa tions; however, the imposed designation qualifications tend to be very stringent. Advancement within the occupation comes with experience. The higher the level of appraiser licensure, for example, the higher the fees an independent fee appraiser may charge. Staying in one particular region or focusing on one type of appraising spe cialty will also help to establish one’s business, reputation, and expertise. Assessors often have a career progression within their office, starting as a trainee and eventually ending up as a senior appraiser or supervisor. Employment In 2004, appraisers and assessors of real estate held about 102,000 jobs. Most appraisers and assessors work full-time. Nearly 4 out of 10 are self-employed; virtually all are appraisers. Employment is concentrated in areas with high levels of real estate activity, such as major metropolitan areas. Assessors are more uniformly spread throughout the country than appraisers because every locality has at least one assessor. About 1 out of 4 worked in local government; almost all were assessors. Another 1 out of 4, mainly appraisers, worked for real estate firms, while a relatively small number worked for financial institutions, such as banks and credit unions. Most independent fee appraisers’ offices are relatively small, consisting of either just themselves or a small staff. However, private institutions such as banks and mortgage broker offices may employ several appraisers in one office. The size of the office employing assessors depends on the size of the local government; in some States assessments are by counties whereas in other States assessments are made by municipalities or other local governments. Therefore a county assessor’s office probably would employ more assessors than a small town, which may only employ a single assessor. Job Outlook Employment of appraisers and assessors of real estate is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period. Employment of appraisers will grow with increases in the level of real estate activity and employment of assessors will grow with the increase in the amount of real property to be assessed. However, employment will be held down to a certain Management, Business, and Financial Occupations extent by productivity increases brought about by the increased use of computers and other technologies, which make for faster valuations and allow appraisers to take on more customers and each assessor to assess more properties. In addition to growth openings, there should be numerous openings due to the need to replace the many appraisers and assessors who are expected to retire or decrease their working hours over the projection period. Employment opportunities should be best in areas with active real estate markets, such as the East and West coasts and major cities and suburbs. Although opportunities for established appraisers and assessors are expected to be good in these areas, those wishing to enter the occupation may have difficulty locating a training position because increasingly traditional sources of training positions prefer not to take on new trainees. Appraisers may find the best opportunities as independent fee ap praisers because the banks and other financial institutions that, in the past, employed a significant number of appraisers are increasingly contracting out to independent fee appraisers to make loan appraisals on a case-by-case basis, decreasing their need to have appraisers on staff. The increased use of automated valuation models to conduct appraisals for loan and mortgage purposes has also shifted work out of the financial sector. The cyclical nature of the real estate market will also have a large effect on the future of appraisers, especially those who appraise resi dential properties. In times of recession, fewer people buy or sell real estate, causing a decrease in the demand for appraisers. However, during a downturn in the residential real estate market appraisers often are able to switch specialties and appraise other types of properties. Because assessors are needed in every local or State jurisdiction to make assessments for property tax purposes regardless of the state of the local economy, assessors are less affected by fluctuations in the economy and real estate market than appraisers. Earnings Median annual earnings of appraisers and assessors of real estate were $43,390 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,820 and $60,110. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,300 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $81,240. Median annual earnings of those working for local governments were $38,940. Median annual earnings of those working for real estate firms were $46,330. Generally, those working in urban and coastal regions earned more than those working in rural locations. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve the inspection of real estate include construction and building inspectors, real estate brokers and sales agents, and urban and regional planners. Appraisers and assessors must also place a monetary value on properties. Occupations also involved in valuing items include claims adjusters, appraisers, ex aminers and investigators, as well as cost estimators. Sources of Additional Information For more information on licensure requirements, contact: >■ Appraisal Foundation, 1029 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 900, Washington DC, 20005-3517. Internet: http://www.appraisalfoundation.org For more information on appraisers of real estate, contact: >- Appraisal Institute, 550 W. Van Buren St., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60607. Internet: http://www.appraisalinstitute.org >• NationalAssociationofRealEstateAppraisers, 1224 North NokomisNE., Alexandria, MN 56308. Internet: http://www.iami.org/narea/home.cfm > American Society of Appraisers, 555 Herndon Pkwy., Suite 125, Hemdon, VA 20170. Internet: http://www.appraisers.org For more information on assessors of real estate, contact: >■ International Association of Assessing Officers, 314 W 10th St., Kansas City, MO 64105. Internet: http://www.iaao.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 77 Budget Analysts (0*NET 13-2031.00) Significant Points • Competition for jobs is expected. • Although a bachelor’s degree generally is the minimum educational requirement, many employers prefer or require a master’s degree. • About 52 percent of all budget analysts work in Fed eral, State, and local governments. Nature of the Work Deciding how to efficiently distribute limited financial resources is an important challenge in all organizations. In most large and complex organizations, this task would be nearly impossible without budget analysts. These workers play the primary role in the development, analysis, and execution of budgets, which are used to allocate current resources and estimate future financial requirements. Without effective budget analysis and feedback about budgetary problems, many private and public organizations could become bankrupt. Budget analysts can be found in private industry, nonprofit or ganizations, and the public sector. In private sector firms, a budget analyst examines budgets and seeks new ways to improve efficiency and increase profits. Although analysts working in nonprofit and governmental organizations usually are not concerned with profits, they still try to find the most efficient distribution of funds and other resources among various departments and programs. Budget analysts have many responsibilities in these organiza tions, but their primary task is providing advice and technical assistance in the preparation of annual budgets. At the beginning of each budget cycle, managers and department heads submit proposed operational and financial plans to budget analysts for review. These plans outline prospective programs, including proposed funding increases and new initiatives, estimated costs and expenses, and capital expenditures needed to finance these programs. Analysts examine the budget estimates or proposals for com pleteness; accuracy; and conformance with established procedures, regulations, and organizational objectives. Sometimes, they employ cost-benefit analysis to review financial requests, assess program tradeoffs, and explore alternative funding methods. They also ex amine past and current budgets and research economic and financial developments that affect the organization’s spending. This process enables analysts to evaluate proposals in terms of the organization’s priorities and financial resources. After the initial review process, budget analysts consolidate individual departmental budgets into operating and capital budget summaries. These summaries contain comments and statements that support or argue against funding requests. Budget summaries then are submitted to senior management, or, as is often the case in local and State governments, to appointed or elected officials. Budget analysts then help the chief operating officer, agency head, or other top managers analyze the proposed plan and devise possible alterna tives if the projected results are unsatisfactory. The final decision to approve the budget, however, usually is made by the organization head in a private firm or by elected officials in government, such as the State legislature. Throughout the remainder of the year, analysts periodically monitor the budget by reviewing reports and accounting records to determine if allocated funds have been spent as specified. 78 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions I a g*i£ Budget analysts usually work in a comfortable office setting. Long hours are common among these workers, especially during the initial development and midyear and final reviews of budgets. The pres sures of deadlines and tight work schedules during these periods can be stressful, and analysts usually are required to work more than the routine 40 hours a week. Budget analysts spend the majority of their time working in dependently, compiling and analyzing data and preparing budget proposals. Nevertheless, their schedules sometimes are interrupted by special budget requests, meetings, and training sessions. Some budget analysts travel to obtain budget details and explanations of various programs from coworkers, or to personally verify funding allocation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Budget analysts play the primary role in the development, analysis, and execution of budgets. If deviations appear between the approved budget and actual performance, budget analysts may write a report providing rea sons for the variations, along with recommendations for new or revised budget procedures. To avoid or alleviate deficits, budget analysts may recommend program cuts or reallocation of excess funds. They also inform program managers and others within their organization of the status and availability of funds in differ ent budget accounts. Before any changes are made to an existing program, or before a new one is implemented, a budget analyst must assess the program’s efficiency and effectiveness. Analysts also may be involved in long-range planning activities such as projecting future budget needs. The amount of data and information that budget analysts are able to analyze has greatly increased through the use of computerized financial software programs. The analysts also make extensive use of spreadsheet, database, and word-processing software. Budget analysts have seen their role broadened as limited funding has led to downsizing and restructuring throughout private industry and government. Not only do they develop guidelines and policies governing the formulation and main tenance of the budget, but they also measure organizational performance, assess the effects of various programs and poli cies on the budget, and help draft budget-related legislation. In addition, budget analysts sometimes conduct training sessions for company or government agency personnel regarding new budget procedures. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Private firms and government agencies generally require candi dates for budget analyst positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree, but many prefer or require a master’s degree. Within the Federal Government, a bachelor’s degree in any field is sufficient for an entry-level budget analyst position, but, again, master’s degrees are preferred. State and local governments have varying requirements, but a bachelor’s degree in one of many areas—ac counting, finance, business, public administration, economics, statistics, political science, or sociology—may qualify one for employment. Many States, especially larger, more urban States, require a master’s degree. Sometimes a degree in a field closely related to that of the employing industry or organization, such as engineering, may be preferred. Some firms prefer candidates with a degree in business because business courses emphasize quantitative and analytical skills. Many government employ ers prefer candidates with strong analytic and policy analysis backgrounds that may be obtained through such majors as political science, economics, public administration, or public finance. Occasionally, budget-related or finance-related work experience can be substituted for formal education. Because developing a budget involves manipulating numbers and requires strong analytical skills, courses in statistics or ac counting are helpful, regardless of the prospective budget analyst’s major field of study. Financial analysis is automated in almost every organization and, therefore, familiarity with word-process ing programs and with financial software packages used in budget analysis often is required. Software packages commonly used by budget analysts include electronic spreadsheet, database, and graph ics programs. Employers usually prefer candidates who already possess these computer skills. Those seeking a career as a budget analyst also must be able to work under strict time constraints. Strong oral and written commu nication skills are essential for analysts because they must prepare, present, and defend budget proposals to decision makers. In addition, budget analysts, along with all other financial of ficers, must abide by strict ethical standards. Integrity, objectivity, and confidentiality are all important to budget analysis, and budget analysts must avoid any personal conflicts of interest. Entry-level budget analysts may receive some formal training when they begin their jobs, but most employers feel that the best training is obtained by working through one complete budget cycle. During the cycle, which typically is 1 year, analysts be come familiar with the various steps involved in the budgeting process. The Federal Government, on the other hand, offers exten sive on-the-job and classroom training for entry-level trainees. In addition to on-the-job training, budget analysts are encouraged to participate in various professional development classes throughout their careers. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Some government budget analysts employed at the Federal, State, or local level may earn the Certified Government Finan cial Manager (CGFM) designation granted by the Association of Government Accountants. Other government financial officers also may earn this designation. To do so, candidates must have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, 24 hours of study in financial management, and 2 years of government work experience in fi nancial management. They also must pass a series of three exams that cover topics on the organization and structure of government; governmental accounting, financial reporting, and budgeting; and financial management and control. To maintain the CGFM designa tion, individuals must complete 80 hours of continuing professional education every 2 years. Budget analysts start their careers with limited responsibilities. In the Federal Government, for example, beginning budget analysts compare projected costs with prior expenditures, consolidate and enter data prepared by others, and assist higher grade analysts by doing research. As analysts progress in their careers, they begin to develop and formulate budget estimates and justification statements, perform detailed analyses of budget requests, write statements sup porting funding requests, advise program managers and others on the status and availability of funds for various budget activities, and present and defend budget proposals to senior managers. Beginning analysts usually work under close supervision. Capable entry-level analysts can be promoted to intermediate-level positions within 1 to 2 years, and then to senior positions within a few more years. Progressing to higher levels means added budgetary responsibility, and can lead to a supervisory role. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, senior budget analysts are prime candidates for promotion to management positions in various parts of their organizations, or with other organizations with which they have worked. Employment Budget analysts held 58,000 jobs throughout private industry and government in 2004. Federal, State, and local governments are major employers, accounting for 52 percent of budget analyst jobs. About 23 percent worked for the Federal Government. Many other budget analysts worked in manufacturing, financial services, or management services. Other employers include schools and hospitals. Job Outlook Competition for budget analyst jobs is expected over the 2004-14 projection period. Candidates with a master’s degree should have the best job opportunities. Familiarity with computer financial software packages also should enhance a jobseeker’s employment prospects. Employment of budget analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment growth will be driven by the continuing demand for sound financial analysis in both the public and the private sectors. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace experienced budget analysts who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. The increasing efficiency of computer applications used in budget analysis has increased worker productivity by enabling analysts to process more data in less time. However, because budget analysts now have much more data available to them, their jobs are becoming more complicated. In addition, as businesses and other organiza tions become more complex and specialized, budget planning and financial control will demand greater attention. These factors should offset any adverse effects of computer applications on employment budget analysts. Digitized forofFRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 79 In coming years, all types of organizations will continue to rely heavily on budget analysts to develop and analyze budgets. Because of the importance of financial analysis performed by budget analysts, employment of these workers should remain relatively unaffected by any downsizing in the Nation’s workplaces. In addition, budget analysts usually are less subject to layoffs than are many other workers during economic downturns because financial and budget reports must be completed during periods of both economic growth and slowdowns. Earnings Salaries of budget analysts vary widely by experience, education, and employer. Median annual earnings of budget analysts in May 2004 were $56,040. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,170 and $70,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,380. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of budget analysts in May 2004 were: Federal Government..................................................................... $61,640 Local government......................................................................... 52,520 State government.......................................................................... 51,870 According to a 2005 survey conducted by Robert Half International—a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance—starting salaries of financial, budget, treasury, and cost ana lysts in small companies ranged from $29,750 to $36,250. In large companies, starting salaries ranged from $33,500 to $40,000. In the Federal Government, budget analysts usually started as trainees earning $24,677 or $30,567 year in 2005. Candidates with a master’s degree began at $37,390. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary in 2005 for budget analysts employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $67,767. Related Occupations Budget analysts analyze and interpret financial data, make recom mendations for the future, and assist in the implementation of new ideas and financial strategies. Other workers who have similar du ties include accountants and auditors, cost estimators, economists, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, financial manag ers, loan counselors and officers, and management analysts. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities as a budget analyst may be available from your State or local employment service. Information on careers in government financial management and the CGFM designation may be obtained from: >• Association of Government Accountants, 2208 Mount Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA 22301. Internet: http://www.agacgfm.org Information on careers in budget analysis at the State government level may be obtained from: > National Association of State Budget Officers, Hall of the States Build ing, Suite 642, 444 North Capitol St. NW„ Washington, DC 20001-1511. Internet: http://www.nasbo.org Information on obtaining positions as occupational health and safety specialists and technicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. 80 Occupational Outlook Handbook Claims Adjusters, Appraisers, Examiners, and Investigators (0*NET 13-1031.01, 13-1031.02, 13-1032.00) Significant Points • Adjusters and examiners investigate insurance claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize payments; apprais ers assess the cost or value of an insured item; inves tigators deal with claims about which there is a ques tion of liability and where fraud or criminal activity is suspected. • Licensing and continuing education requirements vary by State. • College graduates have the best opportunities; competi tion will be keen for jobs as investigators, because this occupation attracts many qualified people. Nature of the Work Individuals and businesses purchase insurance policies to protect against monetary losses. In the event of a loss, policyholders submit claims, or requests for payment, seeking compensation for their loss. Adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators work primarily for property and casualty insurance companies, for whom they handle a wide variety of claims alleging property damage, liability, or bodily injury. Their main role is to inves tigate the claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize payments to claimants, all the while mindful not to violate the claimant’s rights under Federal and State privacy laws. They must determine whether the customer’s insurance policy covers the loss and how much of the loss should be paid to the claimant. Although many adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators have overlap ping functions and may even perform the same job, the insurance industry generally assigns specific roles to each of these claims workers. Adjusters plan and schedule the work required to process a claim that would follow, for example, an automobile accident or damage to one’s home caused by a storm. They investigate claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, consulting police and hospital records, and inspecting property damage to determine the extent of the company’s liability. Adjusters may consult with other professionals, such as accountants, architects, construction workers, engineers, lawyers, and physicians, who can offer a more expert evaluation of a claim. The information gathered, including photographs and written or audio-taped or video-taped statements, is set down in a report that is then used to evaluate the associated claim. When the policyholder’s claim is legitimate, the claims adjuster negotiates with the claimant and settles the claim. When claims are contested, adjusters will work with attorneys and expert witnesses to defend the insurer’s position. Many companies centralize claims adjustment in a claims center, where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued immediately. More complex cases, usually involving bodily injury, are referred to senior adjusters. Some adjusters work with multiple types of insurance; however, most specialize in homeowner claims, business losses, automotive damage, or workers’ compensation. Claimants can opt not to rely on the services of their insur ance company’s adjuster and may instead choose to hire a public adjuster. These workers assist clients in preparing and presenting claims to insurance companies and in trying to negotiate a fair settlement. They perform the same services as adjusters who work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis directly for companies; however, they work in the best interests of the client, rather than the insurance company. Claims examiners within property and casualty insurance firms may have duties similar to those of an adjuster, but often their pri mary job is to review the claims submitted in order to ensure that proper guidelines have been followed. They may assist adjusters with complex and complicated claims or when a disaster suddenly greatly increases the volume of claims. Most claims examiners work for life or health insurance companies. In health insurance companies, examiners review health-related claims to see whether costs are reasonable on the basis of the diagnosis. The examiners are provided with guides that supply information on the average period of disability, the expected treatments, and the average hospital stay, for patients with the various ailments for which a claim may be submitted. Examiners check claim applications for completeness and accuracy, interview medical specialists, and consult policy files to verify the information reported in a claim. Examiners will then either authorize the appropriate payment or refer the claim to an investigator for a more thorough review. Claims examiners usually specialize in group or individual insurance plans and in hospital, dental, or prescription drug claims. In life insurance, claims examiners review the causes of death, particularly in the case of an accident, because most life insurance policies pay additional benefits if a death is accidental. Claims examiners also may review new applications for life insurance to make sure that the applicants have no serious illnesses that would make them a high risk to insure and thus disqualify them from obtaining insurance. Another occupation that plays an important role in the accurate settlement of claims is that of the appraiser, whose role is to assess the cost or value of an insured item. The majority of appraisers em ployed by insurance companies and independent adjusting firms are auto damage appraisers. These appraisers inspect damaged vehicles after an accident and estimate the cost of repairs. This information is then relayed to the adjuster, who incorporates the appraisal into the settlement. Auto damage appraisers are valued by insurance companies because they can provide an unbiased judgment of repair costs. Otherwise, the companies would have to rely on auto mechan ics’ estimates, which might be unreasonably high. Many claims adjusters and auto damage appraisers are equipped with laptop computers from which they can download the necessary forms and files from insurance company databases. Many adjusters and appraisers use digital cameras, which allow photographs of the damage to be sent to the company via the Internet. Many also input information about the damage directly into their computers, where software programs produce estimates of damage on standard forms. These new technologies allow for faster and more efficient processing of claims. When adjusters or examiners suspect fraud, they refer the claim to an investigator. Insurance investigators in an insurance company’s special investigative unit handle claims in which the company suspects fraudulent or criminal activity, such as arson, falsified workers’ disability claims, staged accidents, or unnecessary medical treatments. The severity of insurance fraud cases can vary greatly, from claimants simply overstating the damage to a vehicle to com plicated fraud rings responsible for many claimants and supported by dishonest doctors, lawyers, and even insurance personnel. Investigators usually start with a database search to obtain back ground information on claimants and witnesses. Investigators can access certain personal information and identify Social Security numbers, aliases, driver’s license numbers, addresses, phone num bers, criminal records, and past claims histories to establish whether a claimant has ever attempted insurance fraud. Then, investigators may visit claimants and witnesses to obtain a recorded statement, Management, Business, and Financial Occupations 81 to work in the event of such emergencies and may have to work 50 or 60 hours a week until all claims are resolved. Insurance investigators often work irregular hours because of the need to conduct surveillance and contact people who are not avail able during normal working hours. Early morning, evening, and weekend work is common. Some days, investigators will spend all day in the office, searching databases, making telephone calls, and writing reports. Other times, they may be away, performing surveil lance activities or interviewing witnesses. Some of the work can involve confrontation with claimants and others involved in a case, so the job can be stressful and dangerous. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement After evaluating insurance claims, claims adjusters report their findings and make recommendations. take photographs, and inspect facilities, such as doctors’ offices, to determine whether the doctors have a proper license. Investigators often consult with legal counsel and can be expert witnesses in court cases. Often, investigators also perform surveillance work. For ex ample, in a case involving fraudulent workers’ compensation claims, an investigator may covertly observe the claimant for several days or even weeks. If the investigator observes the subject performing an activity that is ruled out by injuries stated in a workers’ compensa tion claim, the investigator will take video or still photographs to document the activity and report it to the insurance company. Working Conditions Working environments of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators vary greatly. Most claims examiners employed by life and health insurance companies work a standard 5-day, 40-hour week in a typical office environment. Many claims adjusters and auto damage appraisers, however, often work outside the office, inspecting damaged buildings and automobiles. Adjusters who inspect damaged buildings must be wary of potential hazards such as collapsed roofs and floors, as well as weakened structures. In general, adjusters are able to arrange their work schedules to accommodate evening and weekend appointments with clients. This accommodation sometimes results in adjusters working irregular schedules or more than 40 hours a week, especially when they have a lot of claims to investigate. Some report to the office every morning to get their assignments, while others simply call in from home and spend their days traveling to claim sites. New technology, such as laptop computers and cellular telephones, is making telecommut ing easier for claims adjusters and auto damage appraisers. Many adjusters work inside their office only a few hours a week, while others conduct their business entirely out of their home and automobile. Occasionally, experienced adjusters must be away from home for days—for example, when they travel to the scene of a disaster such as a tornado, hurricane, or flood—to work with local adjusters and government officials. Adjusters often are called https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training and entry requirements vary widely for claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. Although many in these occupations do not have a college degree, most companies prefer to hire college graduates. No specific college major is recommended, but a variety of backgrounds can be an asset. A claims adjuster who, for example, has a business or an accounting background might specialize in claims of financial loss due to strikes, breakdowns of equipment, or damage to merchandise. College training in architec ture or engineering is helpful in adjusting industrial claims, such as those involving damage from fires or other accidents. Some claims adjusters and examiners apply expertise acquired through specialized professional training to adjust claims. A legal background can be beneficial to someone handling workers’ compensation and product liability cases. A medical background is useful for those examiners working on medical and life insurance claims. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, claims adjusters and examiners must be able to communicate effectively with others. Knowledge of computer applications also is extremely helpful. In addition, a valid driver’s license and a good driving record are required for workers for whom travel is an important aspect of their job. Some companies require applicants to pass a series of written aptitude tests designed to measure their communication, analytical, and general mathematical skills. Licensing requirements for these workers vary by State. Some States have very few requirements, while others require either the completion of prelicensing education or a satisfactory score on a licensing exam. Fulfilling the requirements for earning a voluntary professional designation may, in some cases, be substituted for completing the exam. In some States, claims adjusters employed by insurance companies can work under the company license and need not become licensed themselves. Separate or additional requirements may apply for public adjusters. For example, some States require public adjusters to file a surety bond. Continuing education in claims is very important for claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators, because Federal and State laws and court decisions affect how claims are handled or who is covered by insurance policies. Also, examiners working on life and health claims must be familiar with new medical procedures and prescription drugs. Some States that require licensing also require a certain number of continuing education credits per year in order to renew the license. These credits can be obtained from a number of sources. Many companies offer training sessions to inform their employees of industry changes. A number of schools and associations give courses and seminars on various topics hav ing to with claims. Correspondence courses via the Internet are making long-distance learning possible. Workers also can earn continuing education credits by writing articles for claims publica tions or by giving lectures and presentations. In addition, numerous adjusters and examiners choose to earn professional certifications and designations for independent recognition of their professional 82 Occupational Outlook Handbook expertise. Although requirements for these designations vary, many entail at least 5 to 10 years of experience in the claims field and the successful completion of an examination; in addition, a certain number of continuing education credits must be earned each year to retain the designation. For auto damage appraiser jobs, insurance companies and independent adjusting firms typically prefer to hire persons with experience as an estimator for, or manager of, an auto body repair shop. An appraiser must know how to repair vehicles in order to identify and estimate damage, and technical skills are essential. While auto damage appraisers do not require a college education, most companies prefer to hire persons with formal training. Many vocational colleges offer 2-year programs in auto body repair on how to estimate and repair damaged vehicles. Some States require auto damage appraisers to be licensed, and certifi cation also may be required or preferred. Basic computer skills are an important qualification for many auto damage appraiser positions. As with adjusters and examiners, continuing education is important because of the continual introduction of new car models and repair techniques. Most insurance companies prefer to hire former law enforcement officers or private investigators as insurance investigators. Many experienced claims adjusters or examiners also become investigators. Licensing requirements vary among States. Most employers look for individuals with ingenuity who are persistent and assertive. Investigators should not be afraid of confrontation, should communicate well, and should be able to think on their feet. Good interviewing and interrogation skills also are important and usually are acquired in earlier careers in law enforcement. Beginning claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investiga tors work on small claims under the supervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claims investigation and settle ment, they are assigned larger, more complex claims. Trainees are promoted as they demonstrate competence in handling assignments and progress in their coursework. Employees who demonstrate competence in claims work or administrative skills may be promoted to more responsible managerial or administrative jobs. Similarly, claims investigators may rise to supervisor or manager of the inves tigations department. Once they achieve a certain level of expertise, many choose to start their own independent adjusting or auto damage appraising firms. Employment Adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators held about 263,000 jobs in 2004. Only 5 percent of these jobs were held by auto damage insurance appraisers. Insurance carriers, agencies, brokerages, and related industries, such as private claims adjusting companies, em ployed more than 8 out of 10 claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. Relatively few adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period. College graduates have the best opportunities. Numerous job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many insurance carriers are downsizing their claims staff in an effort to contain costs. Larger companies are relying more on customer service representatives in call centers to handle the recording of the necessary details of the claim, allowing adjusters to spend more of their time investigating claims. New technology is reducing the amount of time it takes for an adjuster to complete https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis a claim, thereby increasing the number of claims that one adjuster can handle. However, as long as more insurance policies are being sold to accommodate a growing population, there will be a need for adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. Further, as the elderly population increases, there will be a greater need for health care, resulting in more health insurance claims. Despite recent gains in productivity resulting from technological advances, these jobs are not easily automated. Adjusters still are needed to contact policyholders, inspect damaged property, and con sult with experts. Although the number of claims in litigation and the number and complexity of insurance fraud cases are expected to increase over the next decade, demand for insurance investigators is not expected to grow significantly, because technology such as the Internet, which reduces the amount of time it takes to perform background checks, will allow investigators to handle more cases. Competition for investigator jobs will remain keen because the occupation attracts many qualified people, including retirees from law enforcement and military careers, as well as experienced claims adjusters and examiners who choose to get their investigator license. As with claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators, employ ment of auto damage appraisers should grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Insurance companies and agents con tinue to sell growing numbers of auto insurance policies, leading to more claims being filed that require the attention of an auto damage appraiser. The work of this occupation is not easily automated, because most appraisals require an onsite inspection. However, employment growth will be limited by downsizing in the insurance industry and by the implementation of new technology that is making auto damage appraisers more efficient. In addition, some insurance companies are opening their own repair facilities, which may reduce the need for auto damage appraisers. Earnings Earnings of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investiga tors vary significantly. Median annual earnings were $44,220 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,900 and $57,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,220, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,620. Many claims adjusters, especially those who work for insurance companies, receive additional bonuses or benefits as part of their job. Adjusters often are furnished a laptop computer, a cellular telephone, and a company car or are reimbursed for the use of their own vehicle for business purposes. Median annual earnings of auto damage insurance appraisers were $45,330 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,210 and $54,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,220. Related Occupations Property-casualty insurance adjusters and life and health insurance examiners must determine the validity of a claim and negotiate a settlement. They also are responsible for determining how much to reimburse the client. Occupations similar to those of claims adjust ers, appraisers, examiners, and investigators include cost estimators; bill and account collectors; medical records and health information technicians; billing and posting clerks; credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks; and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. In determining the validity of a claim, insurance adjusters must inspect the damage in order to assess the magnitude of the loss. Workers who perform similar duties include fire inspectors and investigators and construction and building inspectors. To ensure that company practices and procedures are followed, property and casualty examiners review insurance claims to which a claims adjuster has already proposed a settlement. Others in occupations Management, Business, and Financial Occupations that review documents for accuracy and compliance with a given set of rules and regulations are tax examiners and revenue agents, as well as accountants and auditors. Insurance investigators detect and investigate fraudulent claims and criminal activity. Their work is similar to that of private detec tives and investigators. Like automotive body and related repairers and automotive service technicians and mechanics, auto damage appraisers must be familiar with the structure and functions of various automobiles and their parts. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as a claims adjuster, appraiser, examiner, or investigator is available from the home offices of many insurance companies. Information about licensing requirements for claims adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. For information about professional designation and training programs, contact any of the following organizations: >- American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters and the Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org >• American College, 270 South Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010— 2196. Internet: http://www.theamericancollege.edu > International Claim Association, 1255 23rd St. N.W., Washington, DC 20037. Internet: http://www.claim.org Information on careers in auto damage appraising can be ob tained from: ► Independent Automotive Damage Appraisers Association, P.O. Box 12291 Columbus, GA 31917-2291. Internet: http://www.iada.org Cost Estimators (0*NET 13-1051.00) Significant Points • More than half of all cost estimators work in the con struction industry, and another 17 percent are employed in manufacturing industries. • Growth of the construction industry will account for most new jobs. • In construction and manufacturing, job prospects should be best for those with industry work experience and a bachelor’s degree in a related field. Nature of the Work Accurately forecasting the cost of future projects is vital to the sur vival of any business. Cost estimators develop the cost information that business owners or managers need to make a bid for a contract or to decide whether a proposed new product will be profitable. They also determine which endeavors are making a profit. Regardless of the industry in which they work, estimators compile and analyze data on all of the factors that can influence costs—such as materials, labor, location, and special machinery requirements, including computer hardware and software. Job duties vary widely depending on the type and size of the project. The methods and motivations for estimating costs can differ greatly by industry. On a construction project, for example, the estimating process begins with the decision to submit a bid. After reviewing various preliminary drawings and specifications, the es timator visits the site of the proposed project. The estimator needs to gather information on access to the site and the availability of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 83 electricity, water, and other services, as well as on surface topogra phy and drainage. The information developed during the site visit usually is recorded in a signed report that is included in the final project estimate. After the site visit, the estimator determines the quantity of ma terials and labor the firm will need to furnish. This process, called the quantity survey or “takeoff,” involves completing standard es timating forms, filling in dimensions, numbers of units, and other information. A cost estimator working for a general contractor, for example, estimates the costs of all of the items that the contractor must provide. Although subcontractors estimate their costs as part of their own bidding process, the general contractor’s cost estimator often analyzes bids made by subcontractors as well. Also during the takeoff process, the estimator must make decisions concerning equipment needs, the sequence of operations, the size of the crew required, and physical constraints at the site. Allowances for wasted materials, inclement weather, shipping delays, and other factors that may increase costs also must be incorporated in the estimate. On completion of the quantity surveys, the estimator prepares a cost summary for the entire project, including the costs of labor, equipment, materials, subcontracts, overhead, taxes, insurance, markup, and any other costs that may affect the project. The chief es timator then prepares the bid proposal for submission to the owner. Construction cost estimators also may be employed by the project’s architect or owner to estimate costs or to track actual costs relative to bid specifications as the project develops. In large construction companies employing more than one estimator, it is common practice for estimators to specialize. For example, one may estimate only electrical work and another may concentrate on excavation, concrete, and forms. In manufacturing and other firms, cost estimators usually are assigned to the engineering, cost, or pricing department. The estimator’s goal in manufacturing is to accurately estimate the costs associated with making products. The job may begin when man agement requests an estimate of the costs associated with a major redesign of an existing product or the development of a new product or production process. When estimating the cost of developing a new product, for example, the estimator works with engineers, first reviewing blueprints or conceptual drawings to determine the machining operations, tools, gauges, and materials that would be required for the job. The estimator then prepares a parts list and determines whether it is more efficient to produce or to purchase the parts. To do this, the estimator must initiate inquiries for price information from potential suppliers. The next step is to determine the cost of manufacturing each component of the product. Some high-technology products require a considerable amount of computer programming during the design phase. The cost of software devel opment is one of the fastest growing and most difficult activities to estimate. As a result, some cost estimators now specialize in estimat ing only computer software development and related costs. The cost estimator then prepares time-phase charts and learning curves. Time-phase charts indicate the time required for tool design and fabrication, tool “debugging”—finding and correcting all prob lems—manufacturing of parts, assembly, and testing. Learning curves graphically represent the rate at which the performance of workers producing parts for the new product improves with practice. These curves are commonly called “cost reduction” curves, because many problems—such as engineering changes, rework, shortages of parts, and lack of operator skills—diminish as the number of units produced increases, resulting in lower unit costs. Using all of this information, the estimator then calculates the standard labor hours necessary to produce a specified number of units. Standard labor hours are then converted to dollar values, to which are added factors for waste, overhead, and profit to yield the unit cost in 84 Occupational Outlook Handbook dollars. The estimator then compares the cost of purchasing parts with the firm’s cost of manufacturing them to determine which is cheaper. Computers play an integral role in cost estimation, because estimating often involves complex mathematical calculations and requires advanced mathematical techniques. For example, to under take a parametric analysis (a process used to estimate project costs on a per unit basis, subject to the specific requirements of a project), cost estimators use a computer database containing information on the costs and conditions of many other similar projects. Although computers cannot be used for the entire estimating process, they can relieve estimators of much of the drudgery associated with routine, repetitive, and time-consuming calculations. Computer word-processing and spreadsheet software is used to produce all of the necessary documentation for cost-estimation results, leaving estimators more time to study and analyze projects. Operations research, production control, cost, and price analysts who work for government agencies may do significant amounts of cost estimating in the course of their regular duties. In addition, the duties of construction managers may include estimating costs. (For more information, see the statements on operations research analysts and construction managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Although estimators spend most of their time in an office, construction estimators must make visits to project worksites that can be dusty, dirty, and occasionally hazardous. Likewise, estimators in manufacturing IV , ? fS L. * “AS .4 ' £ w< - Miia Cost estimators compile and analyze data on all factors that can influence the costs involved in a project. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis must spend time on the factory floor, where it also can be noisy and dirty. In some industries, frequent travel between a firm’s headquarters and its subsidiaries or subcontractors may be required. Although estimators normally work a 40-hour week, overtime is common. Cost estimators often work underpressure and stress, especially when facing bid deadlines. Inaccurate estimating can cause a firm to lose a bid or to lose money on a job that was not accurately estimated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Job entry requirements for cost estimators vary by industry. In the construction industry, employers increasingly prefer individuals with a degree in building construction, construction management, construction science, engineering, or architecture. However, most construction estimators also have considerable construction experi ence, gained through work in the industry, internships, or coopera tive education programs. Applicants with a thorough knowledge of construction materials, costs, and procedures in areas ranging from heavy construction to electrical work, plumbing systems, or masonry work have a competitive edge. In manufacturing industries, employers prefer to hire individuals with a degree in engineering, physical science, operations research, mathematics, or statistics; or in accounting, finance, business, eco nomics, or a related subject. In most industries, great emphasis is placed on experience involving quantitative techniques. Cost estimators should have an aptitude for mathematics; be able to quickly analyze, compare, and interpret detailed but sometimes poorly defined information; and be able to make sound and accurate judg ments based on this information. Assertiveness and self-confidence in presenting and supporting one’s conclusions are important, as are strong communications and interpersonal skills, because estimators may work as part of a project team alongside managers, owners, engineers, and design professionals. Cost estimators also need knowledge of comput ers, including word-processing and spreadsheet packages. In some instances, familiarity with special estimation software or programming skills also may be required. Regardless of their background, estimators receive much train ing on the job, because every company has its own way of handling estimates. Working with an experienced estimator, newcomers become familiar with each step in the process. Those with no ex perience reading construction specifications or blueprints first learn that aspect of the work. Then they may accompany an experienced estimator to the construction site or shop floor, where they observe the work being done, take measurements, or perform other routine tasks. As they become more knowledgeable, estimators learn how to tabulate quantities and dimensions from drawings and how to select the appropriate prices for materials. For most estimators, advancement takes the form of higher pay and prestige. Some move into management positions, such as project manager for a construction firm or manager of the industrial engineer ing department for a manufacturer. Others may go into business for themselves as consultants, providing estimating services for a fee to government or to construction or manufacturing firms. Many colleges and universities include cost estimating as part of bachelor’s and associate’s degree curriculums in civil engineer ing, industrial engineering, and construction management or con struction engineering technology. In addition, cost estimating is a significant part of many master’s degree programs in construction science or construction management. Organizations representing cost estimators, such as the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering (AACE International) and the Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis (SCEA), also sponsor educational and professional development programs. These programs help students, estimators-in-training, and experienced estimators stay abreast of changes affecting the profession. Specialized courses and programs Management, Business, and Financial Occupations in cost-estimating techniques and procedures also are offered by many technical schools, community colleges, and universities. Voluntary certification can be valuable to cost estimators because it provides professional recognition of the estimator’s competence and experience. In some instances, individual employers may even require professional certification for employment. Both AACE International and SCEA administer certification programs. To become certified, estimators usually must have between 2 and 8 years of estimating experience and must pass an examination. In addition, certification requirements may include the publication of at least one article or paper in the field. Employment Cost estimators held about 198,000jobs in 2004. About 58 percent of estimators were in the construction industry, and another 17 percent were employed in manufacturing. The remainder worked in a wide range of other industries. Cost estimators work throughout the country, usually in or near major industrial, commercial, and government centers and in cities and suburban areas undergoing rapid change or development. Job Outlook Overall employment of cost estimators is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2014. In addition to open ings created by growth, some job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. In construction and manufacturing—the primary employers of cost estimators—job prospects should be best for those with industry work experience and a bachelor’s degree in a related field. Employment growth in the construction industry, in which most cost estimators are employed, will account for most new jobs in this occupation. Construction and repair of highways, streets, and bridges, as well as construction of more subway systems, airports, water and sewage systems, and electric power plants and transmission lines, will stimulate demand for many more cost estimators. Simi larly, increasing population and changing demographics will boost demand for residential construction and remodeling and school con struction and repair, spurring demand for more cost estimators. As the population ages, the demand for nursing and extended-care facilities will increase. Job prospects in construction should be best for cost estimators who have a degree in construction management or in construction science, engineering, or architecture and who have practical experience in various phases of construction or in a specialty craft area. Employment of cost estimators also will grow in manufactur ing, but not as fast as in construction, as firms continue to use cost estimators to identify and control operating costs. Experienced estimators with degrees in engineering, science, mathematics, busi ness administration, or economics should have the best job prospects in manufacturing. Earnings Salaries of cost estimators vary widely by experience, education, size of firm, and industry. Median annual earnings of cost estima tors in May 2004 were $49,940. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,420 and $65,620. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $84,870. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cost estimators in May 2004 were: Nonresidential building construction............................................ $56,570 Building equipment contractors.................................................... 53,310 Residential building construction................................................. 49,830 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors............ 49,500 Building finishing contractors....................................................... 47,980 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 85 College graduates with degrees in fields that provide a strong background in cost estimating, such as engineering or construction management, could start at a higher level. According to a July 2005 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, those with bachelor’s degrees in construction science/manage ment received job offers averaging $42,923 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who quantitatively analyze information include ac countants and auditors; budget analysts; claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators; economists; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; insurance underwriters; loan counselors and officers; market and survey researchers; and operations research analysts. In addition, the duties of industrial production managers and construction managers also may involve analyzing costs. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, certification, educational programs, and cost-estimating techniques may be obtained from the following organizations: >■ Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering (AACE Inter national), 209 Prairie Ave., Suite 100, Morgantown, WV 26501. Internet: http ://www.aacei.org ► Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis, 101 S. Whiting St., Suite 201, Alexandria, VA 22304. Internet: http://www.sceaonline.net Financial Analysts and Personal Financial Advisors (0*NET 13-2051.00, 13-2052.00) Significant Points • A college degree and good interpersonal skills are among the most important qualifications for these workers. • Although both occupations will benefit from an in crease in investing by individuals, personal financial advisors will benefit more. • Financial analysts and personal financial advisors who have earned a professional designation are expected to have the best opportunities; competition is anticipated to be keen for highly lucrative positions in investment banking. • About 4 out of 10 personal financial advisors are selfemployed. Nature of the Work Financial analysts and personal financial advisors provide analysis and guidance to businesses and individuals to help them with their investment decisions. Both types of specialists gather financial information, analyze it, and make recommendations to their clients. However, their job duties differ because of the type of investment information they provide and the clients for whom they work. Financial analysts assess the economic performance of companies and industries for firms and institutions with money to invest. Personalfinancial advisors generally assess the financial needs of individuals, offering them a wide range of options. Financial analysts, also called securities analysts and invest ment analysts, work for banks, insurance companies, mutual and pension funds, securities firms, and other businesses, helping these companies or their clients make investment decisions. Financial analysts read company financial statements and analyze commod 86 Occupational Outlook Handbook ity prices, sales, costs, expenses, and tax rates in order to determine a company’s value and to project its future earnings. They often meet with company officials to gain a better insight into the firm’s prospects and to determine its managerial effectiveness. Usually, financial analysts study an entire industry, assessing current trends in business practices, products, and industry competition. They must keep abreast of new regulations or policies that may affect the industry, as well as monitor the economy to determine its effect on earnings. Financial analysts use spreadsheet and statistical software packages to analyze financial data, spot trends, and develop forecasts. On the basis of their results, they write reports and make presentations, usually making recommendations to buy or sell a particular investment or security. Senior analysts may even be the ones who decide to buy or sell if they are responsible for managing the company’s or client’s assets. Other analysts use the data they find to measure the financial risks associated with making a particular investment decision. Financial analysts in investment banking departments of secu rities or banking firms often work in teams, analyzing the future prospects of companies that want to sell shares to the public for the first time. They also ensure that the forms and written ma terials necessary for compliance with Securities and Exchange Commission regulations are accurate and complete. They may make presentations to prospective investors about the merits of investing in the new company. Financial analysts also work in mergers and acquisitions departments, preparing analyses on the costs and benefits of a proposed merger or takeover. Some financial analysts, called ratings analysts, evaluate the ability of companies or governments that issue bonds to repay their debts. On the basis of their evaluation, a management team assigns a rating to a company’s or government’s bonds. Other financial analysts perform budget, cost, and credit analysis as part of their responsibilities. Personal financial advisors, also called financial planners or financial consultants, use their knowledge of investments, tax laws, and insurance to recommend financial options to individu als in accordance with the individual’s short-term and long-term goals. Some of the issues that planners address are retirement and estate planning, funding for college, and general investment options. While most planners offer advice on a wide range of topics, some specialize in areas such as retirement and estate planning or risk management. An advisor’s work begins with a consultation with the client, from whom the advisor obtains information on the client’s finances and financial goals. The advisor then develops a com prehensive financial plan that identifies problem areas, makes recommendations for improvement, and selects appropriate invest ments compatible with the client’s goals, attitude toward risk, and expectation or need for a return on the investment. Sometimes this plan is written, but more often it is in the form of verbal advice. Financial advisors usually meet with established clients at least once a year to update them on potential investments and to determine whether the clients have been through any life chang es—such as marriage, disability, or retirement—that might affect their financial goals. Financial advisors also answer questions from clients regarding changes in benefit plans or the consequences of a change in their jobs or careers. A large part of the success of financial planners depends on their ability to educate their clients about risks and various possible scenarios so that the clients don’t harbor unrealistic expectations. Some advisors buy and sell financial products, such as mutual funds or insurance, or refer clients to other companies for products https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Financial analysts research and analyze financial data, helping managers make sound decisions. and services—for example, the preparation of taxes or wills. A number of advisors take on the responsibility of managing the clients’ investments for them. Finding clients and building a customer base is one of the most important of a financial advisor’s job, because referrals from satis fied clients arc an important source of new business. Many advisors also contact potential clients by giving seminars or lectures or meet clients through business and social contacts. Working Conditions Financial analysts and personal financial advisors usually work indoors in safe, comfortable offices or their own homes. Many of these workers enjoy the challenge of helping firms or people make financial decisions. However, financial analysts may face long hours, frequent travel to visit companies and talk to potential investors, and the pressure of deadlines. Much of their research must be done after office hours, because their day is filled with telephone calls and meetings. Personal financial advisors usually work standard business hours, but they also schedule meetings with clients in the evenings or on weekends. Many teach evening classes or hold seminars in order to bring in more clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education is required for financial analysts and is strongly preferred for personal financial advisors. Most com panies require financial analysts to have at least a bachelor’s degree in business administration, accounting, statistics, or finance. Coursework in statistics, economics, and business is required, and knowledge of accounting policies and proce dures, corporate budgeting, and financial analysis methods is recommended. A master’s degree in business administration is desirable. Advanced courses in options pricing or bond valuation and knowledge of risk management also are suggested. Employers usually do not require a specific field of study for personal financial advisors, but a bachelor’s degree in ac counting, finance, economics, business, mathematics, or law provides good preparation for the occupation. Courses in investments, taxes, estate planning, and risk management also are helpful. Programs in financial planning are becoming more widely available in colleges and universities. Working for a broker-dealer is a good way to gain experience that can help individuals pass the security license exams needed to practice Management, Business, and Financial Occupations financial planning. Individuals who start out as independent financial planners may find it more difficult to build their client base, and they often start by servicing their family members and friends. However, many financial planners enter the field after working in a related occupation, such as accountant; auditor; insurance sales agent; lawyer, or securities, commodities, and financial services sales agent. Mathematical, computer, analytical, and problem-solving skills are essential qualifications for financial analysts and per sonal financial advisors. Good communication skills also are necessary, because these workers must present complex financial concepts and strategies in easy-to-understand language to clients and other professionals. Self-confidence, maturity, and the ability to work independently are important as well. Financial analysts must be detail oriented, motivated to seek out obscure informa tion, and familiar with the workings of the economy, tax laws, and money markets. Strong interpersonal skills and sales ability are crucial to the success of both financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Although not required for financial analysts or personal financial advisors to practice, certification can enhance one’s professional standing and is strongly recommended by many employers. Financial analysts may receive the Chartered Finan cial Analyst (CFA) designation, sponsored by the CFA Institute To qualify for this designation, applicants need a bachelor’s degree and 3 years of work experience in a related field and must pass a series of three examinations. These essay exams, administered once a year for 3 years, cover subjects such as ac counting, economics, securities analysis, financial markets and instruments, corporate finance, asset valuation, and portfolio management. Personal financial advisors may obtain the Certi fied Financial Planner credential, often referred to as CFP (R), demonstrating extensive training and competency in financial planning. This certification, issued by the Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, requires relevant experience, the completion of education requirements, passing a comprehen sive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. The CFP (R) exams test the candidate’s knowledge of the financial planning process, insurance and risk management, employee benefits planning, taxes and retirement planning, and investment and estate planning. The exam has been revised in recent years. Candidates are now required to have a working knowledge of debt management, planning liability, emergency fund reserves, and statistical modeling. It may take from 2 to 3 years of study to complete these programs. Personal financial advisors also may obtain the Chartered Fi nancial Consultant (ChFC) designation, issued by the American College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, which requires experience and the completion of an eight-course program of study. The ChFC designation and other professional designations have continuing education requirements. A license is not required to work as a personal financial advi sor, but advisors who sell stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, or real estate may need licenses to perform these additional services. Also, if legal advice is provided, a license to practice law may be required. Financial advisors who do not offer these additional services often refer clients to those who are qualified to provide them. Financial analysts may advance by becoming portfolio manag ers or financial managers, directing the investment portfolios of their companies or of clients. Personal financial advisors who work in firms also may move into managerial positions, but most advisors advance by accumulating clients and managing more assets. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 87 Employment Financial analysts and personal financial advisors held 355,000jobs in 2004, of which financial analysts held 197,000. Many financial analysts work at the headquarters of large financial companies, several of which are based in New York City. More than 4 out of 10 financial analysts work for finance and insurance industries, includ ing securities and commodity brokers, banks and credit institutions, and insurance carriers. Others worked throughout private industry and government. Personal financial advisors held 158,000 jobs in 2004. Much like financial analysts, more than half work for finance and insur ance industries, including securities and commodity brokers, banks, insurance carriers, and financial investment firms. However, 4 out of 10 personal financial advisors are self-employed, operating small investment advisory firms, usually in urban areas. Job Outlook Overall employment of financial analysts and personal financial advi sors is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, resulting from increased investment by businesses and individuals. Personal financial advisors will benefit even more than financial analysts as baby boomers save for retirement and as a generally better educated and wealthier population requires invest ment advice. In addition, people are living longer and must plan to finance more years of retirement. The globalization of the securities markets also will increase the need for analysts and advisors to help investors make financial choices. Financial analysts and personal financial advisors who have earned a professional designation are expected to have the best opportunities. Deregulation of the financial services industry is expected to spur demand for financial analysts and personal financial advisors. In recent years, banks, insurance companies, and brokerage firms have been allowed to broaden their financial services. Many firms are adding investment advice to their list of services and are expected to increase their hiring of personal financial advisors. Many banks are entering the securities broker age and investment banking fields and will increasingly need the skills of financial analysts. Employment of personal financial advisors is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. The rapid expansion of self-directed retirement plans, such as 401(k) plans, is expected to continue. As the number and complexity of investments rises, more in dividuals will look to financial advisors to help manage their money. Employment of financial analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. As the number of mutual funds and the amount of assets invested in the funds increase, mutual fund companies will need increased numbers of financial analysts to recommend which financial products the funds should buy or sell. Financial analysts also will be needed in the investment banking field, where they help companies raise money and work on corporate mergers and acquisitions. However, growth in demand for financial analysts to do company research has been, and will continue to be, constrained by regulations that require investment firms to separate research from investment banking. As a result, firms have eliminated research jobs in an effort to contain the costs of implementing these regulations. Demand for financial analysts in investment banking fluctuates because investment banking is sensitive to changes in the stock market. In addition, further consolidation in the finance industries may eliminate some financial analyst positions, dampening overall employment growth somewhat. Competition is expected to be keen for these highly lucrative positions, with many more applicants than jobs. 88 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Median annual earnings of financial analysts were $61,910 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,410 and $82,730. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,580, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $113,490. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of financial analysts in 2004 were as follows: Other financial investment activities............................................ $74,580 Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage.................................................................................. 67,730 Management of companies and enterprises ................................. 62,890 Insurance carriers.......................................................................... 58,120 Depository credit intermediation.................................................. 56,860 Median annual earnings of personal financial advisors were $62,700 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,860 and $108,280. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of personal financial advisors in 2004 were as follows: Other financial investment activities............................................. $78,350 Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage................................................................................. 63,310 Depository credit intermediation.................................................. 57,180 Agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities ..... 56,950 Many financial analysts receive a bonus in addition to their sal ary, and the bonus can add substantially to their earnings. Usually, the bonus is based on how well their predictions compare to the actual performance of a benchmark investment. Personal financial advisors who work for financial services firms are generally paid a salary plus bonus. Advisors who work for financial investment or planning firms or who are self-employed either charge hourly fees for their services or charge one set fee for a comprehensive plan, based on its complexity. Advisors who manage a client’s as sets may charge a percentage of those assets. Advisors generally receive commissions for financial products they sell, in addition to charging a fee. Related Occupations Other jobs requiring expertise in finance and investment or in the sale of financial products include accountants and auditors; financial managers; insurance sales agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in financial planning, contact: >■ The Financial Planning Association, 4100 E. Mississippi Ave., Suite 400, Denver, CO 80246-3053. Internet: http://www.fpanet.org For information about the Certified Financial Planner (CFP) (R) certification, contact: >- Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, Inc., 1670 Broadway, Suite 600, Denver, CO 80202-4809. Internet: http://www.cfp.net/become For information about the Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation, contact: ► The American College, 270 South Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. Internet: http://www.amercoll.edu For information on a career as a financial analyst, contact either of the following organizations: ► American Academy of Financial Management, 2 Canal St., Suite 2317, New Orleans, LA 70130. Internet: http://www.financialanalyst.org ► CFA Institute, P.O. Box 3668,560 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22903. Internet: http://www.cfainstitute.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Insurance Underwriters (0*NET 13-2053.00) Significant Points • Most large insurance companies prefer college gradu ates who have a degree in business administration or finance with courses in accounting; however, a bache lor’s degree in any field—plus courses in business law and accounting—may be sufficient to qualify. • Continuing education is necessary for advancement. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than av erage as the continuing spread of underwriting software increases worker productivity. • Job opportunities should be best for those with a back ground in finance and strong computer and communi cation skills. Nature of the Work Insurance companies protect individuals and organizations from financial loss by assuming billions of dollars in risk each year. Un derwriters are needed to identify and calculate the risk of loss from policyholders, establish appropriate premium rates, and write poli cies that cover this risk. An insurance company may lose business to competitors if the underwriter appraises risks too conservatively, or it may have to pay excessive claims if the underwriting actions are too liberal. With the aid of computers, underwriters analyze information in insurance applications to determine whether a risk is acceptable and will not result in a loss. Applications often are supplemented with reports from loss-control consultants, medical reports, reports from data vendors, and actuarial studies. Underwriters then must decide whether to issue the policy and, if so, the appropriate premium to charge. In making this determination, underwriters serve as the main link between the insurance carrier and the insurance agent. On occasion, they accompany sales agents to make presentations to prospective clients. Technology plays an important role in an underwriter’s job. Underwriters use computer applications called “smart sys tems” to manage risks more efficiently and accurately. These systems automatically analyze and rate insurance applications, recommend acceptance or denial of the risk, and adjust the premium rate in accordance with the risk. With these systems, underwriters are better equipped to make sound decisions and avoid excessive losses. The Internet also has affected the work of underwriters. Many insurance carriers’ computer systems are now linked to different databases on the Internet that allow immediate access to informa tion—such as driving records—necessary in determining a poten tial client’s risk. This kind of access reduces the amount of time and paperwork necessary for an underwriter to complete a risk assessment. Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance: life, health, and property and casualty. Life and health insurance underwriters may further specialize in group or individual policies. Property and casualty underwriters usually specialize in either commercial or personal insurance and then by type of risk insured, as in fire, homeowners’, automobile, marine, or liability insurance, or workers’ compensation. In cases where casualty companies Management, Business, and Financial Occupations ISiliS Insurance underwriters review insurance applications and determine the appropriate premium to charge a customer. provide insurance through a single “package” policy covering vari ous types of risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines of insurance. For business insurance, the underwriter often must be able to evaluate the firm’s entire operation in appraising its application for insurance. An increasing proportion of insurance sales, particularly in life and health insurance, is being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures everyone in a specified group through a single contract at a standard premium rate. The group underwriter analyzes the overall composition of the group to ensure that the total risk is not excessive. Another type of group policy provides members of a group—a labor union, for example—with individual policies reflecting their needs. These usually are casu alty policies, such as those covering automobiles. The casualty underwriter analyzes the application of each group member and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their group. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activity. Their offices usually are comfortable and pleasant. Although underwriters typically work a standard 40-hour week, more are working longer hours due to the downsizing of many insurance companies. Most underwriters are based in a home or regional branch office, but they occasionally attend meetings away from home for several days. Construction and marine underwriters frequently travel to inspect worksites and assess risks. 89 enced risk analyst. Property and casualty trainees study claims files to become familiar with factors associated with certain types of losses. Many larger insurers offer work-study training programs, lasting from a few months to a year. As trainees gain experience, they are assigned policy applications that are more complex and cover greater risks. Analyzing and processing these applications efficiently requires the use of computers. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for people who enjoy analyzing information and paying attention to detail. In addition, underwriters must possess good judgment in order to make sound decisions. Excellent communication and interpersonal skills also are essential, as much of the underwriter’s work involves dealing with agents and other insurance professionals. Continuing education is necessary for advancement. Insurance companies usually pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees complete; some also offer salary incentives. Independentstudy programs for experienced property and casualty underwriters are available as well. The Insurance Institute of America offers both a program called “Introduction to Underwriting” for beginning underwriters, and the specialty designation of Associate in Com mercial Underwriting (ACU), a formal step in developing a career in underwriting business insurance policies. Those interested in developing a career underwriting personal insurance policies may earn the Associate in Personal Insurance (API) designation. To earn either the ACU or API designation, underwriters complete a series of courses and examinations that generally last 1 to 2 years. The American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters (AICPCU) awards the Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) designation, the final stage of development for an underwriter. Earning the CPCU designation requires passing 10 exams, meeting a requirement of at least 3 years of insurance experience, and abiding by the AICPCU’s code of professional ethics. Exams cover risk management; in surance operations and regulations, business and insurance law, and financial management and financial institutions. In conjunc tion with the Insurance Institute of America, the AICPCU offers 22 insurance-related educational programs, including associate designation programs in claims underwriting, risk management, and reinsurance. The American College offers the Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) designation and the Registered Health Underwriter (RHU) designation for all life and health insurance professionals. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may ad vance to senior underwriter or underwriting manager positions. Some underwriting managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs. Some employers require a master’s degree to achieve this level. Other un derwriters are attracted to the earnings potential of sales and, therefore, obtain State licenses to sell insurance and related financial products as agents or brokers. Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For entry-level underwriting jobs, most large insurance com panies prefer college graduates who have a degree in busi ness administration or finance with courses or experience in accounting. However, a bachelor’s degree in almost any field—plus courses in business law and accounting—provides a good general background and may be sufficient to qualify an individual. Because computers are an integral part of most underwriters’jobs, computer skills are essential. New employees usually start as underwriter trainees or assistant underwriters. They may help collect information on applicants and evaluate routine applications under the supervision of an experi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Insurance underwriters held about 101,000 jobs in 2004. Approxi mately 2 out of 3 underwriters work for insurance carriers. Most of the remaining underwriters work in insurance agencies or for organizations that offer insurance services to insurance companies and policyholders. A small number of underwriters work in agen cies owned and operated by banks, mortgage companies, and real estate firms. Most underwriters are based in the insurance company’s home of fice, but some, mainly in the property and casualty area, work out of regional branch offices of the insurance company. These underwrit ers usually have the authority to underwrite most risks and determine an appropriate rating without consulting the home office. 90 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of underwriters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Underwriting software will continue to make workers more productive; how ever, because computer software does not do away with the need for human skills, employment will increase as economic and population growth result in increased insurance needs by businesses and individuals. Job opportunities should be best for those with a background in finance and strong computer and communication skills. In addition to openings arising from some job growth, open ings will be created by the need to replace underwriters who transfer to another job or leave the occupation. Insurance carriers always are assessing new risks and offering policies to meet changing circumstances. Underwriters are needed particularly in the area of product development, where they as sess risks and set the premiums for new lines of insurance. One new line of insurance being offered by life insurance carriers that may provide job opportunities for underwriters is long-term care insurance. Demand for underwriters also is expected to improve as insur ance carriers try to restore profitability to make up for an unusu ally large number of underwriting losses in recent years. As the carriers’ returns on their investments have declined, insurers are placing more emphasis on underwriting to generate revenues. This renewed interest in underwriting should result in job opportunities for underwriters. Because insurance is considered a necessity for people and busi nesses, there will always be a need for underwriters—a profession that is less subject to recession and layoffs than other fields. >- American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters and Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org Information on the CLU and RHU designations can be obtained from: >- American College, 270 South Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010 2196. Internet: http://www.theamericancollege.edu Loan Officers (0*NET 13-2072.00) Significant Points • • • • About 9 out of 10 loan officers work for commercial banks, savings institutions, credit unions, and related financial institutions. Loan officer positions generally require a bachelor’s degree in finance, economics, or a related field; training or experience in banking, lending, or sales is advanta geous. Slower-than-average employment growth is expected despite rising demand for loans, because technology is making for simpler and faster processing and approval of loans. Earnings often fluctuate with the number of loans gen erated, rising substantially when the economy is good and interest rates are low. Earnings Nature of the Work Median annual earnings of insurance underwriters were $48,550 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,490 and $65,450 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,410, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,110. Median annual earnings of underwriters working with insurance carriers were $49,280, while earnings of these in agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities were $46,750. Insurance companies usually provide better-than-average ben efits, including retirement plans and employer-financed group life and health insurance. For many individuals, taking out a loan may be the only way to afford a house, car, or college education. For businesses, loans likewise are essential to start many companies, purchase inventory, or invest in capital equipment. Loan officers facilitate this lend ing by finding potential clients and assisting them in applying for loans. Loan officers also gather personal information about clients and businesses to ensure that an informed decision is made regard ing the creditworthiness of the borrower and the probability of repayment. Loan officers may provide guidance to prospective loan applicants who have problems qualifying for traditional loans. The guidance may include determining the most appropriate type of loan for a particular customer and explaining specific requirements and restrictions associated with the loan. Loan officers usually specialize in commercial, consumer, or mortgage loans. Commercial or business loans help companies pay for new equipment or expand operations; consumer loans include home equity, automobile, and personal loans; mortgage loans are made to purchase real estate or to refinance an existing mortgage. As banks and other financial institutions begin to offer new types of loans and a growing variety of financial services, loan officers will have to keep abreast of these new product lines so that they can meet their customers’ needs. In many instances, loan officers act as salespeople. Commercial loan officers, for example, contact firms to determine their needs for loans. If a firm is seeking new funds, the loan officer will try to persuade the company to obtain the loan from his or her institution. Similarly, mortgage loan officers develop relationships with commercial and residential real estate agencies so that, when an individual or firm buys a property, the real estate agent might recommend contacting a specific loan officer for financing. Once the initial contact has been made, loan officers guide cli ents through the process of applying for a loan. The process begins Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial and statistical data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility include accountants and auditors, actuaries, budget analysts, cost estima tors, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, financial managers, loan officers, and credit analysts. Other related jobs in the insurance industry include insurance sales agents and claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many insurance companies. Information about the property-casualty insurance field can be obtained by contacting: >• Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org Information on careers in the life insurance field can be obtained from: >■ LIMRA International, P.O. Box 203, Hartford, CT 06141. Information on the underwriting function and the CPCU and AU designations can be obtained from: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Management, Business, and Financial Occupations with a formal meeting or telephone call with a prospective client, during which the loan officer obtains basic information about the purpose of the loan and explains the different types of loans and credit terms that are available to the applicant. Loan officers answer questions about the process and sometimes assist clients in filling out the application. After a client completes the application, the loan officer begins the process of analyzing and verifying the information on the application to determine the client’s creditworthiness. Often, loan officers can quickly access the client’s credit history by computer and obtain a credit “score,” representing a software program’s assessment of the client’s creditworthiness. In cases a credit history is not avail able or in which unusual financial circumstances are present, the loan officer may request additional financial information from the client or, in the case of commercial loans, copies of the company’s financial statements. With this information, loan officers who specialize in evaluating a client’s creditworthiness—often called loan underwriters—may conduct a financial analysis or other risk assessment. Loan officers include such information and their writ ten comments in a loan file, which is used to analyze whether the prospective loan meets the lending institution’s requirements. Loan officers then decide, in consultation with their managers, whether to grant the loan. If the loan is approved, a repayment schedule is arranged with the client. A loan may be approved that would otherwise be denied if the customer can provide the lender with appropriate collateral— property pledged as security for the repayment of the loan. For example, when lending money for a college education, a bank may insist that borrowers offer their home as collateral. If the borrowers should ever default on the loan, the home would be seized under court order and sold to raise the necessary money. Some loan officers, referred to as. loan collection officers, contact borrowers with delinquent loan accounts to help them find a method of repayment in order to avoid their defaulting on the loan. If a repayment plan cannot be developed, the loan collection officer initiates collateral liquidation, in which the lender seizes the collateral used to secure the loan—a home or car, for example—and sells it to repay the loan. Working Conditions Working as a loan officer usually involves considerable travel. For example, commercial and mortgage loan officers frequently work away from their offices and rely on laptop computers, cellular telephones, and pagers to keep in contact with their employ- i 1 91 ers and clients. Mortgage loan officers often work out of their home or car, visiting offices or homes of clients to complete loan applications. Commercial loan officers sometimes travel to other cities to prepare complex loan agreements. Consumer loan offi cers, however, are likely to spend most of their time in an office. Most loan officers work a standard 40-hour week, but many work longer, depending on the number of clients and the de mand for loans. Mortgage loan officers can work especially long hours, because they are free to take on as many customers as they choose. Loan officers usually carry a heavy caseload and sometimes cannot accept new clients until they complete current cases. They are especially busy when interest rates are low, a condition that triggers a surge in loan applications. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Loan officer positions generally require a bachelor’s degree in finance, economics, or a related field. Banking, lending, or sales experience is highly valued by employers. Most employers also prefer applicants who are familiar with computers and their appli cations in banking. Loan officers without college degrees usually advance to their positions from other jobs in an organization after acquiring several years of work experience in various other occu pations, such as teller or customer service representative. Personal qualities such as sales ability, good interpersonal and communication skills, and a strong desire to succeed also are important qualities for loan officers. There are currently no specific licensing requirements for loan officers working in banks or credit unions. Training and licensing requirements for loan officers who work in mortgage banks or bro kerages vary by State. Various banking-related associations and private schools offer courses and programs for students interested in lending, as well as for experienced loan officers who want to keep their skills current. For example, the Bank Administration Institute, an affiliate of the American Banker’s Association, offers the Loan Review Certificate Program for persons who review and approve loans. This program enhances the quality of reviews and improves the early detection of deteriorating loans, thereby contributing to the safety and soundness of the loan portfolio. The Certified Mortgage Banker (CMB) desig nation demonstrates the holder’s superior knowledge, understand ing, and competency in real estate finance. The Mortgage Bankers Association offers three CMB designations: residential, commerce, and master’s. To obtain the CMB, the candidate must have 3 years of experience, earn educational credits, and pass an exam. Completion of these courses and programs generally enhances one’s employment and advancement opportunities. Persons planning a career as a loan officer should be capable of developing effective working relationships with others, confident in their abilities, and highly motivated. For public relations purposes, loan officers must be willing to attend community events as representatives of their employer. Capable loan officers may advance to larger branches of the firm or to managerial positions, while less capable workers—and those having weak academic preparation—could be assigned to smaller branches and might find promotion difficult without obtaining training to upgrade their skills. Advancement beyond a loan of ficer position usually includes supervising other loan officers and clerical staff. Employment Loan officers guide clients through the loan application process. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Loan officers held about 291,000 jobs in 2004. About 9 out of 10 loan officers were employed by commercial banks, savings institu tions, credit unions, and related financial institutions. Loan officers are employed throughout the Nation, but most work in urban and 92 Occupational Outlook Handbook suburban areas. At some banks, particularly in rural areas, the branch or assistant manager often handles the loan application process. Job Outlook Employment of loan officers is projected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. College graduates and those with banking, lending, or sales experience should have the best job prospects. Employment growth stemming from economic expansion and population increases—factors that generate demand for loans—will be partially offset by increased automation that speeds lending processes and by the growing use of the Internet to apply for and obtain loans. Job opportunities for loan officers are influenced by the volume of applications, which is determined largely interest rates and by the overall level of economic activity. However, besides openings arising from growth, additional job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire or otherwise leave the occupation permanently. The use of credit scoring has made the loan evaluation pro cess much simpler than in the past and even unnecessary in some cases. Credit scoring allows loan officers—particularly loan un derwriters—to evaluate many more loans in much less time, thus increasing the loan officer’s efficiency. In addition, the mortgage application process has become highly automated and standardized, a simplification that has enabled online mortgage loan vendors to offer their services over the Internet. Online vendors accept loan applications from customers over the Internet and determine which lenders have the best interest rates for particular loans. With this knowledge, customers can go directly to the lending institution, thereby bypassing mortgage loan brokers. Shopping for loans on the Internet is expected to become more common in the future, especially for mortgages, thereby reducing demand for loan officers. Although loans remain a major source of revenue for banks, demand for new loans fluctuates and affects the income and employment op portunities of loan officers. An upswing in the economy or a decline in interest rates often results in a surge in real estate buying and mortgage refinancing, requiring loan officers to work long hours processing ap plications and inducing lenders to hire additional loan officers, who often are paid by commission on the value of the loans they place. When the real estate market slows, loan officers often suffer a decline in earnings and may even be subject to layoffs. The same applies to commercial loan officers, whose workloads increase during good economic times as companies seek to invest more in their businesses. In difficult economic conditions, an increase in the number of delinquent loans results in more demand for loan collection officers. Earnings Median annual earnings of loan officers were $48,830 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,360 and $69,160. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,580 while the top 10 percent earned more than $98,280. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of loan officers in 2004 were as follows: Activities related to credit intermediation..................................... $54,180 Management of companies and enterprises................................. 51,670 Nondepository credit intermediation............................................ 49,930 Depository credit intermediation.................................................. 44,460 The form of compensation for loan officers varies. Most are paid a commission that is based on the number of loans they originate. In this way, commissions are used to motivate loan officers to bring in more loans. Some institutions pay only salaries, while others pay their loan officers a salary plus a commission or bonus based on the number of loans originated. Banks and other lenders sometimes of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fer their loan officers free checking privileges and somewhat lower interest rates on personal loans. According to a salary survey conducted by Robert Half Interna tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, mortgage loan officers earned between $30,000 and $ 100,000 in 2005, consumer loan officers with 1 to 3 years of experience earned between $30,000 and $35,000, and commercial loan officers with 1 to 3 years of experience made between $45,500 and $70,000. Commercial loan officers with more than 3 years of experience made between $61,750 and $100,000, and consumer loan officers earned between $25,500 and $50,000. Earnings of loan officers with graduate degrees or professional certifications are higher. Loan officers who are paid on a commission basis usually earn more than those on salary only, and those who work for smaller banks generally earn less than those employed by larger institutions. Related Occupations Loan officers help people manage financial assets and secure loans. Occupations that involve similar functions include those of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; real estate brokers and sales agents; insurance underwriters; insurance sales agents; and loan counselors. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a mortgage loan officer can be obtained from: ► Mortgage Bankers Association, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.mortgagebankers.org State bankers’ associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Also, individual banks can supply information about job openings and the activities, responsibilities, and preferred qualifications of their loan officers. Management Analysts (0*NET 13-1111.00) Significant Points • Despite fast employment growth, keen competition is expected for jobs; opportunities should be best for those with a graduate degree, specific industry exper tise, and a talent for salesmanship and public relations. • About 29 percent, more than 3 times the average for all occupations, are self-employed. • Most positions in private industry require a master’s degree and additional years of specialized experience; a bachelor’s degree is sufficient for entry-level govern ment jobs. Nature of the Work As business becomes more complex, the Nation’s firms are con tinually faced with new challenges. Firms increasingly rely on management analysts to help them remain competitive amidst these changes. Management analysts, often referred to as man agement consultants in private industry, analyze and propose ways to improve an organization’s structure, efficiency, or profits. For example, a small but rapidly growing company that needs help improving the system of control over inventories and expenses may decide to employ a consultant who is an expert in just-in-time inventory management. In another case, a large company that has Management, Business, and Financial Occupations recently acquired a new division may hire management analysts to help reorganize the corporate structure and eliminate duplicate or nonessential jobs. In recent years, information technology and electronic commerce have provided new opportunities for management analysts. Companies hire consultants to develop strategies for entering and remaining competitive in the new electronic marketplace. (For information on computer specialists working in consulting, see the following statements elsewhere in the Handbook: Computer software engineers; systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators; and computer programmers.) Firms providing management analysis range in size from a single practitioner to large international organizations employing thousands of consultants. Some analysts and consultants specialize in a specific industry, such as health care or telecommunications, while others specialize by type of business function, such as human resources, marketing, logistics, or information systems. In government, man agement analysts tend to specialize by type of agency. The work of management analysts and consultants varies with each client or employer, and from project to project. Some projects require a team of consultants, each specializing in one area. In other projects, con sultants work independently with the organization’s managers. In all cases, analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze informa tion in order to make recommendations to managers. Both public and private organizations use consultants for a variety of reasons. Some lack the internal resources needed to handle a project, while others need a consultant’s expertise to determine what resources will be required and what problems may be encountered if they pursue a particular opportunity. To retain a consultant, a company first solicits proposals from a number of consulting firms specializing in the area in which it needs assistance. These pro posals include the estimated cost and scope of the project, staffing requirements, references from a number of previous clients, and a completion deadline. The company then selects the proposal that best suits its needs. After obtaining an assignment or contract, management analysts first define the nature and extent of the problem. During this phase, they analyze relevant data—which may include annual revenues, employment, or expenditures—and interview managers and employ ees while observing their operations. The analyst or consultant then develops solutions to the problem. While preparing their recom mendations, they take into account the nature of the organization, the relationship it has with others in the industry, and its internal organization and culture. Insight into the problem often is gained by building and solving mathematical models. Once they have decided on a course of action, consultants report their findings and recommendations to the client. These suggestions usually are submitted in writing, but oral presentations regarding findings also are common. For some projects, management analysts are retained to help implement the suggestions they have made. Like their private-sector colleagues, management analysts in government agencies try to increase efficiency and worker produc tivity, and to control costs. For example, if an agency is planning to purchase personal computers, it must first determine which type to buy, given its budget and data-processing needs. In this case, management analysts would assess the prices and characteristics of various machines and determine which ones best meet the agency’s needs. Analysts may manage contracts for a wide range of goods and services to ensure quality performance and to prevent cost overruns. Working Conditions Management analysts usually divide their time between their offices andFRASER the client’s site. In either situation, much of an analyst’s time is Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 93 Management analysts analyze and propose ways to improve an organization’s structure, efficiency, or profits. spent indoors in clean, well-lit offices. Because they must spend a sig nificant portion of their time with clients, analysts travel frequently. Analysts and consultants generally work at least 40 hours a week. Uncompensated overtime is common, especially when project deadlines are approaching. Analysts may experience a great deal of stress as a result of trying to meet a client’s demands, often on a tight schedule. Self-employed consultants can set their workload and hours and work at home. On the other hand, their livelihood depends on their ability to maintain and expand their client base. Salaried consultants also must impress potential clients to get and keep clients for their company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for entry-level jobs in this field vary widely between private industry and government. Most employ ers in private industry generally seek individuals with a master’s degree in business administration or a related discipline. Some employers also require additional years of experience in the field or industry in which the worker plans to consult, in addition to a master’s degree. Some will hire workers with a bachelor’s degree as a research analyst or associate. Research analysts usually need to pursue a master’s degree in order to advance to a consulting position. Most government agencies hire people with a bachelor’s degree and no pertinent work experience for entry-level manage ment analyst positions. 94 Occupational Outlook Handbook Few universities or colleges offer formal programs of study in management consulting; however, many fields of study provide a suitable educational background for this occupation because of the wide range of areas addressed by management analysts. Common educational backgrounds include most academic programs in busi ness and management, such as accounting and marketing, as well as economics, computer and information sciences, and engineering. In addition to the appropriate formal education, most entrants to this occupation have years of experience in management, human resources, information technology, or other specialties. Analysts also routinely attend conferences to keep abreast of current devel opments in their field. Management analysts often work with minimal supervision, so they need to be self-motivated and disciplined. Analytical skills, the ability to get along with a wide range of people, strong oral and written communication skills, good judgment, time management skills, and creativity are other desirable qualities. The ability to work in teams also is an important attribute as consulting teams become more common. As consultants gain experience, they often become solely re sponsible for a specific project, taking on more responsibility and managing their own hours. At the senior level, consultants may supervise teams working on more complex projects and become more involved in seeking out new business. Those with excep tional skills may eventually become a partner in the firm. Others with entrepreneurial ambition may open their own firm. A high percentage of management consultants are self-employed, partly because business startup costs are low. Self-employed consul tants also can share office space, administrative help, and other re sources with other self-employed consultants or small consulting firms, thus reducing overhead costs. Since many small consulting firms fail each year because of lack of managerial expertise and clients, persons interested in opening their own firm must have good organizational and marketing skills and several years of consulting experience. The Institute of Management Consultants USA, Inc. (IMC USA) offers a wide range of professional development programs and resources, such as meetings and workshops, which can be helpful for management consultants. The IMC USA also offers the Certified Management Consultant (CMC) designation to those who meet minimum levels of education and experience, submit client reviews, and pass an interview and exam covering the IMC USA’s Code of Ethics. Management consultants with a CMC designation must be recertified every 3 years. Certification is not mandatory for management consultants, but it may give a jobseeker a competitive advantage. Employment Management analysts held about 605,000 jobs in 2004. About 29 percent of these workers, more than 3 times the average for all oc cupations, were self-employed. Management analysts are found throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in large met ropolitan areas. Management analyst jobs are found in a wide range of industries, including management, scientific, and technical consulting firms; computer systems design and related services firms; and Federal, State, and local governments. The majority of those working for the Federal Government are in the U.S. Department of Defense. Job Outlook Despite projected rapid employment growth, keen competition is expected for jobs as management analysts. The pool of applicants from which employers can draw is quite large since analysts can come from very diverse educational backgrounds. Furthermore, the independent and challenging nature of the work, combined with high earnings potential, makes this occupation attractive to many. Job https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis opportunities are expected to be best for those with a graduate de gree, specific industry expertise, and a talent for salesmanship and public relations. Employment of management analysts is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, as industry and government increasingly rely on outside expertise to improve the performance of their organizations. Job growth is projected in very large consulting firms with international expertise and in smaller con sulting firms that specialize in specific areas, such as biotechnology, health care, information technology, human resources, engineering, and marketing. Growth in the number of individual practitioners may be hindered by increasing use of consulting teams, that can expedite solutions to a variety of different issues and problems within an organization. Employment growth of management analysts has been driven by a number of changes in the business environment that have forced firms to take a closer look at their operations. These changes include developments in information technology and the growth of electronic commerce. Traditional companies hire analysts to help design in tranets or company Web sites, or to establish online businesses. New Internet startup companies hire analysts not only to design Web sites but also to advise them in more traditional business practices, such as pricing strategies, marketing, and inventory and human resource management. In order to offer clients better quality and a wider variety of services, consulting firms are partnering with traditional computer software and technology firms. Also, many computer firms are developing consulting practices of their own in order to take advantage of this expanding market. Although information technol ogy consulting should remain one of the fastest growing consulting areas, the volatility of the computer services industry necessitates that the most successful management analysts have knowledge of traditional business practices in addition to computer applications, systems integration, Web design, and management skills. The growth of international business also has contributed to an increase in demand for management analysts. As U.S. firms expand their business abroad, many will hire management analysts to help them form the right strategy for entering the market; to advise them on legal matters pertaining to specific countries; or to help them with organizational, administrative, and other issues, especially if the U.S. company is involved in a partnership or merger with a local firm. These trends provide management analysts with more opportunities to travel or work abroad but also require them to have a more comprehensive knowledge of international business and foreign cultures and languages. Furthermore, as international and domestic markets have become more competitive, firms have needed to use resources more efficiently. Management analysts increasingly are sought to help reduce costs, streamline operations, and develop marketing strategies. As this process continues and businesses downsize, even more opportunities will be created for analysts to perform duties that previously were handled internally. Finally, more management analysts also will be needed in the public sector, as Federal, State, and local government agencies seek ways to become more efficient. Though management consultants are continually expanding their services, employment growth could be hampered by increasing competition for clients from occupations that do not traditionally perform consulting work, such as accountants, financial analysts, lawyers, and computer systems analysts. Furthermore, economic downturns also can have adverse effects on employment for some management consultants. In these times, businesses look to cut costs, and consultants may be considered an excess expense. On the other hand, some consultants might experience an increase in work during recessions because they advise businesses on how to cut costs and remain profitable. Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Earnings Salaries for management analysts vary widely by years of experience and education, geographic location, sector of expertise, and size of employer. Generally, management analysts employed in large firms or in metropolitan areas have the highest salaries. Median annual wage and salary earnings of management analysts in May 2004 were $63,450. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,340 and $86,650. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $120,220. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of manage ment analysts in May 2004 were: Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ........ $72,480 Federal Government...................................................................... 72,440 Computer systems design and related services............................. 69,800 Management of companies and enterprises.................................. 59,420 State government ......................................................................... 48,070 According to the Association of Management Consulting Firms, typical earnings in 2004—including bonuses and profit sharing— averaged $52,482 for research associates in member firms; $65,066 for entry-level consultants; $89,116 for management consultants; $123,305 for senior consultants; $191,664 for junior partners; and $317,339 for senior partners. Only the most experienced workers in highly successful management consulting firms earn these top salaries. Salaried management analysts usually receive common ben efits, such as health and life insurance, a retirement plan, vacation, and sick leave, as well as less common benefits, such as profit sharing and bonuses for outstanding work. In addition, all travel expenses usually are reimbursed by the employer. Self-employed consultants have to maintain their own office and provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Management analysts collect, review, and analyze data; make recom mendations; and implement their ideas. Occupations with similar du ties include accountants and auditors; budget analysts; cost estimators; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; operations research analysts; economists; and market and survey researchers. Some man agement analysts specialize in information technology and work with computers, as do computer systems analysts and computer scientists and database administrators. Most management analysts also have managerial experience similar to that of administrative services man agers; advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; financial managers; human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists; and top executives. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities in management consulting is available from: >- Association of Management Consulting Firms, 380 Lexington Ave., Suite 1700, New York, NY 10168. Internet: http://www.amcf.org Information about the Certified Management Consultant designa tion can be obtained from: >• Institute of Management Consultants USA, Inc., 2025 M St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.imcusa.org Information on obtaining a management analyst position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Inter net at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Digitized8404. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 95 Meeting and Convention Planners___ (0*NET 13-1121.00) Significant Points • Planners often work long hours in the period prior to and during a meeting or convention, and extensive travel may be required. • Employment is expected to grow faster than average. • Opportunities will be best for individuals with a bache lor’s degree and some meeting planning experience. Nature of the Work Meetings and conventions bring people together for a common purpose, and meeting and convention planners work to ensure that this purpose is achieved seamlessly. Meeting planners coordinate every detail of meetings and conventions, from the speakers and meeting location to arranging for printed materials and audio-visual equipment. Meeting and convention planners work for nonprofit organizations, professional and similar associations, hotels, corpora tions, and government. Some organizations have internal meeting planning staffs, and others hire independent meeting and convention planning firms to organize their events. The first step in planning a meeting or convention is determining the purpose, message, or impression that the sponsoring organization wants to communicate. Planners increasingly focus on how meet ings impact the goals of their organizations; for example, they may survey prospective attendees to find out what motivates them and how they learn best. Planners then choose speakers, entertainment, and content, and arrange the program to present the organization’s information in the most effective way. Meeting and convention planners search for prospective meet ing sites, which may be hotels, convention centers, or conference centers. They issue requests for proposals—documents that state the meeting dates and outline their needs for the meeting or convention, including meeting and exhibit space, lodging, food and beverages, telecommunications, audio-visual requirements, transportation, and any other necessities—to all the sites in which they are interested. The establishments respond with proposals describing what space and services they can supply, and at what prices. Meeting and convention planners review these proposals and either make recommendations to top management or choose the site themselves. Once the location is selected, meeting and convention planners arrange support services, coordinate needs with the facility, prepare the site staff for the meeting, and set up all forms of electronic com munication needed for the meeting or convention, such as e-mail, voice mail, video, and online communication. Meeting logistics, the management of the details of meetings and conventions, such as labor and materials, is another major compo nent of the job. Planners register attendees and issue name badges, coordinate lodging reservations, and arrange transportation. They make sure that all necessary supplies are ordered and transported to the meeting site on time, that meeting rooms are equipped with sufficient seating and audio-visual equipment, that all exhibits and booths are set up properly, and that all materials are printed. They also make sure that the meeting adheres to fire and labor regulations and oversee food and beverage distribution. There also is a financial management component of the work. Planners negotiate contracts with facilities and suppliers. These con tracts, which have become increasingly complex, are often drawn up more than a year in advance of the meeting or convention. Contracts may include clauses requiring the planner to book a certain number 96 Occupational Outlook Handbook of rooms for meeting attendees and imposing penalties if the rooms are not filled. Therefore, it is important that the planner is able to closely estimate how many people will attend the meeting, based on previous meeting attendance and current circumstances. Planners must also oversee the finances of meetings and conventions. They are given overall budgets by their organizations and must create a detailed budget, forecasting what each aspect of the event will cost. Additionally, some planners oversee meetings that contribute significantly to their organization’s operating budget and must ensure the meeting meets income goals. An increasingly important part of the work is measuring how well the meeting’s purpose was achieved, and planners begin this measurement as they outline the meeting’s goals. Planners set their own specific goals after learning an organization’s goals for a meeting or convention. They choose objectives for which success is measurable and define what will constitute achievement of each goal. The most obvious way to gauge their success is to have at tendees fill out surveys about their experiences at the event. Planners can ask specific questions about what the attendees learned, how well organized the meeting or convention appeared, and how they felt about the overall experience. If the purpose of a meeting or convention is publicity, a good measure of success would be how much press coverage the event received. A more precise measure ment of meeting success, and one that is gaining importance, is return on investment. Planners compare the costs and benefits of an event and show whether it was worthwhile to the organization. For example, if a company holds a meeting to motivate its employees and improve company morale, the planner might track employee turnover before and after the meeting. An important part of all these different functions of meeting professionals is establishing and maintaining relationships. Meeting and convention planners interact with a variety of people and must communicate effectively. They must understand their organization’s goals for the meeting or convention, be able to communicate their needs clearly to meeting site staff and other suppliers, maintain con tact with many different people, and inform people about changes as they occur. Some aspects of the work vary by the type of organization for which planners work. Those who work for associations must market their meetings to association members, convinc ing members that attending the meeting is worth their time and expense. Marketing is usually less important for corporate meet ing planners because employees are generally required to attend company meetings. Corporate planners usually have shorter time frames in which to prepare their meetings. Planners who work in Federal, State, and local governments must learn how to operate within established government procedures, such as procedures and rules for procuring materials and booking lodging for govern ment employees. Convention service managers, meeting professionals who work in hotels, convention centers, and similar establishments, act as liaisons between the meeting facility and association, corporate, or government planners. They present food service options to outside planners, coordinate special requests, suggest hotel services based on the planners’ budgets, and otherwise help outside planners present effective meetings and conventions in their facilities. Meeting planners in small organizations perform a wider range of duties, with perhaps one person coordinating an entire meeting. These planners usually need to multi-task even more than planners in larger organizations. In large organizations or those that sponsor large meetings or conventions, meeting professionals are more likely to specialize in a particular aspect of meeting planning. Some specialties are conference coordinators, who handle most of the meeting logis- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Partner Donor Meeting and covention planners spend most of their time in offices, but during meetings and conventions they work on-site. tics; registrars, who handle advance registration and payment, name badges, and the set-up of on-site registration; and education planners, who coordinate the meeting content, including speakers and topics. In organizations that hold very large or complex meet ings, there may be several senior positions, such as manager of registration, education seminar coordinator, or conference services director, with the entire meeting planning department headed by a department director. Working Conditions The work of meeting and convention planners may be considered either stressful or energizing, but there is no question that it is fast-paced and demanding. Planners oversee multiple operations at one time, face numerous deadlines, and orchestrate the activi ties of several different groups of people. Meeting and convention planners spend the majority of their time in offices; but during meetings, they work on-site at the hotel, convention center, or other meeting location. They travel regularly to attend meetings and to visit prospective meeting sites. The extent of travel depends upon the type of organization for which the planner works. Local and regional organizations require mostly regional travel, while national and international organizations require travel to more distant locales, including travel abroad. Working hours can be long and irregular, with planners working more than 40 hours per week in the time leading up to a meeting and fewer hours after finishing a large meeting. During meetings or conventions, plan ners may work very long days, possibly starting as early as 5:00 a.m. and working until midnight. They are sometimes required to work on weekends. Some physical activity is required, including long hours of standing and walking, and some lifting and carrying of boxes of materials, exhibits, or supplies. Planners work with the public and with workers from diverse backgrounds. They may get to travel to beautiful hotels and interesting places and meet speakers and meeting attendees from around the world, and they usually enjoy a high level of autonomy. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Meeting and convention planners can qualify for their jobs through a variety of methods. Many migrate into the occupa tion from other occupations when they are given meeting plan ning duties in addition to their other duties. For example, an administrative assistant may begin planning small meetings and Management, Business, and Financial Occupations gradually move into a full-time position as a meeting and con vention planner. Others with a variety of educational or work backgrounds may seek out meeting and convention planning positions. Although there are some certification programs and college and university courses in meeting and convention plan ning available, a large proportion of the skills needed is learned on the job and through experience. Many employers prefer a person with a bachelor’s degree, but this is not always required. The proportion with a bachelor s degree is increasing because the work and responsibilities are becoming more complex, causing employers to prefer workers with more formal education. Planners have backgrounds in a variety of disciplines, but some useful undergraduate majors are marketing, public relations, communications, business, and hotel or hospitality management. A few schools offer courses or degree programs in meeting and event management. Individuals who have studied hospitality management may start out with greater responsibilities than those with other academic backgrounds. Because formal education is increasingly important, those who enter the occupation may enhance their pro fessional standing by enrolling in meeting planning courses offered by professional meeting and convention planning organizations, colleges, or universities. Others enter the occupation after working in hotel sales or as marketing or catering coordinators. These are effective ways to learn about meeting and convention planning because these hotel person nel work with numerous meeting planners, participate in negotiations for hotel services, and witness many different meetings. Workers who enter the occupation in these ways often start at a higher level than those with bachelor’s degrees and no experience. Meeting and convention planners must have excellent written and verbal communications skills and interpersonal skills. They must be detail-oriented with excellent organizational skills, and they must be able to multi-task, meet tight deadlines, and maintain composure under pressure in a fast-paced environment. Quan titative and analytic skills are needed to formulate and follow budgets and to understand and negotiate contracts. The ability to speak multiple languages is a plus, since some planners must communicate with meeting attendees and speakers from around the world. They also need computer skills, such as the ability to use financial and registration software and the Internet. In the course of their careers, planners may work in a number of different, unrelated industries, and they must be able to learn independently about each new industry so they can coordinate programs that ad dress the industry’s important issues. Entry-level planners, depending upon their education, gen erally begin by performing small tasks under the supervision of senior meeting professionals. For example, they may issue requests for proposals and discuss the resulting proposals with higher level planners. They also may assist in registration, review of contracts, or the creation of meeting timelines, schedules, or objectives. They may start by planning small meetings, such as committee meetings. Those who start at small organizations have the opportunity to learn more quickly, since they will be required to take on a larger number of tasks. To advance in this occupation, planners must volunteer to take on more responsibility and find new and better ways of doing things in their organizations. The most important factors are demonstrated skill on the job, determination, and gaining the respect of others within the organization. Advancement based solely on education is uncommon. On the other hand, education may improve work performance, and therefore may be an important factor in career development. As meeting and convention planners prove themselves, they are given greater responsibilities. This may mean taking on a wider range https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 97 of duties or moving to another planning specialty to gain experience in that area before moving to a higher level. For example, a planner may be promoted from conference coordinator, with responsibility for meeting logistics, to program coordinator, with responsibility for booking speakers and formatting the meeting’s program. The next step up may be meeting manager, who supervises all parts of the meeting, and then director of meetings, and then possibly department director of meetings and education. Another path for promotion is to move from a small organization to a larger one, taking on responsibility for larger meetings and conventions. At least two universities offer bachelor’s degrees with majors in meetings management. Additionally, meeting and convention plan ning continuing education programs are offered by a few universities and colleges. These programs are designed for career development of meeting professionals as well as for people wishing to enter the occupation. Some programs may require 40 to more than 100 classroom hours during a period of one semester to two years for a certificate of completion. The Convention Industry Council offers the Certified Meeting Professional (CMP) credential, a voluntary certification for meet ing and convention planners. Although the CMP is not required, it is widely recognized in the industry and may help in career advancement. In order to qualify, candidates must have a minimum of three years of meeting management experience, full-time employ ment in a meeting management capacity, and proof of accountability for successfully completed meetings. Those who qualify must then pass an examination that covers topics such as adult learning, financial management, facilities and services, logistics, and meet ing programs. With significant experience, meeting planners may become independent meeting consultants, advance to vice presidents or executive directors of associations, or start their own meeting plan ning firms. Employment Meeting and convention planners held about 43,000 jobs in 2004. About 30 percent worked for religious, grantmaking, civic, professional, and similar organizations; 17 percent worked for hotels and other accommodation establishments; 9 percent worked for public and private schools, colleges, universities, and training centers; 6 percent worked for governments; and 6 percent were self-employed. The rest were employed by convention and trade show organizing firms and in other industries as corporate meeting and convention planners. Job Outlook Employment of meeting and convention planners is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period, due to growth of business, the increasing globalization of the economy, and increasing use of electronic forms of com munication to bring people together. There will also be some job openings that arise due to the need to replace workers who leave the workforce or transfer to other occupations. Opportunities will be best for individuals with a bachelor’s degree and some meeting planning experience. As businesses and organizations become increasingly interna tional, meetings and conventions become even more important. In organizations that span the country or the globe, the periodic meeting is increasingly the only time the organization can bring all of its members together. Despite the proliferation of alternative forms of communication, such as e-mail, videoconferencing, and the Web, face-to-face interaction is still a necessity. In fact, new forms of communication foster interaction and connect individu als and groups that previously would not have collaborated. By 98 Occupational Outlook Handbook increasing the number of human connections, electronic forms of communication actually increase the demand for meetings, which may offer the only opportunity for these people to interact in person. Industries that are experiencing high growth tend to experience corresponding growth in meetings and conferences. For example, the medical and pharmaceutical sectors in particular, because of their high growth and their knowledge-intensive natures, will experience large increases in meeting activity. However, these increases will spur employment growth of meeting professionals in medical and pharmaceutical associations rather than in the industries directly. Professional associations hold conferences and conven tions that offer the continuing education, training, and opportuni ties to exchange ideas that are vital to medical and pharmaceutical professionals. Unlike workers in some occupations, meeting and convention planners can often change industries relatively easily, so they often are able to move to different industries in response to the growth or declines in particular sectors of the economy. Partly because of bioterrorism and homeland security is sues, Government agencies are now holding more meetings than ever. Private security and insurance companies also have increased their meeting activity. Because the Government increasingly outsources its non-core functions, this increased activity may spur demand for independent meeting consultants or workers in private meeting planning firms rather than increasing employment of Gov ernment meeting planners. Demand for corporate meeting planners is highly susceptible to business cycle fluctuations since meetings are usually among the first expenses to be cut when budgets are tight. For asso ciations, fluctuations are less pronounced because meetings are generally a source of revenue rather than an expense. However, since fewer people are able to attend association meetings dur ing recessions, associations often reduce their meeting staffs as well. Associations for industries such as health care, in which meeting attendance is required for professionals to maintain their licensure, are the least likely to experience cutbacks during downturns in the economy. Earnings Median annual earnings of meeting and convention planners in May 2004 were $39,620. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,180 and $50,790. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,060. In May 2004, me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of meeting and convention planners were as follows: Business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations ........................................................................... $43,100 Traveler accommodation............................................................... 36,440 Related Occupations Meeting and convention planners work to communicate a par ticular message or impression about an organization, as do public relations specialists. They coordinate the activities of several operations to create a service for large numbers of people, using organizational, logistical, communication, budgeting, and interper sonal skills. Food service managers use the same skills for similar purposes. Like meeting and convention planners, producers and directors coordinate a range of activities to produce a television show or movie, negotiate contracts, and communicate with a wide variety of people. Travel agents also use similar skills, such as interacting with many people and coordinating travel arrangements, including hotel accommodations, transportation, and advice on destinations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information about meeting planner certification, contact: ► Convention Industry Council, 8201 Greensboro Dr., Suite 300, McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.conventionindustry.org For information about internships and on-campus student meeting planning organizations, contact: >- Professional Convention Management Association, 2301 S. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1001, Chicago, EL 60616-1419. Internet: http://www.pcma.org For information about meeting planning education, entering the profession, and career paths, contact: >• Meeting Professionals International, 3030 LBJ Fwy., Suite 1700, Dallas, TX 75244-5903. Internet: http://www.mpiweb.org Tax Examiners, Collectors, and Revenue Agents (0*NET 13-2081.00) Significant Points • Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents work for Federal, State, and local governments. • A bachelor’s degree in accounting is becoming the standard source of training; in State and local govern ment, less formal education or work experience may be sufficient. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than average. Because of the relatively small number of openings, jobseekers can expect to face competition; workers with knowledge of tax laws and experience working with complex tax issues will have the best opportunities. • Nature of the Work Taxes are one of the certainties of life, and as long as governments collect taxes, there will be jobs for tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents. By reviewing tax returns, conducting audits, identifying taxes payable, and collecting overdue tax dollars, these workers ensure that governments obtain revenues from businesses and citizens. Tax examiners do similar work whether they are employed at the Federal, State, or local government level. They review filed tax returns lor accuracy and determine whether tax credits and deduc tions are allowed by law. Because many States assess individual income taxes based on the taxpayer’s reported Federal adjusted gross income, tax examiners working for the Federal Government report any adjustments or corrections they make to the States. State tax examiners then determine whether the adjustments affect the taxpayer s State tax liability. At the local level, tax examiners often have additional duties, but an integral part of the work still includes the need to determine the factual basis for claims for refunds. Tax examiners usually deal with the simplest tax returns—those filed by individual taxpayers with few deductions or those filed by small businesses. At the entry level, many tax examiners perform clerical duties, such as reviewing tax returns and entering them into a computer system for processing. If there is a problem, tax examiners may contact the taxpayer to resolve it. Tax examiners also review returns for accuracy, checking tax payers’ math and making sure that the amounts that they report match those reported from other sources, such as employers and banks. In addition, examiners verify that Social Security numbers Management, Business, and Financial Occupations 99 match names and that taxpayers have correctly interpreted the in structions on tax forms. Much of a tax examiner’s job involves making sure that tax credits and deductions claimed by taxpayers are legitimate. Tax examiners contact taxpayers by mail or telephone to address discrepancies and request supporting documentation. They may notify taxpayers of any overpayment or underpayment and either issue a refund or request further payment. If a taxpayer owes additional taxes, tax examiners adjust the total amount by assessing fees, interest, and penalties and notify the taxpayer of the total liability. Although most tax examiners deal with uncomplicated returns, some may work in more complex tax areas, such as pensions or business net operating losses. Revenue agents specialize in tax-related accounting work for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and for equivalent agencies in State and local governments. Like tax examiners, they audit returns for accuracy. However, revenue agents handle complicated income, sales, and excise tax returns of businesses and large corporations. As a result, their work differs in a number of ways from that of tax examiners. Entry-level Federal revenue agents usually audit tax returns of small businesses whose market specializations are similar. As they develop expertise in an industry, such as construction, retail sales, or finance, insurance, and real estate, revenue agents work with tax returns of larger corporations. Many experienced revenue agents specialize; for example, they may focus exclusively on multinational businesses. But all revenue agents working for the Federal Government must keep abreast of the lengthy, complex, and frequently changing tax code. Computer tech nology has simplified the research process, allowing revenue agents Internet access to relevant legal bulletins, IRS notices, and tax-related court decisions. Revenue agents are increasingly using computers to analyze data and identify trends that help to pinpoint tax offenders. At the State level, revenue agents have duties similar to those of their counterparts in the Federal Government. State revenue agents use revenue adjustment reports forwarded by the IRS to determine whether adjustments made by Federal revenue agents affect a taxpayer’s taxable income in the eyes of the States. In addition, State agents consider the sales and income taxes for their own States. At the local level, revenue agents have varying titles and duties, but they still perform field audits or office audits of financial records for business firms. In some cases, local revenue agents also exam ine financial records of individuals. These local agents, like their State counterparts, rely on the information contained in Federal tax returns. However, local agents also must be knowledgeable enough to apply local tax laws regarding income, utility fees, or school taxes. Collectors, also called revenue officers in the IRS, deal with delinquent accounts. The process of collecting a delinquent account starts with the revenue agent or tax examiner sending a report to the taxpayer. If the taxpayer makes no effort to resolve the delinquent account, the case is assigned to a collector. When a collector takes a case, he or she first sends the taxpayer a notice. The collector then works with the taxpayer on how to settle the debt. In cases in which taxpayers fail to file a tax return, Federal col lectors may request that the IRS prepare the return on a taxpayer’s behalf. In other instances, collectors are responsible for verifying claims that delinquent taxpayers cannot pay their taxes. They inves tigate these claims by researching court information on the status of liens, mortgages, or financial statements; locating assets through third parties, such as neighbors or local departments of motor vehicles; and requesting legal summonses for other records. Ultimately, collectors must decide whether the IRS should take a lien—a claim on an as set such as a bank account, real estate, or an automobile to settle a debt. Collectors also have the discretion to garnish wages—that is, a portion of earned wages—to collect taxes owed. Digitized fortake FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tMMl Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents review tax returns, conduct audits, and collect overdue taxes. A big part of a collector’s job at the Federal level is imposing and following up on delinquent taxpayers’ payment deadlines. For each case file, collectors must maintain records, including contacts, telephone numbers, and actions taken. Like tax examiners and revenue agents, collectors use comput ers to maintain files. Computer technology also gives collectors access to data to help them identify high-risk debtors—those who are unlikely to pay or are likely to flee. Collectors at the IRS usually work independently. However, they call on experts when tax examiners or revenue agents find fraudulent returns, or when the seizure of a property will involve complex legal steps. At the State level, collectors decide whether to take action on the basis of their own States’ tax returns. Collection work may be handled over the telephone or turned over to a collector who spe cializes in obtaining settlements. These collectors contact people directly and have the authority to issue subpoenas and request seizures of property. At the local levels, collectors have less power than their State and Federal counterparts. Although they can start the processes leading to the seizure of property and garnishment of wages, they must go through the local court system. Working Conditions Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents generally work a 40-hour week, although some overtime might be needed during the tax season. State and local tax examiners, who may review sales, 100 Occupational Outlook Handbook gasoline, and cigarette taxes instead of handling tax returns, may have a steadier workload year-round. Stress can result from the need to work under a deadline in checking returns and evaluating taxpayer claims. Collectors also must face the unpleasant task of confronting delinquent taxpayers. Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents work in clean, well-lighted offices, either in cubicles or at desks. Sometimes travel is necessary. Revenue agents at both the Federal and State levels spend a significant portion of their time in the offices of private firms, accessing tax-related records. Some agents may be permanently stationed in the offices of large corporations with complicated tax structures. Agents at the local level usually work in city halls or mu nicipal buildings. Collectors travel to local courthouses, county and municipal seats of government, businesses, and taxpayers’ homes to look up records, search for assets, and settle delinquent accounts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents work with confiden tial financial and personal information; therefore, trustworthiness is crucial for maintaining the confidentiality of individuals and businesses. Applicants for Federal Government jobs must submit to a background investigation. A degree in accounting is becoming the standard source of training for tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents. A bachelor’s degree generally is required for employment with the Federal Government. In State and local governments, prospective workers may be able to enter the occupation with an associate’s degree in accounting or with a combination of related tax and accounting work experience and some college-level business classes. For more advanced entry-level positions, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree; demonstrate specialized experience working with tax records, tax laws and regulations, documents, financial accounts, or similar records; or have some combination of postsecondary education and specialized experience. Tax examiners must be able to understand fundamental tax regu lations and procedures, pay attention to detail, and cope well with deadlines. After they are hired, tax examiners receive some formal training. In addition, annual employer-provided updates keep tax examiners current with changes in procedures and regulations. Revenue agents need strong analytical, organizational, and time management skills. They also must be able to work independently, because they spend so much time away from their home office, and they must keep current with changes in the tax code and laws. Newly hired revenue agents expand their accounting knowledge and remain up to date by consulting auditing manuals and other sources for detailed information about individual industries. Employers also continually offer training in new auditing techniques and tax-related issues and court decisions. Collectors need good interpersonal and communication skills because they deal directly with the public and because their reports are scrutinized when the IRS must legally justify attempts to seize assets. They also must be able to act independently and to exercise good judgment in deciding when and how to collect a debt. Appli cants for collector jobs need experience demonstrating knowledge of business and financial practices or knowledge of credit operations and collection of delinquent accounts. Entry-level collectors receive formal and on-the-job training under an instructor’s guidance before working independently. Col lectors usually complete initial training by the end of their second year of service, but may receive advanced technical instruction as they gain seniority and take on more difficult cases. Also, collectors are encouraged to continue their professional education by attending meetings to exchange information about how changes in tax laws affect collection methods. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Advancement potential within Federal, State, and local agencies varies for tax examiners, revenue agents, and collectors. For related jobs outside government, experienced workers can take a licensing exam administered by the Federal Government to become enrolled agents—nongovernment tax professionals authorized to represent taxpayers before the IRS. As revenue agents gain experience, they may specialize in an industry, work with larger corporations, and cover increasingly complex tax returns. Some revenue agents also specialize in as sisting in criminal investigations, auditing the books of known or suspected criminals such as drug dealers or money launderers. Some agents work with grand juries to help secure indictments. Others become international agents, assessing taxes on companies with subsidiaries abroad. Collectors who demonstrate leadership skills and a thorough knowledge of collection activities may advance to supervisory or managerial collector positions, in which they oversee the activities of other collectors. It is only these higher level supervisors and managers who may authorize the more serious actions against in dividuals and businesses. The more complex collection attempts, which usually are directed at larger businesses, are reserved for collectors at these higher levels. Employment In 2004, tax examiners, revenue agents, and collectors held about 76,000 jobs at all levels of government. About half worked for the Federal Government, 3 out of 10 for State governments, and the remainder in local governments. Among those employed by the IRS, tax examiners and revenue agents predominate because of the need to examine or audit tax returns. Collectors make up a smaller proportion, because most disputed tax liabilities do not require enforced collection. Job Outlook Employment of tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all oc cupations during the 2004-14 projection period. Because of the relatively small number of openings, jobseekers can expect to face competition. Demand for tax examiners, revenue agents, and tax collec tors will stem from changes in government policy toward tax enforcement and from growth in the number of businesses. The Federal Government is expected to increase its tax enforce ment efforts. Also, new technology and information sharing among tax agencies make it easier for agencies to pinpoint po tential offenders, increasing the number of cases for audit and collection. These two factors should increase the demand for revenue agents and tax collectors. The IRS plans to streamline its tax examination and collections process, and both State and Federal tax agencies are turning their enforcement focus to higher income taxpayers and businesses, which file more complicated tax returns. Because of these shifts, workers with knowledge of tax laws and experience working with complex tax issues will have the best opportunities. Several factors may limit the growth of these occupations. Be cause much of the simpler work done by tax examiners, collec tors, and revenue agents is now computerized, productivity has increased, limiting the need for more workers. The work of tax examiners is especially well suited to automation, adversely af fecting demand for these workers in particular. In addition, more than 40 States and many local tax agencies contract out their tax collection functions to private-sector collection agencies in order to reduce costs, and this trend is likely to continue. In 2005, the IRS received Congressional approval to begin outsourcing tax Management, Business, and Financial Occupations collection. IRS outsourcing will dampen growth in employment of revenue officers but is not expected to affect employment of revenue agents. Employment at the State and local levels may fluctuate with the overall state of the economy. When the economy is contracting, State and local governments are likely to freeze hiring and lay off workers in response to budgetary constraints. Opportunities at the Federal level will reflect the tightening or relaxation of budget constraints imposed on the IRS, the primary employer of these workers. Earnings In May 2004, median annual earnings for all tax examiners, collec tors, and revenue agents were $43,490. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,520 and $62,570. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $25,120, and the top 10 percent earned more than $81,240. However, median earnings vary considerably, depending on the level of government. At the Federal level, May 2004 median annual earnings for tax examiners were $52,830; at the State level, they were $41,920; and at the local level, they were $31,310. Earn ings also vary by occupational specialty. For example, in the Federal Government in 2005, tax examiners earned an average of $36,963, revenue agents earned $81,417, and tax specialists earned $54,364. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 101 Related Occupations Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents analyze and interpret financial data. Occupations with similar responsibilities include accountants and auditors, budget analysts, cost estimators, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, financial managers, and loan officers. Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining positions as tax examiners, collectors, or revenue agents with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Fed eral Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. State or local government personnel offices can provide informa tion about tax examiner, collector, or revenue agent jobs at those levels of government. For information about careers at the Internal Revenue Service, contact: ► Internal Revenue Service, 1111 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20224. Internet: http://www.jobs.irs.gov/index.html Professional and Related Occupations ____ Computer and Mathematical Occupations Actuaries (0*NET 15-2011.00) Significant Points • A strong background in mathematics is essential; actuaries must pass a series of examinations to gain full professional status. • About 6 out of 10 actuaries are employed in the insur ance industry. • Employment opportunities should remain good for those who qualify, because the stringent qualifying examination system restricts the number of candidates. Nature of the Work One of the main functions of actuaries is to help businesses assess the nsk of certain events occurring and to formulate policies that mini mize the cost of that risk. For this reason, actuaries are essential to the insurance industry. Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge of statistics, finance, and business, actuaries help design insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis. Most actuaries are employed in the insurance industry, specializing in life and health insurance or property and casualty insurance. They produce probability tables which determine the likelihood that a poten tial future event will generate a claim. From these tables, they estimate the amount a company can expect to pay in claims. For example, property and casualty actuaries calculate the expected amount payable in claims resulting from automobile accidents, an amount that varies with the insured person’s age, sex, driving history, type of car, and other factors. Actuaries ensure that the price, or premium, charged for such insurance will enable the company to cover claims and other expenses. The premium must be profitable, yet competitive with other insurance companies. Within the life and health insurance fields, ac tuaries are helping to develop long-term-care insurance and annuity policies, the latter a growing investment tool for many individuals. Actuaries in other financial services industries manage credit and price corporate security offerings. They also devise new investment tools to help their firms compete with other financial services companies. Pension actuaries working under the provi sions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) of 1974 evaluate pension plans covered by that Act and report on the plans’ financial soundness to participants, sponsors, and Federal regulators. Actuaries working in government help manage social programs such as Social Security and Medicare. Actuaries may play a role in determining company policy and may need to explain complex technical matters to company executives, 102 for FRASER Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis government officials, shareholders, policyholders, or the public in general. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting their businesses or explain changes in contract provisions to customers. They also may help companies develop plans to enter new lines of business or new geographic markets with existing lines of business by forecasting demand in competi tive settings. Both staff actuaries employed by businesses and consulting ac tuaries provide advice to clients on a contract basis. The duties of most consulting actuaries are similar to those of other actuaries. For example, some may evaluate company pension plans by calculating the future value of employee and employer contributions and deter mining whether the amounts are sufficient to meet the future needs of retirees. Others help companies reduce their insurance costs by lowering the level of risk the companies assume. For instance, they may provide advice on how to lessen the risk of injury on the job, which will lower worker’s compensation costs. Consulting actuaries sometimes testify in court regarding the value of the potential lifetime earnings of a person who is disabled or killed in an accident, the Actuaries need a strong background in mathematics. Professional and Related Occupations current value of future pension benefits (in divorce cases), or other values arrived at by complex calculations. Many consulting actu aries work in reinsurance, a field in which one insurance company arranges to share a large prospective liability policy with another insurance company in exchange for a percentage of the premium. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs, and their offices usually are comfortable and pleasant. They often work at least 40 hours a week. Some actuaries __particularly consulting actuaries—may travel to meet with clients. Consulting actuaries also may experience more erratic em ployment and be expected to work more than 40 hours per week. Employment Actuaries held about 18,000 jobs in 2004, with 6 out of 10 em ployed in the insurance industry. A growing number of actuaries work for firms providing a variety of corporate services, especially management and public relations, or for firms offering consulting services. A relatively small number of actuaries are employed by security and commodity brokers or by government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Actuaries need a strong background in mathematics. Applicants for beginning actuarial jobs usually have a bachelor s degree in math ematics, actuarial science, statistics, or a business-related discipline such as economics, finance, or accounting. About 100 colleges and universities offer an actuarial science program, and most offer a degree in mathematics, statistics, economics, or finance. Some companies hire applicants without specifying a major, provided that the applicant has a working knowledge of mathematics, including calculus, probability, and statistics, and has demonstrated this knowl edge by passing one or two actuarial exams required for professional designation. Courses in economics, accounting, finance, and insur ance also are useful. Companies increasingly prefer well-rounded individuals who, in addition to having acquired a strong technical background, have some training in liberal arts and business and possess strong communication skills. In addition to knowledge of mathematics, computer skills are be coming increasingly important. Actuaries should be able to de velop and use spreadsheets and databases, as well as standard statistical analysis software. Knowledge of computer programming languages, such as Visual Basic, also is useful. Two professional societies sponsor programs leading to full pro fessional status in their specialty. The Society ot Actuaries (SOA) administers a series of actuarial examinations in the life insurance, health benefits systems, retirement systems, and finance and invest ment fields. The Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) gives a series of examinations in the property and casualty field, which includes fire, accident, medical malpractice, worker’s compensation, and personal injury liability. The first four exams in the SOA and CAS examination senes are jointly sponsored by the two societies and cover the same material. For this reason, students do not need to commit themselves to a specialty until they have taken the initial examinations, which test an individual’s competence in probability, calculus, statistics, and other branches of mathematics. The first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actuaries. Many prospective ac tuaries begin taking the exams in college with the help of self-study guides and courses. Those who pass one or more examinations have better opportunities for employment at higher starting salaries than those who do not. After graduating from college, most prospective actuaries gam on-the job experience at an insurance company or consulting firm, while at the same time working to complete the examination https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 103 process. Actuaries are encouraged to finish the entire series of examinations as soon as possible, advancing first to the Associate level (with an ASA or ACAS designation) and then to the Fellowship level (FSAor FCAS designation). Advanced topics in the casualty field include investment and assets, dynamic financial analysis, and valuation of insurance. Candidates in the SOA examination series must choose a specialty—group and health benefits, individual life and annuities, pensions, investments, or finance. Examinations are given twice a year, in the spring and the fall. Although many companies allot time to their employees for study, home study is required to pass the examinations, and many actuaries study for months to prepare for each examination. It is likewise common for employers to pay the hundreds of dollars for examination fees and study materials. Most actuaries reach the Associate level within 4 to 6 years and the Fellowship level a few years later. Specific requirements apply to pension actuaries, who verify the financial status of defined benefit pension plans for the Federal Government. These actuaries must be enrolled by the Joint Board of the U.S. Treasury Department and the U.S. Department of Labor for the Enrollment of Actuaries. To qualify for enrollment, appli cants must meet certain experience and examination requirements, as stipulated by the Board. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep up with current economic and social trends and legislation, as well as with health, business, finance, and economic developments that could affect insurance or investment practices. Good communication and interpersonal skills also are important, particularly for prospective consulting actuaries. Beginning actuaries often rotate among different jobs in an organization to learn various actuarial operations and phases of insurance work, such as marketing, underwriting, and product development. At first, they prepare data for actuarial projects or perform other simple tasks. As they gain experience, actuaries may supervise clerks, prepare correspondence, draft reports, and conduct research. They may move from one company to another early in their careers as they advance to higher positions. Advancement depends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries with a broad knowledge of the insurance, pension, investment, or employee benefits fields can rise to administrative and executive positions in their companies. Actuaries with supervisory ability may advance to management positions in other areas, such as underwriting, account ing, data processing, marketing, and advertising. Some actuaries assume college and university faculty positions. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of actuaries is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment opportunities should remain good for those who qualify, because the stringent qualifying examination system restricts the number of candidates. Employment growth in the insurance industry is expected to continue at a stable pace, while more significant job growth is likely in some other industries. In addition, a small number of jobs will open up each year to replace actuaries who leave the occupation to retire or who find new jobs. Steady demand by the insurance industry—the largest employer of actuaries—should ensure the creation of new actuary jobs in this key industry over the projection period. Actuaries will continue to be needed to develop, price, and evaluate a variety of insurance products and calculate the costs of new risks. Although employ ment of actuaries in life insurance had begun to decline recently, the growing popularity of annuities, a financial product offered primarily by life insurance companies, has resulted in some job 104 Occupational Outlook Handbook growth in this specialty. Also, new actuarial positions have been created in property-casualty insurance to analyze evolving risks, such as terrorism. Some new employment opportunities for actuaries should also become available in the health care field as health care issues and Medi care reform continue to receive growing attention. Increased regulation of managed health care companies and the desire to contain health care costs will continue to provide job opportunities for actuaries, who will also be needed to evaluate the risks associated with new medical issues, such as genetic testing and the impact of new diseases. Others in this field are involved in drafting health care legislation. A significant proportion of new actuaries will find employment with consulting firms. Companies that may not find it cost effective to hire their own actuaries are increasingly hiring consulting actuaries to analyze various risks. Other areas with notable growth prospects are information services and accounting services. Also, because actuarial skills are increasingly seen as useful to other industries that deal with risk, such as the airline and the banking industries, additional job openings may be created in these industries. The best job prospects for entry-level positions will be for those candidates who have passed at least one or two of the initial actuarial exams. Candidates with additional knowledge or experience, such as those who possess computer programming skills, will be particularly attractive to employers. Most jobs in this occupation are located in urban areas, but opportunities vary by geographic location. States in which actuary jobs are concentrated include Illinois, New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut. Earnings Median annual earnings of actuaries were $76,340 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,770 and $107,650. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, annual starting salaries for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in actuarial science averaged $52,741 in 2005. Insurance companies and consulting firms give merit increases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Some companies also offer cash bonuses for each professional designa tion achieved. Related Occupations Actuaries need a strong background in mathematics, statistics, and related fields. Other workers whose jobs involve related skills in clude accountants and auditors, budget analysts, economists, market and survey researchers, financial analysts and personal financial advi sors, insurance underwriters, mathematicians, and statisticians. Sources of Additional Information Career information on actuaries specializing in pensions is avail able from: > American Society of Pension Actuaries, 4245 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 750 Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.aspa.org For information about actuarial careers in life and health insur ance, employee benefits and pensions, and finance and investments, contact: ► Society of Actuaries (SOA), 475 N. Martingale Rd„ Suite 600 Schaumburg, IL 60173-2226. Internet: http://www.soa.org For information about actuarial careers in property and casualty insurance, contact: ► Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS), 1100 N. Glebe Rd„ Suite 600 Arlington, VA 222010425. Internet: http://www.casact.org The SOA and CAS jointly sponsor a Web site for those interested in pursuing an actuarial career. Internet: http://w ww.BcAnActuarj.org For general information on a career as an actuary, contact: > American Academy of Actuaries, 1100 17th St. NW„ 7th Floor, Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.actuary.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer Programmers (0*NET 15-1021.00) Significant Points • Sixty-seven percent of computer programmers held a college or higher degree in 2004; nearly half held a bachelor s degree, and about 1 in 5 held a graduate degree. • Employment is expected to grow much more slowly than that for other computer specialists. • Prospects likely will be best for college graduates with knowledge of a variety of programming languages and tools, those with less formal education or its equivalent in work experience are apt to face strong competition for programming jobs. Nature of the Work Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed in structions, called programs, that computers must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also conceive, design, and test logi cal structures tor solving problems by computer. Many technical innovations in programming—advanced computing technologies and sophisticated new languages and programming tools—have redefined the role of a programmer and elevated much of the pro gramming work done today. Job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the organization. In this occupational statement, computer programmers are individuals whose main job function is programming; this group has a wide range of responsibilities and educational backgrounds. Computer programs tell the computer what to do—which infor mation to identify and access, how to process it, and what equipment to use. Programs vary widely depending on the type of information to be accessed or generated. For example, the instructions involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas whose solutions can only be approximated or that draw data from many existing systems may require more than a year of work. In most cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined primarily by computer software engineers and systems analysts. (Separate statements on computer software engineers and on computer systems analysts appear elsewhere in the Handbook) After the design process is complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. The programmer codes these instructions in a conventional programming language such as COBOL; an artificial intelligence language such as Prolog; or one of the most advanced object-oriented languages, such as Java, C++, or ACTOR. Different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. COBOL, for example, is commonly used for business ap plications, whereas Fortran (short for “formula translation”) is used in science and engineering. C++ is widely used for both scientific and business applications. Extensible Markup Language (XML) has become a popular programming tool for Web programmers, along with J2EE (Java 2 Platform). Programmers generally know more than one programming language and, because many languages are similar, they often can learn new languages relatively easily. In practice’ Professional and Related Occupations programmers often are referred to by the language they know, such as Java programmers, or by the type of function they perform or environment in which they work—for example, database program mers, mainframe programmers, or Web programmers. Many programmers update, repair, modify, and expand existing programs. When making changes to a section of code, called a rou tine, programmers need to make other users aware of the task that the routine is to perform. They do this by inserting comments in the coded instructions so that others can understand the program. Many programmers use computer-assisted software engineering (CASE) tools to automate much of the coding process. These tools enable a programmer to concentrate on writing the unique parts of the pro gram, because the tools automate various pieces of the program being built. CASE tools generate whole sections of code automatically, rather than line by line. Programmers also use libraries of basic code that can be modified or customized for a specific application. This approach yields more reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers’ productivity by eliminating some routine steps. Programmers test a program by running it to ensure that the instructions are correct and that the program produces the desired outcome. If errors do occur, the programmer must make the appro priate change and recheck the program until it produces the correct results. This process is called testing and debugging. Program mers may continue to fix these problems throughout the life of a program. Programmers working in a mainframe environment, which involves a large centralized computer, may prepare instructions for a computer operator who will run the program. (A separate state ment on computer operators appears elsewhere in the Handbook) Programmers also may contribute to a manual for persons who will be using the program. Computer programmers often are grouped into two broad types applications programmers and systems programmers. Applications programmers write programs to handle a specific job, such as a program to track inventory within an organization. They also may revise existing packaged software or customize generic applications which are frequently purchased from vendors. Systems program mers, in contrast, write programs to maintain and control computer systems software, such as operating systems, networked systems, and database systems. These workers make changes in the instruc tions that determine how the network, workstations, and central processing unit of the system handle the various jobs they have been given and how they communicate with peripheral equipment such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowledge of the entire computer system, systems programmers often help applications programmers determine the source of problems that over many of the tasks previously performed by programmers. For example, the growing use of packaged software, such as spreadsheet and database management software packages, allows users to write simple programs to access data and perform calculations. Working Conditions Programmers generally work in offices in comfortable surroundings. Many programmers may work long hours or week ends to meet deadlines or fix critical problems that occur during off hours. Telecommuting is becoming common for a wide range of computer professionals, including computer programmers. As computer networks expand, more programmers are able to make corrections or fix problems remotely using modems, e-mail, and the Internet to connect to a customer’s computer. Like other workers who spend long periods in front of a com puter terminal typing at a keyboard, programmers are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are many training paths available for programmers, mainly because employers’ needs are so varied, the level of education and experience employers seek has been rising due to the growing number of qualified applicants and the specialization involved with most programming tasks. Bachelor’s degrees are commonly re quired, although some programmers may qualify for certain jobs with 2-year degrees or certificates. The associate degree is a widely used ■ft Mmim may occur with their programs. Programmers in software development companies may work directly with experts from various fields to create software—either programs designed for specific clients or packaged software for general use—ranging from games and educational software to pro grams for desktop publishing and financial planning. Programming of packaged software constitutes one of the most rapidly growing segments of the computer services industry. In some organizations, particularly small ones, workers com monly known as programmer-analysts are responsible for both the systems analysis and the actual programming work. (A more detailed description of the work of programmer-analysts is presented in the statement on computer systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Advanced programming languages and new objectoriented programming capabilities are increasing the efficiency and productivity of both programmers and users. The transition from a mainframe environment to one that is based primarily on personal computers (PCs) has blurred the once rigid distinction between the programmer and the user. Increasingly, adept end users are taking https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 105 Computer programmers tell the computer what to do. 106 Occupational Outlook Handbook entry-level credential for prospective computer programmers. Most community colleges and many independent technical institutes and proprietary schools offer an associate degree in computer science or a related information technology field. Employers primarily are interested in programming knowledge, and computer programmers can become certified in a programming language such as C++ or Java. College graduates who are interested in changing careers or developing an area of expertise also may return to a 2-year community college or technical school for addi tional training. In the absence of a degree, substantial specialized experience or expertise may be needed. Even when hiring program mers with a degree, employers appear to place more emphasis on previous experience. Some computer programmers hold a college degree in computer science, mathematics, or information systems, whereas others have taken special courses in computer programming to supplement their degree in a field such as accounting, inventory control, or another area of business. As the level of education and training required by employers continues to ri se, the proportion of programmers with a college degree should increase in the future. As indicated by the following tabulation, more than two-thirds of computer programmers had a bachelor’s or higher degree in 2004. High school graduate or less Some college, no degree..... Associate degree................. Bachelor’s degree................ Graduate degree................... Percent 8.3 ... 14.1 ... 10.2 ... 49.1 ... 18.3 ... Required skills vary from job to job, but the demand for various skills generally is driven by changes in technology. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications usually prefer col lege graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences. Graduate degrees in related fields are required for some jobs. Employers who use com puters for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in management information systems and business and who possess strong programming skills. Although knowledge of tra ditional languages still is important, employers are placing increasing emphasis on newer, object-oriented programming languages and tools such as C++ and Java. Additionally, employers are seeking persons familiar with fourth-generation and fifth-generation languages that involve graphic user interface and systems programming. Employers also prefer applicants who have general business skills and experience related to the operations of the firm. Students can improve their em ployment prospects by participating in a college work-study program or by undertaking an internship. Most systems programmers hold a 4-year degree in computer science. Extensive knowledge of a variety of operating systems is essential for such workers. This includes being able to configure an operating system to work with different types of hardware and having the skills needed to adapt the operating system to best meet the needs of a particular organization. Systems programmers also must be able to work with database systems, such as DB2, Oracle, or Sybase. When hiring programmers, employers look for people with the necessary programming skills who can think logically and pay close attention to detail. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work on exacting analytical work, especially under pressure. Ingenuity and creativity are particularly important when programmers design solutions and test their work for poten tial failures. The ability to work with abstract concepts and to do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers because they work with the software that controls the computer’s operation. Because programmers are expected to work in teams and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis interact directly with users, employers want programmers who are able to communicate with nontechnical personnel. Entry-level or junior programmers may work alone on simple assignments after some initial instruction, or they may be assigned to work on a team with more experienced programmers. Either way, beginning programmers generally must work under close supervision. Because technology changes so rapidly, programmers must continuously update their knowledge and skills by taking courses sponsored by their employer or by software vendors, or offered through local community colleges and universities. For skilled workers who keep up to date with the latest technol ogy* 1he prospects for advancement are good. In large organizations, programmers may be promoted to lead programmer and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications programmers may move into systems programming after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. With general business experience, pro grammers may become programmer-analysts or systems analysts or be promoted to managerial positions. Other programmers, with special ized knowledge and experience with a language or operating system, may work in research and development for multimedia or Internet technology and may even become computer software engineers. As employers increasingly contract with outside firms to do programming jobs, more opportunities should arise for experienced programmers with expertise in a specific area to work as consultants. Certification is a way to demonstrate a level of competence, and may provide a jobseeker with a competitive advantage. In addition to language-specific certificates that a programmer can obtain, product vendors or software firms also offer certification and may require professionals who work with their products to be certified. Voluntary certification also is available through various other organizations. Employment Computer programmers held about 455,000jobs in 2004. Program mers are employed in almost every industry, but the largest concen tration is in computer systems design and related services. Large numbers of programmers also work for telecommunications com panies, software publishers, financial institutions, insurance carriers, educational institutions, and government agencies. Many computer programmers are employed on a temporary or contract basis or work as independent consultants, providing com panies expertise with new programming languages or specialized areas of application. Rather than hiring programmers as permanent employees and then laying them off after ajob is completed, employers can contract with temporary help agencies, with consulting firms, or with programmers themselves. A marketing firm, for example, may require programming services only to write and debug the software necessary to get a new customer database running. Bringing in an independent contractor or consultant with experience in a new or advanced programming language enables the firm to complete the job without having to retrain existing workers. Such jobs may last anywhere from several weeks to a year or longer. There were 25,000 self-employed computer programmers in 2004. Job Outlook As programming tasks become increasingly sophisticated and ad ditional levels of skill and experience are demanded by employers, graduates of 2-year programs and people with less than a 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience will face strong competi tion for programming jobs. Competition for entry-level positions, however, also can affect applicants with a bachelor’s degree. Pros pects should be best for college graduates with knowledge of, and experience working with, a variety of programming languages and tools including C++ and other object-oriented languages such as Java, as well as newer, domain-specific languages that apply Professional and Related Occupations to computer networking, database management, and Internet applica tion development. Obtaining vendor-specific or language-specific certification also can provide a competitive edge. Because demand fluctuates with employers’ needs, jobseekers should keep up to date with the latest skills and technologies. Individuals who want to become programmers can enhance their prospects by combining the appropriate formal training with practical work experience. Employment of programmers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. So phisticated computer software now has the capability to write basic code, eliminating the need for many programmers to do this routine work. The consolidation and centralization of systems and applications, developments in packaged software, advances in programming languages and tools, and the growing ability of users to design, write, and implement more of their own programs mean that more of the programming functions can be transferred from programmers to other types of information workers, such as computer software engineers. Another factor limiting growth in employment is the outsourcing of these jobs to other countries. Computer programmers can perform their job function from anywhere in the world and can digitally trans mit their programs to any location via e-mail. Programmers are at a much higher risk of having their jobs outsourced abroad than are workers involved in more complex and sophisticated information technology functions, such as software engineering, because com puter programming has become an international language, requiring little localized or specialized knowledge. Additionally, the work of computer programmers can be routinized, once knowledge of a particular programming language is mastered. Nevertheless, employers will continue to need programmers who have strong technical skills and who understand an employer s business and its programming requirements. This means that pro grammers will have to keep abreast of changing programming lan guages and techniques. Given the importance of networking and the expansion of client/server, Web-based, and wireless environments, organizations will look for programmers who can support data com munications and help implement electronic commerce and intranet strategies. Demand for programmers with strong object-oriented programming capabilities and technical specialization in areas such as client/server programming, wireless applications, multimedia technology, and graphic user interface likely will stem from the expansion of intranets, extranets, and Internet applications. Pro grammers also will be needed to create and maintain expert systems and embed these technologies in more products. Finally, a growing emphasis on cybersecurity will lead to increased demand for pro grammers who are familiar with digital security issues and skilled in using appropriate security technology. Jobs for both systems and applications programmers should be most plentiful in data-processing service firms, software houses, and computer consulting businesses. These types of establishments are part of computer systems design and related services and software publishers, which are projected to be among the fastest growing in dustries in the economy over the 2004-14 period. As organizations attempt to control costs and keep up with changing technology, they will need programmers to assist in conversions to new computer lan guages and systems. In addition, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace programmers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations such as manager or systems analyst. Median annual earnings of computer programmers were $62,890 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,580 and $81,280 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,470; highest 10 percent earned more than $99,610. Median annual Digitized forthe FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 107 earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer programmers in May 2004 are shown below: Software publishers.......................................... Computer systems design and related services Data processing, hosting, and related services. Insurance carriers............................................. Management of companies and enterprises.... $73,060 67,600 64,540 62,990 62,160 According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, starting salary offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science averaged $50,820 a year in 2005. According to Robert Half International, a firm providing specialized staffing services, average annual starting salaries in 2005 ranged from $52,500 to $83,250 for applications development programmers/analysts, and from $55,000 to $88,250 for software developers. Average starting salaries for mainframe systems pro grammers ranged from $50,250 to $67,500 in 2005. Related Occupations Other professional workers who deal extensively with data include computer software engineers; computer scientists and database administrators; computer systems analysts; statisticians; mathemati cians; engineers; and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers. Municipal chambers of commerce are an additional source of information on an area s largest employers. Further information about computer careers is available Irom: ► Association for Computing Machinery, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org ► Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org ► National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Computer Scientists and Database Administrators____ ____ ___ (0*NET 15-1011.00, 15-1061.00, 15-1081.00, 15-1099.99)_____ ____ Significant Points • Education requirements range from an associate degree • to a doctoral degree. Employment is expected to increase much faster than the average as organizations continue to adopt increas ingly sophisticated technologies. • Job prospects are favorable. Nature of the Work The rapid spread of computers and information technology has generated a need for highly trained workers proficient in various job functions. These workers—computer scientists, database administrators, and network systems and data communication analysts—include a wide range of computer specialists. Job tasks and occupational titles used to describe these work ers evolve rapidly, reflecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology, as well as the preferences and practices of employers. 108 Occupational Outlook Handbook Computer scientists work as theorists, researchers, or inventors. Their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theo retical expertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of new technology. Those employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging from complexity theory to hardware to programming-language design. Some work on mul tidisciplinary projects, such as developing and advancing uses of virtual reality, extending human-computer interaction, or designing robots. Their counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory; developing specialized languages or information technologies; or designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or even computer games. With the Internet and electronic business generating large volumes of data, there is a growing need to be able to store, manage, and extract data effectively. Database administrators work with database management systems software and determine ways to orga nize and store data. They identify user requirements, set up computer databases, and test and coordinate modifications to the computer database systems. An organization’s database administrator ensures the performance of the system, understands the platform on which the database runs, and adds new users to the system. Because they also may design and implement system security, database administrators often plan and coordinate security measures. With the volume of sensitive data generated every second growing rapidly, data integrity, backup systems, and database security have become increasingly important aspects of the job of database administrators. Because networks are configured in many ways, network systems and data communications analysts are needed to design, test, and evaluate systems such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), the Internet, intranets, and other data communica tions systems. Systems can range from a connection between two offices in the same building to globally distributed networks, voice mail, and e-mail systems of a multinational organization. Network systems and data communications analysts perform network model ing, analysis, and planning; they also may research related products and make necessary hardware and software recommendations. Telecommunications specialists focus on the interaction between computer and communications equipment. These workers design voice and data communication systems, supervise the installation of the systems, and provide maintenance and other services to clients after the systems are installed. The growth of the Internet and the expansion of the World Wide Web (the graphical portion of the Internet) have generated a variety of occupations related to the design, development, and mainte nance of Web sites and their servers. For example, webmasters are responsible for all technical aspects of a Web site, including performance issues such as speed of access, and for approving the content ol the site. Internet developers or Web developers, also called Web designers, are responsible for day-to-day site creation and design. Working Conditions Computer scientists and database administrators normally work in offices or laboratories in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as many other professional or office workers do. However, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines or solve specific problems. With the technology available today, telecommuting is common for computer professionals. As networks expand, more work can be done from remote locations through modems, laptops, electronic mail, and the Internet. Like other workers who spend long periods in front of a computer terminal typing on a keyboard, computer scientists and database ad ministrators are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome or cumulative trauma disorder. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Database administrators determine ways to organize and store data. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Rapidly changing technology requires an increasing level of skill and education on the part of employees. Companies look for pro fessionals with an ever-broader background and range of skills, in cluding not only technical knowledge, but also communication and other interpersonal skills. While there is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a network systems analyst, computer scientist, or database administrator, most employers place a pre mium on some formal college education. A bachelor’s degree is a prerequisite for many jobs; however, some jobs may require only a 2-year degree. Relevant work experience also is very important. For more technically complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. For database administrator positions, many employers seek applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in computer science, infor mation science, or management information systems (MIS). MIS programs usually are part of the business school or college and differ considerably from computer science programs, emphasiz ing business and management-oriented coursework and business computing courses. Employers increasingly seek individuals with a master s degree in business administration (MBA), with a concentra tion in information systems, as more firms move their business to the Internet. For some network systems and data communication Professional and Related Occupations 109 analysts, such as webmasters, an associate degree or certificate is sufficient, although more advanced positions might require a computer-related bachelor’s degree. For computer and information scientists, a doctoral degree generally is required because of the highly technical nature of their work. Despite employers’ preference for those with technical degrees, persons with degrees in a variety of majors find employment in these occupations. The level of education and the type of training that employers require depend on their needs. One factor affecting these needs is changes in technology. Employers often scramble to find workers capable of implementing new technologies. Workers with formal education or experience in information security, for example, are in demand because of the growing need for their skills and services. Employers also look for workers skilled in wireless technologies as wireless networks and applications have spread into versities, and private training institutions offer continuing education. Additional training may come from professional development semi nars offered by professional computing societies. Certification is a way to demonstrate a level of competence in a particular field. Some product vendors or software firms ofler certification and require professionals who work with their products to be certified. Many employers regard these certifications as the industry standard. For example, one method of acquiring enough knowledge to get a job as a database administrator is to become certified in a specific type of database management. Voluntary cer tification also is available through various organizations associated with computer specialists. Professional certification may afford a many firms and organizations. Most community colleges and many independent technical insti tutes and proprietary schools offer an associate’s degree in computer science or a related information technology field. Many of these programs may be geared more toward meeting the needs of local businesses and are more occupation specific than are 4-year degree programs. Some jobs may be better suited to the level of training that such programs offer. Employers usually look for people who have broad knowledge and experience related to computer systems and technologies, strong problem-solving and analytical skills, and good interpersonal skills. Courses in computer science or systems design offer good preparation for a job in these computer occupations. For jobs in a business environment, employers usu ally want systems analysts to have business management or closely related skills, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Art or graphic design skills may be desirable Computer scientists and database administrators held about 507,000 jobs in 2004, including about 66,000 who were self-employed. Employment was distributed among the detailed occupations as for webmasters or Web developers. Jobseekers can enhance their employment opportunities by participating in internship or co-op programs offered through their schools. Because many people develop advanced computer skills in a noncomputer occupation and then transfer those skills to a com puter occupation, a background in the industry in which the person’s job is located, such as financial services, banking, or accounting, can be important. Others have taken computer science courses to supple ment their study in fields such as accounting, inventory control, or other business areas. Computer scientists and database administrators must be able to think logically and have good communication skills. Because they often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously, the ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail is important. Although these computer specialists sometimes work independently, they frequently work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as program mers and managers, as well as with users or other staff who may have no technical computer background. Computer scientists employed in private industry may advance into managerial or project leadership positions. Those employed in academic institutions can become heads of research departments or published authorities in their field. Database administrators may advance into managerial positions, such as chief technology offi cer, on the basis of their experience managing data and enforcing security. Computer specialists with work experience and consider able expertise in a particular subject or a certain application may find lucrative opportunities as independent consultants or may choose to start their own computer consulting firms. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep one’s skills up to date. Employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and uni https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis jobseeker a competitive advantage. Employment follows: Network systems and data communication analysts Database administrators.......................................... Computer and information scientists, research....... Computer specialists, all other................................ 231.000 104.000 22,000 149.000 Although they are increasingly employed in every sector of the economy, the greatest concentration of these workers is in the computer systems design and related services industry. Firms in this industry provide services related to the commercial use of comput ers on a contract basis, including custom computer programming services; computer systems integration design services; computer facilities management services, including computer systems or data processing facilities support services for clients; and other computer-related services, such as disaster recovery services and software installation. Many computer scientists and database administrators are employed by Internet service providers; Web search portals; and data processing, hosting, and related services firms. Others work for government, manufacturers of computer and electronic products, insurance companies, financial institutions, and universities. A growing number of computer specialists, such as network and data communications analysts, are employed on a temporary or contract basis; many of these individuals are self-employed, work ing independently as contractors or consultants. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several network systems and data communication analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of the analysts would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract for such employees with a temporary help agency or a consulting firm or with the network systems analysts themselves. Such jobs may last from several months to 2 years or more. This growing practice enables companies to bring in people with the exact skills they need to complete a particular project, rather than having to spend time or money training or retraining existing workers. Often, experienced consultants then train a company’s in-house staff as a project develops. Job Outlook Computer scientists and database administrators should continue to enjoy favorable job prospects. As technology becomes more sophisticated and complex, however, employers demand a higher level of skill and expertise from their employees. Individuals with an advanced degree in computer science or computer engineering or with an MBA with a concentration in information systems should 110 Occupational Outlook Handbook enjoy favorable employment prospects. College graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science, computer engineering, information science, or MIS also should enjoy favorable prospects, particularly if they have supplemented their formal education with practical experience. Because employers continue to seek com puter specialists who can combine strong technical skills with good interpersonal and business skills, graduates with degrees in fields other than computer science who have had courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other information technology areas also should continue to find jobs in these computer fields. In fact, individuals with the right experience and training can work in these computer occupations regardless of their college major or level of formal education. Computer scientists and database administrators are expected to be among the fastest growing occupations through 2014. Employ ment of these computer specialists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations as organizations continue to adopt and integrate increasingly sophisticated technologies. Job increases will be driven by very rapid growth in computer systems design and related services, which is projected to be one of the fastest growing industries in the U.S. economy. Job growth will not be as rapid as during the previous decade, however, as the in formation technology sector begins to mature and as routine work is increasingly outsourced overseas. In addition to growth, many job openings will arise annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or other occupations or who leave the labor force. The demand for networking to facilitate the sharing of informa tion, the expansion of client-server environments, and the need for computer specialists to use their knowledge and skills in a prob lem-solving capacity will be major factors in the rising demand for computer scientists and database administrators. Moreover, falling prices of computer hardware and software should continue to induce more businesses to expand their computerized operations and inte grate new technologies into them. To maintain a competitive edge and operate more efficiently, firms will keep demanding computer specialists who are knowledgeable about the latest technologies and are able to apply them to meet the needs of businesses. Increasingly, more sophisticated and complex technology is being implemented across all organizations, fueling demand for computer scientists and database administrators. There is growing demand for network systems and data communication analysts to help firms maximize their efficiency with available technology. Expansion of electronic commerce—doing business on the Internet—and the continuing need to build and maintain databases that store critical information on customers, inventory, and projects are fueling demand for database administrators familiar with the latest technology. Also, the increasing importance placed on cybersecurity—the protection of electronic information—will result in a need for workers skilled in information security. The development of new technologies usually leads to demand for various kinds of workers. The expanding integration of Internet technologies into businesses, for example, has resulted in a growing need for specialists who can develop and support Internet and intranet applications. The growth of electronic commerce means that more establishments use the Internet to conduct their business online. The introduction of the wireless Internet, known as WiFi, creates new systems to be analyzed and new data to be administered. The spread of such new technologies translates into a need for information tech nology professionals who can help organizations use technology to communicate with employees, clients, and consumers. Explosive growth in these areas also is expected to fuel demand for specialists who are knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of computer and information scientists, research, were $85,190 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $64,860 and $108,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $48,930, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $132,700. Median annual earnings of computer and information scientists employed in computer systems design and related services in May 2004 were $85,530. Median annual earnings of database administrators were $60,650 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,490 and $81,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,450. In May 2004, median annual earnings of database administrators employed in computer systems design and related services were $70,530, and for those in management of companies and enterprises, earnings were $65,990. Median annual earnings of network systems and data communica tion analysts were $60,600 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,480 and $78,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $95,040. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of network systems and data communications analysts in May 2004 are shown below: Wired telecommunications carriers.............................................. $65,130 Insurance carriers.......................................................................... 64,660 Management of companies and enterprises.................................. 64,170 Computer systems design and related services............................. 63,910 Local government......................................................................... 52 300 Median annual earnings of all other computer specialists were $59,480 in May 2004. Median annual earnings of all other com puter specialists employed in computer systems design and related services were $57,430, and, for those in management of companies and enterprises, earnings were $68,590 in May 2004. According to the National Association of Colleges and Em ployers, starting offers for graduates with a doctoral degree in computer science averaged $93,050 in 2005. Starting offers aver aged $50,820 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science; $46,189 for those with a degree in computer systems analysis; $44,417 for those with a degree in management informa tion systems; and $44,775 for those with a degree in information sciences and systems. According to Robert Half International, a firm providing special ized staffing services, starting salaries in 2005 ranged from $67,750 to $95,500 for database administrators. Salaries for networking and Internet-related occupations ranged from $47,000 to $68,500 for LAN administrators and from $51,750 to $74,520 for web developers. Starting salaries for information security professionals ranged from $63,750 to $93,000 in 2005. Related Occupations Others who work with large amounts of data are computer pro grammers, computer software engineers, computer and information systems managers, engineers, mathematicians, and statisticians. Sources of Additional Information Further information about computer careers is available from: >- Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org ► Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org >- National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Professional and Related Occupations Computer Software Engineers (0*NET 15-1031.00, 15-1032.00) _________ _ Significant Points • • Computer software engineers are projected to be one of the fastest growing occupations over the 2004-14 period. Very good opportunities are expected for college graduates with at least a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering or computer science and with practical work experience. • Computer software engineers must continually strive to acquire new skills in conjunction with the rapid changes that are occurring in computer technology. Nature of the Work The explosive impact of computers and information technology on our everyday lives has generated a need to design and develop new computer software systems and to incorporate new technologies into a rapidly growing range of applications. The tasks performed by workers known as computer software engineers evolve quickly, reflecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology, as well as the preferences and practices of employers. Computer software engineers apply the principles and techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis to the design, de velopment, testing, and evaluation of the software and systems that enable computers to perform their many applications. (A separate statement on computer hardware engineers appears elsewhere in the Handbook) Software engineers working in applications or systems develop ment analyze users’ needs and design, construct, test, and maintain computer applications software or systems. Software engineers can be involved in the design and development of many types of software, including software for operating systems and network distribution, and compilers, which convert programs for execution on a computer. In programming, or coding, software engineers instruct a computer, line by line, how to perform a function. They also solve technical problems that arise. Software engineers must possess strong programming skills, but are more concerned with develop ing algorithms and analyzing and solving programming problems than with actually writing code. (A separate statement on computer programmers appears elsewhere in the Handbook) Computer applications software engineers analyze users needs and design, construct, and maintain general computer applications software or specialized utility programs. These workers use dif ferent programming languages, depending on the purpose of the program. The programming languages most often used are C, C++, and Java, with Fortran and COBOL used less commonly. Some software engineers develop both packaged systems and systems software or create customized applications. Computer systems software engineers coordinate the construc tion and maintenance of a company’s computer systems and plan their future growth. Working with the company, they coordinate each department’s computer needs—ordering, inventory, billing, and payroll recordkeeping, for example—and make suggestions about its technical direction. They also might set up the company s intranets—networks that link computers within the organization and ease communication among the various departments. Systems software engineers work for companies that configure, implement, and install complete computer systems. These workers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 111 may be members of the marketing or sales staff, serving as the pri mary technical resource for sales workers and customers. They also may be involved in product sales and in providing their customers with continuing technical support. Since the selling of complex computer systems often requires substantial customization lor the purchaser’s organization, software engineers help to explain the requirements necessary for installing and operating the new system in the purchaser’s computing environment. In addition, systems software engineers are responsible for ensuring security across the systems they are configuring. Computer software engineers often work as part of a team that designs new hardware, software, and systems. A core team may comprise engineering, marketing, manufacturing, and design people, who work together until the product is released.. Working Conditions Computer software engineers normally work in well-lighted and comfortable offices or laboratories in which computer equipment is located. Most software engineers work at least 40 hours a week; however, due to the project-oriented nature of the work, they also may have to work evenings or weekends to meet deadlines or solve unexpected technical problems. Like other workers who sit for hours at a computer, typing on a keyboard, software engineers are suscep tible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. ISils- Computer software engineers develop, design, and modify computer applications and systems. 112 Occupational Outlook Handbook As they strive to improve software for users, many computer software engineers interact with customers and coworkers. Computer software engineers who are employed by software vendors and con sulting firms, for example, spend much of their time away from their offices, frequently traveling overnight to meet with customers. They call on customers in businesses ranging from manufacturing plants to financial institutions. As networks expand, software engineers may be able to use modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet to provide more technical support and other services from their main office, connecting to a customer’s computer remotely to identify and correct developing problems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire persons who have at least a bachelor’s degree and broad knowledge of, and experience with, a variety of computer systems and technologies. The usual degree concentration for applications software engineers is computer science or software engineering; for systems software engineers, it is computer science or computer information systems. Graduate degrees are preferred for some of the more complex jobs. Academic programs in software engineering emphasize soft ware and may be offered as a degree option or in conjunction with computer science degrees. Increasing emphasis on computer security suggests that software engineers with advanced degrees that include mathematics and systems design will be sought after by software developers, government agencies, and consulting firms specializing in information assurance and security. Students seeking software engineering jobs enhance their employment opportunities by participating in internship or co-op programs offered through their schools. These experiences provide the students with broad knowledge and experience, making them more attractive candidates to employers. Inexperienced college graduates may be hired by large computer and consulting firms that train new employees in intensive, company-based programs. In many firms, new hires are mentored, and their mentors have an input into the performance evaluations of these new employees. For systems software engineering jobs that require workers who have a college degree, a bachelor’s degree in computer science or computer information systems is typical. For systems engineering jobs that place less emphasis on workers having a computer-related degree, computer training programs leading to certification are offered by systems software vendors. Nonetheless, most training authorities feel that program certification alone is not sufficient for the majority of software engineering jobs. Persons interested in jobs as computer software engineers must have strong problem-solving and analytical skills. They also must be able to communicate effectively with team members, other staff, and the customers they meet. Because they often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously, they must be able to concentrate and pay close attention to detail. As is the case with most occupations, advancement opportunities for computer software engineers increase with experience. Entry-level computer software engineers are likely to test and verify ongoing designs. As they become more experienced, they may become involved in designing and developing software. Eventually, they may advance to become a project manager, manager of information systems, or chief information officer. Some computer software engineers with several years of experience or expertise find lucra tive opportunities working as systems designers or independent consultants or starting their own computer consulting firms. As technological advances in the computer field continue, employers demand new skills. Computer software engineers must continually strive to acquire such skills if they wish to remain in this https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis extremely dynamic field. For example, computer software engineers interested in working for a bank should have some expertise in finance as they integrate new technologies into the computer system of the bank. To help them keep up with the changing technology, continuing education and professional development seminars are offered by employers, software vendors, colleges and universities, private training institutions, and professional computing societies. Employment Computer software engineers held about 800,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 460,000 were computer applications software engineers, and around 340,000 were computer systems software engineers. Although they are employed in most industries, the largest concentration of computer software engineers—almost 30 percent—are in computer systems design and related services. Many computer software engineers also work for establishments in other industries, such as software publishers, government agencies, manufacturers of computers and related electronic equipment, and management of companies and enterprises. Employers of computer software engineers range from startup companies to established industry leaders. The proliferation of Internet, e-mail, and other communications systems is expanding electronics to engineering firms that are traditionally associated with unrelated disciplines. Engineering firms specializing in build ing bridges and powerplants, for example, hire computer software engineers to design and develop new geographic data systems and automated drafting systems. Communications firms need computer software engineers to tap into growth in the personal communica tions market. Major communications companies have many job openings for both computer software applications engineers and computer systems engineers. An increasing number of computer software engineers are employed on a temporary or contract basis, with many being selfemployed, working independently as consultants. Some consultants work for firms that specialize in developing and maintaining client companies Web sites and intranets. About 23,000 computer soft ware engineers were self-employed in 2004. Job Outlook Computer software engineers are projected to be one of the fastestgrowing occupations from 2004 to 2014. Rapid employment growth in the computer systems design and related services industry, which employs the greatest number of computer software engineers, should result in very good opportunities for those college graduates with at least a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering or computer sci ence and practical experience working with computers. Employers will continue to seek computer professionals with strong program ming, systems analysis, interpersonal, and business skills. With the software industry beginning to mature, however, and with routine software engineering work being increasingly outsourced overseas, job growth will not be as rapid as during the previous decade. Employment of computer software engineers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations, as businesses and other organizations adopt and integrate new tech nologies and seek to maximize the efficiency of their computer systems. Competition among businesses will continue to create an incentive for increasingly sophisticated technological innovations, and organizations will need more computer software engineers to implement these changes. In addition to jobs created through employment growth, many job openings will result annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Demand for computer software engineers will increase as com puter networking continues to grow. For example, the expanding Professional and Related Occupations integration of Internet technologies and the explosive growth in electronic commerce—doing business on the Internet—have resulted in rising demand for computer software engineers who can develop Internet, intranet, and World Wide Web applications. Likewise, expanding electronic data-processing systems in business, telecom munications, government, and other settings continue to become more sophisticated and complex. Growing numbers of systems software engineers will be needed to implement, safeguard, and update systems and resolve problems. Consulting opportunities for computer software engineers also should continue to grow as businesses seek help to manage, upgrade, and customize their in creasingly complicated computer systems. New growth areas will continue to arise from rapidly evolving technologies. The increasing uses of the Internet, the proliferation of Web sites, and mobile technology such as the wireless Internet have created a demand for a wide variety of new products. As individuals and businesses rely more on hand-held computers and wireless networks, it will be necessary to integrate current computer systems with this new, more mobile technology. Also, information security concerns have given rise to new software needs. Concerns over “cyber security” should result in businesses and government continuing to invest heavily in software that protects their networks and vital electronic infrastructure from attack. The expansion of this technology in the next 10 years will lead to an increased need for computer engineers to design and develop the software and systems to run these new applications and integrate them into older systems. As with other information technology jobs, employment growth of computer software engineers may be tempered somewhat as more software development is contracted out abroad. Firms may look to cut costs by shifting operations to lower wage foreign countries with highly educated workers who have strong technical skills. At the same time, jobs in software engineering are less prone to be ing sent abroad compared with jobs in other computer specialties, because the occupation requires innovation and intense research According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, starting salary offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering averaged $52,464 in 2005; offers for those with a master’s degree averaged $60,354. Starting salary offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science averaged $50,820. According to Robert Half International, starting salaries for software engineers in software development ranged from $63,250 to $92,750 in 2005. For network engineers, starting salaries in 2005 ranged from $61,250 to $88,250. Related Occupations Other workers who use mathematics and logic extensively include computer systems analysts, computer scientists and database ad ministrators, computer programmers, computer hardware engineers, computer support specialists and systems administrators, engineers, statisticians, mathematicians, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career in computer software engineering is available from the following organizations: > Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org >- Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. N.W., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org > National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle S.E., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Computer Support Specialists and Systems Administrators (0*NET 15-1041.00, 15-1071.00) Earnings Median annual earnings of computer applications software engineers who worked full time in May 2004 were about $74,980. The middle 50 percent earned between $59,130 and $92,130. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $113,830. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer applications software engineers in May 2004 were as follows: in May 2004 are as follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Rapid job growth is projected over the 2004-14 period. • There are many paths of entry to these occupations. • Job prospects should be best for college graduates who are up to date with the latest skills and technologies; certifications and practical experience are essential for persons without degrees. Nature of the Work $79,930 78,460 76,910 70,520 68,440 Median annual earnings of computer systems software engineers who worked full time in May 2004 were about $79,740. The middle 50 percent earned between $63,150 and $98,220. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $50,420, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $118,350. Median annual earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of computer systems software engineers Scientific research and development services.......... Computer and peripheral equipment manufacturing Software publishers.................................................. Computer systems design and related services........ Wired telecommunications carriers......................... ___________ Significant Points and development. Software publishers............................................................. Management, scientific, and technical consulting services Computer systems design and related services.................. Management of companies and enterprises....................... Insurance carriers................................................................ 113 $91,390 87,800 83,670 79,950 74,370 In the last decade, computers have become an integral part of ev eryday life, used for a variety of reasons at home, in the workplace, and at schools. Of course, almost every computer user encounters a problem occasionally, whether it is the disaster of a crashing hard drive or the annoyance of a forgotten password. The explosive use of computers has created a high demand for specialists to provide advice to users, as well as for day-to-day administration, mainte nance, and support of computer systems and networks. Computer support specialists provide technical assistance, support, and advice to customers and other users. This occupa tional group includes technical support specialists and help-desk technicians. These troubleshooters interpret problems and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They answer telephone calls, analyze problems by using automated diagnostic programs, and resolve recurring difficulties. Support specialists may work either within a company that uses com puter systems or directly for a computer hardware or software vendor. Increasingly, these specialists work for help-desk or 114 Occupational Outlook Handbook support services firms, for which they provide computer support to clients on a contract basis. Technical support specialists answer telephone calls from their organizations’ computer users and may run automatic diagnostics programs to resolve problems. Working on monitors, keyboards, printers, and mice, they install, modify, clean, and repair computer hardware and software. They also may write training manuals and train computer users in how to use new computer hardware and software. In addition, technical support specialists oversee the daily performance of their company’s computer systems and evaluate software programs with regard to their usefulness. Help-desk technicians assist computer users with the inevitable hardware and software questions that are not addressed in a product’s instruction manual. Help-desk technicians field telephone calls and e-mail messages from customers who are seeking guidance on technical problems. In responding to these requests for guidance, help-desk technicians must listen carefully to the customer, ask questions to diagnose the nature of the problem, and then patiently walk the customer through the problem-solving steps. Help-desk technicians deal directly with customer issues, and com panies value them as a source of feedback on their products. These technicians are consulted for information about what gives customers the most trouble, as well as other customer concerns. Most computer support specialists start out at the help desk. Network administrators and computer systems administrators design, install, and support an organization’s local-area network (LAN), wide-area network (WAN), network segment, Internet, or intranet system. They provide day-to-day onsite administra tive support for software users in a variety of work environments, including professional offices, small businesses, government, and large corporations. They maintain network hardware and software, analyze problems, and monitor the network to ensure its availability to system users. These workers gather data to identify customer needs and then use the information to identify, interpret, and evaluate system and network requirements. Administrators also may plan, coordinate, and implement network security measures. Systems administrators are the information technology employees responsible for the efficient use of networks by organizations. They ensure that the design of an organization’s computer site allows all of the components, including computers, the network, and software, to fit together and work properly. Furthermore, they monitor and adjust the performance of existing networks and continually sur vey the current computer site to determine future network needs. Administrators also troubleshoot problems reported by users and by automated network monitoring systems and make recommen dations for enhancements in the implementation of future servers and networks. In some organizations, computer security specialists may plan, coordinate, and implement the organization’s information security. These workers may be called upon to educate users about computer security, install security software, monitor the network for security breaches, respond to cyber attacks, and, in some cases, gather data and evidence to be used in prosecuting cyber crime. The responsibilities of computer security specialists has increased in recent years as there has been a large increase in the number of cyber attacks on data and networks. This and other growing spe cialty occupations reflect an increasing emphasis on client-server applications, the expansion of Internet and intranet applications, and the demand for more end-user support. Working Conditions Computer support specialists and systems administrators normally work in well-lighted, comfortable offices or computer laboratories. They usually work about 40 hours a week, but that may include being “on call” via pager or telephone for rotating evening or weekend work if the employer requires computer support over extended hours. Overtime may be necessary when unexpected technical problems arise. Like other workers who type on a keyboard for long periods, computer support specialists and systems adminis trators are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Due to the heavy emphasis on helping all types of computer users, computer support specialists and systems administrators constantly interact with customers and fellow employees as they answer ques tions and give valuable advice. Those who work as consultants are away from their offices much of the time, sometimes spending months working in a client’s office. As computer networks expand, more computer support specialists and systems administrators may be able to connect to a customer’s computer remotely, using modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet, to provide technical support to computer users. This capability would reduce or eliminate travel to the customer’s workplace. Systems administrators also can administer and configure networks and serv ers remotely, although this practice is not as common as it is among computer support specialists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer support specialists often run automatic diagnostics programs to resolve problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Due to the wide range of skills required, there are many paths of entry to a job as a computer support specialist or systems administrator. While there is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a computer support specialist, many employers prefer to hire persons with some formal college education. A bachelor’s de gree in computer science or information systems is a prerequisite for some jobs; however, other jobs may require only a computer-related associate’s degree. For systems administrators, many employers seek applicants with bachelor’s degrees, although not necessarily in a computer-related field. A number of companies are becoming more flexible about requir ing a college degree for support positions. However, certification and practical experience demonstrating these skills will be essential for applicants without a degree. The completion of a certification training program, offered by a variety of vendors and product makers, may help some people to qualify for entry-level positions. Relevant computer experience may substitute for formal education. Beginning computer support specialists usually work for orga nizations that deal directly with customers or in-house users. Then they may advance into more responsible positions in which they Professional and Related Occupations use what they have learned from customers to improve the design and efficiency of future products. Job promotions usually depend more on performance than on formal education. Eventually, some computer support specialists become applications developers, designing products rather than assisting users. Computer support specialists at hardware and software companies often enjoy great upward mobility; advancement sometimes comes within months of one’s initial employment. Entry-level network and computer systems administrators are involved in routine maintenance and monitoring of computer systems, typically working behind the scenes in an organization. After gaining experience and expertise, they often are able to advance into more se nior-level positions, in which they take on more responsibilities. For example, senior network and computer systems administrators may present recommendations to management on matters related to a company’s network. They also may translate the needs of an orga nization into a set of technical requirements based on the available technology. As with support specialists, administrators may become software engineers, actually involved in the designing of the system or network and not just its day-to-day administration. Persons interested in becoming a computer support specialist or systems administrator must have strong problem-solving, analyti cal, and communication skills, because troubleshooting and helping others are vital parts of the job. The constant interaction with other computer personnel, customers, and employees requires computer support specialists and systems administrators to communicate ef fectively on paper, via e-mail, or in person. Strong writing skills are useful in preparing manuals for employees and customers. As technology continues to improve, computer support specialists and systems administrators must keep their skills current and acquire new ones. Many continuing education programs are provided by employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, and private training institutions. Professional development seminars offered by computing services firms also can enhance one’s skills and advancement opportunities. Employment Computer support specialists and systems administrators held about 797,000jobs in 2004. Of these, approximately 518,000 were computer support specialists and around 278,000 were network and computer systems administrators. Although they worked in a wide range of industries, about 23 percent of all computer support spe cialists and systems administrators were employed in professional, scientific, and technical services industries, principally computer systems design and related services. Other organizations that em ployed substantial numbers of these workers include administra tive and support services companies, banks, government agencies, insurance companies, educational institutions, and wholesale and retail vendors of computers, office equipment, appliances, and home electronic equipment. Many computer support specialists worked for manufacturers of computers, semiconductors, and other electronic components. Employers of computer support specialists and systems ad ministrators range from startup companies to established industry leaders. With the continued development of the Internet, telecom munications, and e-mail, industries not typically associated with computers—such as construction—increasingly need computer workers. Small and large firms across all industries are expanding or developing computer systems, creating an immediate need for computer support specialists and systems administrators. Job Outlook Job prospects should be best for college graduates who are up to date with the latest skills and technologies, particularly if they https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 115 have supplemented their formal education with some relevant work experience. Employers will continue to seek computer specialists who possess a strong background in fundamental computer skills combined with good interpersonal and communi cation skills. Due to the demand for computer support specialists and systems administrators over the next decade, those who have strong computer skills, but do not have a bachelor’s degree, should continue to qualify for some entry-level positions. However, certifications and practical experience are essential for persons without degrees. Employment of computer support specialists is expected to in crease faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, as organizations continue to adopt increasingly sophisticated technol ogy and integrate it into their systems. Job growth will continue to be driven by the ongoing expansion of the computer system design and related services industry, which is projected to remain one of the fastest-growing industries in the U.S. economy. Growth will not be as explosive as during the previous decade, however, as the information technology industry matures and some of these jobs are increasingly outsourced overseas. Job growth among computer support specialists reflects the rapid pace of improved technology. As computers and software become more complex, support specialists will be needed to provide technical assistance to customers and other users. New mobile technologies, such as the wireless Internet, will continue to create a demand for these workers to familiarize and educate computer users. Consulting opportunities for computer support specialists also should continue to grow as businesses increasingly need help managing, upgrading, and customizing ever more complex computer systems. However, growth in employment of support specialists may be tempered somewhat as firms continue to cut costs by shifting more routine work abroad to countries where workers are highly skilled and labor costs are lower. Physical location is not as important for computer support specialists as it is for others, because these workers can provide assistance remotely and support services can be provided around the clock. Employment of systems administrators is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations as firms continue to invest heavily in securing computer networks. Companies are looking for workers who are knowledgeable about the function and administration of networks. Such employees have become increas ingly hard to find as systems administration has moved from being a separate function within corporations to one that forms a crucial ele ment of business in an increasingly high-technology economy. Also, demand for computer security specialists will grow as businesses and government continue to invest heavily in “cyber security,” pro tecting vital computer networks and electronic infrastructures from attack. The information security field is expected to generate many opportunities over the next decade as firms across all industries place a high priority on safeguarding their data and systems. The growth of electronic commerce means that more establish ments use the Internet to conduct their business online. This growth translates into a need for information technology specialists who can help organizations use technology to communicate with employees, clients, and consumers. Growth in these areas also is expected to fuel demand for specialists who are knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer support specialists were $40,430 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,980 and $53,010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,190, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,110. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest 116 Occupational Outlook Handbook numbers of computer support specialists in May 2004 were as follows: Software publishers....................................................................... $44,890 Management of companies and enterprises.................................. 42,780 Computer systems design and related services............................. 42,750 Colleges, universities, and professional schools........................... 37,940 Elementary and secondary schools............................................... 35,500 Median annual earnings of network and computer systems administrators were $58,190 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,260 and $73,620. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,300. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of network and computer systems administrators in May 2004 were as follows: Wired telecommunications carriers.............................................. $65,120 Computer systems design and related services............................ 63,710 Management of companies and enterprises................................. 61,600 Elementary and secondary schools............................................... 51,420 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... 51,170 According to Robert Half International, starting salaries in 2005 ranged from $26,250 to $53,750 for help-desk and technical support staff and from $44,500 to $63,250 for more senior technical support specialists. For systems administrators, starting salaries in 2005 ranged from $47,250 to $70,500. Related Occupations Other computer specialists include computer programmers, com puter software engineers, computer systems analysts, and computer scientists and database administrators. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about a career as a computer support specialist, contact the following organizations: >- Association of Computer Support Specialists., 333 Mamaroneck Ave., # 129, White Plains, NY 10605. Internet: http://www.acss.org ► Association of Support Professionals, 122 Barnard Ave., Watertown MA 02472. For additional information about a career as a systems admin istrator, contact: ► System Administrators Guild, 2560 9th St., Suite 215, Berkeley, CA 94710. Internet: http://www.sage.org Further information about computer careers is available from: ► National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Computer Systems Analysts (0*NET 15-1051.00) Significant Points • Employers generally prefer applicants who have at least a bachelor’s degree in computer science, infor mation science, or management information systems (MIS). • Employment is expected to increase much faster than the average as organizations continue to adopt increas ingly sophisticated technologies. • Job prospects are favorable. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work All organizations rely on computer and information technology to conduct business and operate more efficiently. The rapid spread of technology across all industries has generated a need for highly trained workers to help organizations incorporate new technologies. The tasks performed by workers known as computer systems analysts evolve rapidly, reflecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology, as well as the preferences and practices of employers. Computer systems analysts solve computer problems and apply computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization. They help an organization to realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes. Systems analysts may plan and develop new computer systems or devise ways to apply existing systems’ resources to additional operations. They may design new systems, including both hardware and software, or add a new software application to harness more of the computer's power. Most systems analysts work with specific types of systems—for example, business, accounting, or financial systems, or scientific and engineering systems—that vary with the kind of organization. Some systems analysts also are known as systems developers or systems architects Systems analysts begin an assignment by discussing the sys tems problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. Defining the goals of the system and dividing the solutions into individual steps and separate procedures, systems analysts use techniques such as structured analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model building, sampling, and cost ac counting to plan the system. They specify the inputs to be accessed by the system, design the processing steps, and format the output to meet users’ needs. They also may prepare cost-benefit and retum-on-investment analyses to help management decide whether implementing the proposed technology will be financially feasible. When a system is accepted, systems analysts determine what com puter hardware and software will be needed to set the system up. They coordinate tests and observe the initial use of the system to ensure that it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, flow charts, and process diagrams for computer programmers to follow; then, they work with programmers to “debug,” or eliminate, errors from the system. Systems analysts who do more in-depth testing of products may be referred to as software quality assurance analysts In addition to running tests, these individuals diagnose problems, recommend solutions, and determine whether program requirements have been met. In some organizations, programmer-analysts design and update the software that runs a computer. Because they are responsible for both programming and systems analysis, these workers must be proficient in both areas. (A separate statement on computer programmers appears elsewhere in the Handbook) As this dual profi ciency becomes more commonplace, these analysts are increasingly working with databases, object-oriented programming languages, as well as client-server applications development and multimedia and Internet technology. One obstacle associated with expanding computer use is the need for different computer systems to communicate with each other. Because of the importance of maintaining up-to-date informa tion-accounting records, sales figures, or budget projections, for example—systems analysts work on making the computer systems within an organization, or among organizations, compatible so that information can be shared among them. Many systems analysts are involved with “networking,” connecting all the computers in ternally—in an individual office, department, or establishment—or externally, because many organizations rely on e-mail or the Internet. A primary goal of networking is to allow users to retrieve data from a mainframe computer or a server and use it on their desktop computer. Systems analysts must design the hardware and Professional and Related Occupations P # Computer systems analysts help organizations get the most out of available technology. software to allow the free exchange of data, custom applications, and the computer power to process it all. For example, analysts are called upon to ensure the compatibility of computing systems between and among businesses to facilitate electronic commerce. Working Conditions Computer systems analysts work in offices or laboratories in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as many other professional or office workers do. However, evening or weekend work may be necessary to meet deadlines or solve specific problems. Given the technology available today, telecommuting is common for computer professionals. As networks expand, more work can be done from remote locations through modems, laptops, electronic mail, and the Internet. Like other workers who spend long periods in front of a computer terminal typing on a keyboard, computer systems analysts are sus ceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome or cumulative trauma disorder. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Rapidly changing technology requires an increasing level of skill and education on the part of employees. Companies increasingly look for professionals with a broad background and range of skills, including not only technical knowledge, but also communication andFRASER other interpersonal skills. This shift from requiring workers to Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 117 possess solely sound technical knowledge emphasizes workers who can handle various responsibilities. While there is no universally ac cepted way to prepare for a job as a systems analyst, most employers place a premium on some formal college education. Relevant work experience also is very important. For more technically complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. Many employers seek applicants who have at least a bachelor’s degree in computer science, information science, or management information systems (MIS). MIS programs usually are part of the business school or college and differ considerably from computer science programs, emphasizing business and management-oriented course work and business computing courses. Employers are in creasingly seeking individuals with a master’s degree in business administration (MBA), with a concentration in information systems, as more firms move their business to the Internet. Despite employers’ preference for those with technical degrees, persons with degrees in a variety of majors find employment as system analysts. The level of education and type of training that employers require depend on their needs. One factor affecting these needs is changes in technology. Employers often scramble to find workers capable of implementing “hot” new technologies such as the wireless Internet. Those workers with formal education or experience in information security, for example, are in demand because of the growing need for their skills and services. Another factor driving employers’ needs is the timeframe during which a project must be completed. Employers usually look for people who have broad knowledge and experience related to computer systems and technologies, strong problem-solving and analytical skills, and good interpersonal skills. Courses in computer science or systems design offer good preparation for a job in these computer occupations. For jobs in a business environment, employers usually want systems analysts to have business management or closely related skills, while a back ground in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Job seekers can enhance their employment opportunities by participating in internship or co-op programs offered through their schools. Because many people develop advanced computer skills in a non-computer-related occupation and then transfer those skills to a computer occupation, a background in the industry in which the person’s job is located, such as financial services, banking, or accounting, can be important. Others have taken computer science courses to supplement their study in fields such as accounting, inventory control, or other business areas. Computer systems analysts must be able to think logically and have good communication skills. Because they often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously, the ability to concentrate and pay close atten tion to detail is important. Although these workers sometimes work independently, they frequently work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with users or other staff who may have no technical computer background. Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analyst. Those who show leadership ability also can become project managers or advance into management positions such as manager of information systems or chief information officer. Workers with work experience and considerable expertise in a particular subject or a certain application may find lucrative opportunities as inde pendent consultants or may choose to start their own computer consulting firms. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep one’s skills up to date. Employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universi ties, and private training institutions offer continuing education. 118 Occupational Outlook Handbook Additional training may come from professional development seminars offered by professional computing societies. Employment Computer systems analysts held about 487,000 jobs in 2004; about 28,000 were self-employed. Although they are increasingly employed in every sector of the economy, the greatest concentration of these workers is in the com puter systems design and related services industry. Firms in this industry provide services related to the commercial use of comput ers on a contract basis, including custom computer programming services; computer systems integration design services; computer facilities management services, including computer systems or data processing facilities support services for clients; and other computer services, such as disaster recovery services and software installation. Computer systems analysts are also employed by governments, insurance companies, financial institutions, Internet service providers, data processing services firms, and universities. A growing number of systems analysts are employed on a tempo rary or contract basis; many of these individuals are self-employed, working independently as contractors or consultants. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of the analysts would be needed once the system is func tioning, the company might contract for such employees with a temporary help agency or a consulting firm or with the systems analysts themselves. Such jobs may last from several months up to 2 years or more. This growing practice enables companies to bring in people with the exact skills the firm needs to complete a particular project, rather than having to spend time or money training or retraining existing workers. Often, experienced consultants then train a company’s in-house staff as a project develops. Job Outlook Employment of computer systems analysts is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 as organizations continue to adopt and integrate increasingly sophisti cated technologies. Job increases will be driven by very rapid growth in computer system design and related services, which is projected to be among the fastest growing industries in the U.S. economy. In addition, many job openings will arise annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or other occupa tions or who leave the labor force. Job growth will not be as rapid as during the previous decade, however, as the information technology sector begins to mature and as routine work is increasingly outsourced to lower-wage foreign countries. Workers in the occupation should enjoy favorable job prospects. The demand for networking to facilitate the sharing of information, the expansion of client-server environments, and the need for computer specialists to use their knowledge and skills in a problem-solving capacity will be major factors in the rising demand for computer systems analysts. Moreover, falling prices of computer hardware and software should continue to induce more businesses to expand their computerized operations and integrate new technolo gies into them. In order to maintain a competitive edge and operate more efficiently, firms will keep demanding system analysts who are knowledgeable about the latest technologies and are able to apply them to meet the needs of businesses. Increasingly, more sophisticated and complex technology is being implemented across all organizations, which should fuel the demand for these computer occupations. There is a growing demand for system analysts to help firms maximize their efficiency with available technology. Expansion of electronic commerce—doing business on the Internet—and the continuing need to build and maintain https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis databases that store critical information on customers, inventory, and projects are fueling demand for database administrators familiar with the latest technology. Also, the increasing importance being placed on “cybersecurity”—the protection of electronic information—will result in a need for workers skilled in information security. The development of new technologies usually leads to demand for various kinds of workers. The expanding integration of Internet technologies into businesses, for example, has resulted in a growing need for specialists who can develop and support Internet and intranet applications. The growth of electronic commerce means that more establishments use the Internet to conduct their business online. The introduction of the wireless Internet, known as WiFi, creates new systems to be analyzed. The spread of such new technologies trans lates into a need for information technology professionals who can help organizations use technology to communicate with employees, clients, and consumers. Explosive growth in these areas also is expected to fuel demand for analysts who are knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security. As technology becomes more sophisticated and complex, employers demand a higher level of skill and expertise from their employees. Individuals with an advanced degree in computer sci ence or computer engineering, or with an MBA with a concentra tion in information systems, should enjoy favorable employment prospects. College graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science, computer engineering, information science, or MIS also should enjoy favorable prospects for employment, particularly if they have supplemented their formal education with practical experience. Because employers continue to seek computer special ists who can combine strong technical skills with good interpersonal and business skills, graduates with non-computer-science degrees, but who have had courses in computer programming, systems analy sis, and other information technology subjects, also should continue to find jobs in computer fields. In fact, individuals with the right experience and training can work in computer occupations regardless of their college major or level of formal education. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer systems analysts were $66,460 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $52,400 and $82,980 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,730, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $99,180. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer systems analysts in May 2004 were: Federal Government......................................................................... $71,770 Computer systems design and related services..................................69,560 Management of companies and enterprises.......................................67,230 Insurance carriers............................................................................... 66,840 State government .............................................................................. 57,040 According to the National Association of Colleges and Em ployers, starting offers for graduates with a master’s degree in computer science averaged $62,727 in 2005. Starting offers averaged $50,820 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science; $46,189 for those with a degree in computer systems analysis; $44,417for those with a degree in manage ment information systems; and $44,775 for those with a degree in information sciences and systems. According to Robert Half International, starting salaries for systems analysts ranged from $61,500 to $82,500 in 2005. Related Occupations Other workers who use computers extensively, and who use logic and creativity to solve business and technical problems, include computer programmers, computer software engineers, computer Professional and Related Occupations and information systems managers, engineers, mathematicians, statisticians, operations research analysts, management analysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about computer careers is available from: >■ Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org ► Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org >- National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Mathematicians_______ __________ (0*NET 15-2021.00) _______________ Significant Points • • • 119 Applied mathematicians start with a practical problem, envision the separate elements of the process under consideration, and then reduce the elements to mathematical variables. They often use com puters to analyze relationships among the variables and solve complex problems by developing models with alternative solutions. Much of the work in applied mathematics is done by indi viduals with titles other than mathematician. In fact, because mathematics is the foundation on which so many other academic disciplines are built, the number of workers using mathematical techniques is much greater than the number formally designated as mathematicians. For example, engineers, computer scientists, physicists, and economists are among those who use mathematics extensively. Some professionals, including statisticians, actuar ies, and operations research analysts, actually are specialists in a particular branch of mathematics. Frequently, applied mathema ticians are required to collaborate with other workers in their or ganizations to achieve common solutions to problems. (For more information, see the statements on actuaries, operations research analysts, and statisticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) A Ph.D. degree in mathematics usually is the minimum Working Conditions educational requirement, except in the Federal Govern Mathematicians usually work in comfortable offices. They often are part of interdisciplinary teams that may include economists, engineers, computer scientists, physicists, technicians, and others. Deadlines, overtime work, special requests for information or analysis, and prolonged travel to attend seminars or conferences may be part of their jobs. Mathematicians who work in academia usually have a mix of teaching and research responsibilities. These mathematicians may conduct research alone or in close collabora tion with other mathematicians. Collaborators may work together at the same institution or from different locations, using technology such as e-mail to communicate. Mathematicians in academia also may be aided by graduate students. ment. The number of jobs with the title “mathematician” is declining as the workforce becomes increasingly specialized; competition will be keen for the limited number of available jobs. Master’s and Ph.D. degree holders with a strong background in mathematics and a related field, such as computer science or engineering, should have better employment opportunities in related occupations. Nature of the Work Mathematics is one of the oldest and most fundamental sciences. Mathematicians use mathematical theory, computa tional techniques, algorithms, and the latest computer technology to solve economic, scientific, engineering, physics, and business problems. The work of mathematicians falls into two broad class es—theoretical (pure) mathematics and applied mathematics. These classes, however, are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical knowledge by developing new principles and recognizing previously unknown relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although these workers seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use, such pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing or furthering many scientific and engineering achievements. Many theoretical mathematicians are employed as university faculty, dividing their time between teaching and conducting research. (See the statement on teachers—postsec ondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Applied mathematicians, on the other hand, use theories and tech niques, such as mathematical modeling and computational methods, to formulate and solve practical problems in business, government, and engineering and in the physical, life, and social sciences. For example, they may analyze the most efficient way to schedule air line routes between cities, the effects and safety of new drugs, the aerodynamic characteristics of an experimental automobile, or the cost-effectiveness of alternative manufacturing processes. Applied mathematicians working in industrial research and development may develop or enhance mathematical methods when solving a difficult problem. Some mathematicians, called cryptanalysts, analyze and decipher encryption systems designed to transmit military, political, or law enforcement-related information in code. Digitized financial, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A Ph.D. degree in mathematics usually is the minimum educational requirement for prospective mathematicians, except in the Federal Government. In the Federal Government, entry-level j ob candidates usually must have a 4-year degree with a major in mathematics or a 4-year degree with the equivalent of a mathematics major—24 semester hours of mathematics courses. In private industry, candidates for mathematician jobs typically need a Ph.D., although there may be opportunities for those with a master’s degree. Most of the positions designated for mathematicians ■ ncs division ■ ■ L ;, A? - . ; Mathematicians sometimes collaborate to solve problems. 120 Occupational Outlook Handbook are in research and development laboratories, as part of technical teams. In such settings, mathematicians engage either in basic research on pure mathematical principles or in applied research on developing or improving specific products or processes. The ma jority of those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in mathematics who work in private industry do so not as mathematicians but in related fields such as computer science, where they have titles such as computer programmer, systems analyst, or systems engineer. A bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for this degree include calculus, differential equations, and linear and ab stract algebra. Additional courses might include probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numerical analysis, topology, discrete mathematics, and mathematical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or require students majoring in mathematics to take courses in a field that is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, engineering, life science, physical science, or economics. A double major in mathematics and another related discipline is particularly desirable to many employers. High school students who are prospective college mathematics majors should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. In 2004, about 200 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree as the highest degree in either pure or applied mathematics; about 200 offered a Ph.D. degree in pure or applied mathematics. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually specializing in a subfield of mathematics. For jobs in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Mathematics is used extensively in physics, actuarial science, statistics, engineer ing, and operations research. Computer science, business and in dustrial management, economics, finance, chemistry, geology, life sciences, and behavioral sciences are likewise dependent on applied mathematics. Mathematicians also should have substantial knowledge of computer programming, because most complex mathematical com putation and much mathematical modeling are done on a computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning ability and persistence to identify, analyze, and apply basic principles to technical problems. Communication skills also are important, as mathemati cians must be able to interact and discuss proposed solutions with people who may not have extensive knowledge of mathematics. Employment Mathematicians held about 2,500 jobs in 2004. Many people with mathematical backgrounds also worked in other occupations. For example, about 53,000 persons held positions as postsecondary mathematical science teachers in 2004. Many mathematicians work for Federal or State governments. The U.S. Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer, accounting for about three-fourths of the mathematicians employed by the Federal Government. Many of the other mathematicians em ployed by the Federal Government work for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In the private sector, major employers include scientific research and development services and management, scientific, and technical consulting services. Some mathematicians also work for software publishers, insurance com panies, and in aerospace or pharmaceutical manufacturing. should have the best opportunities. Many of these workers have job titles that reflect their occupation, such as systems analyst, rather than the title mathematician, reflecting their primary educational background. Advancements in technology usually lead to expanding ap plications of mathematics, and more workers with knowledge of mathematics will be required in the future. However, jobs in industry and government often require advanced knowledge of related scientific disciplines in addition to mathematics. The most common fields in which mathematicians study and find work are computer science and software development, physics, engineering, and operations research. More mathematicians also are becom ing involved in financial analysis. Mathematicians must compete for jobs, however, with people who have degrees in these other disciplines. The most successful jobseekers will be able to apply mathematical theory to real-world problems and will possess good communication, teamwork, and computer skills. Private industry jobs require at least a master’s degree in mathematics or in a related field. Bachelor’s degree hold ers in mathematics usually are not qualified for most jobs, and many seek advanced degrees in mathematics or a related discipline. However, bachelor’s degree holders who meet State certification requirements may become primary or secondary school mathematics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Holders of a master’s degree in mathematics will face very strong competition for jobs in theoretical research. Because the number of Ph.D. degrees awarded in mathematics continues to exceed the number of university positions available, many of these graduates will need to find employment in industry and government. Earnings Median annual earnings of mathematicians were $81,240 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $60,050 and $101,360. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $43,160, while the highest 10 percent earned over $120,900. In early 2005, the average annual salary for mathemati cians employed by the Federal Government in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and managerial positions was $88,194; that for mathematical statisticians was $91,446; and for cryptanalysts the average was $70,774. Related Occupations Other occupations that require extensive knowledge of mathemat ics or, in some cases, a degree in mathematics include actuaries, statisticians, computer programmers, computer systems analysts, computer scientists and database administrators, computer software engineers, and operations research analysts. A strong background in mathematics also facilitates employment as teachers—post secondary; teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; engineers; economists; market and survey researchers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; and physicists and astronomers. Sources of Additional Information Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expected to decline through 2014, reflecting the reduction in the number of jobs with the title “mathematician.” As a result, competition is expected to be keen for the limited number of jobs as mathematicians. Master’s and Ph.D. degree holders with a strong background in mathematics and a related discipline, such as engineering or computer science, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For more information about careers and training in mathematics, especially for doctoral-level employment, contact; > American Mathematical Society, 201 Charles St., Providence, RI029042294. Internet: http://www.ams.org For specific information on careers in applied mathematics, contact: ► Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 3600 University City Sci ence Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104-2688. Internet: http:// www.siam.org Professional and Related Occupations Information on obtaining positions as mathematicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s of ficial employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Operations Research Analysts (0*NET 15-2031.00) Significant Points • Employers generally prefer applicants with at least a master’s degree in operations research or management science, or a closely related field such as computer sci ence, engineering, business, mathematics, or informa tion systems. • Employment growth is projected to be slower than average, reflecting slow growth in the number of jobs with the title “operations research analyst.” • Individuals with a master’s or Ph.D. degree in manage ment science, operations research, or equivalent should have good job opportunities as operations research ana lysts or in closely related occupations, such as systems analysts, computer scientists, or management analysts. Nature of the Work “Operations research” and “management science” are terms that are used interchangeably to describe the discipline of applying ad vanced analytical techniques to help make better decisions and to solve problems. The procedures of operations research have been used effectively during wartime in areas such as deploying radar, searching for enemy submarines, and getting supplies to where they were needed most. New analytical methods have been developed, and numerous peacetime applications have emerged, leading to the use of operations research in many industries and occupations. The prevalence of operations research in the Nation’s economy reflects the growing complexity of managing large organizations that require the effective use of money, materials, equipment, and people. Operations research analysts help determine better ways to coordinate these elements by applying analytical methods from mathematics, science, and engineering. Analysts often find multiple possible solutions for meeting the particular goals of a project. These potential solutions are then presented to managers, who choose the course of action that they perceive to be best for the organization. Operations research analysts often have one area of specializa tion, such as working in the transportation or the financial services industry, but the issues and industries in which operations research can be used are many. In general, operations research analysts may be involved in top-level strategizing, planning, forecasting, allocating resources, measuring performance, scheduling, design ing production facilities and systems, managing the supply chain, pricing, coordinating transportation and distribution, or analyzing large databases. The duties of the operations research analyst vary according to the structure and management of the employer’s or client’s Digitizedorganization. for FRASER Some firms centralize operations research in one https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 121 department; others use operations research in each division. Operations research analysts also may work closely with senior managers to identify and solve a variety of problems. Some organi zations contract with consulting firms to provide operations research services. Economists, computer systems analysts, mathematicians, industrial engineers, and others may apply operations research techniques to address problems in their respective fields. (These occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of the type or structure of the client organiza tion, operations research entails following a standard set of procedures and conducting analysis to help managers improve performance. Managers begin the process by describing the symp toms of a problem to the analyst, who then formally defines the problem. For example, an operations research analyst for an auto manufacturer may be asked to determine the best inventory level for each of the parts needed on a production line and to ascertain the optimal number of windshields to be kept in stock. Too many windshields would be wasteful and expensive, whereas too few could result in an unintended halt in production. Operations research analysts study such problems, breaking them into their components. Analysts then gather information about each of the components from a variety of sources. To determine the optimal inventory, for example, operations research analysts might talk with engineers about production levels, discuss purchasing arrangements with buyers, and examine storage-cost data provided by the accounting department. With the relevant information in hand, the analyst determines the most appropriate analytical technique. Techniques used may include Monte Carlo simulation, linear and nonlinear program ming, dynamic programming, queuing and other stochastic-process models, Markov decision processes, econometric methods, data envelopment analysis, neural networks, expert systems, decision analysis, and the analytic hierarchy process. Nearly all of these techniques involve the construction of a mathematical model that attempts to describe the system being studied. The use of models enables the analyst to explicitly describe the different components and clarify the relationships among them. The descriptions can be altered to examine what may happen to the system under different circumstances. In most cases, a computer program is developed to numerically evaluate the model. Usually the model chosen is modified and run repeatedly to obtain different solutions. A model for airline flight scheduling, for example, might stipulate such things as connecting cities, Operations research analysts use computers to perform in-depth analyses ofproblems in many fields. 122 Occupational Outlook Handbook the amount of fuel required to fly the routes, projected levels of passenger demand, varying ticket and fuel prices, pilot scheduling, and maintenance costs. By assessing different possible schedules, the analyst is able to determine the best flight schedule consistent with particular assumptions. Based on the results of the analysis, the operations research analyst presents recommendations to managers. The analyst may need to modify and rerun the computer program to consider dif ferent assumptions before presenting the final recommendation. Once managers reach a decision, the analyst usually works with others in the organization to ensure the plan’s successful implementation. Working Conditions Operations research analysts generally work regular hours in an office environment. However, because they work on projects that are of immediate interest to top managers, operations research analysts often are under pressure to meet deadlines and may work more than a 40-hour week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally prefer applicants with at least a master’s degree in operations research or a closely related field, such as computer science, engineering, business, mathematics, information systems, or management science, coupled with a bachelor’s degree in computer science or a quantitative discipline such as economics, mathemat ics, or statistics. Dual graduate degrees in operations research and computer science are especially attractive to employers. Operations research analysts must be able to think logically, use computers proficiently, work well with people, and demonstrate good oral and written communication skills. In addition to supporting formal education in one manner or another, employers often sponsor training for experienced work ers, helping them keep up with new developments in operations research techniques and computer science. Some analysts attend advanced university classes on these subjects at their employer’s expense. Computers are the most important tools used by operations research analysts for performing in-depth analysis. As a result, training and experience in programming are required. Analysts typically need to be proficient in database collection and manage ment, programming, and the development and use of sophisticated software packages. Beginning analysts usually perform routine work under the supervision of more experienced analysts. As the novices gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more complex tasks and are given greater autonomy to design models and solve problems. Operations research analysts can advance by assuming positions as technical specialists or supervisors. Analysts also gain valuable insights into the industry or field in which they specialize and may assume higher level nontechnical managerial or admin istrative positions. Operations research analysts with significant experience may become consultants, and some may even open their own consulting practices. Employment Operations research analysts held about 58,000jobs in 2004. Major employers include computer systems design firms; insurance carri ers and other financial institutions; telecommunications companies; management, scientific, and technical consulting services firms; and Federal, State, and local governments. More than 4 out of 5 operations research analysts in the Federal Government work for the Department of Defense, and many in private industry work directly or indirectly on national defense. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of operations research analysts is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014, re flecting slow growth in the number ofjobs with the title “operations research analyst.” Job opportunities in operations research should be good, however, because organizations throughout the economy will strive to improve their productivity, effectiveness, and competitive ness and because of the extensive availability of data, computers, and software. Many jobs in operations research have other titles, such as operations analyst, management analyst, systems analyst, and computer scientist. Individuals who hold a master’s or Ph.D. degree in operations research, management science, or a closely related field should find good job opportunities because the number of openings generated by employment growth and the need to replace those leaving the occupation is expected to exceed the number of persons graduating with these credentials. Organizations face pressure today from growing domestic and international competition and must work to make their operations as effective as possible. As a result, businesses increasingly will rely on operations research analysts to optimize profits by improving productivity and reducing costs. As new technology is introduced into the marketplace, operations research analysts will be needed to determine how to utilize the technology in the best way. Opportunities for operations research analysts exist in almost every industry because of the diversity of applications for their work. As businesses and government agencies continue to contract out jobs to cut costs, opportunities for operations research analysts will be best in management, scientific, and technical consulting firms. Opportunities in the military will exist as well, but will depend on the size of future military budgets. Military leaders will rely on operations research analysts to test and evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness of new weapons systems and strategies. (See the Handbook statement on job opportunities in the Armed Forces.) Earnings Median annual earnings of operations research analysts were $60,190 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,640 and $78,420. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $36,180, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $95,990. The average annual salary for operations research analysts in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $89,882 in 2005. Related Occupations Operations research analysts apply advanced analytical methods to large, complicated problems. Workers in other occupations that stress advanced analysis include computer systems analysts, com puter scientists and database administrators, computer programmers, engineers, mathematicians, statisticians, economists, and market and survey researchers. Because its goal is improved organizational ef fectiveness, operations research also is closely allied to managerial occupations such as computer and information systems managers, and management analysts. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities for operations research analysts is available from: >- Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, 7240 Park way Dr., Suite 310, Hanover, MD 21076. Internet: http://www.informs.org For information on operations research careers in the Armed Forces and the U.S. Department of Defense, contact: ► Military Operations Research Society, 1703 N. Beauregard St., Suite 450, Alexandria, VA 22311. Internet: http://www.mors.org Professional and Related Occupations Information on obtaining positions as operations research analysts with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Gov ernment’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Statisticians (0*NET 15-2041.00) Significant Points • • • • About 41 percent of statisticians work for Federal, State, and local governments; other employers include scientific research and development services and finance and insurance firms. A master’s degree in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for most jobs as a statistician. Employment of statisticians is projected to grow more slowly than average because many jobs that require a degree in statistics will not carry the title “statistician.” Individuals with a degree in statistics should have favorable job opportunities in a variety of disciplines. Nature of the Work Statistics is the scientific application of mathematical principles to the collection, analysis, and presentation of numerical data. Statisti cians contribute to scientific inquiry by applying their mathematical and statistical knowledge to the design of surveys and experiments; the collection, processing, and analysis of data; and the interpretation of the results. Statisticians may apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a variety of subject areas, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, public health, psychology, marketing, edu cation, and sports. Many economic, social, political, and military decisions cannot be made without statistical techniques, such as the design of experiments to gain Federal approval of a newly manufactured drug. One technique that is especially useful to statisticians is sam pling—obtaining information about a population of people or group of things by surveying a small portion of the total. For example, to determine the size of the audience for particular programs, televi sion-rating services survey only a few thousand families, rather than all viewers. Statisticians decide where and how to gather the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Finally, statisticians analyze, interpret, and summarize the data using computer software. In business and industry, statisticians play an important role in quality control and in product development and improvement. In an automobile company, for example, statisticians might design experi ments to determine the failure time of engines exposed to extreme weather conditions by running individual engines until failure and breakdown. Working for a pharmaceutical company, statisticians might develop and evaluate the results of clinical trials to determine and effectiveness of new medications. And, at a computer Digitizedthe for safety FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 123 software firm, statisticians might help construct new statistical software packages to analyze data more accurately and efficiently. In addition to product development and testing, some statisticians also are involved in deciding what products to manufacture, how much to charge for them, and to whom the products should be marketed. Statisticians also may manage assets and liabilities, determining the risks and returns of certain investments. Statisticians also are employed by nearly every government agency. Some government statisticians develop surveys that measure population growth, consumer prices, or unemployment. Other stat isticians work for scientific, environmental, and agricultural agencies and may help determine the level of pesticides in drinking water, the number of endangered species living in a particular area, or the number of people afflicted with a particular disease. Statisticians also are employed in national defense agencies, determining the accuracy of new weapons and the likely effectiveness of defense strategies. Because statistical specialists are employed in so many work areas, specialists who use statistics often have different professional designations. For example, a person using statistical methods to analyze economic data may have the title econometrician, while statisticians in public health and medicine may hold titles such as biostatistician, biometrician, or epidemiologist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in comfortable offices. Some statisticians travel to provide advice on research projects, supervise and set up surveys, or gather statistical data. While advanced com munications devices such as e-mail and teleconferencing are making it easier for statisticians to work with clients in different areas, there still are situations that require the statistician to be present, such as during meetings or while gathering data. Some in this occupation may have duties that vary widely, such as designing experiments or performing fieldwork in various communities. Statisticians who work in academia generally have a mix of teaching and research responsibilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although employment opportunities exist for individuals with a bachelor’s degree, a master’s degree in statistics or mathematics is usually the minimum educational requirement for most statistician jobs. Research and academic positions in institutions of higher educa tion, for example, require at least a master’s degree, and usually a Ph.D., 7 Statisticians usually work in offices, though they may travel to consult with clients, supervise or set up surveys, or gather statistical data. 124 Occupational Outlook Handbook in statistics. Beginning positions in industrial research often require a master’s degree combined with several years of experience. The training required for employment as an entry-level statisti cian in the Federal Government, however, is a bachelor’s degree, including at least 15 semester hours of statistics or a combination of 15 hours of mathematics and statistics, if at least 6 semester hours are in statistics. Qualifying as a mathematical statistician in the Federal Government requires 24 semester hours of mathemat ics and statistics, with a minimum of 6 semester hours in statistics and 12 semester hours in an area of advanced mathematics, such as calculus, differential equations, or vector analysis. In 2004, approximately 230 universities offered a degree program in statistics, biostatistics, or mathematics. Many other schools also offered graduate-level courses in applied statistics for students majoring in biology, business, economics, education, engineering, psychology, and other fields. Acceptance into graduate statistics programs does not require an undergraduate degree in statistics, although good training in mathematics is essential. Many schools also offered degrees in mathematics, operations research, and other fields that include a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for some entry-level positions with the Federal Government. Required subjects for statistics majors include differential and integral calculus, statistical methods, mathematical modeling, and probability theory. Additional courses that undergraduates should take include linear algebra, design and analysis of experiments, applied multivariate analysis, and math ematical statistics. Because computers are used extensively for statistical applications, a strong background in computer science is highly recommended. For positions involving quality and productivity improvement, training in engineering or physical science is useful. A background in biological, chemical, or health science is important for positions involving the preparation and testing of pharmaceuti cal or agricultural products. Courses in economics and business administration are helpful for many jobs in market research, business analysis, and forecasting. Good communications skills are important for prospective statisticians in industry, who often need to explain technical matters to persons without statistical expertise. An understanding of busi ness and the economy also is valuable for those who plan to work in private industry. Beginning statisticians generally are supervised by an experi enced statistician. With experience, they may advance to positions with more technical responsibility and, in some cases, supervisory duties. However, opportunities for promotion are greater for per sons with advanced degrees. Master’s and Ph.D. degree holders usually enjoy independence in their work and may become quali fied to engage in research; develop statistical methods; or, after a number of years of experience in a particular area, become statistical consultants. Employment Statisticians held about 19,000 jobs in 2004. Twenty percent of these jobs were in the Federal Government, where statisticians were concentrated in the Departments of Commerce, Agriculture, and Health and Human Services. Another 20 percent were found in State and local governments, including State colleges and universities. Most of the remaining jobs were in private industry, especially in scientific research and development services, insur ance carriers, and pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing. In addition, many professionals with a background in statistics were among the 53,000 postsecondary mathematical science teachers. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of statisticians is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period, because many jobs that require a degree in statistics will not carry the title “statistician.” However, job opportunities should remain favorable for individuals with a degree in statistics. For example, many jobs involve the analysis and interpretation of data from economics, biological science, psychology, computer software engineering, and other disciplines. Despite the limited number of jobs resulting from growth, a number of openings will become available as statisticians transfer to other occupations or retire or leave the workforce for other reasons. The use of statistics is widespread and growing. Among graduates with a master’s degree in statistics, those with a strong background in an allied field, such as finance, biology, engineer ing, or computer science, should have the best prospects of find ing jobs related to their field of study. Federal agencies will hire statisticians in many fields, including demography, agriculture, consumer and producer surveys, Social Security, health care, and environmental quality. Because the Federal Government is one of the few employers that considers a bachelor’s degree an adequate entry-level qualification, competition for entry-level positions in the Federal Government is expected to be strong for persons just meeting the minimum qualifications for statisticians. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school statistics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Manufacturing firms will hire statisticians with master’s and doctoral degrees for quality control of various products, includ ing pharmaceuticals, motor vehicles, aircraft, chemicals, and food. For example, pharmaceutical firms will employ statisticians to assess the effectiveness and safety of new drugs, to decide whether to market them, and to make sure they comply with federal standards. To address global product competition, motor vehicle manufacturers will need statisticians to improve the quality of automobiles, trucks, and their components by developing and test ing new designs. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs in research and development, working with teams of scientists and engineers to help improve design and production processes to ensure consistent quality of newly developed products. Many statisticians also will find opportunities developing statistical software for computer soft ware manufacturing firms. Firms will rely heavily on workers with a background in statistics to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, and help to solve management problems to maximize profits. In addition, consult ing firms increasingly will offer sophisticated statistical services to other businesses. Because of the widespread use of computers in this field and the growing number of widely used software packages, statisticians in all industries should have good computer program ming skills and knowledge of statistical software. Earnings Median annual earnings of statisticians were $58,620 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,770 and $80,690. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,870, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $100,500. The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $81,262 in 2005, while mathematical statisticians averaged $91,446. According to a 2005 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for mathematics/statis tics graduates with a bachelor’s degree averaged $43,448 a year. Professional and Related Occupations Related Occupations People in a wide range of occupations work with statistics. Among these are actuaries, mathematicians, operations research analysts, computer scientists and database administrators, computer systems analysts, computer programmers, computer software engineers, engineers, economists, market and survey researchers, and financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Some statisticians also work as secondary or postsecondary teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: ► American Statistical Association, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA223143415. Internet: http://www.amstat.org 125 For more information on doctoral-level careers and training in mathematics, a field closely related to statistics, contact: >■ American Mathematical Society, 201 Charles St., Providence, RI029042213. Internet: http://www.ams.org Information on obtaining positions as statisticians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s of ficial employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interac tive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Architects, Surveyors, and Cartographers Architects, Except Landscape and Naval (Q*NET 17-1011.00) Significant Points • About 1 in 4 architects was self-employed—more than three times the proportion for all professional and related occupations. • Licensing requirements include a professional degree in architecture, 3 years of practical work training, and passing all divisions of the Architect Registration Ex amination. • Architecture graduates may face competition, especial ly for jobs in the most prestigious firms; opportunities will be best for those with experience working for a firm while still in school and for those with knowledge of computer-aided design and drafting technology. Nature of the Work People need places in which to live, work, play, learn, worship, meet, govern, shop, and eat. These places may be private or public; indoors or outdoors; or rooms, buildings, or complexes, and together, they make up neighborhoods, towns, suburbs, and cities. Architects—licensed professionals trained in the art and sci ence of building design—transform these needs into concepts and then develop the concepts into images and plans of buildings that can be constructed by others. Architects design the overall aesthetic and look of buildings and other structures, but the design of a building involves far more than its appearance. Buildings also must be functional, safe, and economi cal and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects consider all these factors when they design buildings and other structures. Architects provide professional services to individuals and or ganizations planning a construction project. They may be involved in all phases of development, from the initial discussion with the client through the entire construction process. Their duties require specific skills—designing, engineering, managing, supervising, and communicating with clients and builders. Architects spend a great of time explaining their ideas to clients, construction contrac Digitized deal for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tors, and others. Successful architects must be able to communicate their unique vision persuasively. The architect and client discuss the objectives, requirements, and budget of a project. In some cases, architects provide various pre design services—conducting feasibility and environmental impact studies, selecting a site, or specifying the requirements the design must meet. For example, they may determine space requirements by researching the numbers and types of potential users of a building. The architect then prepares drawings and a report presenting ideas for the client to review. After discussing and agreeing on the initial proposal, architects develop final construction plans that show the building’s appearance and details for its construction. Accompanying these plans are draw ings of the structural system; air-conditioning, heating, and ventilat ing systems; electrical systems; communications systems; plumbing; and, possibly, site and landscape plans. The plans also specify the building materials and, in some cases, the interior furnishings. In developing designs, architects follow building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances, such as those requiring easy access by disabled persons. Throughout the planning stage, they make necessary changes. Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) technology has replaced traditional paper and pencil as the most common method for creating design and construction drawings. Continual revision of plans on the basis of client needs and budget constraints is often necessary. Architects may also assist clients in obtaining construction bids, selecting contractors, and negotiating construction contracts. As construction proceeds, they may visit building sites to make sure that contractors follow the design, adhere to the schedule, use the specified materials, and meet work quality standards. The job is not complete until all construction is finished, required tests are conducted, and construction costs are paid. Sometimes, ar chitects also provide postconstruction services, such as facilities management. They advise on energy efficiency measures, evaluate how well the building design adapts to the needs of occupants, and make necessary improvements. Architects design a wide variety of buildings, such as office and apartment buildings, schools, churches, factories, hospitals, houses, and airport terminals. They also design complexes such as urban centers, college campuses, industrial parks, and entire communities. In addition, they may advise on the selection of building sites, prepare cost analysis and land-use studies, and do long-range planning for land development. Architects sometimes specialize in one phase of work. Some spe cialize in the design of one type of building—for example, hospitals, 126 Occupational Outlook Handbook schools, or housing. Others focus on planning and predesign services or construction management and do minimal design work. They often work with engineers, urban planners, interior designers, landscape architects, and other professionals. In fact, architects spend a great deal of their time coordinating information from, and the work of, others engaged in the same project. Many architects—particularly at larger firms—use the Internet and e-mail to update designs and communicate changes efficiently. Architects also use the Internet to research product specifications and government regulations. Working Conditions Architects usually work in a comfortable environment. Most of their time is spent in offices consulting with clients, develop ing reports and drawings, and working with other architects and engineers. However, they often visit construction sites to review the progress of projects. Although most architects work approximately 40 hours per week, they often have to work nights and weekends to meet deadlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be licensed (registered) before they may call themselves architects and contract to provide architectural services. During this time between graduation and becoming licensed, architecture school graduates generally work in the field under supervision of a licensed architect who takes legal responsibility for all work. Licensing requirements include a professional degree in architecture, a period of practical t- - a * ~ : III*] I * «* 5 ««:«** • Silt * ntt* <5 Architects often produce scale models of their designs. i in.i-i https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training or internship, and a passing score on all divisions of the Architect Registration Examination (ARE). In most States, the professional degree in architecture must be from one of the 113 schools of architecture that have degree pro grams accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). However, State architectural registration boards set their own standards, so graduation from a non-NAAB-accredited program may meet the educational requirement for licensing in a few States. Three types of professional degrees in architecture are available through colleges and universities. The majority of all architectural degrees are from 5-year Bachelor of Architecture pro grams, intended for students entering university-level studies from high school or with no previous architectural training. In addition, a number of schools offer a 2-year Master of Architecture program for students with a preprofessional undergraduate degree in architecture or a related area, or a 3- or 4-year Master of Architecture program for students with a degree in another discipline. The choice of degree depends upon each individual’s preference and educational background. Prospective architecture students should consider the available options before committing to a program. For example, although the 5-year Bachelor ofArchitecture program offers the fastest route to the professional degree, courses are specialized, and if the student does not complete the program, transferring to a program offered by another discipline may be difficult. A typical program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design, structures, technology, construction methods, professional practice, math, physical sciences, and liberal arts. Central to most architectural programs is the design studio, where students put into practice the skills and concepts learned in the classroom. During the final semester of many programs, students devote their studio time to creating an architectural project from beginning to end, culminating in a three-dimensional model of their design. Many schools of architecture also offer postprofessional degrees for those who already have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in ar chitecture or other areas. Although graduate education beyond the professional degree is not required for practicing architects, it may be for research, teaching, and certain specialties. Architects must be able to communicate their ideas visually to their clients. Artistic and drawing ability is helpful, but not essential, to such communication. More important are a visual orientation and the ability to conceptualize and understand spatial relationships. Good communication skills, the ability to work independently or as part of a team, and creativity are important qualities for anyone interested in becoming an architect. Computer literacy also is required for writing specifications, for two- and three dimensional drafting, and for financial management. Knowledge of CADD is essential and has become a critical tool for architects. Most schools now teach students CADD programs and methods that adhere to the National CAD Standards. All State architectural registration boards require architecture graduates to complete a training period—usually 3 years—before they may sit for the ARE, the third and final requi rement for becoming licensed. Every State, with the exception ofArizona, has adopted the training standards established by the Intern Development Program, a branch of the American Institute of Architects and the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB). These standards stipulate broad and diversified training under the su pervision of a licensed architect over a 3-year period. Most new graduates complete their training period by working as interns at architectural firms. Some States allow a portion of the training to occur in the offices of related professionals, such as engineers or general contractors. Architecture students who complete internships in architectural firms while still in school can count some of that time toward the required 3-year training period. Professional and Related Occupations Interns in architectural firms may assist in the design of one part of a project, help prepare architectural documents or drawings, build models, or prepare construction drawings on CADD. Interns also may research building codes and materials or write specifications for building materials, installation criteria, the quality of finishes, and other, related details. After completing their on-the-job training period, interns are eligible to sit for the ARE. The examination tests a candidate’s knowledge, skills, and ability to provide the various services required in the design and construction of buildings. The test is broken down into 9 divisions consisting of either multiple choice or graphical ques tions; States give candidates an eligibility period for completion of all divisions of the exam that varies by State. Candidates who pass the ARE and meet all standards established by their State Board become licensed to practice in that State. Most States require some form of continuing education to main tain a license, and many others are expected to adopt mandatory continuing education. Requirements vary by State, but usually involve the completion of a certain number of credits annually or biennially through workshops, formal university classes, confer ences, self-study courses, or other sources. A growing number of architects voluntarily seek certification by the NCARB, which can facilitate an individual’s becoming licensed to practice in additional States. This practice is known as “reciprocity.” Certification is awarded after independent verification of the candidate’s educational transcripts, employment record, and professional references. Certification is the primary requirement for reciprocity of licensing among State Boards that are NCARB members. In 2004, approximately one-third of all licensed architects had NCARB certification. After becoming licensed and gaining experience, architects take on increasingly responsible duties, eventually managing entire projects. In large firms, architects may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Some architects become partners in estab lished firms, while others set up their own practices. Graduates with degrees in architecture also enter related fields, such as graphic, interior, or industrial design; urban planning; real estate develop ment; civil engineering; and construction management. Employment Architects held about 129,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 3 out of 5 jobs were in the architectural, engineering, and related ser vices industry—mostly in architectural firms with fewer than five workers. A small number worked for residential and nonresidential building construction firms and for government agencies responsible for housing, community planning, or construction of government buildings, such as the U.S. Departments of Defense and Interior, and the General Services Administration. About 1 in 4 architects was self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of architects is expected to grow about as fast the average for all occupations through 2014. Besides employment growth, additional job openings will arise from the need to re place the many architects who are nearing retirement, and oth ers who transfer to other occupations or stop working for other reasons. Internship opportunities for new architectural students are expected to be good over the next decade, but more students are graduating with architectural degrees and some competition for entry-level jobs can be anticipated. Competition will be es pecially keen for jobs at the most prestigious architectural firms as prospective architects try to build their reputation. Prospective architects who have had internships while in school will have an Digitized advantage for FRASERin obtaining intern positions after graduation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 127 Employment of architects is strongly tied to the activity of the construction industry. Strong growth is expected to come from nonresidential construction as demand for commercial space increases. Residential construction, buoyed by low interest rates, is also expected to grow as more and more people become homeowners. If interest rates rise significantly, this sector may see a falloff in home building. Current demographic trends also support an increase in demand for architects. As the population of Sunbelt States continues to grow, the people living there will need new places to live and work. As the population continues to live longer and baby-boom ers begin to retire there will be a need for more healthcare facili ties, nursing homes, and retirement communities. In education, buildings at all levels are getting older and class sizes are getting larger. This will require many school districts and universities to build new facilities and renovate existing ones. Some types of construction are sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy. Architects seeking design projects for office and re tail construction will face especially strong competition for jobs or clients during recessions, and layoffs may ensue in less successful firms. Those involved in the design of institutional buildings, such as schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and correctional facilities, will be less affected by fluctuations in the economy. Residential construction makes up a small portion of work for architects, so major changes in the housing market would not be as significant as fluctuations in the nonresidential market. Despite good overall job opportunities some architects may not fare as well as others. The profession is geographically sensitive and some parts of the Nation may have fewer new building projects than others. Also, many firms specialize in specific buildings, such as hospitals or office towers, and demand for these buildings may vary by region. Architects may find it increasingly necessary to gain reciprocity in order to compete for the best jobs and projects in other States. In recent years, some architecture firms have outsourced to architecture firms overseas the drafting of construction documents for large-scale commercial and residential projects. This trend is expected to continue and may have a negative impact on employment growth for lower level architects and interns who would normally gain experience by producing these drawings. However, most firms will keep design services in-house, and opportunities will be best for those architects that are able to distinguish themselves from others with their creativity. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage and salary architects were $60,300 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,690 and $79,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $99,800. Those just starting their internships can expect to earn considerably less. Earnings of partners in established architectural firms may fluctu ate because of changing business conditions. Some architects may have difficulty establishing their own practices and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income, requiring substantial financial resources. Related Occupations Architects design buildings and related structures. Construction managers, like architects, also plan and coordinate activities con cerned with the construction and maintenance of buildings and facilities. Others who engage in similar work are landscape archi tects, civil engineers, urban and regional planners, and designers, including interior designers, commercial and industrial designers, and graphic designers. 128 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Head:Information about education and careers in architecture can be obtained from: >- The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW„ Wash ington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.aia.org >• Intern Development Program, National Council of Architectural Regis tration Boards, Suite 1100K, 1801 K Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20006 1310. Internet: http://www.ncarb.org Landscape Architects (0*NET 17-1012.00) Significant Points • More than 26 percent of all landscape architects are self-employed—more than 3 times the proportion for all professionals. • A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture is the minimum requirement for entry-level jobs; many employers prefer to hire landscape architects who also have completed at least one internship. • Landscape architect jobs are expected to increase due to a growing demand for incorporating natural elements into man-made environments, along with the need to meet a wide array of environmental restrictions. Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed residential areas, public parks and playgrounds, college campuses, shopping centers, golf courses, parkways, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional, but also beautiful, and compatible with the natural environment. They plan the location of buildings, roads, and walkways, and the arrangement of flowers, shrubs, and trees. Landscape architects work for many types of organizations—from real estate development firms starting new projects to municipalities constructing airports or parks—and they often are involved with the development of a site from its conception. Working with architects, surveyors, and engineers, landscape architects help determine the best arrangement of roads and buildings. They also collaborate with environmental scientists, foresters, and other professionals to find the best way to conserve or restore natural resources. Once these decisions are made, landscape architects create detailed plans indi cating new topography, vegetation, walkways, and other landscaping details, such as fountains and decorative features. In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the natural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegetation; observe where sunlight falls on the site at different times of the day and examine the site from various angles; and assess the effect of existing buildings, roads, walkways, and utilities on the project. After studying and analyzing the site, landscape architects prepare a preliminary design. To account for the needs of the client as well as the conditions at the site, they frequently make changes before a final design is approved. They also take into account any local, State, or Federal regulations, such as those protecting wetlands or historic resources. In preparing designs, computer-aided design (CAD) has become an essentia] tool for most landscape architects. Many land scape architects also use video simulation to help clients envision the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis proposed ideas and plans. For larger scale site planning, landscape architects also use geographic information systems technology, a computer mapping system. Throughout all phases of the planning and design, landscape architects consult with other professionals, such as civil engineers, hydrologists, or architects, involved in the project. Once the design is complete, they prepare a proposal for the client. They produce detailed plans of the site, including written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use studies, and cost estimates, and submit them for approval by the client and by regulatory agencies. When the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features. They also outline in detail the methods of construction and draw up a list of necessary materials. Landscape architects then mainly monitor the imple mentation of their design, with general contractors or landscape contractors usually directing the actual construction of the site and installation of plantings. Some landscape architects work on a variety of projects. Others specialize in a particular area, such as residential development, street and highway beautification, waterfront improvement projects, parks and playgrounds, or shopping centers. Still others work in regional planning and resource management; feasibility, environmental im pact, and cost studies; or site construction. Increasingly, landscape architects are becoming involved with projects in environmental remediation, such as preservation and restoration of wetlands or abatement of stormwater run-off in new developments. Historic land scape preservation and restoration is another important area where landscape architects are increasingly playing an important role. Most landscape architects do at least some residential work, but relatively few limit their practice to individual homeowners. Res idential landscape design projects usually are too small to provide suitable income compared with larger commercial or multiunit resi dential projects. Some nurseries offer residential landscape design services, but these services often are performed by design profes sionals with fewer formal credentials such as landscape designers, or by others with training and experience in related areas. Landscape architects who work for government agencies do site and landscape design for government buildings, parks, and other public lands, as well as park and recreation planning in national parks and forests. In addition, they prepare environmental impact statements and studies on environmental issues such as public land-use planning. Some restore degraded land, such as mines or landfills. Other landscape architects use their skills in traffic-calm ing, the “art” of slowing traffic down through use of traffic design, enhancement of the physical environment, and greater attention to aesthetics. Working Conditions Landscape architects spend most of their time in offices creating plans and designs, preparing models and cost estimates, doing re search, or attending meetings with clients and other professionals involved in a design or planning project. The remainder of their time is spent at the site. During the design and planning stage, landscape architects visit and analyze the site to verify that the design can be incorporated into the landscape. After the plans and specifications are completed, they may spend additional time at the site observing or supervising the construction. Those who work in large national or regional firms may spend considerably more time out of the office traveling to sites away from the local area. Salaried employees in both government and landscape archi tectural firms usually work regular hours; however, they may work overtime to meet a project deadline. Hours of self-employed land scape architects vary depending on the demands of the projects on which they are working. Professional and Related Occupations 129 use of computer-aided design, geographic information systems, and video simulation. In 2004,47 States required landscape architects to be licensed or registered. Licensing is based on the Landscape Architect Registra tion Examination (L.A.R.E.), sponsored by the Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards and administered in two portions, graphic and multiple choice. Each portion of the testing is conducted over two days. Admission to the exam usually requires a degree from an accredited school plus 1 to 4 years of work experience under the supervision of a registered landscape architect, although standards vary from State to State. Currently, 14 States require that a State examination be passed in addition to the L.A.R.E. to satisfy registration requirements. State examinations, which usually are 1 hour in length and completed at the end of the L.A.R.E., focus on laws, environmental regulations, plants, soils, climate, and any other characteristics unique to the State. Because State requirements for licensure are not uniform, land scape architects may not find it easy to transfer their registration from one State to another. However, those who meet the national standards of graduating from an accredited program, serving 3 years of internship under the supervision of a registered landscape architect, and passing the L.A.R.E. can satisfy requirements in most States. Through this means, a landscape architect can obtain certi fication from the Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards, and so gain reciprocity (the right to work) in other States. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry positions should have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture. The Federal Government does not require its landscape architects to be Landscape architects spend much time in the office, reviewing plans of the site. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture usually is necessary for entry into the profession. A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture takes 4 or 5 years to complete. There also are two types of accredited master’s degree programs. The most common type of master’s degree is a 3-year first professional de gree program designed for students with an undergraduate degree in another discipline. The second type of master’s degree is a 2year second professional degree program for students who have a bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture and who wish to teach or specialize in some aspect of landscape architecture, such as regional planning or golf course design. In 2004, 59 colleges and universities offered 77 undergradu ate and graduate programs in landscape architecture that were accredited by the Landscape Architecture Accreditation Board of the American Society of Landscape Architects. College courses required in these programs usually include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, landscape ecol ogy, site design, and urban and regional planning. Other courses include history of landscape architecture, plant and soil science, geology, professional practice, and general management. The design studio is another important aspect of many landscape archi tecture curriculums. Whenever possible, students are assigned real projects, providing them with valuable hands-on experience. While working on these projects, students become more proficient in the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis licensed. Persons planning a career in landscape architecture should ap preciate nature, enjoy working with their hands, and possess strong analytical skills. Creative vision and artistic talent also are desirable qualities. Good oral communication skills are essential; landscape architects must be able to convey their ideas to other professionals and clients, and to make presentations before large groups. Strong writing skills also are valuable, as is knowledge of computer appli cations of all kinds, including word processing, desktop publishing, and spreadsheets. Landscape architects use these tools to develop presentations, proposals, reports, and land impact studies for clients, colleagues, and superiors. The ability to draft and design using CAD software is essential. Many employers recommend that prospective landscape architects complete at least one summer internship with a landscape architecture firm in order to gain an understanding of the day-to-day operations of a small business, including how to win clients, generate fees, and work within a budget. In States where licensure is required, new hires may be called “apprentices” or “intern landscape architects” until they become licensed. Their duties vary depending on the type and size of the employing firm. They may do project research or prepare working drawings, construction documents, or base maps of the area to be landscaped. Some are allowed to participate in the actual design of a project. However, interns must perform all work under the supervi sion of a licensed landscape architect. Additionally, all drawings and specifications must be signed and sealed by the licensed landscape architect, who takes legal responsibility for the work. After gaining experience and becoming licensed, landscape architects usually can carry a design through all stages of development. After several years, they may become project managers, taking on the responsibility for meeting schedules and budgets, in addition to overseeing the project design. Later, they may become associates or partners of a firm, with a proprietary interest in the business. Many landscape architects are self-employed because start-up costs, after an initial investment in CAD software, are relatively low. Self-discipline, business acumen, and good marketing skills 130 Occupational Outlook Handbook are important qualities for those who choose to open their own business. Even with these qualities, however, some may struggle while building a client base. Those with landscape architecture training also qualify for jobs closely related to landscape architecture, and may, after gaining some experience, become construction supervisors, land or environmental planners, or landscape consultants. Employment Landscape architects held about 25,000 jobs in 2004. Almost 6 out of 10 workers were employed in firms that provide architectural, landscape architectural, engineering, and landscaping services. State and local governments were the next largest employers. About 1 out of 4 landscape architects was self-employed. Employment of landscape architects is concentrated in urban and suburban areas throughout the country; some landscape architects work in rural areas, particularly those employed by the Federal Government to plan and design parks and recreation areas. Job Outlook Employment of landscape architects is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. In addition to growth, the need to replace landscape architects who retire or leave the labor force will produce some additional job openings. Employment will grow because the expertise of landscape architects will be highly sought after in the planning and develop ment of new residential, commercial, and other types of construction to meet the needs of a growing population. With land costs rising and the public desiring more beautiful spaces, the importance of good site planning and landscape design is growing. In addition, new demands to manage stormwater run-off in both existing and new landscapes, combined with the growing need to manage water resources in the Western States, should cause increased demand for this occupation’s services. New construction also is increasingly contingent upon compli ance with environmental regulations, zoning laws, and water restric tions, which will spur demand for landscape architects to help plan sites that meet these requirements and integrate new structures with the natural environment in the least disruptive way. Landscape archi tects also will be increasingly involved in preserving and restoring wetlands and other environmentally sensitive sites. Continuation of the Transportation Equity Act for the TwentyFirst Century also is expected to spur employment for landscape architects, particularly through State and local governments. This Act, known as TEA-21, provides funds for surface transportation and transit programs, such as interstate highway construction and maintenance and environment-friendly pedestrian and bicycle trails. In addition to the work related to new development and construc tion, landscape architects are expected to be involved in historic preservation, land reclamation, and refurbishment of existing sites. They are also doing more residential design work as house holds spend more on landscaping than in the past. Because land scape architects can work on many different types of projects, they may have an easier time than other design professionals finding em ployment when traditional construction slows down. Opportunities will vary from year to year, and by geographic region, depending on local economic conditions. During a recession, when real estate sales and construction slow down, landscape architects may face greater competition for jobs and sometimes layoffs. New graduates can expect to face competition for jobs in the largest and most prestigious landscape architecture firms, but should face good job opportunities overall as demand increases, while the number of graduates of landscape architecture holds steady or only https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis goes up slightly. Opportunities will be best for landscape architects who develop strong technical skills—such as computer design—and communication skills, as well as knowledge of environmental codes and regulations. Those with additional training or experience in urban planning increase their opportunities for employment in landscape architecture firms that specialize in site planning as well as landscape design. Many employers prefer to hire entry-level land scape architects who have internship experience, which significantly reduces the amount of on-the-job training required. Earnings In May 2004, median annual earnings for landscape architects were $53,120. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,930 and $70,400. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,390 and the highest 10 percent earned over $90,850. Architectural, engineering, and related services employed more landscape architects than any other group of industries, and there the median annual earnings were $51,670 in May 2004. In 2005, the average annual salary for all landscape architects in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $74,508. Because many landscape architects work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less generous than those provided to workers in large organizations. Related Occupations Landscape architects use their knowledge of design, construction, land-use planning, and environmental issues to develop a landscape project. Others whose work requires similar skills are architects, except landscape and naval; surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; civil engineers; and urban and regional planners. Landscape architects also must know how to grow and use plants in the landscape. Some conservation scientists and foresters and biological scientists study plants in general and do related work, while environmental scientists and geoscientists work in the area of environmental remediation. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited programs in landscape architecture, is available from: >- American Society of Landscape Architects, Career Information, 636 Eye St. NW., Washington, DC 20001-3736. Internet: http://www.asla.org General information on registration or licensing requirements is available from: >- Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards, 144 Church Street NW., Suite 201, Vienna, VA 22180-4550. Internet: http://www.clarb.org Surveyors, Cartographers, Photogrammetrists, and Surveying Technicians (0*NET 17-1021.00, 17-1022.00, 17-3031.01, 17-3031.02) Significant Points • About 2 out of 3 jobs were in architectural, engineer ing, and related services. • Opportunities will be best for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists who have a bachelor’s degree and strong technical skills. • Applicants for jobs as technicians may face competition. Professional and Related Occupations Nature of the Work Surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists are responsible for measuring and mapping the earth’s surface. Traditionally, surveyors establish official land, airspace, and water boundaries. They write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents; define airspace for airports; and take measurements of construction and mineral sites. Other surveyors provide data relevant to the shape, contour, location, elevation, or dimension of land or land features. Cartographers compile geographic, political, and cultural information and prepare maps of large areas. Photogrammetrists measure and analyze aerial photographs that are subsequently used to prepare detailed maps and drawings. Surveying and mapping technicians assist these professionals in their duties by collecting data in the field and using it to calculate mapmaking information for use in performing computations and computer-aided drafting. Surveyors measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on, above, and below the earth’s surface. In the field they select known survey refer ence points, and determine the precise location of important features in the survey area. Surveyors research legal records, look for evidence of previous boundaries, and analyze the data to determine the location of boundary lines. They also record the results of surveys, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plots, maps, and reports. Surveyors who establish boundaries must be licensed by the State in which they work. Surveyors are sometimes called to provide expert testimony in court cases concerning matters pertaining to surveying. Cartographers measure, map, and chart the earth’s surface. Their work involves everything from performing geographical research and compiling data to actually producing maps. Cartographers collect, analyze, and interpret both spatial data—such as latitude, longitude, elevation, and distance—and nonspatial data—for example, popu lation density, land-use patterns, annual precipitation levels, and demographic characteristics. Their maps may give both physical and social characteristics of the land. They prepare maps in either digital or graphic form, using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare detailed maps and drawings from aerial photographs, usually of areas that are inaccessible, difficult, or more costly to survey by other methods. Map editors develop and verify the contents of maps, using aerial photographs and other reference sources. Some States require photogrammetrists to be licensed as surveyors. Some surveyors perform specialized functions closer to those of cartographers than to those of traditional surveyors. For example, geodetic surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, including satel lite observations (remote sensing), to measure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually in relation to petroleum. Marine or hydrographic surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, the topography of the bottom, water depth, and other features. There is more to surveying and cartography than meets the eye. Chains, transits, theodolites, and plumb lines have given way to cutting-edge technology such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), laptops, and robotic total stations as the preferred tools of surveyors. Advanced computer software known as Geographic In formation Systems (GIS) have become an invaluable tool to booth surveyors and cartographers. Surveyors are able to use GPS to locate reference points with a high degree of precision. To use this system, a surveyor places a satellite signal receiver—a small instrument mounted on a tri pod—on a desired point, and another receiver on a point for which the geographic position is known. The receiver simultaneously collects information from several satellites to establish a precise https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 131 position. The receiver also can be placed in a vehicle for tracing out road systems. Because receivers now come in different sizes and shapes, and because the cost of receivers has fallen, much more sur veying work can be done with GPS. Surveyors then must interpret and check the results produced by the new technology. Fieldwork is done by a survey party that gathers the information needed by the surveyor. A typical survey party consists of a party chief and one or more surveying technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a surveyor or a senior surveying techni cian, leads day-to-day work activities. Surveying technicians assist the party chief by adjusting and operating surveying instruments, such as the total station, which measures and records angles and distances simultaneously. Surveying technicians or assistants posi tion and hold the vertical rods, or targets, that the operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or elevations. In addition, they may hold measuring tapes, if electronic distance-measuring equipment is not used. Surveying technicians compile notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from surveying instruments into computers either in the field or at the office. Survey parties also may include laborers or helpers who perform less skilled duties, such as clearing brush from sight lines, driving stakes, or carrying equipment. GIS software is capable of assembling, integrating, analyzing, and displaying data identified according to location and compiled from previous surveys and mappings. GIS software has become an important tool of both surveyors and cartographers. A GIS typically is used to handle maps which combine information that is useful for environmental studies, geology, engineering, planning, business marketing, and other disciplines. As more of these systems are de veloped, a new type of mapping scientist is emerging from the older specialties of photogrammetrist and cartographer; the geographic information specialist combines the functions of mapping science and surveying into a broader field concerned with the collection and analysis of geographic data. Working Conditions Surveyors and surveying technicians usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and may spend a lot of time outdoors. Sometimes they work Illt®SS Knowledge of GIS and GPS technologies will enhance one’s employment prospects. 132 Occupational Outlook Handbook longer hours during the summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. Seasonal demands for longer hours are related to demand for specific surveying services. For example, construc tion-related work may be limited during times of inclement weather and aerial photography is most effective when the leaves are off the trees. Surveyors and technicians engage in active, sometimes strenu ous, work. They often stand for long periods, walk considerable distances, and climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and other equipment. They also can be exposed to all types of weather. Trav eling is sometimes part of the job, and land surveyors and technicians may commute long distances, stay away from home overnight, or temporarily relocate near a survey site. Although surveyors can spend considerable time indoors while planning surveys, searching court records for deed information, analyzing data, and preparing reports and maps, cartographers and photogrammetrists spend virtually all of their time in offices using computers and seldom visit the sites they are mapping. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people prepare for a career as a licensed surveyor by combining postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive on-thejob training. However, as technology advances, a 4-year college degree is increasingly becoming a prerequisite. A number of uni versities now offer 4-year programs leading to a bachelor’s degree in surveying. Junior and community colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1 -year, 2-year, and 3-year programs in both surveying and surveying technology. All 50 States and all U.S. territories license surveyors. For licensure, most State licensing boards require that individuals pass a written examination given by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES). Most States also require surveyors to pass a written examination prepared by the State licens ing board. In addition, candidates must meet varying standards of formal education and work experience in the field. In the past, many with little formal training in surveying started as members of survey crews and worked their way up to become licensed surveyors. Currently, the route to licensure is most often a combination of 4 years of college, followed by passage of the Fundamentals of Surveying Exam. After passing this exam, most candidates continue to work under the supervision of an experienced surveyor for another 4 years and then take the Principles and Practice of Surveyors Exam for licensure. Specific requirements for train ing and education vary among the States. An increasing number of States require a bachelor’s degree in surveying or in a closely related field, such as civil engineering or forestry (with courses in surveying), regardless of the number of years of experience. Some States require the degree to be from a school accredited by the Ac creditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Many States also have a continuing education requirement. High school students interested in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usually start as apprentices. Beginners with postsecondary school training in surveying usually can start as technicians or assistants. With on-the-job experience and formal training in surveying—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence school—workers may advance to senior survey technician, then to party chief, and, in some cases, to licensed sur veyor (depending on State licensing requirements). However, it is becoming increasingly difficult to gain licensure without a formal education in surveying. The National Society of Professional Surveyors, a member organization of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, has a voluntary certification program for surveying technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technicians are certified at four levels requiring progressive amounts of experience, in addition to the passing of written examinations. Although not required for State licensure, many employers require certification for promotion to positions with greater responsibilities. Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and abstract forms. They must work with precision and ac curacy, because mistakes can be costly. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition, because they work outdoors and often carry equipment over difficult terrain. They need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate verbally and manually (using hand signals). Surveying is a cooperative opera tion, so good interpersonal skills and the ability to work as part of a team are important. Good office skills also are essential, because surveyors must be able to research old deeds and other legal papers and prepare reports that document their work. Cartographers and photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor’s degree in cartography, geography or a related field such as survey ing, engineering, forestry, or a physical science. Although it is possible to enter these positions through previous experience as a photogrammetric or cartographic technician, nowadays most car tographic and photogrammetric technicians have had some special ized postsecondary school training. With the development of GIS, cartographers and photogrammetrists need additional education and stronger technical skills—including more experience with comput ers—than in the past. The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing has a voluntary certification program for photogrammetrists. To qualify for this professional distinction, individuals must meet work experience standards and pass an oral or a written examination. Employment Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying tech nicians held about 131,000 jobs in 2004. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by occupational specialty: Surveying and mapping technicians............................................. Surveyors...................................................................................... Cartographers and photogrammetrists......................................... 65,000 56,000 11,000 The architectural, engineering, and related services indus try—including firms that provided surveying and mapping ser vices to other industries on a contract basis—provided 2 out of 3 jobs for these workers. Federal, State, and local governmental agencies provided almost 1 in 6 jobs. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the National Geodetic Survey, and the Army Corps of Engineers. Most surveyors in State and local government work for highway departments or urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Construction, mining and utility companies also employ surveyors, cartographers, photogram metrists, and surveying technicians. Only a small number were self-employed in 2004. Job Outlook Overall employment of surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The widespread availability and use of advanced technologies, such as GPS, GIS, and remote sensing, will continue to increase both the accuracy and productivity of these workers, limiting job growth to some extent. However, job openings will continue to arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force altogether. Many of the workers in these occupations are approaching retirement age. Professional and Related Occupations Opportunities for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists should remain concentrated in architectural, engineering, and related services firms. Areas such as urban planning, emer gency preparedness, and natural resource exploration and map ping also should provide employment growth, particularly with regard to producing maps for the management of emergencies and updating maps with the newly available technology. However, employment may fluctuate from year to year as a function of construction activity or with mapping needs for land and resource management. Opportunities should be stronger for professional surveyors than for surveying and mapping technicians. Advancements in technology, such as total stations and GPS, have made survey ing parties smaller than they were in the past. Opportunities for technicians should be available in basic GIS-related data-entry work. However, many persons possess the basic skills needed to qualify for these jobs, so applicants for technician jobs may face competition. As technologies become more complex, opportunities will be best for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists who have a bachelor’s degree and strong technical skills. Increasing demand for geographic data, as opposed to traditional surveying services, will mean better opportunities for cartographers and photogram metrists who are involved in the development and use of geographic and land information systems. New technologies, such as GPS and GIS, also may enhance employment opportunities for surveyors, and for surveying technicians who have the educational background and who have acquired technical skills that enable them to work with the new systems. At the same time, upgraded licensing requirements will continue to limit opportunities for professional advancement for those without a bachelor’s degree. Earnings Median annual earnings of cartographers and photogrammetrists were $46,080 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,160 and $59,830. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,210 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,440. Median annual earnings of surveyors were $42,980 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,940 and $57,190. The lowest 10 133 percent earned less than $24,640 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,640. Median hourly earnings of surveyors employed in archi tectural, engineering, and related services were $41,710 in May 2004. Median annual earnings of surveying and mapping technicians were $30,380 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,600 and $40,100. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 19,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $51,070. Me dian annual earnings of surveying and mapping technicians employed in architectural, engineering, and related services were $28,610 in May 2004, while those employed by local governments had median annual earnings of $34,810. Related Occupations Surveying is related to the work of civil engineers, architects, and landscape architects because an accurate survey is the first step in land development and construction projects. Cartography and geodetic surveying are related to the work of environmental scien tists and geoscientists, who study the earth’s internal composition, surface, and atmosphere. Cartography also is related to the work of geographers and urban and regional planners, who study and decide how the earth’s surface is to be used. Sources of Additional Information For career information on surveyors, cartographers, photogram metrists, and surveying technicians, contact: >- American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Suite 403,6 Montgomery Village Ave., Gaithersburg, MD 20879. Internet: http://www.acsm.net Information about career opportunities, licensure requirements, and the surveying technician certification program is available from: > National Society of Professional Surveyors, Suite 403,6 Montgomery Vil lage Ave., Gaithersburg, MD 20879. Internet: http://www.acsm.net/nsps For information on a career as a geodetic surveyor, contact: > American Association of Geodetic Surveying (AAGS), Suite 403, 6 Montgomery Village Ave., Gaithersburg, MD 20879. Internet: http://www.acsm.net/aags General information on careers in photogrammetry and remote sensing is available from: > ASPRS: Imaging and Geospatial Information Society, 5410 Grosvenor Ln., Suite 210, Bethesda, MD 20814-2160. Internet: http://www.asprs.org Engineers (0*NET 17-2011.00, 17-2021.00, 17-2031.00, 17-2041.00, 17-2051.00, 17-2061.00, 17-2071.00, 17-2072.00,17-2081.00, 17-2111.01,17 2111.02, 17-2111.03, 17-2112.00,17-2121.01,17-2121.02, 17-2131.00. 17-2141.00, 17-2151.00, 17-2161.00, 17-2171.00, 17-2199.99) Significant Points • • • Overall job opportunities in engineering are expected to be good, but will vary by specialty. A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level jobs. Starting salaries are significantly higher than those of college graduates in other fields. • Continuing education is critical for engineers wishing to enhance their value to employers as technology evolves. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Engineers apply the principles of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between perceived social needs and commercial ap plications. Engineers consider many factors when developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements; design and test the robot’s components; integrate the components to produce the final design; and evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reli ability, and safety. This process applies to the development of many different products, such as chemicals, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. These engineers supervise production in factories, determine the causes of component failure, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also 134 Occupational Outlook Handbook estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some move into engineering management or into sales. In sales, an engineering background enables them to discuss technical aspects and assist in product planning, installation, and use. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. (See the statements on sales engineers and engineering and natural sciences managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Engineers use computers extensively to produce and analyze designs; to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates; and to generate specifications for parts. Many engineers also use computers to monitor product quality and control process efficiency. The field of nanotechnology, which involves the creation of high-performance materials and components by integrating atoms and molecules, also is introducing entirely new principles to the design process. Most engineers specialize. This section provides details on the 17 engineering specialties covered in the Federal Govern ment’s Standard Occupational Classification system and on engineering in general. Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and the major branches of engineering have numerous subdivisions. Some examples include structural and transportation engineering, which are subdivisions of civil engineering; and ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineer ing, which are subdivisions of materials engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials. • Aerospace engineers design, develop, and test aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles and supervise the manufacture of these products. Those who work with aircraft are called aeronautical engineers, and those working specifically with spacecraft are astronautical engineers. Aerospace engineers develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas such as structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product, such as commercial aircraft, military fighter jets, helicop ters, spacecraft, or missiles and rockets, and may become experts . ■ :. ■ .......... Engineers use computer models to develop and test new designs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guidance and control systems. • Agricultural engineers apply knowledge of engineering tech nology and science to agriculture and the efficient use of biological resources. (See biological scientists and agricultural and food scien tists elsewhere in the Handbook.) They design agricultural machinery and equipment and agricultural structures. Some specialize in areas such as power systems and machinery design; structures and envi ronment engineering; and food and bioprocess engineering. They develop ways to conserve soil and water and to improve the process ing of agricultural products. Agricultural engineers often work in research and development, production, sales, or management. • Biomedical engineers develop devices and procedures that solve medical and health-related problems by combining their knowledge of biology and medicine with engineering principles and practices. Many do research, along with life scientists, chem ists, and medical scientists, to develop and evaluate systems and products such as artificial organs, prostheses (artificial devices that replace missing body parts), instrumentation, medical information systems, and health management and care delivery systems. (See biological scientists, medical scientists, and chemists and materi als scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biomedical engineers may also design devices used in various medical procedures, imaging systems such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and devices for automating insulin injections or controlling body functions. Most engineers in this specialty need a sound back ground in another engineering specialty, such as mechanical or electronics engineering, in addition to specialized biomedical training. Some specialties within biomedical engineering include biomaterials, biomechanics, medical imaging, rehabilitation engi neering, and orthopedic engineering. • Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry to solve problems involving the production or use of chemicals and biochemicals. They design equipment and processes for large-scale chemical manufacturing, plan and test methods of manufacturing products and treating byproducts, and supervise production. Chem ical engineers also work in a variety of manufacturing industries other than chemical manufacturing, such as those producing energy, electronics, food, clothing, and paper. They also work in healthcare, biotechnology, and business services. Chemical engineers apply principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. (See chemists and materials scientists, physicists and astronomers, and mathematicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some may specialize in a particular chemical process, such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular field, such as materials science, or in the development of specific products. They must be aware of all aspects of chemicals manufac turing and how the manufacturing process affects the environment and the safety of workers and consumers. • Civil engineers design and supervise the construction of roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and water supply and sewage systems. They must consider many factors in the design process, from the construction costs and expected lifetime of a project to government regu lations and potential environmental hazards such as earthquakes. Civil engineering, considered one of the oldest engineering disciplines, en compasses many specialties. The major specialties are structural, water resources, construction, environmental, transportation, and geotechnical engineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Others may work in design, construction, research, and teaching. • Computer hardware engineers research, design, develop, test, and oversee the installation of computer hardware and supervise Professional and Related Occupations its manufacture and installation. Hardware refers to computer chips, circuit boards, computer systems, and related equipment such as keyboards, modems, and printers. (Computer software engineers—often simply called computer engineers—design and develop the software systems that control computers. These work ers are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) The work of computer hardware engineers is very similar to that of electronics engineers, but, unlike electronics engineers, computer hardware engineers work exclusively with computers and computer-related equipment. The rapid advances in computer technology are largely a result of the research, development, and design efforts of computer hardware engineers. • Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical equipment. Some of this equipment includes electric motors; machinery controls, lighting, and wiring in buildings; automobiles; aircraft; radar and navigation systems; and power-generating, -controlling, and transmission devices used by electric utilities. Although the terms “electrical” and “electron ics” engineering often are used interchangeably in academia and industry, electrical engineers have traditionally focused on the generation and supply of power, whereas electronics engineers have worked on applications of electricity to control systems or signal processing. Electrical engineers specialize in areas such as power systems engineering or electrical equipment manufacturing. • Electronics engineers, except computer, are responsible for a wide range of technologies, from portable music players to the global positioning system (GPS), which can continuously provide the location of a vehicle. Electronics engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electronic equipment such as broadcast and communications systems. Many electronics engineers also work in areas closely related to computers. However, engineers whose work is related exclusively to computer hardware are considered computer hardware engineers. Electronics engineers specialize in areas such as communications, signal processing, and control sys tems or have a specialty within one of these areas—industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. • Environmental engineers develop solutions to environmen tal problems using the principles of biology and chemistry. They are involved in water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health issues. Environmental engineers con duct hazardous-waste management studies in which they evaluate the significance of the hazard, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. They design mu- ■W / , ■•! Collaboration speeds design work and introduces novel approaches to problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 135 nicipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems. They conduct research on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects, analyze scientific data, and perform qual ity-control checks. Environmental engineers are concerned with local and worldwide environmental issues. They study and attempt to minimize the effects of acid rain, global warming, automobile emissions, and ozone depletion. They may also be involved in the protection of wildlife. Many environmental engineers work as consultants, helping their clients to comply with regulations and to clean up hazardous sites. • Health and safety engineers, except mining safety engineers and inspectors, promote worksite or product safety by applying knowledge of industrial processes and mechanical, chemical, and hu man performance principles. Using this specialized knowledge, they identify and measure potential hazards to people or property, such as the risk of fires or the dangers involved in the handling of toxic chemicals. Health and safety engineers develop procedures and designs to reduce the risk of injury or damage. Some work in manufacturing industries to ensure the designs of new products do not create unnecessary hazards. They must be able to anticipate, recognize, and evaluate hazardous conditions, as well as develop hazard control methods. • Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, materials, informa tion, and energy—to make a product or to provide a service. They are mostly concerned with increasing productivity through the manage ment of people, methods of business organization, and technology. To solve organizational, production, and related problems efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product requirements, use mathematical methods to meet those requirements, and design manufacturing and information systems. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, and de sign production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and ensure product quality. They also design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services, as well as determine the most efficient plant locations. Industrial engineers develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related to the work of managers. • Marine engineers and naval architects are involved in the design, construction, and maintenance of ships, boats, and related equipment. They design and supervise the construction of every thing from aircraft carriers to submarines, and from sailboats to tankers. Naval architects work on the basic design of ships, including hull form and stability. Marine engineers work on the propulsion, steering, and other systems of ships. Marine engineers and naval architects apply knowledge from a range of fields to the entire design and production process of all water vehicles. Workers who operate or supervise the operation of marine machinery on ships and other vessels also may be called marine engineers or, more frequently, ship engineers. (These workers are covered under water transportation occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) • Materials engineers are involved in the development, process ing, and testing of the materials used to create a range of products, from computer chips and television screens to golf clubs and snow skis. They work with metals, ceramics, plastics, semiconductors, and composites to create new materials that meet certain mechani cal, electrical, and chemical requirements. They also are involved in selecting materials for new applications. Materials engineers have developed the ability to create and then study materials at an atomic level, using advanced processes to replicate the characteristics of materials and their components with computers. Most materi als engineers specialize in a particular material. For example, 136 Occupational Outlook Handbook energy—or on the development of fusion energy. Some specialize in the development of nuclear power sources for spacecraft; others find industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials, as in equipment used to diagnose and treat medical problems. Not all engineering work is done at a desk; many engineers spend part of their time in laboratories andfactories. metallurgical engineers specialize in metals such as steel, and ceramic engineers develop ceramic materials and the processes for making ceramic materials into useful products such as glassware or fiber optic communication lines. • Mechanical engineers research, develop, design, manu facture, and test tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical devices. They work on power-producing machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines, as well as power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-condi tioning equipment, machine tools, material handling systems, eleva tors and escalators, industrial production equipment, and robots used in manufacturing. Mechanical engineers also design tools that other engineers need for their work. Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers may work in production operations in manufacturing or agriculture, maintenance, or technical sales; many are administrators or managers. • Petroleum engineers search the world for reservoirs con taining oil or natural gas. Once these resources are discovered, petroleum engineers work with geologists and other specialists to understand the geologic formation and properties of the rock con taining the reservoir, determine the drilling methods to be used, and monitor drilling and production operations. They design equip ment and processes to achieve the maximum profitable recovery of oil and gas. Because only a small proportion of oil and gas in a reservoir flows out under natural forces, petroleum engineers de velop and use various enhanced recovery methods. These include injecting water, chemicals, gases, or steam into an oil reservoir to force out more of the oil and doing computer-controlled drilling or fracturing to connect a larger area of a reservoir to a single well. Because even the best techniques in use today recover only a portion of the oil and gas in a reservoir, petroleum engineers research and develop technology and methods to increase recovery and lower the cost of drilling and production operations. Working Conditions Most engineers work in office buildings, laboratories, or industrial plants. Others may spend time outdoors at construction sites and • Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, find, extract, and prepare coal, metals, and minerals for use by manufacturing industries and utilities. They design open-pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for trans porting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are respon sible for the safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metal lurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral- processing opera tions that separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral or metal, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution. Mining safety engineers use their knowledge of mine design and practices to ensure the safety of workers and to comply with State and Federal safety regulations. They inspect walls and roof surfaces, monitor air quality, and examine mining equipment for compliance with safety practices. • Nuclear engineers research and develop the processes, instruments, and systems used to derive benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear plants to generate power. They may work on the nuclear fuel cycle—the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by the generation of nuclear https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Engineering work requires strong math skills and attention to detail. Professional and Related Occupations oil and gas exploration and production sites, where they monitor or direct operations or solve onsite problems. Some engineers travel extensively to plants or worksites. Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times, dead lines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a job, requiring engineers to work longer hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is required for almost all entrylevel engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a physical science or mathematics occasionally may qualify for some engineer ing jobs, especially in specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in electrical, electronics, mechanical, or civil engineering. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in related branches. For example, many aerospace engineers have training in mechanical engineering. This flexibility allows employ ers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and specialties in which engineers may be in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects or to those that more closely match their interests. Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. General courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, are often a required component of programs. Many programs also include courses in general engineering. A design course, sometimes accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges offer 2- or 4-year degree programs in engineering technology. These programs, which usually include various hands-on laboratory classes that focus on current issues in the application of engineering prin ciples, prepare students for practical design and production work, rather than for jobs that require more theoretical and scientific knowledge. Graduates of 4-year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. Engineering technology graduates, however, are not qualified to register as professional engineers under the same terms as graduates with degrees in engineering. Some employers regard technology program graduates as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions and many research and development programs, but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology and broaden their education. Many highlevel executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. About 360 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in engineering that are accredited by the Accredita tion Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), Inc. and about 230 colleges offer accredited programs in engineering technology. ABET accreditation is based on an examination of an engineering program’s student achievement, program improve ment, faculty, curriculum, facilities, and institutional commitment to certain principles of quality and ethics. Although most institu tions offer programs in the major branches of engineering, only a few offer programs in the smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some programs emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in industry, whereas others are more theoretical and are designed to prepare students for graduate work. Therefore, students should investigate curriculums and check accreditations carefully before Digitized forselecting FRASERa college. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 137 Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include a solid background in mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigo nometry, and calculus) and science (biology, chemistry, and physics), with courses in English, social studies, and humanities. Bachelor s degree programs in engineering typically are designed to last 4 years, but many students find that it takes between 4 and 5 years to com plete their studies. In a typical 4-year college curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying mathematics, basic sciences, introductory engineering, humanities, and social sciences. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one specialty. Some programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then specialize on the job or in graduate school. Some engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering edu cation, and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few engineering schools have arrangements that allow students who spend 3 years in a liberal arts college studying pre-engineering subjects and 2 years in an engineering school studying core subjects to receive a bachelor s / degree from each school. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master’s degree programs. Some 5-year or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and practical work, permitting students to gain valuable experience and to finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require licensure for engineers who offer their services directly to the public. Engineers who are licensed are called professional engineers (PE). This licensure generally requires a degree from an ABET-accredited engineering program, 4 years of relevant work experience, and successful completion of a State examination. Recent graduates can start the licensing process by taking the examination in two stages. The initial Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination can be taken upon graduation. Engineers who pass this examination commonly are called engineers in training (EIT) or engineer interns (El). After acquiring suitable work experience, EITs can take the second examination, the Principles and Practice of Engineering exam. Several States have imposed mandatory continuing education requirements for relicensure. Most States recognize licensure from other States, provided that the manner in which the initial license was obtained meets or exceeds their own licensure requirements. Many civil, electrical, mechanical, and chemical engineers are licensed PEs. Independent of licensure, various certification programs are offered by professional organizations to demonstrate competency in specific fields of engineering. Engineers should be creative, inquisitive, analytical, and detail oriented. They should be able to work as part of a team and to com municate well, both orally and in writing. Communication abilities are important because engineers often interact with specialists in a wide range of fields outside engineering. Beginning engineering graduates usually work under the su pervision of experienced engineers and, in large companies, also may receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As new engineers gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more difficult projects with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may advance to become technical specialists or to supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some may eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial or sales jobs. (See the statements under management and business and financial operations occupations and under sales and related occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment In 2004 engineers held 1.4 million jobs. The distribution of employ ment by engineering specialty is as follows: 138 Occupational Outlook Handbook Specialty Total, all engineers......................... Civil....................................... Mechanical......................... Industrial.................................. Electrical..................... Electronics, except computer... Computer hardware..................... Aerospace............................... Environmental....................... Chemical.......................... Health and safety, except mining safety................................. Materials.............................. Nuclear.............................. Petroleum............................ Biomedical........................ Marine engineers and naval architects Mining and geological, including mining safety.............................. Agricultural.............................. All other engineers................... Employment 1 440 non ....... 143,000 Percent 100 1£ A 15.6 12.2 10.8 9.9 5.3 5.2 'X 4 2.1 1.8 ...... 6,800 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.2 11.8 About 555,000 engineering jobs were found in manufacturing industries, and another 378,000 wage and salary jobs were in the professional, scientific, and technical services sector, primarily in archi tectural, engineering, and related services and in scientific research and development services. Many engineers also worked in the construction and transportation, telecommunications, and utilities industries. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 194,000 engineers in 2004. About 91,000 of these were in the Federal Gov ernment, mainly in the U.S. Departments of Defense, Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Energy and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked in highway and public works departments. In 2004, about 41,000 engineers were self-employed, many as consultants. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas—for example, petroleum engineering jobs tend to be located in areas with sizable petroleum deposits, such as Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Alaska, and California. Others, such as civil engineering, are widely dispersed, and engineers in these fields often move from place to place to work on different projects. Engineers are employed in evety major industry. The industries employing the most engineers in each specialty are given in table 1, along with the percent of occupational employment in the industry. There are many well-trained, often English-speaking engineers available around the world willing to work at much lower salaries than are U.S. engineers. The rise of the Internet has made it relatively easy for much of the engineering work previously done by engineers in this country to be done by engineers in other countries, a factor that will tend to hold down employment growth. Even so, the need for onsite engi neers to interact with other employees and with clients will remain. Compared with most other workers, a smaller proportion of engi neers leave their jobs each year. Nevertheless, many job openings will arise from replacement needs, reflecting the large size of this profession. Numerous job openings will be created by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional occupations; additional openings will arise as engineers retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Many engineers work on long-term research and development proj ects or in other activities that continue even during economic slowdowns. In industries such as electronics and aerospace, however, large cutbacks in defense expenditures and in government funding for research and development have resulted in significant layoffs of engineers in the past. The trend toward contracting for engineering work with engineering services firms, both domestic and foreign, has had the same result. It is important for engineers, as it is for those working in other technical and scientific occupations, to continue their education throughout their Table 1. Percent concentration of engineering specialty employment in key industries, 2004 Specialty Industry Aerospace Aerospace product and parts manufacturing................................. 59.6 State and local government................... 22.6 Scientific research and development services..................... 18.7 Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing................................. 15.6 Chemical manufacturing...................... 27.8 Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 16.3 Architectural, engineering, and related services............................... 46.0 Computer and electronic product manufacturing................................. 43.2 Computer systems design and related services................................ 15.0 Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 19,6 Navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments manufacturing................................. 10.8 Agricultural Biomedical Chemical Civil Computer hardware Electrical Job Outlook Overall engineering employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period. Engineers have traditionally been concentrated in slow-growing manufacturing industries, in which they will continue to be needed to design, build, test, and improve manufactured products. However, increasing employment of engineers in faster growing service industries should generate most of the employ ment growth. Overall job opportunities in engineering are expected to be favorable because the number of engineering graduates should be in rough balance with the number ofjob openings over this period. However, job outlook varies by specialty, as discussed later in this section. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs and to optimize their manufacturing processes. Employers will rely on engineers to further increase productivity as investment in plant and equipment increases to expand output of goods and services. New technologies continue to improve the design process, enabling engineers to produce and analyze various product designs much more rapidly than in the past. Unlike in other fields, however, technological advances are not expected to limit employment opportunities substantially, because Digitized FRASER theyfor will permit the development of new products and processes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Electronics, except computer Environmental Health and safety, except mining safety Industrial Marine engineers and naval architects Materials Mechanical Percent Telecommunications............................. 17.5 Federal government............................. 14.4 Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 28.9 State and local government................. 19.6 State and local government................... 12.4 Machinery manufacturing..................... 7.8 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing..... 7.1 Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 34.5 Computer and electronic product manufacturing................................. 14.3 Architectural, engineering, and related services................................ 18.1 Machinery manufacturing................... 13.4 Mining and geological, including mining safety Mining.................................................. 49.9 Nuclear Electric power generation, transmission and distribution......... 36.1 PetroleumOil and gas extraction......................... 47.4 Professional and Related Occupations careers because much of their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. Engineers in high-technology areas, such as advanced electronics or information technology, may find that technical knowledge can become outdated rapidly. By keeping current in their field, engineers are able to deliver the best solutions and greatest value to their employers. Engineers who have not kept current in their field may find themselves passed over for promotions or vulnerable to layoffs. The following section discusses job outlook by engineering specialty. •Aerospace engineers are expected to have slower-than-average growth in employment over the projection period. Although increases in the number and scope of military aerospace projects likely will generate new jobs, increased efficiency will limit the number of new jobs in the design and production of commercial aircraft. Even with slow growth, the employment outlook for aerospace engineers through 2014 appears favorable: the number of degrees granted in aerospace engineering declined for many years because of a perceived lack of opportunities in this field, and, although this trend is reversing, new graduates continue to be needed to replace aerospace engineers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. • Agricultural engineers are expected to have employment growth about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. The growing interest in worldwide standardization of agricul tural equipment should result in increased employment of agricul tural engineers. Job opportunities also should result from the need to feed a growing population, develop more efficient agricultural production, and conserve resources. • Biomedical engineers are expected to have employment growth that is much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. The aging of the population and the focus on health issues will drive demand for better medical devices and equipment designed by biomedi cal engineers. Along with the demand for more sophisticated medical equipment and procedures, an increased concern for cost- effectiveness will boost demand for biomedical engineers, particularly in pharma ceutical manufacturing and related industries. However, because of the growing interest in this field, the number of degrees granted in biomedical engineering has increased greatly. Biomedical engineers, particularly those with only a bachelor’s degree, may face competition forjobs. Unlike the case for many other engineering specialties, a gradu ate degree is recommended or required for many entry-level jobs. • Chemical engineers are expected to have employment growth about as fast as the average for all occupations though 2014. Although overall employment in the chemical manufacturing industry is expected to decline, chemical companies will continue to research and develop new chemicals and more efficient processes to increase output of exist ing chemicals. Among manufacturing industries, pharmaceuticals may provide the best opportunities for jobseekers. However, most employ ment growth for chemical engineers will be in service industries such as scientific research and development services, particularly in energy and the developing fields of biotechnology and nanotechnology. • Civil engineers are expected to see average employment growth through 2014. Spurred by general population growth and an increased emphasis on infrastructure security, more civil engineers will be needed to design and construct safe and higher capacity transportation, water supply, and pollution control systems, as well as large build ings and building complexes. They also will be needed to repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. Because construction and related industries—including those providing design services—employ many civil engineers, employment opportunities will vary by geographic area and may decrease during economic slowdowns, when construction often is curtailed. • Computer hardware engineers are expected to have average employment growth through 2014. Although the use of information technology continues to expand rapidly, the manufacture of computer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 139 hardware is expected to be adversely affected by intense foreign com petition. As computer and semiconductor manufacturing contract out more of their engineering needs, much of the growth in employment should occur in the computer systems design and related services industry. However, use of foreign computer hardware engineering services also will serve to limit job growth. Computer engineers should still have favorable employment opportunities, as the number of new entrants is expected to be in balance with demand. • Electrical engineers should have favorable employment opportuni ties. The number ofjob openings resulting from employment growth and from the need to replace electrical engineers who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force is expected to be in rough balance with the supply of graduates. Employment of electrical engineers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Al though international competition and the use of engineering services per formed in other countries may limit employment growth, strong demand for electrical devices such as giant electric power generators or wireless phone transmitters should boost growth. Prospects should be particularly good for electrical engineers working in engineering services firms provid ing technical expertise to other companies on specific projects. • Electronics engineers, except computer, should have good job opportunities, and employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Although rising demand for electronic goods—including advanced communications equipment, defense-related electronic equipment, medical electronics, and consumer products—should continue to increase employment, foreign competition in electronic products development and the use of engineering services performed in other countries will act to limit employment growth. Job growth is expected to be fastest in service-providing industries—particu larly consulting firms that provide expertise in electronics engineering. • Environmental engineers should have favorable job opportuni ties. Employment of environmental engineers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. More environmental engineers will be needed to comply with environmental regulations and to develop methods of cleaning up existing hazards. A shift in emphasis toward preventing problems rather than controlling those that already exist, as well as increasing public health concerns, also will spur demand for environmental engineers. Even though employment of environmental engineers should be less affected by eco nomic conditions than that of most other types of engineers, a signifi cant economic downturn could reduce the emphasis on environmental protection, reducing environmental engineers’job opportunities. • Health and safety engineers, except mining safety engineers and inspectors, are projected to experience average employment growth through 2014. Because the main function of health and safety engineers is to make products and production processes as safe as possible, their services should be in demand as concern for health and safety within work environments increases. As new technologies for production or processing are developed, health and safety engineers will be needed to ensure their safety. • Industrial engineers are expected to have employment growth about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. As firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity, they increas ingly will turn to industrial engineers to develop more efficient processes to reduce costs, delays, and waste. Because their work is similar to that done in management occupations, many industrial engineers leave the occupation to become managers. Many open ings will be created by the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. • Marine engineers and naval architects likely will experience employment growth that is slower than the average for all occupations. Strong demand for naval vessels and for yachts and other small craft should more than offset the long-term decline in the domestic design and 140 Occupational Outlook Handbook construction of large oceangoing vessels. There should be good prospects for marine engineers and naval architects because of growth in employ ment, the need to replace workers who retire or take other jobs, and the limited number of students pursuing careers in this occupation. • Materials engineers, including mining safety engineers, are expected to have employment growth about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Although many of the manufacturing industries in which materials engineers are concentrated are expected to experience declining employment, materials engineers still will be needed to develop new materials for electronics, biotechnology, and plastics products. Growth should be particularly strong for materials engineers working on nanomaterials and biomaterials. As manufacturing firms contract for their materials engineering needs, employment growth is expected in professional, scientific, and technical services industries. Earnings Earnings for engineers vary significantly by specialty, industry, and education. Even so, as a group, engineers earn some of the highest average starting salaries among those holding bachelor’s degrees. The following tabulation shows average starting salary olfers for engineers, according to a 2005 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers. Curriculum Bachelor’s Aerospace/aeronautical/ astronautical.......................... .. $50,993 Agricultural............................... .. 46,172 Bioengineering and biomedical....... .. 48,503 Chemical........................... .. 53,813 Civil................................ .. 43,679 Computer....................... S? 464 Electrical/electronics and communications......................... .. 51,888 Environmental/environmental health. .. 47,384 Industrial/manufacturing................. .. 49,567 Materials.......................... .... SO Q82 Mechanical....................... ,. 50,236 Mining and mineral.................. „ 48,643 Nuclear................................ .. 51,182 Petroleum............................ . 61,516 Master’s Ph.D. $62,930 53,022 59,667 57,260 48,050 60,354 $72,529 64,416 80,206 _ 56,561 85,000 59,880 68,299 79,591 59,710 69,625 • Mechanical engineers are projected to have an average rate of employment growth through 2014. Although total employment in manufacturing industries—in which employment of mechanical engineers is concentrated—is expected to decline, employment of mechanical engineers in manufacturing should increase as the demand for improved machineiy and machine tools grows and as industrial ma chinery and processes become increasingly complex. Also, emerging technologies in biotechnology, materials science, and nanotechnology will create new job opportunities for mechanical engineers. Additional opportunities for mechanical engineers will arise because the skills acquired through earning a degree in mechanical engineering often can be applied in other engineering specialties. engineers in the various branches of engineering also is significant. For engineers in specialties covered in this statement, earnings distributions by percentile in May 2004 are shown in the following tabulation. • Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, are expected to have good employment opportunities, despite Specialty a projected decline in employment. Many mining engineers currently employed are approaching retirement age, a factor that should create some job openings over the 2004-14 period. In addition, relatively few schools offer mining engineering programs, and the small number ofyearly graduates is not expected to increase substantially. Favorable job oppor tunities also may be available worldwide as mining operations around the world recruit graduates of U.S. mining engineering programs. As a result, some graduates may travel frequently or even live abroad. Employment of mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, is projected to decline through 2014, primarily because most of the industries in which mining engineers are concentrated—such as coal, metal, and copper mining—tire expected to experience declines in employment. • Nuclear engineers are expected to have good opportunities because the small number of nuclear engineering graduates is likely to be in rough balance with the number of job openings. Employ ment of nuclear engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Most openings will result from the need to replace nuclear engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Although no commercial nuclear powerplants have been built in the United States for many years, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate existing plants. In addition, nuclear engineers may be needed to research and develop future nuclear power sources. They also will be needed to work in defense-related areas, to develop nuclear medical technology, and to improve and enforce waste management and safety standards. • Petroleum engineers are expected to have a decline in employ ment through 2014 because most of the potential petroleum-producing areas in the United States already have been explored. Even so, fa vorable opportunities are expected for petroleum engineers because the number of job openings is likely to exceed the relatively small number of graduates. All job openings should result from the need to replace petroleum engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Petroleum engineers work around the world and, in fact, the best employment opportunities may be in other countries. Many foreign employers seek U.S.-trained petroleum engineers, and many U.S. employers maintain overseas branches. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis _ 58,814 58,000 — Variation in median earnings and in the earnings distributions for Lowest 10% Aerospace................. $52,820 Agricultural.............. 37,680 Biomedical............... 41,260 Chemical.................. 49,030 Civil......................... 42,610 Computer hardware... 50,490 Electrical.................. 47,310 Electronics, except computer............. 49,120 Environmental.......... 40,620 Health and safety, except mining safety...... 39,930 Industrial.................. 42,450 Marine engineers and naval architects .... 43,790 Materials.................. 44,130 Mechanical.............. 43,900 Mining and geological, including mining safety................... 39,700 Nuclear.................... 61,790 Petroleum................ 48,260 Lowest 25% Median Highest 25% Highest 10% $64,380 $79,100 $94,900 $113,520 43,270 56,520 77,740 90,410 51,620 67,690 86,400 107,530 60,920 76,770 94,740 115,180 51,430 64,230 79,920 94,660 63,730 81,150 102,100 123,560 57,540 71,610 88,400 108,070 60,280 50,740 75,770 66,480 92,870 83,690 100,050 49,900 52,210 63,730 65,020 79,500 79,830 92,870 93,950 54.530 53,510 53,070 72,040 67,110 66,320 89,900 83,830 82,380 109,190 50,500 73,340 65,350 64,690 84,880 88,500 83,050 100,220 103,790 118,870 140,800 113,180 112,200 101,120 97,850 In the Federal Government, mean annual salaries for engineers ranged from $100,059 in ceramic engineering to $70,086 in agri cultural engineering in 2005. Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical science and math ematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical principles include architects, except landscape and naval; engineering and natural sciences managers; computer and information systems managers; computer programmers; computer software engineers; mathematicians; drafters; engineering techni cians; sales engineers; science technicians; and physical and life scientists, including agricultural and food scientists, biological scientists, conservation scientists and foresters, atmospheric sci entists, chemists and materials scientists, environmental scientists and hydrologists, geoscientists, and physicists and astronomers. Professional and Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in engineering is available from: > JETS, 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.jets.org Information on ABET-accredited engineering programs is available from: >- Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc., 111 Market Place, Suite 1050, Baltimore, MD 21202-4012. Internet: http://www.abet.org Those interested in information on the Professional Engineer licensure should contact: >- National Society of Professional Engineers, 1420 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.nspe.org ► National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying, P.O. Box 1686, Clemson, SC 29633-1686. Internet: http://www.ncees.org Information on general engineering education and career resources is available from: >• American Society for Engineering Education, 1818 N St. NW„ Suite 600, Washington, DC 20036-2479. Internet: http://www.asee.org Information on obtaining positions as engineers with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Man agement through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. For more detailed information on an engineering specialty, contact societies representing the individual branches of engineering. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch. Aerospace engineers >• Aerospace Industries Association, 1000 Wilson Blvd., Suite 1700, Arlington, VA 22209-3901. Internet: http://www.aia-aerospace.org ► American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Suite 500, Reston, VA 20191-4344. Internet: http://www.aiaa.org 141 Civil engineers > American Society of Civil Engineers, 1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191-4400. Internet: http://www.asce.org Computer hardware engineers > IEEE Computer Society, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org Electrical and electronics engineers >- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers-USA, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 1202, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.ieeeusa.org Environmental engineers > American Academy of Environmental Engineers, 130 Holiday Court, Suite 100, Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.aaee.net Health and safety engineers >- American Society of Safety Engineers, 1800 E Oakton St., Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.asse.org > Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org Industrial engineers >- Institute of Industrial Engineers, 3577 Parkway Lane, Suite 200, Norcross, GA 30092. Internet: http://www.iienet.org Materials engineers > The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 184 Thom Hill Rd., Warrendale, PA 15086-7514. Internet: http://www.tms.org >- ASM International, 9639 Kinsman Rd., Materials Park, OH 44073 0002. Internet: http://www.asminternational.org Mechanical engineers > The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 3 Park Ave., New York, NY 10016-5990. Internet: http://www.asme.org >- American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle NE„ Atlanta, GA 30329. Internet: http://www.ashrae.org >• Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, PA 15096-0001. Internet: http://www.sae.org Marine engineers and naval architects >- Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 601 Pavonia Ave., Jersey City, NJ 07306. Internet: http://www.sname.org Agricultural engineers Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety ► American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, 2950 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659. Internet: http://www.asabe.org Biomedical engineers ► Biomedical Engineering Society, 8401 Corporate Dr., Suite 225, Landover, MD 20785-2224. Internet: http://www.bmes.org Chemical engineers >- American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 3 Park Ave., New York, NY 10016-5991. Internet: http://www.aiche.org ► American Chemical Society, Department of Career Services, 115516th St NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.chemLstry.org/portal/Chemi.stry engineers > The Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 8307 Shaffer Parkway, Littleton, CO 80127-4102. Internet: http://www.smenet.org Nuclear engineers > American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60526. Internet: http://www.ans.org Petroleum engineers >- Society of Petroleum Engineers, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836. Internet: http://www.spe.org Drafters and Engineering Technicians Nature of the Work Drafters ______ ________ (0*NET 17-3011.01, 17-3011.02, 17-3012.01, 17-3012.02, 17-3013.00) Significant Points • The type and quality of postsecondary drafting pro grams vary considerably; prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. • Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average. • Opportunities should be best for individuals with at least 2 years of postsecondary training in drafting and considerable skill and experience using computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) systems. • Demand for drafters varies by specialty and depends on the needs of local industry, particularly architectural and engineering services and manufacturing. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Drafters prepare technical drawings and plans used by production and construction workers to build everything from manufactured products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and space craft to structures such as houses, office buildings, and oil and gas pipelines. Drafters’ drawings provide visual guidelines; show the technical details of the products and structures; and specify dimensions, materials, and procedures. Dralters fill in technical details using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, codes, and calculations previously made by engineers, surveyors, architects, or scientists. For example, drafters use their knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw in the details of a structure. Some use their knowledge of engineering and manufacturing theory and stan dards to draw the parts of a machine to determine design elements, such as the numbers and kinds of fasteners needed to assemble the machine. Drafters use technical handbooks, tables, calculators, and computers to complete their work. Traditionally, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices 142 Occupational Outlook Handbook to prepare a drawing manually. Most drafters now use CADD systems to prepare drawings. Consequently, some drafters may be referred to as CADD operators. CADD systems employ computers to create and store drawings electronically that can then be viewed, printed, or pro grammed directly into automated manufacturing systems. These sys tems also permit drafters to quickly prepare variations of a design. Al though drafters use CADD extensively, it is only a tool. Persons who produce technical drawings with CADD still function as drafters and need the knowledge of traditional drafters, in addition to CADD skills. Despite the nearly universal use of CADD systems, manual drafting and sketching still are used in certain applications. Drafting work has many specialties, and titles may denote a particular discipline of design or drafting. Aeronautical drafters prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used in the manufacture of aircraft, mis siles, and related parts. Architectural drafters draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. These workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a kind of material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber. Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major construction or civil engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems. Electrical drafters prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wir ing in communication centers, powerplants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings. Electronics drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic devices and components. Mechanical drafters prepare drawings showing the detail and assembly of a wide variety of machinery and mechanical devices, in dicating dimensions, fastening methods, and other requirements. Process piping or pipeline drafters prepare drawings used in the layout, construction, and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems. ip Drafters produce the detailed technical drawings necessary for construction or manufacturing. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most drafters work a standard 40-hour week; only a small number work part time. Drafters usually work in comfortable offices furnished to accommodate their tasks. They may sit at adjustable drawing boards or drafting tables when doing manual drawings, although most drafters work at computer terminals much of the time. Because they spend long periods in front of computer terminals doing detailed work, drafters may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants who have completed postsecond ary school training in drafting, training that is offered by techni cal institutes, community colleges, and some 4-year colleges and universities. Employers are most interested in applicants with well-de veloped drafting and mechanical drawing skills; knowledge of drafting standards, mathematics, science, and engineering technology; and a solid background in CADD techniques. In addition, communication and problem-solving skills are important. Training and coursework differ somewhat within the drafting specialties. The initial training for each specialty is similar. All incor porate math and communication skills, for example, but coursework relating to the specialty varies. In an electronics drafting program, for example, students learn how to depict electronic components and circuits in drawings. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide some form of training in drafting. Because the kind and quality of programs vary considerably, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs that are obtained by the school’s graduates, the types and conditions of the instructional facilities and equipment, and the faculty’s qualifications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training, but less general education than do junior and community colleges. Cer tificates or diplomas based on the completion of a certain number of course hours may be awarded. Many technical institutes offer 2-year associate degree programs, which are similar to, or part of, the programs offered by community colleges or State university systems. Their programs vary considerably in both length and type of courses offered. Some area vocational-technical schools are postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize the type of training preferred by local employers. Many offer introductory drafting instruction. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations sometimes called proprietary schools. Community colleges offer curricula similar to those in technical institutes but include more courses on theory and liberal arts. Often, there is little or no difference between technical institute and com munity college programs. However, courses taken at community colleges are more likely than those given at technical institutes to be accepted for credit at 4-year colleges. After completing a 2-year associate degree program, graduates may obtain jobs as drafters or continue their education in a related field at 4-year colleges. Most 4-year colleges usually do not offer training in drafting, but college courses in engineering, architecture, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as a drafter. Technical training obtained in the Armed Forces also can be applied in civilian drafting jobs. Some additional training may be necessary, depending on the technical area or military specialty. The American Design Drafting Association (ADDA) has es tablished a certification program for drafters. Although employers usually do not require drafters to be certified, certification dem Professional and Related Occupations onstrates an understanding of nationally recognized practices and standards of knowledge. Individuals who wish to become certified must pass the Drafter Certification Test, which is administered pe riodically at ADDA-authorized sites. Applicants are tested on their knowledge and understanding of basic drafting concepts, such as geometric construction, working drawings, and architectural terms and standards. Individuals planning careers in drafting should take cours es in mathematics, science, computer technology, design, and computer graphics, as well as any high school drafting courses available. Mechanical ability and visual aptitude are important. Prospective drafters should be able to draw well and perform detailed work accurately and neatly. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields, as is knowledge of manufactur ing and construction methods. In addition, prospective drafters should have good interpersonal skills because they work closely with engineers, surveyors, architects, and other professionals and, sometimes, with customers. Entry-level or junior drafters usually do routine work under close supervision. After gaining experience, they may become intermedi ate drafters and progress to more difficult work with less supervision. At the intermediate level, they may need to exercise more judgment and perform calculations when preparing and modifying drawings. Drafters may eventually advance to senior drafter, designer, or supervisor. Many employers pay for continuing education, and, with appropriate college degrees, drafters may go on to become engineering technicians, engineers, or architects. Employment Drafters held about 254,000 jobs in 2004. Architectural and civil drafters held 43 percent of all jobs for drafters, mechanical drafters held about 32 percent of all jobs, and about 15percent of jobs were held by electrical and electronics drafters. About 44 percent of all jobs for drafters were in architectural, engineering, and related services firms that design construction projects or do other engineering work on a contract basis for other industries. Another 27 percent of jobs were in manufacturing in dustries such as machinery manufacturing, including metalworking and other general machinery; fabricated metal products manufac turing, including architectural and structural metals; computer and electronic products manufacturing, including navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments; and transporta tion equipment manufacturing, including aerospace products and parts manufacturing, as well as ship and boat building. Most of the rest were employed in construction, government, wholesale trade, utilities, and employment services. Approximately 6 percent were self-employed in 2004. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Industrial growth and increasingly complex design problems associated with new products and manufacturing processes will increase the demand for drafting services. Further, drafters are beginning to break out of the traditional drafting role and do work traditionally performed by engineers and architects, thus also increasing de mand for drafters. However, drafters tend to be concentrated in slowly growing or declining manufacturing industries. CADD systems that are more powerful and easier to use also should limit demand for lesser skilled drafters as simple tasks are increasingly done quickly and easily by other drafters or other technical professionals, resulting in slower-than-average over all employment growth. Because some drafting work can be done in other locations using the Internet to send CADD files https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 143 internationally, the offshoring of some drafting jobs also should dampen growth. Most job openings are expected to arise from the need to replace drafters who transfer to other occupations, leave the labor force, or retire. Opportunities should be best for individuals with at least 2 years of postsecondary training in a drafting program that provides strong technical skills, as well as considerable experi ence with CADD systems. CADD has increased the complex ity of drafting applications while enhancing the productivity of drafters. It also has enhanced the nature of drafting by creating more possibilities for design and drafting. As technology con tinues to advance, employers will look for drafters with a strong background in fundamental drafting principles, a high level of technical sophistication, and the ability to apply their knowledge to a broader range of responsibilities. While growth is expected to be greatest for mechanical, archi tectural, and civil drafters, demand for particular drafting special ties varies throughout the country because employment usually is contingent on the needs of local industry. Employment of drafters remains highly concentrated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy, primarily manufacturing industries. During recessions, drafters may be laid off. However, a growing number of drafters should continue to find employment on a temporary or contract basis as more companies turn to the employment services industry to meet their changing needs. Earnings Drafters’ earnings vary by specialty, location, and level of responsibility. Median annual earnings of architectural and civil drafters were $39,190 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,460 and $47,800. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,670, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,670. Median annual earnings for architectural and civil drafters in architectural, engineering, and related services were $38,760. Median annual earnings of mechanical drafters were $43,000 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,090 and $54,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,490, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,650. Median annual earnings for mechanical drafters in architectural, engineering, and related services were $44,560. Median annual earnings of electrical and electronics drafters were $43,180 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,920 and $56,110. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,050. In architectural, engineering, and related services, median annual earnings for electrical and electronics drafters were $42,200. Related Occupations Other workers who prepare or analyze detailed drawings and make precise calculations and measurements include architects, except landscape and naval; landscape architects; commercial and industrial designers; engineers; engineering technicians; science technicians; and surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools offering programs in drafting and related fields is available from; >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Tech nology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org Information about certification is available from: >- American Design Drafting Association, 105 E. Main St., Newbem, TN 38059. Internet: http://www.adda.org 144 Occupational Outlook Handbook Engineering Technicians (0*NET 17-3021.00, 17-3022.00, 17-3023.01, 17-3023.02, 17-3023.03, 17-3024.00, 17-3025.00, 17-3026.00, 17-3027.00, 17-3029.99) Significant Points • Because the type and quality of training programs vary considerably, prospective students should carefully investigate training programs before enrolling. • Electrical and electronic engineering technicians make up 34 percent of all engineering technicians. • Employment of engineering technicians often is influenced by the same local and national economic conditions that affect engineers; as a result, job outlook varies with industry and specialization. • Opportunities will be best for individuals with an as sociate degree or extensive job training in engineering technology. Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of sci ence, engineering, and mathematics to solve technical problems in research and development, manufacturing, sales, construc tion, inspection, and maintenance. Their work is more lim ited in scope and application-oriented than that of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and development. Others work in quality control, inspecting products and processes, conducting tests, or collecting data. In manufacturing, they may assist in prod uct design, development, or production. Although many workers who repair or maintain various types of electrical, electronic, or mechanical equipment are called technicians, these workers are covered in the Handbook section on installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Engineering technicians who work in research and devel opment build or set up equipment; prepare and conduct ex periments; collect data; calculate or record results; and help engineers or scientists in other ways, such as making prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in design work, often using computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) equipment. Most engineering technicians specialize, learning skills and working in the same disciplines as engineers. Occupational titles, therefore, tend to reflect engineering specialties. Some branches of engineering technology for which there are accred ited programs of study are not covered in detail in the Handbook, such as chemical engineering technology (the development of new chemical products and processes) and bioengineering technology (the development and implementation of biomedi cal equipment). Aerospace engineering and operations technicians con struct, test, and maintain aircraft and space vehicles. They may calibrate test equipment and determine causes of equipment malfunctions. Using computer and communications systems, aerospace engineering and operations technicians often record and interpret test data. Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures, as well as do related research. Some estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis some may even prepare drawings or perform land-surveying duties. Others may set up and monitor instruments used to study traffic conditions. (Cost estimators; drafters; and surveyors, cartog raphers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electrical and electronics engineering technicians help design, develop, test, and manufacture electrical and electronic equipment such as communication equipment; radar, industrial, and medical monitoring or control devices; navigational equip ment; and computers. They may work in product evaluation and testing, using measuring and diagnostic devices to adjust, test, and repair equipment. (Workers whose jobs are limited to repairing electrical and electronic equipment, who often are referred to as electronics technicians, are included with electrical and electronics installers and repairers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electromechanical engineering technicians combine funda mental principles of mechanical engineering technology with knowledge of electrical and electronic circuits to design, develop, test, and manufacture electrical and computer-controlled mechani cal systems. Their work often overlaps that of both electrical and electronics engineering technicians and mechanical engineering technicians. Environmental engineering technicians work closely with en vironmental engineers and scientists in developing methods and devices used in the prevention, control, or correction of environ mental hazards. They inspect and maintain equipment related to air pollution and recycling. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure that pollution control requirements are met. Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of per sonnel, materials, and machines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers design, develop, test, and manufacture industrial machinery, consumer L . ■ : "H; jif&ess • wmsmaPevacsSK V-T- Engineering technicians assist engineering staff in aspects ofdesign, development, and testing. Professional and Related Occupations products, and other equipment. They may assist in product tests—for example, by setting up instrumentation for auto crash tests. They may make sketches and rough layouts, record and analyze data, make calculations and estimates, and report on their findings. When planning production, mechanical engineer ing technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment or work with engineers to eliminate production problems. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work at least 40 hours a week in laboratories, offices, manufacturing or industrial plants, or on con struction sites. Some may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it may be possible to qualify for certain engineering technician jobs without formal training, most employers prefer to hire someone with at least a 2-year associate degree in engi neering technology. Training is available at technical institutes, community colleges, extension divisions of colleges and universi ties, public and private vocational-technical schools, and in the Armed Forces. Persons with college courses in science, engineer ing, and mathematics may qualify for some positions but may need additional specialized training and experience. Although employers usually do not require engineering technicians to be certified, such certification may provide jobseekers a competi tive advantage. Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible to prepare for postsecondary programs in engineering technology. Most 2-year associate degree programs accredited by the Technology Accredi tation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) require, at a minimum, college algebra and trigonometry and one or two basic science courses. Depending on the specialty, more math or science may be required. About 230 colleges offer ABET-accredited programs in engineering technology. The type of technical courses required also depends on the specialty. For example, prospective mechanical engineering tech nicians may take courses in fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and mechanical design; electrical engineering technicians may need classes in electrical circuits, microprocessors, and digital electronics; and those preparing to work in environmental engineering technol ogy need courses in environmental regulations and safe handling of hazardous materials. Because many engineering technicians assist in design work, creativity is desirable. Because these workers often are part of a team of engineers and other technicians, good com munication skills and the ability to work well with others also are important. Engineering technicians usually begin by perlorming routine duties under the close supervision of an experienced technician, technologist, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineering technicians eventually become supervisors. Many publicly and privately operated schools provide technical training, but the type and quality of training vary considerably. Therefore, prospective students should be care ful in selecting a program. They should ascertain prospective https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 145 employers’ preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by program graduates, about instructional facilities and equipment, and about faculty qualifications. Graduates of ABET-accredited programs usu ally are recognized as having achieved an acceptable level of competence in the mathematics, science, and technical courses required for this occupation. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training through application and practice, but they provide less theory and general education than do community colleges. Many technical institutes offer 2-year associate degree programs and are similar to or part of a community college or State university system. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit organizations, some times called proprietary schools. Their programs vary considerably in length and types of courses offered, although some are 2-year associate degree programs. Community colleges offer curriculums that are similar to those in technical institutes but include more theory and liberal arts. There may be little or no difference between programs at technical institutes and community colleges, as both offer as sociate degrees. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates get jobs as engineering technicians, whereas others continue their education at 4-year colleges. Flowever, there is a difference between an associate degree in pre-engineering and one in engineering technology. Students who enroll in a 2-year pre-engineering program may find it very difficult to find work as an engineering technician if they decide not to enter a 4-year engineering program, because pre-engineering programs usu ally focus less on hands-on applications and more on academic preparatory work. Conversely, graduates of 2-year engineering technology programs may not receive credit for some of the courses they have taken if they choose to transfer to a 4-year en gineering program. Colleges with these 4-year programs usually do not offer engineering technician training, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs often are hired to work as technologists or applied engineers, not technicians. Area vocational-technical schools, another source of tech nical training, include postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training in technical areas may be obtained in the Armed Forces. Many military technical training programs are highly regarded by employers. However, skills acquired in military programs are often narrowly focused and may be of limited applicability in civilian industry, which often requires broader training. Therefore, some additional train ing may be needed, depending on the acquired skills and the kind of job. The National Institute for Certification in Engineering Tech nologies has established a voluntary certification program for engineering technicians. Certification is available at various levels, each level combining a written examination in 1 of about 30 specialties with a certain amount of job-related experience, a supervisory evaluation, and a recommendation. Employment Engineering technicians held 532,000 jobs in 2004. About a third were electrical and electronics engineering technicians, as indicated by the following tabulation. 146 Occupational Outlook Handbook Electrical and electronic engineering technicians......................... 182,000 Civil engineering technicians........................................................ 94,000 Industrial engineering technicians................................................ 69,000 Mechanical engineering technicians............................................. 48,000 Environmental engineering technicians........................................ 20,000 19,000 Electro-mechanical technicians.............. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians...................... 9,500 Engineering technicians, except drafters, all other...................... 91,000 About 36 percent of all engineering technicians worked in manufacturing, mainly in the computer and electronic equip ment, transportation equipment, and machinery manufacturing industries. Another 22 percent worked in professional, scien tific, and technical service industries, mostly in engineering or business services companies that do engineering work on contract for government, manufacturing firms, or other orga nizations. In 2004, the Federal Government employed 37,000 engineering technicians. State governments employed 39,000, and local govern ments employed 27,000. Job Outlook Opportunities will be best for individuals with an associate degree or extensive job training in engineering technology. As technol ogy becomes more sophisticated, employers will continue to look for technicians who are skilled in new technology and require a minimum of additional job training. An increase in the number of jobs related to public health and safety should create job opportuni ties for engineering technicians with the appropriate training and certification. Overall employment of engineering technicians is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all oc cupations through 2014. Competitive pressures will force companies to improve and update manufacturing facilities and product designs, resulting in more jobs for engineering technicians. In addition to growth, many job openings will stem from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force. Growth of engineering technician employment in some de sign functions may be dampened by increasing globalization of the development process. To reduce costs and speed project completion, some companies may relocate part of their develop ment operations to facilities overseas, impacting both engineers and the engineering technicians that support them—particularly in electronics and computer-related areas. However, much of the work of engineering technicians requires on-site presence, so demand for engineering technicians within the US should continue to grow. Because engineering technicians work closely with engi neers, employment of engineering technicians is often influ enced by the same local and national economic conditions that affect engineers. As a result, the employment outlook varies with industry and specialization. Growth in the largest spe cialty—electrical and electronics engineering technicians—is expected to be about as fast as the average, while employment of environmental engineering technicians is expected to grow faster than average to meet the environmental demands of an ever-growing population. Earnings Median annual earnings in May 2004 of engineering technicians by specialty are shown in the following tabulation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Aerospace engineering and operations technicians...................... $52,500 Electrical and electronic engineering technicians........................ 46,310 Industrial engineering technicians.................................................. 43,590 Mechanical engineering technicians............................................... 43,400 Electro-mechanical technicians...................................................... 41,440 Environmental engineering technicians.......................................... 38,550 Civil engineering technicians.......................................................... 38,480 Median annual earnings of electrical and electronics engineer ing technicians were $46,310 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,290 and $55,750. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,000, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,900. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electrical and electronics engineering technicians in May 2004 are shown below. Federal Government....................................................................... $64,160 Wired telecommunications carriers.............................................. 51,250 Architectural, engineering, and related services............................. 44,800 Navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments manufacturing............................................ 42,780 Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing............................................................................. 41,300 Median annual earnings of civil engineering technicians were $38,480 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,880 and $48,590. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,550. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of civil engineering technicians in May 2004 are shown below. Local government.......................................................................... $43,700 Architectural, engineering, and related services........................... 37,470 State government.......................................................................... 35,970 In May 2004, the average annual salary for aerospace engineering and operations technicians in the aerospace products and parts manu facturing industry was $52,250, and the average annual salary for en vironmental engineering technicians in the architectural, engineering, and related services industry was $36,530. The average annual salary for industrial engineering technicians in the semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing industry was $40,020. In the architectural, engineering, and related services industry, the average annual salary for mechanical engineering technicians was $43,190. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in postsecondary programs below the baccalaureate level. Similar occupations include science technicians; drafters; survey ors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; and broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in engineering technology, contact: >- IETS (lunior Engineering Technical Society)-Guidance, 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.jets.org Information on ABET-accredited engineering technology programs is available from: > Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc., 111 Market Pic., Suite 1050, Baltimore, MD 21202-4012. Internet: http://www.abet.org Information on certification of engineering technicians, as well as job and career information, is available from: >■ National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies, 1420 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.nicet.org Professional and Related Occupations 147 Life Scientists Agricultural and Food Scientists (0*NET 19-1011.00, 19-1012.00, 19-1013.01, 19-1013.02) Significant Points • • • About 1 in 4 agricultural and food scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. A bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is sufficient for some jobs in applied research; a master’s or Ph.D. degree is required for basic research or teaching. Over 1 in 3 agricultural and food scientists are self-em ployed. Nature of the Work The work of agricultural and food scientists plays an important part in maintaining the Nation’s food supply by ensuring agricultural productivity and the safety of the food supply. Agricultural scien tists study farm crops and animals, and develop ways of improving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to improve crop yield with less labor, control pests and weeds more safely and effectively, and conserve soil and water. They research methods of converting raw agricultural commodities into attractive and healthy food products for consumers. Agricultural science is closely related to biological science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and other sciences to solve problems in agriculture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research and on applying to agriculture the advances in knowledge brought about by biotechnology. In the past two decades, rapid advances in basic biological knowledge related to genetics spurred growth in the field of biotechnology. Some agricultural and food scientists use this technology to manipulate the genetic material of plants and crops, attempting to make organisms more productive or resistant to disease. These advances in biotechnology have opened up research opportunities in many areas of agricultural and food science, including commercial applications in agriculture, environmental remediation, and the food industry. Another emerging technology expected to affect agriculture is nanotechnology—a future mo lecular manufacturing technology which promises to revolutionize methods of manufacturing and distribution in many industries. Many agricultural scientists work in basic or applied research and development. Others manage or administer research and develop ment programs, or manage marketing or production operations in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Some agricultural scientists are consultants to business firms, private clients, or government. Depending on the agricultural or food scientist’s area of special ization, the nature of the work performed varies. Food science. Food scientists and technologists usually work in the food processing industry, universities, or the Federal Gov ernment, and help to meet consumer demand for food products that are healthful, safe, palatable, and convenient. To do this, they use their knowledge of chemistry, physics, engineering, microbiology, biotechnology, and other sciences to develop new https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or better ways of preserving, processing, packaging, storing, and delivering foods. Some food scientists engage in basic research, discovering new food sources; analyzing food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, or protein; or searching for substi tutes for harmful or undesirable additives, such as nitrites. They also develop ways to process, preserve, package, or store food ac cording to industry and government regulations. Traditional food processing research into functions involving baking, blanching, canning, drying, evaporation, and pasteurization will continue to be conducted and will find new applications. Other food scientists enforce government regulations, inspecting food processing areas and ensuring that sanitation, safety, quality, and waste manage ment standards are met. Food technologists generally work in product development, applying the findings from food science research to the selection, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and use of safe, nutritious, and wholesome food. Plant science. Agronomy, crop science, entomology, and plant breeding are included in plant science. Scientists in these disciplines study plants and their growth in soils, helping produc ers of food, feed, and fiber crops to continue to feed a growing population while conserving natural resources and maintaining the environment. Agronomists and crop scientists not only help increase productivity, but also study ways to improve the nutritional value of crops and the quality of seed, often through biotechnology. Some crop scientists study the breeding, physiology, and management of crops and use genetic engineering to develop crops resistant to pests and drought. Entomologists conduct research to develop new technologies to control or eliminate pests in infested areas and to prevent the spread of harmful pests to new areas, as well as technologies that are compatible with the environment. They also conduct research or engage in oversight activities aimed at halting the spread of insect-bome disease. Soil science. Soil scientists study the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant or crop growth. They also study the responses of various soil types to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Many soil scientists who work for the Federal Government conduct soil surveys, classifying and mapping soils. They provide information and recommendations to farmers and other landowners regarding the best use of land, plant growth, and methods to avoid or correct problems such as erosion. They may also consult with engineers and other technical personnel working on construction projects about the effects of, and solutions to, soil problems. Because soil science is closely related to environmental science, persons trained in soil science also apply their knowledge to ensure environmental quality and effective land use. Animal science. Animal scientists work to develop better, more efficient ways of producing and processing meat, poultry, eggs, and milk. Dairy scientists, poultry scientists, animal breeders, and other scientists in related fields study the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals. Some animal scientists inspect and grade livestock food products, purchase live stock, or work in technical sales or marketing. As extension agents or consultants, animal scientists advise agricultural producers on how to upgrade animal housing facilities properly, lower mortality rates, handle waste matter, or increase production of animal products, such as milk or eggs. 148 Occupational Outlook Handbook 'V J ItlCA A bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is sufficientfor somejobs as an agricultural or food scientist in applied research; a master’s or Ph.D. degree is required for basic research or teaching. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists involved in management or basic research tend to work regular hours in offices and laboratories. The work environment for those engaged in applied research or product development varies, depending on the discipline of agricultural science and on the type of employer. For example, food scientists in private industry may work in test kitchens while investigating new processing techniques. Animal scientists working for Federal, State, or university research stations may spend part of their time at dairies, farrowing houses, feedlots, or farm animal facilities, or outdoors conducting research associated with livestock. Soil and crop scientists also spend time outdoors conducting research on farms and agricultural research stations. Entomologists work in laboratories, insectories, or agricultural research stations, and also may spend time outdoors studying or collecting insects in their natural habitat. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on their specialty and on the type of work they perform. A bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is sufficient for some jobs in ap plied research or for assisting in basic research, but a master’s or doctoral degree is required for basic research. A Ph.D. in agricultural science usually is needed for college teaching and for advancement to administrative research positions. Degrees https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in related sciences such as biology, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may qualify persons for some agricultural science jobs. All States have a land-grant college that offers agricultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also of fer agricultural science degrees or some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. A typical undergraduate agricultural science curriculum includes communications, mathematics, economics, business, and physical and life sciences courses, in addition to a wide variety of technical agricultural science courses. For prospective animal scientists, these technical agricultural science courses might include animal breeding, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and meats and muscle biology. Graduate students typically specialize in a subfield of agricultural science, such as animal breeding and genetics, crop science, or horticulture science, depending on their interest and the kind of work they wish to do. For example, those interested in doing genetic and biotechnological research in the food industry need to develop a strong background in life and physical sciences, such as cell and molecular biology, microbiology, and inorganic and organic chemistry. However, students normally need not specialize at the undergraduate level. In fact, undergraduates who are broadly trained have greater flexibility when changing jobs than if they had narrowly defined their interests. Students preparing as food scientists take courses such as food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, food engineering, and food processing operations. Those preparing as crop or soil scientists take courses in plant pathology, soil chemistry, entomol ogy, plant physiology, and biochemistry, among others. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, labora tory research, and a thesis or dissertation based on independent research. Agricultural and food scientists should be able to work indepen dently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Most of these scientists also need an understanding of basic business principles, and the ability to apply basic statistical techniques. Employers increasingly prefer job applicants who are able to apply computer skills to determine solutions to problems, to collect and analyze data, and to control various processes. The American Society of Agronomy offers certification programs in crop science, agronomy, crop advising, soil science, plant pathol ogy, and weed science. To become certified, applicants must pass designated examinations and have at least 2 years of experience with at least a bachelor’s degree in agriculture or 4 years of experi ence with no degree. To become a certified crop advisor, however, candidates do not need a degree. Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually be gin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agriculture-related activities. Employment Agricultural and food scientists held about 30,000 jobs in 2004. In addition, several thousand persons held agricultural science faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on post secondary teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 1 in 4 salaried agricultural and food scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. One out of 7 worked for State governments at State agricultural colleges or agricul tural research stations. Another one out of 10 worked for the Federal Government in 2004, mostly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Some worked for agricultural service companies; others worked for commercial research and development labo Professional and Related Occupations ratories, seed companies, pharmaceutical companies, wholesale distributors, and food products companies. About 10,000 agricultural scientists were self-employed in 2004, mainly as consultants. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural and food scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Past agricultural research has resulted in the develop ment of higher yielding crops, crops with better resistance to pests and plant pathogens, and chemically based fertilizers and pesticides. Research is still necessary, particularly as insects and diseases continue to adapt to pesticides and as soil fertility and water quality continue to need improvement, resulting in job op portunities in biotechnology. Agricultural scientists are using new avenues of research in biotechnology to develop plants and food crops that require less fertilizer, fewer pesticides and herbicides, and even less water for growth. Emerging biotechnologies and nanotechnologies will play an increasingly larger role in creating more plentiful global food supplies. Biotechnological research will continue to offer possibilities for the development of new food products. This research will allow agricultural and food scientists to develop techniques to detect and control food pathogens, and should lead to better understanding of other infectious agents in foods. Agricultural scientists will be needed to balance increased agricultural output with protection and preservation of soil, water, and ecosystems. They will increasingly encourage the practice of “sustainable agriculture” by developing and implementing plans to manage pests, crops, soil fertility and erosion, and animal waste in ways that reduce the use of harmful chemicals and do little damage to farms and the natural environment. Further studies at scientific research and development services firms will result in more job opportunities for food scientists and technologists. This research will be stimulated by a heightened public focus on diet, health, changes in food safety, and biosecurity—preventing the introduction of infec tious agents, such as foot and mouth disease into a herd of animals. Increasing demand for these workers also will stem from issues such as a growing world population, availability and cost of usable water, shrinking natural resources including the loss of arable land, and deforestation, environmental pol lution, and climate change. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree should find work in a variety of fields, mostly in the private sector, although many of the positions may be related to agricultural or food science rather than as an agricultural or food scientist. A bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is useful for managerial jobs in businesses that deal with ranchers and farmers, such as feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equipment manufacturers; retailers or wholesalers; and farm credit institutions. In some cases, persons with a 4-year degree can provide consulting services or work in sales and marketing—promoting high-demand products such as organic foods. Bachelor’s degree holders also can work in some applied research and product development positions under the guidance of a Ph.D. scientist, but usually only in certain subfields, such as food science and technology. The Federal Government hires bachelor’s degree holders to work as soil scientists. Four-year degrees also may help persons enter occupations such as farmer, or farm or ranch manager; cooperative extension service agent; agricultural products inspector; or purchasing or sales agent for agricultural commodity or farm supply companies. Opportunities may be better for those with a master’s degree, particularly for graduates seeking applied research positions https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 149 in a laboratory. Master’s degree candidates also can seek to become a certified crop advisor, helping farmers better manage their crops. Those with a Ph.D. in agricultural and food sci ence will experience the best opportunities, especially in basic research and teaching positions at colleges and universities as retirements of faculty are expected to accelerate during the projection period. Fewer opportunities for agricultural and food scientists are expected in the Federal government, mostly because of budgetary cutbacks at the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Employment of agricultural and food scientists is relatively stable during periods of economic recession. Layoffs are less likely among agricultural and food scientists than in some other occupa tions because food is a staple item and its demand fluctuates very little with economic activity. Earnings Median annual earnings of food scientists and technologists were $50,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,450 and $72,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,300. Median annual earnings of soil and plant scientists were $51,200 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,890 and $69,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,840. In May 2004, median annual earnings of animal sci entists were $49,920. The average Federal salary for employees in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in 2005 was $87,025 in animal science and $73,573 in agronomy. According to the National Association of Colleges and Em ployers, beginning salary offers in 2005 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in animal sciences averaged $30,614 a year; plant sciences, $31,649 a year; and in other agricultural sciences, $36,189 a year. Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that of other scientists, including biological scientists, chemists, and conservation scientists and foresters. It also is related to the work of managers of agricultural production, such as farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers. Certain specialties of agricultural science also are related to other occupations. For example, the work of animal scientists is related to the work of veterinarians, and horticulturists perform duties similar to duties of landscape architects. Sources of Additional Information Agricultural career brochures are available from: >• American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 1086. Internet: http://www.agronomy.org Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: ► Food and Agricultural Careers for Tomorrow, Purdue University, 1140 Agricultural Administration Bldg., West Lafayette, IN 47907-1140. Information on acquiring a job as an agricultural scientist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s of ficial employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interac tive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. 150 Occupational Outlook Handbook Biological Scientists (0*NET 19-1020.01, 19-1021.01, 19-1021.02, 19-1022.00, 19-1023.00, 19-1029.99) Significant Points • A Ph.D. degree usually is required for independent re search, but a master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or product development; a bache lor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. • Doctoral degree holders face competition for basic research positions; holders of bachelor’s or master’s degrees in biological science can expect better opportu nities in nonresearch positions. • Biotechnological research and development will con tinue to drive employment growth. Nature of the Work Biological scientists study living organisms and their relationship to their environment. They research problems dealing with life processes and living organisms. Most specialize in some area of biology, such as zoology (the study of animals) or microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms). (Medical scientists, whose work is closely related to that of biological scientists, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many biological scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to advance knowledge of living organisms, including viruses, bacteria, and other infectious agents. Basic bio logical research continues to provide the building blocks necessary to develop solutions to human health problems and to preserve and repair the natural environment. Biological scientists mostly work independently in private industry, university, or government laboratories, often exploring new areas of research or expanding on specialized research started in graduate school. Those who are not wage and salary workers in private industry typically submit grant proposals to obtain funding for their projects. Colleges and universities, private industry, and Federal Government agencies such as the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation contribute to the support of scientists whose research proposals are determined to be financially feasible and to have the potential to advance new ideas or processes. Biological scientists who work in applied research or product development use knowledge provided by basic research to develop new drags, treatments, and medical diagnostic tests; increase crop yields; and protect and clean up the environment by developing new biofuels. They usually have less autonomy than basic researchers to choose the emphasis of their research, relying instead on marketdriven directions based on their firms’ products and goals. Because biological scientists doing applied research and product development in private industry may be required to describe their research plans or results to nonscientists who are in a position to veto or approve their ideas, they must understand the potential cost of their work and its impact on business. Scientists often work in teams, interacting with engineers, scientists of other disciplines, business managers, and technicians. Some biological scientists also work with custom ers or suppliers and manage budgets. Those who conduct research usually work in laboratories and use electron microscopes, computers, thermal cyclers, and a wide variety of other equipment. Some conduct experiments using laboratory animals or greenhouse plants. This is particularly true of botanists, physiologists, and zoologists. For some biological scientists, research alsoforisFRASER performed outside of laboratories. For example, a botanist Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis might do research in tropical rain forests to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist might study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Some marine biologists also work outdoors, often on research vessels from which they study various marine organisms such as marine plankton or fish. Some biological scientists work in managerial or administrative positions, usually after spending some time doing research and learning about a particular firm, agency, or project. They may plan and administer programs for testing foods and drags, for example, or direct activities at zoos or botanical gardens. Some work as consultants to businesses or to government agencies. Recent advances in biotechnology and information technol ogy are transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. In the 1980s, swift advances in basic biological knowledge related to genetics and molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology. Biological scientists using this technology ma nipulate the genetic material of animals or plants, attempting to make organisms more productive or resistant to disease. Research using biotechnology techniques, such as recombining DNA, has led to the production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances not previ ously available in large quantities are starting to be produced by biotechnological means; some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Today, many biological scientists are involved in biotechnology. Those who work on the Human Genome Project isolate genes and determine their function. This work continues to lead to the discovery of the genes associated with specific diseases and inherited traits, such as certain types of cancer or obesity. These advances in biotechnology have created research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, with commercial applications in the food industry, agriculture, and environmental remediation, and in other emerging areas such as DNA fingerprinting. Most biological scientists are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform, al though recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes at the molecular and cellular levels have blurred some traditional classifications. Aquatic biologists study micro-organisms, plants, and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms, and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Much of the work of ma rine biology centers on molecular biology, the study of the biochemi cal processes that take place inside living cells. Marine biologists sometimes are mistakenly called oceanographers, but oceanography is the study of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean &':is Biotechnological research and development will continue to drive employment growth of biological scientists. Professional and Related Occupations floor. (See the Handbook statements on environmental scientists and hydrologists and on geoscientists.) Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Biochemists and molecular biologists do most of their work in biotechnology, which involves understanding the complex chemistry of life. Botanists study plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life, including algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, the interaction of plants with other organisms and the environment, and the geological record of plants. Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Most microbiologists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or industrial microbiology; virology (the study of viruses); immunol ogy (the study of mechanisms that fight infections); or bioinformat ics (the process of integrating molecular biology and information science). Many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease. Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, res piration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism. Biophysicists study the application of principles of physics, such as electrical and mechanical energy and related phenomena, to living cells and organisms. Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife— their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experi ment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings, while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. Zoologists and wildlife biologists also may collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of current and potential use of land and water areas. Zoologists usually are identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Ecologists study the relationships among organisms and be tween organisms and their environments, examining the effects of population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Using knowledge of various scientific disciplines, ecologists may collect, study, and report data on the quality of air, food, soil, and water. Agricultural andfood scientists, sometimes referred to as biologi cal scientists, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Biological scientists usually work regular hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination. Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips that involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Biological scien tists in the field may work in warm or cold climates, in all kinds of weather. In their research, they may dig, chip with a hammer, scoop with a net, and carry equipment in a backpack. They also may climb, stand, kneel, or dive. Marine biologists encounter a variety of working conditions. Some marine biologists work in laboratories; others work on research ships. Marine biologists who work underwater must practice safe diving while working around sharp coral reefs and hazardous marine https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 151 life. Although some marine biologists obtain their specimens from the sea, many still spend a good deal of their time in laboratories and offices, conducting tests, running experiments, recording results, and compiling data. Some biological scientists depend on grant money to support their research. They may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to conform to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A Ph.D. degree usually is necessary for independent research, in dustrial research, and college teaching, as well as for advancement to administrative positions. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in basic research, applied research or product development, management, or inspection; it also may qualify one to work as a research technician or as a teacher in an aquarium. The bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. For example, some graduates with a bachelor’s degree start as biological scientists in testing and inspection or get jobs related to biological science, such as technical sales or service representatives. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor’s degree are able to work in a laboratory environment on their own projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research assistants, whereas others become biological labo ratory technicians or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the statements elsewhere in the Handbook on clinical laboratory technologists and technicians; science technicians; and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and second ary.) Many with a bachelor’s degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. In addition to required courses in chemistry and biology, un dergraduate biological science majors usually study allied disci plines such as mathematics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Computer courses are essential because employers prefer job applicants who are able to apply computer skills to modeling and simulation tasks and to operate computerized laboratory equip ment, particularly in emerging fields such as bioinformatics. Those interested in studying the environment also should take courses in environmental studies and become familiar with current legislation and regulations. Prospective biological scientists who hope to work as marine biologists should have at least a bachelor’s degree in a biological or marine science. However, students should not over specialize in undergraduate study, as knowledge of marine biology often is acquired in graduate study. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in biological science, and many offer ad vanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany, but not all universities offer all curriculums. Larger universities frequently have separate departments specializing in different areas of biological science. For example, a program in botany might cover agronomy, horticulture, or plant pathology. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists with a Ph.D. often take temporary post doctoral research positions that provide specialized research experience. Postdoctoral positions may offer the opportunity to publish research findings. A solid record of published research is essential in obtaining a permanent position involving basic research, especially for those seeking a permanent college or university fac ulty position. In private industry, some may become managers or administrators within the field of biology; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administrative, or sales jobs. Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those in private industry, especially those who aspire to management or administrative positions, should possess strong 152 Occupational Outlook Handbook business and communication skills and be familiar with regulatory issues and marketing and management techniques. Those doing field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. Biological scientists also must have patience and self-discipline to conduct long and detailed research projects. Employment Biological scientists held about 77,000 jobs in 2004. Slightly more than half of all biological scientists were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Federal biological scientists worked mainly for the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and Defense and for the National Institutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in scientific research and testing laboratories, the pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing industry, or hospitals. In addition, many biological scientists held biology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on teach ers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of biological scientists is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period, as biotechnological research and development continues to drive job growth. However, doctoral degree holders face competition for basic research positions. The Federal Government funds much basic research and development, including many areas of medical research that relate to biological science. Recent budget increases at the National Institutes of Health have led to large increases in Federal basic research and development expenditures, with research grants growing both in number and in dollar amount. Nevertheless, the increase in expenditures is expected to slow significantly over the 2004-14 projection period, resulting in a highly competitive environment for winning and renewing research grants. Further more, should the number of advanced degrees awarded continue to grow, applicants for research grants are likely to face even more competition. Currently, about 1 in 3 grant proposals are approved for long-term research projects. In addition, applied research positions in private industry may become more difficult to obtain if increas ing numbers of scientists seek jobs in private industry because of the competitive job market for independent research positions in universities and for college and university faculty. Opportunities for those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in biological science are expected to be better. The number of sci ence-related jobs in sales, marketing, and research management for which non-Ph.D.s usually qualify is expected to exceed the number of independent research positions. Non-Ph.D.s also may fill positions as science or engineering technicians or as medical health technologists and technicians. Some may become high school biology teachers. Biological scientists enjoyed very rapid gains in employment be tween the mid-1980s and mid-1990s—reflecting, in part, increased staffing requirements in new biotechnology companies. Employ ment growth should slow somewhat, along with a slowdown in the number of new biotechnology firms; some existing firms will merge or be absorbed by larger biotechnology or pharmaceutical firms. Also, some companies are expected to conduct an increasing amount of research in other lower-wage countries, further limit ing employment growth. However, much of the basic biological research done in recent years has resulted in new knowledge, including the isolation and identification of genes. Biological scientists will be needed to take this knowledge to the next stage, which is understanding how certain genes function within an entire organism, so that gene therapies can be developed to treat diseases. Even pharmaceutical and other firms not solely engaged in use biotechnology techniques extensively, spur Digitized biotechnology for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ring employment increases for biological scientists. For example, biological scientists are continuing to help farmers increase crop yields by pinpointing genes that can help crops such as wheat grow worldwide in areas that currently are hostile to the crop. Expected expansion of research related to health issues such as AIDS, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease also should create more jobs for these scientists. In addition, efforts to discover new and improved ways to clean up and preserve the environment will continue to add to job growth. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environmental impact of industry and government actions and to prevent or correct environmental problems such as the negative effects of pesticide use. Some biological scientists will find opportunities in environmental regulatory agencies; others will use their expertise to advise lawmakers on legislation to save environmentally sensitive areas. There will continue to be demand for biological scientists specializing in botany, zoology, and marine biology, but opportunities will be limited because of the small size of these fields. New industrial applications of biotechnology, such as changing how companies make ethanol for transportation fuel, also will spur demand for biological scientists. Marine biology, despite its attractiveness as a career, is a very small specialty within biological science. Prospective marine biology stu dents should be aware that those who would like to enter this specialty far outnumber the very few openings that occur each year for the type of glamorous research jobs that many would like to obtain. Almost all marine biologists who do basic research have a Ph.D. Biological scientists are less likely to lose their jobs during reces sions than are those in many other occupations because many are employed on long-term research projects. However, an economic downturn could influence the amount of money allocated to new research and development efforts, particularly in areas of risky or innovative research. An economic downturn also could limit the possibility of extension or renewal of existing projects. Earnings Median annual earnings of biochemists and biophysicists were $68,950 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $49,430 and $88,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $110,660. Median an nual earnings of microbiologists were $54,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,000 and $74,260. The low est 10 percent earned less than $32,630, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 101,720. Median annual earnings of zoologists and wildlife biologists were $50,330 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,150 and $63,800. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $31,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $81,200. Median annual earnings of biochemists and biophysi cists employed in scientific research and development services were $73,900 in May 2004. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, beginning salary offers in July 2005 averaged $31,258 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological and life sciences. In the Federal Government in 2005, general biological scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average salary of $69,908; microbiologists, $80,798; ecologists, $72,021; physiologists, $93,208; geneticists, $85,170; zoologists, $101,601; and botanists, $62,207. Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living organisms and require a level of training similar to that of biological scientists. These include medical scientists, agricultural and food scientists, and conservation scientists and foresters, as well as health occupations such as physi cians and surgeons, dentists, and veterinarians. Professional and Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in the biological sciences, contact: > American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1444 I St. NW„ Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aibs.org For information on careers in biochemistry or biological sci ences, contact: >- Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 9650 Rock ville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.faseb.org For a brochure titled Careers in Botany, contact: >- The Botanical Society of America, 4475 Castleman Ave ., P.O. Box 299, St. Louis, MI 63166. Internet: http://www.botany.org For information on careers in microbiology, contact: ► American Society for Microbiology, Career Information-Education Depart ment, 1752 N St, NW„ Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://wwwatsm.org Information on obtaining a biological scientist position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice re sponse telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Conservation Scientists and Foresters (0*NET 19-1031.01, 19-1031.02, 19-1031.03, 19-1032.00) Significant Points • About two thirds of salaried conservation scientists and foresters work for Federal, State, or local governments. • A bachelor’s degree in forestry, range management, or a related discipline is the minimum educational requirement. Slower than average job growth is projected; most new jobs will be in State and local governments and in private sector forestry and conservation consulting. • Nature of the Work Forests and rangelands supply wood products, livestock forage, minerals, and water; serve as sites for recreational activities; and provide habitats for wildlife. Conservation scientists and foresters manage their use and development and help to protect these and other natural resources, and for this reason are becoming known as natural resource managers. Foresters manage forested lands for a variety of purposes. Those working in private industry may manage company-owned for est land or procure timber from private landowners. Company forests usually are managed to produce a sustainable supply of wood for company mills. Procurement foresters contact local forest owners and gain permission to take inventory of the type, amount, and location of all standing timber on the property, a pro cess known as timber cruising. These foresters then appraise the timber’s worth, negotiate its purchase, and draw up a contract for procurement. Next, they subcontract with loggers or pulpwood cutters for tree removal and aid in laying out roads to access the timber. Throughout the process, foresters maintain close contact with the subcontractor’s workers and the landowner to ensure that the work meets the landowner’s requirements, as well as Federal, State, and local environmental specifications. Forestry consultants often act as agents for forest owners, monitoring the growth of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 153 timber on the owners’ property and negotiating timber sales with industrial procurement foresters. Foresters, referred to as land management foresters, work for both government and private industry and manage and protect the forests and supervise harvests. These foresters supervise the planting and growing of new trees, called regeneration. They choose and direct the preparation of the site using controlled burning, bulldozers, or herbicides to clear weeds, brush, and logging debris. They advise on the type, number, and placement of trees to be planted. Foresters then monitor the seedlings to ensure healthy growth and to determine the best time for harvesting. If they detect signs of disease or harmful insects, they consult with specialists in forest pest management to decide on the best course of treatment. They may also design campgrounds and recreation areas on public lands. Throughout the forest management and procurement processes, foresters consider the economics as well as the environmental impact on natural resources. To do this, they determine how to conserve wild life habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil stability, and how best to comply with environmental regulations. Foresters must balance the desire to conserve forested ecosystems for future generations with the need to use forest resources for recreational or economic purposes. Foresters use a number of tools to perform their jobs. Clinometers measure the height of trees; diameter tapes measure the diameter; and increment borers and bark gauges measure the growth of trees so that timber volumes can be computed and growth rates estimated. Remote sensing (aerial photographs and other imagery taken from airplanes and satellites) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data often are used for mapping large forest areas and for detecting widespread trends of forest and land use. Once the map is generated, the data are digitized to create a computerized inventory of information required to manage the forest land and its resources. Moreover, hand-held computers, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and World Wide Web-based applications are used extensively. Conservation scientists manage, improve, and protect the coun try’s natural resources. They work with the landowners and Federal, State, and local governments to devise ways to use and improve the land without damaging the environment. Although conservation scientists mainly advise fanners, farm managers, and ranchers on ways they can improve their land for agricultural purposes and to control erosion, a growing number are advising landowners and governments on recreational uses for the land. Two of the more common conservation scientists are range man agers and soil conservationists. Range managers, also called range conservationists, range ecologists, or range scientists, study, manage, improve, and protect rangelands to maximize their use without damag ing the environment. Rangelands cover hundreds of millions of acres of the United States, mostly in Western States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources, including grass and shrubs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facilities, and valuable mineral and energy resources. Range managers may inventory soils, plants, and animals, develop resource management plans, help to restore degraded ecosystems, or assist in managing a ranch. For example, they may help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the number and kind of animals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best season for grazing. At the same time, however, range managers maintain soil stability and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recreation. They also plan and implement revegetation of disturbed sites. Soil and water conservationists provide technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, forest managers, State and local agencies, and others concerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural resources. They develop programs for private landowners designed to make the most productive use of land without dam aging it. Soil conservationists also assist landowners by visiting areas with erosion problems, finding the source of the problem, and 154 Occupational Outlook Handbook are called to prevent erosion after a forest fire, and they provide emergency help after floods, mudslides, and tropical storms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Conservation scientists and foresters collect data on stands of trees. helping landowners and managers develop management practices to combat it. Water conservationists also assist private landowners and Federal, State, and local governments by advising on a broad range of natural resource topics—specifically, issues of water qual ity, preserving water supplies, groundwater contamination, and management and conservation of water resources. Conservation scientists and foresters often specialize in one area, such as wildlife management, urban forestry, pest management, na tive species, or forest economics. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably. Although some of the work is solitary, foresters and conservation scientists also deal regularly with landowners, loggers, forestry technicians and aides, farmers, ranchers, government officials, special interest groups, and the public in general. Some foresters and conservation sci entists work regular hours in offices or labs. Others may split their time between fieldwork and office work, while independent consultants and especially new, less experienced workers spend the majority of their time outdoors overseeing or participating in hands-on work. The work can be physically demanding. Some conservation sci entists and foresters work outdoors in all types of weather, sometimes in isolated areas, and consequently may need to walk long distances through densely wooded land to carry out their work. Foresters also may work long hours fighting fires. Conservation scientists often https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A bachelor’s degree in forestry, biology, natural resource manage ment, environmental sciences, or a related discipline is the minimum educational requirement for careers in forestry or conservation science. In the Federal Government, a combination of experience and appropriate education occasionally may substitute for a 4-year forestry degree, but job competition makes this difficult. Foresters who wish to perform specialized research or teach should have an advanced degree, preferably a Ph.D. Seventeen States have mandatory licensing and/or voluntary registration requirements that a forester must meet in order to acquire the title “professional forester” and practice forestry in the State. Of those 17 States, 9 have mandatory licensing; 8 have mandatory registration. Both licensing and registration requirements usually entail completing a 4-year degree in forestry and several years of forestry work experience. Candidates pursuing licensing also may be required to pass a comprehensive written exam. Most land-grant colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s or higher degree in forestry. The Society of American Foresters ac credits about 48 such programs throughout the country. Curriculums stress four components: Forest ecology and biology, measurement of forest resources, management of forest resources, and public policy. Students should balance general science courses such as ecology, biology, tree physiology, taxonomy, and soil forma tion with technical forestry courses, such as forest inventory or wildlife habitat assessment, remote sensing, land surveying, GPS technology, integrated forest resource management, silviculture, and forest protection. In addition mathematics, statistics, and computer science courses also are recommended. Many forestry curriculums include advanced computer applications such as GIS and resource assessment programs. Courses in resource policy and administration, specifically forest economics and business administration, supplement the student’s scientific and technical knowledge. Forestry curriculums increasingly include courses on best management practices, wetlands analysis, and sustainability and regulatory issues in response to the growing focus on protect ing forested lands during timber harvesting operations. Prospec tive foresters should have a strong grasp of Federal, State, and local policy issues and of increasingly numerous and complex environmental regulations that affect many forestry-related activities. Many colleges require students to complete a field ses sion either in a camp operated by the college or in a cooperative work-study program with a Federal or State agency or with private industry. All schools encourage students to take summer jobs that provide experience in forestry or conservation work. Conservation scientists generally hold a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in fields such as: ecology, natural resource management, agriculture, biology, environmental science, or related field. A master’s or Ph.D. degree is usually required for teaching and re search positions. Range managers usually have a degree in range management or range science. Nine colleges and universities offer degrees in range management that are accredited by the Society of Range Management. More than forty other schools offer course work in range science or in a closely related discipline offering a range man agement or range science option. Specialized range management courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include economics, statistics, forestry, hydrology, agronomy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Selection of a minor in range management, such as wildlife ecology, watershed manage Professional and Related Occupations ment, animal science, or agricultural economics, can often enhance qualifications for certain types of employment. The Society for Range Management offers two types of certification: one as a certified professional in rangeland man agement (CPRM) and another as a certified range management Consultant. Candidates seeking certification must have at least a bachelor’s degree in range science or a closely related field, have a minimum of 6 years of full-time work experience, and pass a comprehensive written exam. The Society of American Foresters has a Certified Forester Program. To become certified through this program, a candidate must graduate with at least a bachelor’s degree from a forestry program accredited by the Society, or from a forestry program that, though not accredited by the Society, is substantially equivalent. In addition, the candidate must have five years of qualifying profes sional experience and pass an examination. Additionally, a graduate with the proper coursework in college can seek certification as a wetland scientist through the Society of Wetland Scientists, and certification as a professional wildlife biologist through the Wildlife Society. Very few colleges and universities offer degrees in soil conservation. Most soil conservationists have degrees in environ mental studies, agronomy, general agriculture, hydrology, or crop or soil science; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, forestry, and range management. Programs of study usu ally include 30 semester hours in natural resources or agriculture, including at least 3 hours in soil science. In addition to meeting the demands of forestry and conservation research and analysis, foresters and conservation scientists generally must enjoy working outdoors, be able to tolerate extensive walking and other types of physical exertion, and be willing to move to where the jobs are. They also must work well with people and have good communication skills. Recent forestry and conservation scientist graduates usually work under the supervision of experienced foresters or scientists. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible positions. In the Federal Government, most entry-level foresters work in forest resource management. An experienced Federal forester may supervise a ranger district, and may advance to forest supervisor, to regional forester, or to a top administrative position in the national headquarters. In private industry, foresters start by learn ing the practical and administrative aspects of the business and ac quiring comprehensive technical training. They are then introduced to contract writing, timber harvesting, and decisionmaking. Some foresters work their way up to top managerial positions within their companies. Foresters in management usually leave the fieldwork behind, spending more of their time in an office, working with teams to develop management plans and supervising others. After gaining several years of experience, some foresters may become consult ing foresters, working alone or with one or several partners. They contract with State or local governments, private landowners, private industry, or other forestry consulting groups. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conservation district and, with experience, may advance to the area, State, regional, or national level. Also, soil conservationists can transfer to related occupations, such as farm or ranch manage ment advisor or land appraiser. Employment Conservation scientists and foresters held about 32,000 jobs in 2004. More than 1 in 3 workers were employed by the Federal Government, mostly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture (USDA) and Interior. Foresters were concentrated in the USDA’s Forest Service; conservationists were employed primarily in the USDA’s Natural Digitized soil for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 155 Resource Conservation Service. Most range managers worked in the U.S. Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Land Management, the Natural Resource Conservation Service, or the Forest Service. Another 21 percent of conservation scientists and foresters worked for State governments, and about 11 percent worked for local governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly in support activities for agriculture and forestry or in wood product manufacturing. Some were self-employed as consultants for private landowners, Federal and State governments, and forestry-related businesses. Although conservation scientists and foresters work in every State, employment of foresters is concentrated in the Western and Southeastern States, where many national and private forests and parks, and most of the lumber and pulpwood-producing forests, are located. Range managers work almost entirely in the Western States, where most of the rangeland is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Be sides the jobs described above, some foresters and conservation scientists held faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the section on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of conservation scientists and foresters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Growth should be strongest in private sector consulting firms. Demand will be spurred by a continuing emphasis on environ mental protection, responsible land management, and water-related issues. Growing interest in developing private lands and forests for recreational purposes will generate additional jobs for foresters and conservation scientists. Fire prevention is another area of growth for these two occupations. Job opportunities for conservation scientists will arise because government regulations, such as those regarding the management of storm water and coastlines, have created demand for persons knowledgeable about runoff and erosion on farms and in cities and suburbs. Soil and water quality experts will be needed as States design initiatives to improve water resources by preventing pollution by agricultural producers and industrial plants. Overall employment of conservation scientists and foresters is expected to decline slightly in Federal Government, mostly because of budgetary constraints and the trend among all levels of govern ment toward contracting these functions out to private consulting firms. Also, Federal land management agencies, such as the USDA Forest Service, have de-emphasized their timber programs and in creasingly focused on wildlife, recreation, and sustaining ecosystems, thereby spurring demand for other life and social scientists rather than for foresters. However, departures of foresters who retire or leave the Government for other reasons will result in many job openings. Additionally, State governments are expected to increase their hiring of conservation scientists and foresters as theirbudgetary situations improve. A small number of new jobs will result from the need for range and soil conservationists to provide technical assistance to owners of grazing land through the Natural Resource Conservation Service. Foresters involved with timber harvesting will find good opportunities in the Southeast, where much forested land is privately owned. However, the recent opening of public lands, especially in the West, to commercial activity will also help the outlook for foresters. Salaried foresters working for private industry—such as paper companies, sawmills, and pulpwood mills—and consulting foresters will be needed to provide technical assistance and manage ment plans to landowners. Scientific research and development services have increased their hiring of conservation scientists and foresters in recent years in response to demand for professionals to prepare environmen tal impact statements and erosion and sediment control plans, 156 Occupational Outlook Handbook monitor water quality near logging sites, and advise on tree harvesting practices required by Federal, State, or local regulations. Hiring in these firms should continue during the 2004-14 period. Medical Scientists (Q*NET 19-1041.00, 19-1042.00) Earnings Median annual earnings of conservation scientists in May 2004 were $52,480. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,660 and $65,550. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,740, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,470. Median annual earnings of foresters in 2004 were $48,230. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,260 and $60,500. The low est 10 percent earned less than $29,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,050. In 2005, most bachelor’s degree graduates entering the Fed eral Government as foresters, range managers, or soil conser vationists started at $24,677 or $30,567, depending on academic achievement. Those with a master’s degree could start at $37,390 or$45,239. Holders of doctorates could start at $54,221. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. In 2005, the average Federal salary for foresters in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $63,492; for soil conservationists, $60,671; and for rangeland managers, $58,162. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, graduates with a bachelor’s degree in conservation and renewable natural resources received an average starting salary offer of $27,950 in 2005. In private industry, starting salaries for students with a bachelor’s degree were comparable with starting salaries in the Federal Gov ernment, but starting salaries in State and local governments were usually lower. Conservation scientists and foresters who work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms generally receive more generous benefits than do those working for smaller firms. Related Occupations Conservation scientists and foresters manage, develop, and protect natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities include environmental engineers; agricultural and food scientists; biological scientists; environmental scientists and geoscientists; and farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers. Sources of Additional Information For information about the forestry profession and lists of schools offering education in forestry, send a self-addressed, stamped busi ness envelope to: >- Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814-2198. Internet: http://www.safnet.org Information about a career as a range manager, as well as a list of schools offering training, is available from: > Society for Range Management, 445 Union Blvd., Suite 230, Lakewood, CO 80228-1259. Internet: http://www.rangelands.org For information on certification as a professional wildlife biolo gist, contact: ► The Wildlife Society, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 200, Bethesda, MD 20814-2197. Internet: http://www.wildlife.org/certification/index.cfm Information on obtaining a position as a conservation scientist or forester with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This re source for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may Digitized for result. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Most medical scientists work in research and development. • Most medical scientists need a Ph.D. degree in a biological science; however, epidemiologists typically require a master’s degree in public health or, in some cases, a Ph.D. or medical degree. • Despite projected rapid job growth, competition is expected for most positions. Nature of the Work Medical scientists research human diseases in order to improve hu man health. Most medical scientists conduct biomedical research and development to advance knowledge of life processes and liv ing organisms, including vimses, bacteria, and other infectious agents. Past research has resulted in advances in diagnosis, treat ment, and prevention of many diseases. Basic medical research con tinues to provide the building blocks necessary to develop solutions to human health problems, such as vaccines and medicines. Medical scientists also engage in clinical investigation, technical writing, drug application review, patent examination, and related activities. Medical scientists study biological systems to understand the causes of disease and other health problems and to develop treat ments and research tools and techniques, many of which have medi cal applications. These scientists try to identify changes in a cell or in chromosomes that signal the development of medical problems, such as different types of cancer. For example, medical scientists involved in cancer research may formulate a combination of drugs that will lessen the effects of the disease. Medical scientists who are also physicians can administer these drugs to patients in clinical trials, monitor their reactions, and observe the results. Those who are not physicians normally collaborate with a physician who deals directly with patients. Medical scientists examine the results of clinical trials and, if necessary, adjust the dosage levels to reduce negative side effects or to try to induce even better results. In addi tion to developing treatments for health problems, medical scientists attempt to discover ways to prevent health problems, for example, by affirming the link between smoking and lung cancer or between alcoholism and liver disease. Many medical scientists work independently in private industry, university, or government laboratories, often exploring new areas of research or expanding on specialized research that they began in graduate school. Medical scientists working in colleges and universi ties, hospitals, and nonprofit medical research organizations typically submit grant proposals to obtain funding for their projects. Colleges and universities, private industry, and Federal Government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation, contribute greatly to the support of scientists whose research proposals are determined to be financially feasible and to have the potential to advance new ideas or processes. Medical scientists who work in applied research or product development use knowledge discovered through basic research to develop new drugs and medical treatments. They usually have less autonomy than basic medical researchers to choose the emphasis of their research, relying instead on market-driven forces arising from their firm’s products and goals. Medical scientists doing ap plied research and product development in private industry may be required to express their research plans or results to nonscientists Professional and Related Occupations who are in a position to reject or approve their ideas; thus, they must understand the impact of their work on business. Scientists increas ingly work as part of teams, interacting with engineers, scientists of other disciplines, business managers, and technicians. Medical scientists who conduct research usually work in laboratories and use electron microscopes, computers, thermal cyclers, or a wide variety of other equipment. Some may work directly with individual patients or larger groups as they admin ister drugs and monitor and observe the patients during clinical trials. Medical scientists who are also physicians may administer gene therapy to human patients, draw blood, excise tissue, or perform other invasive procedures. Some medical scientists work in managerial, consulting, or administrative positions, usually after spending some time doing research and learning about the firm, agency, or project. In the 1980s, swift advances in basic medical knowledge related to-genetics and molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology. Medical scientists using this technology manipulate the genetic material of animals, attempting to make organisms more productive or resistant to disease. Research using biotechnology techniques, such as recombining DNA, has led to the discovery of important drugs, including human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances not previously available in large quantities are now pro duced by biotechnological means; some may one day be useful in treating diseases such as Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s. Today, many medical scientists are involved in the science of genetic engineer ing—isolating, identifying, and sequencing human genes and then determining their function. This work continues to lead to the dis covery of the genes associated with specific diseases and inherited traits, such as certain types of cancer or obesity. These advances in biotechnology have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of medical science. Some medical scientists specialize in epidemiology. This branch of medical science investigates and describes the determinants of disease, disability, and other health outcomes and develops the means for prevention and control. Epidemiologists may study many different diseases, such as tuberculosis, influenza, or cholera, often focusing on epidemics. 157 Epidemiologists can be separated into two groups—research and clinical. Research epidemiologists conduct research in an effort to eradicate or control infectious diseases that affect the entire body, such as AIDS or typhus. Others may focus only on localized infec tions of the brain, lungs, or digestive tract, for example. Research epidemiologists work at colleges and universities, schools of public health, medical schools, and research and development services firms. For example, Federal Government agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Defense, may contract with a research firm’s epide miologists to evaluate the incidence of malaria in certain parts of the world. While some perform consulting services, other research epidemiologists may work as college and university faculty. Clinical epidemiologists work primarily in consulting roles at hospitals, informing the medical staff of infectious outbreaks and providing containment solutions. These epidemiologists sometimes are referred to as infection control professionals, and some of them are also physicians. Epidemiologists who are not physicians often collaborate with physicians to find ways to contain diseases and outbreaks. In addition to traditional duties of studying and controlling diseases, clinical epidemiologists also may be required to develop standards and guidelines for the treatment and control of communicable diseases. Some clinical epidemiologists may work in outpatient settings. Working Conditions Medical scientists typically work regular hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Flowever, those scientists who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination. Medical scientists also spend time working in clinics and hospitals administering drugs and treatments to patients in clinical trials. On occasion, epidemi ologists may be required to work evenings and weekends to attend meetings and hearings for medical investigations. Some medical scientists depend on grant money to support their research. They may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to con form to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement V /' j&F ! iiBsratory Most medical scientists need a Ph.D. in a biological science. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A Ph.D. degree in a biological science is the minimum education required for most prospective medical scientists, except epidemi ologists, because the work of medical scientists is almost entirely research oriented. A Ph.D. degree qualifies one to do research on basic life processes or on particular medical problems or diseases and to analyze and interpret the results of experiments on patients. Some medical scientists obtain a medical degree instead of a Ph.D., but may not be licensed physicians because they have not taken the State licensing examination or completed a residency program, typically because they prefer research to clinical practice. Medical scientists who administer drug or gene therapy to human patients, or who otherwise interact medically with patients—drawing blood, excising tissue, or performing other invasive procedures—must be licensed physicians. To be licensed, physicians must graduate from an accredited medical school, pass a licensing examination, and complete 1 to 7 years of graduate medical education. (See physicians and surgeons elsewhere in the Handbook.) It is particularly helpful for medical scientists to earn both Ph.D. and medical degrees. Students planning careers as medical scientists should have a bachelor’s degree in a biological science. In addition to required courses in chemistry and biology, undergraduates should study allied disciplines, such as mathematics, engineering, physics, and computer science, or courses in their field of interest. Once they have com pleted undergraduate studies, they can then select a specialty area for 158 Occupational Outlook Handbook their advanced degree, such as cytology, bioinformatics, genomics, or pathology. In addition to formal education, medical scientists usually spend several years in a postdoctoral position before they apply for permanent jobs. Postdoctoral work provides valuable laboratory experience, including experience in specific processes and techniques such as gene splicing, which is transferable to other research projects. In some institutions, the postdoctoral position can lead to a permanent job. Medical scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those in private industry, especially those who aspire to consulting and administrative positions, should possess strong communication skills so that they can provide instruction and advice to physicians and other health care professionals. The minimum educational requirement for epidemiology is a master’s degree from a school of public health. Some jobs require a Ph.D. or medical degree, depending on the work performed. Epidemiologists who work in hospitals and health care centers often must have a medical degree with specific training in infec tious diseases. Currently, about 140 infectious disease training programs exist in 42 States. Some employees in research epide miology positions are required to be licensed physicians because they must administer drugs in clinical trials. Epidemiologists who perform laboratory tests often require the knowledge and expertise of a licensed physician in order to admin ister drugs to patients in clinical trials. Epidemiologists who are not physicians frequently work closely with one. Few students select epidemiology for undergraduate study. Undergraduates, nonetheless, should study biological sciences and should have a solid background in chemistry, mathematics, and computer science. Once a student is prepared for graduate studies, he or she can choose a specialty within epidemiology. For example, those interested in studying environmental epidemiology should focus on environmental coursework, such as water pollution, air pollution, or pesticide use. The core work of environmental studies includes toxicology and molecular biology, and students may con tinue with advanced coursework in environmental or occupational epidemiology. Other specialty areas that students can pursue include infectious process, infection control precautions, surveillance meth odology, and outbreak investigation. Some epidemiologists begin their careers in other health care occupations, such as registered nurse and medical technologist. The Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC) offers continuing-education courses and certification programs in infection prevention and control and ap plied epidemiology. To become certified as an infection control professional, applicants are required by a certified board to pass an examination for a one-time fee. Certification is recommended for those seeking advancement and for those seeking to continually upgrade their knowledge in a rapidly evolving field. Employment Medical scientists held about 77,000 jobs in 2004. Epidemiologists accounted for only 4,800 of that total. In addition, many medical scientists held faculty positions in colleges and universities, but they are classified as college or university faculty. (See teachers—post secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 24 percent of medical scientists were employed in government; 24 percent were employed in scientific research and development services firms ; 14 percent were employed in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing; 9 percent were employed in private hospitals; and most of the remainder were employed in private educational services and ambulatory health care services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Among epidemiologists, 50 percent were employed in government; 23 percent were employed in management, scientific, and technical consulting services; 12 percent were employed in scientific research and development services; and 8 percent were employed in private hospitals. Job Outlook Employment of medical scientists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Despite projected rapid job growth, doctoral degree holders can expect to face consider able competition for basic research positions. The Federal Govern ment funds much basic research and development, including many areas of medical research. Recent budget increases at the National In stitutes of Health have led to large increases in Federal basic research and development expenditures, with the number of grants awarded to researchers growing in number and dollar amount. However, the increase in expenditures is expected to slow significantly over the 2004-14 projection period, resulting in a highly competitive environ ment for winning and renewing research grants. In addition, if the number of advanced degrees awarded continues to grow, applicants are likely to face even more competition. Medical scientists enjoyed rapid gains in employment between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s—reflecting, in part, increased staffing requirements in new biotechnology companies. Job growth should be dampened somewhat as increases in the number of new biotechnol ogy firms slow down and as existing firms merge or are absorbed by larger, more established biotechnology or pharmaceutical firms. Also, some companies are expected to conduct an increasing amount of research in other lower-wage countries, further limiting employment growth. However, much of the basic medical research done in recent years has resulted in new knowledge, including the isolation and iden tification of new genes. Medical scientists will be needed to take this knowledge to the next stage—understanding how certain genes function within an entire organism—so that gene therapies can be developed to treat diseases. Even pharmaceutical and other firms not solely engaged in biotechnology are expected to increasingly use biotechnology techniques, thus creating employment for medical scientists. Expected expansion in research related to health issues such as AIDS, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease, along with treating grow ing threats such as the increase in antibiotic resistance, also should result in employment growth. Moreover, environmental conditions such as overcrowding and the increasing frequency of international travel will tend to spread existing diseases and give rise to new ones. Medical scientists will continue to be needed because they greatly contribute to the development of many treatments and medi cines that improve human health. Opportunities in epidemiology also should be highly competitive, as the number of available positions remains limited. However, an increasing focus on monitoring patients at hospitals and health care centers to ensure positive patient outcomes will contribute to job growth. In addition, a heightened awareness of bioterrorism and rare, but infectious diseases such as West Nile Virus or severe acute respi ratory syndrome (SARS) should spur demand for these workers. As hospitals enhance their infection control programs, many will seek to boost the quality and quantity of their staff. Besides job openings due to employment growth, additional openings will result as workers leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Medical scientists and some epidemiologists are less likely to lose their jobs during recessions than are those in many other occupations because they are employed on long-term research projects. However, a recession could influence the amount of money allocated to new research and development, particularly in areas of risky or innova tive medical research. A recession also could limit extensions or renewals of existing projects. Professional and Related Occupations 159 Sources of Additional Information Earnings Median annual earnings of medical scientists, except epidemiolo gists, were $61,320 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent of these workers earned between $44,120 and $86,830. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $33,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 114,360. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical scientists in May 2004 were: Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing.............................. $76,800 Scientific research and development services.............................. 65,110 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 55,410 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... 45,600 Median annual earnings of epidemiologists were $54,800 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,320 and $67,160. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,130, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,310. Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living organisms and require a level of training similar to that of medical scientists. These occupations include biological scientists, agricultural and food scientists, and health occupa tions such as physicians and surgeons, dentists, and veterinarians. For a brochure entitled Is a Career in the Pharmaceutical Sciences Right for Me ?, contact: >- American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS), 2107 Wilson Blvd., Suite 700, Arlington, VA 22201. For a career brochure entitled A Million and One, contact: > American Society for Microbiology, Career Information—Education Department, 1752 N St. NW, Washington, DC 20036-2804. Internet: http://www.asm.org For information on infectious diseases training programs, contact: > Infectious Diseases Society of America, Guide to Training Programs, 66 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 600, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http ://ww w.idsociety.org Information on obtaining a medical scientist position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s of ficial employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interac tive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Physical Scientists Atmospheric Scientists (0*NET 19-2021.00) Significant Points • 4 in 10 atmospheric scientists work for the Federal Government, the largest employer of these workers. • A bachelor’s degree in meteorology, or in a closely re lated field with courses in meteorology, is the minimum educational requirement; a master’s degree is necessary for some positions, and a doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is required for most basic research positions. • Job opportunities are expected to be better in private in dustry than in the Federal Government; opportunities in broadcasting, however, are rare and highly competitive. Nature of the Work Atmospheric science is the study of the atmosphere—the blanket of air covering the Earth. Atmospheric scientists, commonly called meteorologists, study the atmosphere’s physical characteristics, motions, and processes, and the way in which these factors affect the rest of our environment. The best known application of this knowledge is forecasting the weather. In addition to predicting the weather, atmospheric scientists attempt to identify and inter pret climate trends, understand past weather, and analyze today’s weather. Weather information and meteorological research are also applied in air-pollution control, agriculture, forestry, air and sea transportation, defense, and the study of possible trends in the Earth’s climate, such as global warming, droughts, and ozone depletion. Atmospheric scientists who forecast the weather, known pro fessionally as operational meteorologists, are the largest group of FRASER specialists. They study information on air pressure, tempera Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ture, humidity, and wind velocity; and they apply physical and mathematical relationships to make short-range and long-range weather forecasts. Their data come from weather satellites, radars, sensors, and stations in many parts of the world. Meteorologists use sophisticated computer models of the world’s atmosphere to make long-term, short-term, and local-area forecasts. More accu rate instruments for measuring and observing weather conditions, as well as high-speed computers to process and analyze weather data, have revolutionized weather forecasting. Using satellite data, climate theory, and sophisticated computer models of the world’s atmosphere, meteorologists can more effectively interpret the results of these models to make local-area weather predictions. These forecasts inform not only the general public, but also those who need accurate weather information for both economic and safety reasons, such as the shipping, air transportation, agriculture, fishing, forestry, and utilities industries. The use of weather balloons, launched a few times a day to measure wind, temperature, and humidity in the upper atmo sphere, is currently supplemented by sophisticated atmospheric monitoring equipment that transmits data as frequently as every few minutes. Doppler radar, for example, can detect airflow patterns in violent storm systems—allowing forecasters to better predict thunderstorms, flash floods, tornadoes, and other hazardous winds, and to monitor the direction and intensity of storms. Some atmospheric scientists work in research. Physical meteo rologists, for example, study the atmosphere’s chemical and physical properties; the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves; and the transfer of energy in the atmosphere. They also study factors affecting the formation of clouds, rain, and snow; the dispersal of air pollutants over urban areas; and other weather phenomena, such as the mechanics of severe storms. Synoptic meteorologists develop new tools for weather forecasting using computers and sophisti cated mathematical models of atmospheric activity. Climatologists study climactic variations spanning hundreds or even millions of years. They also may collect, analyze, and interpret past records of wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature in specific areas or 160 Occupational Outlook Handbook WiM mm iiita 'mSm and monitoring emissions to improve air quality usually work with other scientists or engineers; fieldwork and travel may be common for these workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement * — mm . : [: ... ,. mm Because most weather stations operate around the clock 7 days a week, jobs in such facilities usually involve night, weekend, and holiday work. regions. Their studies are used to design buildings, plan heating and cooling systems, and aid in effective land use and agricultural production. Environmental problems, such as pollution and short ages of fresh water, have widened the scope of the meteorological profession. Environmental meteorologists study these problems and may evaluate and report on air quality for environmental impact statements. Other research meteorologists examine the most effective ways to control or diminish air pollution. Working Conditions Most weather stations operate around the clock, 7 days a week. Jobs in such facilities usually involve night, weekend, and holiday work, often with rotating shifts. During weather emergencies, such as hurricanes, operational meteorologists may work overtime. Op erational meteorologists also are often under pressure to meet forecast deadlines. Weather stations are found everywhere—at airports, in or near cities, and in isolated and remote areas. Some atmospheric scientists also spend time observing weather conditions and collecting data from aircraft. Weather forecasters who work for radio or television stations broadcast their reports from station studios, and may work evenings and weekends. Meteorologists in smaller weather offices often work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Meteorologists who are not involved in forecasting tasks work regular hours, usually in offices. Those who for private consulting firms or for companies analyzing Digitized forwork FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A bachelor’s degree in meteorology or atmospheric science, or in a closely related field with courses in meteorology, usually is the minimum educational requirement for an entry-level position as an atmospheric scientist. The preferred educational requirement for entry-level meteo rologists in the Federal Government is a bachelor’s degree—not necessarily in meteorology—with at least 24 semester hours of meteorology courses, including 6 hours in the analysis and pre diction of weather systems, 6 hours of atmospheric dynamics and thermodynamics, 3 hours of physical meteorology, and 2 hours of remote sensing of the atmosphere or instrumentation. Other required courses include 3 semester hours of ordinary differen tial equations, 6 hours of college physics, and at least 9 hours of courses appropriate for a physical science major—such as statistics, chemistry, physical oceanography, physical climatol ogy, physical hydrology, radiative transfer, aeronomy, advanced thermodynamics, advanced electricity and magnetism, light and optics, and computer science. Sometimes, a combination of education and appropriate experience may be substituted for a degree. Although positions in operational meteorology are available for those with only a bachelor’s degree, obtaining a second bachelor’s degree or a master’s degree enhances employment opportunities, pay, and advancement potential. A master’s degree usually is necessary for conducting applied research and development, and a Ph.D. is required for most basic research positions. Students planning on a career in research and development do not neces sarily need to major in atmospheric science or meteorology as an undergraduate. In fact, a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, physics, or engineering provides excellent preparation for graduate study in atmospheric science. Because atmospheric science is a small field, relatively few colleges and universities offer degrees in meteorology or atmo spheric science, although many departments of physics, earth science, geography, and geophysics offer atmospheric science and related courses. In 2005, the American Meteorological Society (AMS) approved approximately 100 undergraduate and graduate atmospheric science programs. Many of these programs combine the study of meteorology with another field, such as agriculture, hydrology, oceanography, engineering, or physics. For example, hydrometeorology is the blending of hydrology (the science of Earth’s water) and meteorology, and is the field concerned with the effect of precipitation on the hydrologic cycle and the envi ronment. Prospective students should make certain that courses required by the National Weather Service and other employers are offered at the college they are considering. Computer science courses, additional meteorology courses, a strong background in mathemat ics and physics, and good communication skills are important to prospective employers. Students should also take courses in subjects that are most relevant to their desired area of specialization. For example, those who wish to become broadcast meteorologists for radio or television stations should develop excellent communication skills through courses in speech, journalism, and related fields. Students interested in air quality work should take courses in chemistry and supplement their technical training with coursework in policy or government affairs. Prospective meteorologists seeking op portunities at weather consulting firms should possess knowledge Professional and Related Occupations of business, statistics, and economics, as an increasing emphasis is being placed on long-range seasonal forecasting to assist businesses. Beginning atmospheric scientists often do routine data collec tion, computation, or analysis, and some basic forecasting. Entrylevel operational meteorologists in the Federal Government usually are placed in intern positions for training and experience. During this period, they learn about the Weather Service’s forecasting equipment and procedures, and rotate to different offices to learn about various weather systems. After completing the training pe riod, they are assigned to a permanent duty station. Experienced meteorologists may advance to supervisory or administrative jobs, or may handle more complex forecasting jobs. After several years of experience, some meteorologists establish their own weather consulting services. AMS offers professional certification of consulting meteorologists, administered by a Board of Certified Consulting Meteorologists. Applicants must meet formal education require ments (but not necessarily have a college degree), pass an exami nation to demonstrate thorough meteorological knowledge, have a minimum of 5 years of experience or a combination of experience plus an advanced degree, and provide character references from fellow professionals. In addition, AMS also offers professional certification for broadcast meteorologists. Employment Atmospheric scientists held about 7,400 jobs in 2004. The Federal Government was the largest single employer of civil ian meteorologists, accounting for about 2,900. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) employed most Federal meteorologists in National Weather Service stations throughout the Nation; the remainder of NOAA’s meteorologists worked mainly in research and development or management. The U.S. Department of Defense employed several hundred civilian meteorologists. Others worked for professional, scientific, and technical services firms, including private weather consulting services; radio and television broadcasting; air carriers; and State government. Although several hundred people teach atmospheric science and related courses in college and university departments of meteorology or atmospheric science, physics, earth science, or geophysics, these individuals are classified as college or university faculty, rather than atmospheric scientists. (See the statement on postsecondary teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to civilian meteorologists, hundreds of Armed Forces members are involved in forecasting and other meteorological work. (See the statement on job opportunities in the Armed Forces elsewhere in the Handbook.) 161 detailed information than has formerly been available, especially to climate-sensitive industries. Farmers, commodity investors, radio and television stations, and utilities, transportation, and construc tion firms can greatly benefit from additional weather information more closely targeted to their needs than the general informa tion provided by the National Weather Service. Additionally, research on seasonal and other long-range forecasting is yielding positive results, which should spur demand for more atmospheric scientists to interpret these forecasts and advise climate-sensitive industries. However, because many customers for private weather services are in industries sensitive to fluctuations in the economy, the sales and growth of private weather services depend on the health of the economy. There will continue to be demand for atmospheric scientists to analyze and monitor the dispersion of pollutants into the air to ensure compliance with Federal environmental regulations, but related employment increases are expected to be small. Efforts toward making and improving global weather observations also could have a positive impact on employment. Opportunities in broadcasting are rare and highly competitive, however, mak ing for very few job openings in this industry. Prospects for academic positions may improve. While a competitive job market will continue to exist for independent research posi tions in universities and for college and university faculty, opportunities are expected to be better than in the past as an increasing number of faculty are expected to retire through the projection period. Earnings Median annual earnings of atmospheric scientists in May 2004 were $70,100. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,880 and $86,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,590, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $106,020. The average salary for meteorologists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions employed by the Federal Government was about $80,499 in 2005. Meteorologists in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received a starting salary of $27,955 or $34,544, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $42,090 or $54,393, and those with a Ph.D. could begin at $70,280. Beginning salaries for all degree levels are slightly higher in areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level is higher. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the physical environ ment include environmental scientists and geoscientists, physicists and astronomers, mathematicians, and civil, chemical, and envi ronmental engineers. Job Outlook Employment of atmospheric scientists is projected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through 2014. The National Weather Service has completed an extensive moderniza tion of its weather forecasting equipment and finished all hiring of meteorologists needed to staff the upgraded stations, however. The Service has no plans to increase the number of weather stations or the number of meteorologists in existing stations. Employment of meteorologists in other Federal agencies is expected to remain stable. In private industry, on the other hand, job opportunities for atmospheric scientists are expected to be better than in the Federal Government over the 2004-14 period. As research leads to continuing improvements in weather forecasting, demand should grow for private weather consulting firms to provide more https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in meteorology and a listing of col leges and universities offering meteorology programs is provided by the American Meteorological Society on the Internet at; http://www.ametsoc.org/AMS. Information on obtaining a position as a meteorologists with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s of ficial employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interac tive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. 162 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chemists and Materials Scientists (0*NET 19-2031.00, 19-2032.00) Significant Points • A bachelor’s degree in chemistry or a related discipline is the minimum educational requirement; however, many research jobs require a master’s degree, or more often a Ph.D. • Slower-than-average growth in employment is pro jected. • Job growth will be concentrated in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing companies and in profes sional, scientific, and technical services firms. • Graduates with a bachelor’s degree will have oppor tunities at smaller research organizations; those with a master’s degree, and particularly those with a Ph.D., will enjoy better opportunities at larger pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms. Nature of the Work Everything in the environment, whether naturally occurring or of human design, is composed of chemicals. Chemists and materials sci entists search for and use new knowledge about chemicals. Chemical research has led to the discovery and development of new and im proved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, cosmetics, electronic components, lubricants, and thousands of other products. Chemists and materials scientists also develop processes such as improved oil refining and petrochemical processing that save energy and reduce pollution. Research on the chemistry of living things spurs advances in medicine, agriculture, food processing, and other fields. Materials scientists study the structures and chemical properties of various materials to develop new products or enhance existing ones. They also determine ways to strengthen or combine materials or develop new materials for use in a variety of products. Materials science encompasses the natural and synthetic materials used in a wide range of products and structures, from airplanes, cars, and bridges to clothing and household goods. Companies whose products are made of metals, ceramics, and rubber employ most materials scientists. Other applications of materials science include studies of superconducting materials, graphite materials, integrated-circuit chips, and fuel cells. Materials scientists, applying chemistry and physics, study all aspects of these materials. Chemistry plays an increasingly dominant role in materials science because it provides information about the structure and composition of materials. Materials scientists often specialize in specific areas such as ceramics or metals. Many chemists and materials scientists work in research and development (R&D). In basic research, they investigate proper ties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In ap plied R&D, they create new products and processes or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic research. For example, synthetic rubber and plastics resulted from research on small molecules uniting to form large ones, a process called polymerization. R&D chemists and materials scientists use comput ers and a wide variety of sophisticated laboratory instrumentation for modeling and simulation in their work. The use of computers to analyze complex data has allowed chemists and materials scientists to practice combinatorial chemistry. This tech nique makes and tests large quantities of chemical compounds simul taneously to find those with certain desired properties. Combinatorial https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis chemistry has allowed chemists to produce thousands of compounds more quickly and inexpensively than was formerly possible and assisted in the completion of the sequencing of human genes. Today, specialty chemists, such as medicinal and organic chemists, are working with life scientists to translate this knowledge into new drugs. Chemists also work in production and quality control in chemical manufacturing plants. They prepare instructions for plant workers that specify ingredients, mixing times, and temperatures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to ensure proper product yield and test samples of raw materials or finished products to ensure that they meet industry and government standards, including regulations governing pollution. Chemists report and document test results and analyze those results in hopes of improving existing theories or developing new test methods. Chemists often specialize. Analytical chemists determine the structure, composition, and nature of substances by examining and identifying their various elements or compounds. These chemists are absolutely crucial to the pharmaceutical industry because pharma ceutical companies need to know the identity of compounds that they hope to turn into drugs. Furthermore, analytical chemists study the relations and interactions of the parts of compounds and develop ana lytical techniques. They also identify the presence and concentration of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the chemistry of the vast number of carbon compounds that make up all living things. Organic chemists who synthesize elements or simple compounds to create new compounds or substances that have dif ferent properties and applications have developed many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and elastomers (elastic substances similar to rubber). Inorganic chemists study compounds consisting mainly of elements other than carbon, such as those in electronic components. Physical and theoretical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and the theoretical properties of matter and investigate how chemical reactions work. Their re search may result in new and better energy sources. Macromolecular chemists study the behavior of atoms and molecules. Medicinal chemists study the structural properties of compounds intended for applications to human medicine. Materials chemists study and develop new materials to improve existing products or make new ones. In fact, virtually all chemists are involved in this quest in one way or another. Developments in the field of chemistry that involve life sciences will expand, resulting in more interaction among biolo gists, engineers, computer specialists, and chemists. (Biochemists, whose work encompasses both biology and chemistry, are discussed in the Handbook statement on biological scientists.) Working Conditions Chemists and materials scientists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. R&D chemists and materials scientists spend much time in laboratories but also work in offices when they do theoretical research or plan, record, and report on their lab research. Although some laboratories are small, others are large enough to incorporate pro totype chemical manufacturing facilities as well as advanced equipment for chemists. In addition to working in a laboratory, materials scien tists also work with engineers and processing specialists in industrial manufacturing facilities. After a material is sold, materials scientists often help customers tailor the material to suit their needs. Chemists do some of their work in a chemical plant or outdoors—while gathering water samples to test for pollutants, for example. Some chemists are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemicals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in chemistry or a related discipline usually is the minimum educational requirement for entry-level chemist Professional and Related Occupations jobs. However, many research jobs require a master’s degree, or more often a Ph.D. While some materials scientists hold a degree in materials science, a bachelor’s degree in chemistry, physics, or electrical engineering also is accepted. Many R&D jobs require a Ph.D. in materials science or a related science. Many colleges and universities offer degree programs in chemistry. In 2005, the American Chemical Society (ACS) approved 631 bachelor’s, 308 master’s, and 192 doctoral degree programs. In addition to these schools, several hundred colleges and universities also offer advanced degree programs in chemistry. The number of colleges that offer a degree program in materials science is small but gradually increasing. Students planning careers as chemists and materials scientists should take courses in science and mathematics, should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing laboratory experiments, and should like computer modeling. Perseverance, curi osity, and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently are essential. Interaction among specialists in this field is increasing, especially for specialty chemists in drug development. One type of chemist often relies on the findings of another type of chemist. For example, an organic chemist must understand findings on the identity of compounds prepared by an analytical chemist. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, undergraduate chemistry majors usually study biological sciences; mathematics; physics; and increasingly, computer science. Computer courses are essential because employ- 163 ers prefer job applicants who are able to apply computer skills to modeling and simulation tasks and operate computerized laboratory equipment. This is increasingly important as combinatorial chem istry and high-throughput screening (HTS)—the ability to enhance processing capacity—techniques are more widely applied. Those interested in the environmental field also should take courses in environmental studies and become familiar with current legisla tion and regulations. Specific courses should include atmospheric chemistry, water chemistry, soil chemistry, and energy. Courses in statistics are useful because both chemists and materials scientists need the ability to apply basic statistical techniques. Because R&D chemists and materials scientists are increasingly expected to work on interdisciplinary teams, some understanding of other disciplines, including business and marketing or economics, is desirable, along with leadership ability and good oral and written communication skills. Experience, either in academic laboratories or through internships, fellowships, or work-study programs in industry, also is useful. Some employers of research chemists, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry, prefer to hire individuals with several years of postdoctoral experience. Graduate students typically specialize in a subfield of chemistry, such as analytical chemistry or polymer chemistry, depending on their interests and the kind of work they wish to do. For example, those interested in doing drug research in the pharmaceutical indus try usually develop a strong background in medicinal or synthetic organic chemistry. However, students normally need not specialize at the undergraduate level. In fact, undergraduates who are broadly trained have more flexibility when job hunting or changing jobs than if they have narrowly defined their interests. Most employers provide new graduates additional training or education. In government or industry, beginning chemists with a bachelor’s degree work in quality control, perform analytical testing, or assist senior chemists in R&D laboratories. Many employers prefer chemists and materials scientists with a Ph.D., or at least a master’s degree, to lead basic and applied research. Chemists who hold a Ph.D. and have previous industrial experience may be particularly attractive to employ ers because such people are more likely to understand the complex regulations that apply to the pharmaceutical industry. Within materi als science, a broad background in various sciences is preferred. This broad base may be obtained through degrees in physics, engineering, or chemistry. While many companies prefer hiring Ph.D.s, some may employ materials scientists with bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Employment *• . s < . Chemists and materials scientists held about 90,000 jobs in 2004. About 43 percent of all chemists and material scientists are em ployed in manufacturing firms—mostly in the chemical manufacturing industry, which includes firms that produce plastics and synthetic materials, drugs, soaps and cleaners, pesticides and fertilizers, paint, industrial organic chemicals, and other chemical products. About 15 percent of chemists and material scientists work in scientific research and development services; 12 percent work in architectural, engineer ing, and related services. In addition, thousands of people with a background in chemistry and materials science hold teaching positions in high schools and in colleges and universities. (See the statements on teachers—postsecondary, and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Chemists and materials scientists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are mainly concentrated in large industrial areas. Job Outlook Many research jobs as chemists require at least a master’s degree, Digitized foror FRASER more often a Ph.D. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of chemists is expected to grow more slowly than the average rate for all occupations through 2014. Job growth will be concentrated in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing and in 164 Occupational Outlook Handbook professional, scientific, and technical services firms. Employment in the nonpharmaceutical segments of the chemical industry, a major employer of chemists, is expected to decline over the projection period. Consequently, new chemists at all levels may experience competition for jobs in these segments, including basic chemical manufacturing and synthetic materials. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree may find science-related jobs in sales, marketing, and middle management. Some become chemical technicians or technologists or high school chemistry teachers. In addition, bachelor’s degree holders are increasingly finding assistant research positions at smaller research organizations. Graduates with a master’s degree, and particularly those with a Ph.D., will enjoy better opportunities at larger pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms. Furthermore, those with an advanced degree will continue to fill most senior research and upper management positions, although applicants are likely to experience competition for these jobs. Within the chemical industry, job opportunities are expected to be most plentiful in pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms. Biotechno logical research, including studies of human genes, continues to offer possibilities for the development of new drugs and products to combat illnesses and diseases that have previously been unresponsive to treat ments derived by traditional chemical processes. Stronger competition among drug companies and an aging population are contributing to the need for new drugs. Employment in the remaining segments of the chemical indus try is expected to decline as companies downsize. To control costs, most chemical companies, including many large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, will increasingly turn to scientific R&D services firms to perform specialized research and other work formerly done by in-house chemists. Also, some companies are expected to conduct an increasing amount of research in other lower-wage countries, further limiting employment growth. As a result, these firms will experience healthy growth. Despite downsizing, some job openings will result from the need to replace chemists who retire or otherwise leave the labor force,’although not all positions will be filled. Quality control will continue to be an important issue in chemical manufacturing and other industries that use chemicals in their manufacturing processes. Chemists also will be needed to develop and improve the technologies and processes used to produce chemicals for all purposes, and to monitor and measure air and water pollutants to ensure compliance with local, State, and Federal environmental regulations. Environmental research will offer many new opportuni ties for chemists and materials scientists. To satisfy public concerns and to comply with government regulations, the chemical industry will continue to invest billions of dollars each year in technology that reduces pollution and cleans up existing wastesites. Chemists also are needed to find ways to use less energy and to discover alternative sources of energy. During periods of economic recession, layoffs of chemists may occur—especially in the industrial chemicals industry. Layoffs are less likely in the pharmaceutical industry, where long development cycles generally overshadow short-term economic effects. The traditional chemical industry, however, provides many raw materials to the auto manufacturing and construction industries, both of which are vulnerable to temporary slowdowns during recessions. Earnings Median annual earnings of chemists in May 2004 were $56,060. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,900 and $76,080. The low est 10 percent earned less than $33,170, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $98,010. Median annual earnings of materials scientists in May 2004 were $72,390. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,350 and $92,340. The lowest 10 percent earned https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis less than $40,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $113,460. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of chemists in May 2004 are shown below: Federal Government..................................................................... $80,550 Scientific research and development services............................... 62,460 Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing.............................. 57,050 Architectural, engineering, and related services.......................... 42,370 The ACS reports that in 2004 the median salary of all of its members with a bachelor’s degree was $62,000; for those with a master’s degree, it was $72,300; and for those with a Ph.D., it was $91,600. The median salary was highest for those working in private industry and lowest for those in academia. According to an ACS survey of recent graduates, inexperienced chemistry graduates with a bachelor’s degree earned a median starting salary of $32,500 in October 2004; those with a master’s degree earned a median salary of $43,600; and those with a Ph.D. had median earnings of $65,000. Among bachelor’s degree graduates, those who had completed internships or had other work experience while in school commanded the highest starting salaries. In 2005, chemists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the Federal Government averaged $83,777 a year. Related Occupations • The research and analysis conducted by chemists and materials scientists is closely related to work done by agricultural and food scientists, biological scientists, medical scientists, chemical engi neers, materials engineers, physicists, and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chemists is available from: >- American Chemical Society, Education Division, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.acs.oig Information on obtaining a position as a chemist with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Man agement through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Environmental Scientists and Hydrologists (0*NET 19-2041.00, 19-2043.00) Significant Points • Environmental scientists and hydrologists often split their work between offices, laboratories, and field sites. • Federal, State, and local governments employ over half of all environmental scientists and hydrologists. • Although a bachelor’s degree in an earth science is adequate for a few entry-level jobs, employers increas ingly prefer a master’s degree; a Ph.D. degree is re quired for most high-level research or college teaching positions. • The strongest job growth should be in private-sector consulting firms. Professional and Related Occupations Nature of the Work Environmental scientists and hydrologists use their knowledge of the physical makeup and history of the Earth to protect the environ ment, study the properties of underground and surface waters, locate water and energy resources, predict water-related geologic hazards, and offer environmental site assessments and advice on indoor air quality and hazardous-waste-site remediation. Environmental scientists conduct research to identify and abate or eliminate sources of pollutants or hazards that affect people, wildlife, and their environments. These workers analyze and report measure ments or observations of air, food, water, soil, and other sources and make recommendations on how best to clean and preserve the environment. Understanding the issues involved in protecting the environment—degradation, conservation, recycling, and replenish ment—is central to the work of environmental scientists, who often use their skills and knowledge to design and monitor waste disposal sites, preserve water supplies, and reclaim contaminated land and water to comply with Federal environmental regulations. Many environmental scientists do work and have training that is similar to other physical or life scientists, but is applied to en vironmental areas. Many specialize in some specific area, such as environmental ecology and conservation, environmental chemistry, environmental biology, or fisheries science. Most environmen tal scientists are further classified by the specific activity they perform, although recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes within the ecosystem have blurred some traditional classifications. For example, environmental ecologists study the relationships between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall, tem perature, and altitude. Utilizing their knowledge of various scientific disciplines, they may collect, study, and report data on air, food, soil, and water. Ecological modelers study ecosystems, the control of environmental pollution, and the management of resources. These environmental scientists may use mathematical modeling, systems analysis, thermodynamics, and computer techniques. Environmental chemists may study the toxicity of various chemicals—how those chemicals affect plants, animals, and people. Hydrologists study the quantity, distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and surface waters. Often, they specialize in either underground water or surface water. They exam ine the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, its movement through the earth, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere. Hydrologists use sophisticated techniques and instruments. For example, they may use remote sensing technology, data assimilation, and numerical modeling to monitor the change in regional and global water cycles. Some surface-water hydrologists use sensitive stream-measuring devices to assess flow rates and the quality of water. The work hydrologists do is particularly important in flood control and environmental preservation, including ground water decontamination. Many environmental scientists and hydrologists work at consult ing firms, advising and helping businesses and government agen cies comply with environmental policy, particularly with regard to ground-water decontamination and flood control. Environmental scientists and hydrologists at consulting firms are generally hired to solve problems. Most firms fall into two categories: large mul tidisciplinary engineering companies, the largest of which may employ more than 15,000 workers, and small niche firms that may employ fewer than 50 workers. When entering the field, prospects should consider the type of firm and the scope of the projects it undertakes. In larger firms, environmental scientists are more likely to engage in large, long-term projects in which their role will mesh with those of workers in other scientific disciplines. In smaller Digitized forspecialty FRASERfirms, however, they may be responsible for many skills https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 165 HI I % # Sst* Environmental scientists conduct research to identify and reduce or eliminate sources ofpollutants or hazards that affect people, wildlife, and their environments. beyond traditional environmental disciplines, such as working with environmental laws and regulations, making environmental risk assessments, writing technical proposals, giving presentations to managers and regulators, and working with other specialists on a variety of issues, including engineering remediation. Environmental scientists who determine policy may help identify how human behavior can be modified in the future to avoid such problems as ground-water contamination and depletion of the ozone layer. Some environmental scientists work in managerial positions, usually after spending some time performing research or learning about environmental laws and regulations. (Information on geosci entists, whose work is closely related to that of environmental scien tists and hydrologists, is located elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Most entry-level environmental scientists and hydrologists spend the majority of their time in the field, while more experienced workers generally devote more of their time to office or laboratory work. Many beginning hydrologists and some environmental scien tists, such as environmental ecologists and environmental chemists, often take field trips that involve physical activity. Environmental scientists and hydrologists in the field may work in warm or cold climates, in all kinds of weather. In their research, they may dig or chip with a hammer, scoop with a net, come in contact with water, and carry equipment in a backpack. Travel often is required to meet with prospective clients or investors. Those in laboratories may conduct tests, run experiments, record results, and compile data. Environmental scientists and hydrologists in research positions with the Federal Government or in colleges and universities fre quently are required to design programs and write grant proposals in order to continue their data collection and research. Environmental scientists and hydrologists in consulting jobs face similar pressures to market their skills and write proposals so that they will have steady work. Occasionally, those who write technical reports to business clients and regulators may be under pressure to meet deadlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is adequate for a few entry-level positions, but environmental scientists are increasingly needing a master’s degree in a natural science. A master’s degree also is the minimum educational requirement for most entry-level applied research positions in private industry, in State and Federal agencies, and at State geological surveys. 166 Occupational Outlook Handbook A doctoral degree is necessary for college teaching and most high-level research positions. Many environmental scientists earn degrees in life science, chemistry, geology, geophysics, atmospheric science, or physics and then, either through further education or through their research in terests and work experience, apply their education to environmental areas. Others earn a degree in environmental science. A bachelor’s degree in environmental science offers an interdisciplinary approach to the natural sciences, with an emphasis on biology, chemistry, and geology. In addition, undergraduate environmental science majors should focus on data analysis and physical geography, particularly if they are interested in studying pollution abatement, water resources, or ecosystem protection, restoration, or management. Understanding the geochemistry of inorganic compounds is becoming increasingly important in developing remediation goals. Those students inter ested in working in the environmental or regulatory fields, either in environmental consulting firms or for Federal or State governments, should take courses in hydrology, hazardous-waste management, environmental legislation, chemistry, fluid mechanics, and geologic logging. An understanding of environmental regulations and gov ernment permit issues also is valuable for those planning to work in mining and oil and gas extraction. Students interested in the field of hydrology should take courses in the physical sciences, geophysics, chemistry, engineering science, soil science, mathematics, aquatic biology, atmospheric science, geology, oceanography, hydrogeology, and the management or conservation of water resources. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor’s degree in a hydrologic science are qualified for positions in environmental consulting and planning regarding water quality or wastewater treatment. Curricula for advanced degrees often empha size the natural sciences, but not all universities offer all curricula. The American Institute of Hydrology offers certification pro grams in professional hydrology. Certification is recommended for those seeking advancement and for those seeking to upgrade their knowledge. For environmental scientists and hydrologists who enter the field of consulting, courses in business, finance, marketing, or economics may be useful. In addition, combining environmental science train ing with other disciplines such as engineering, or a technical degree coupled with a master’s degree in business administration, qualifies these scientists for the widest range ofjobs. Environmental scientists and hydrologists also should have some knowledge of the potential liabilities associated with some environmental work. Computer skills are essential for prospective environmental sci entists and hydrologists. Students who have some experience with computer modeling, data analysis and integration, digital mapping, remote sensing, and geographic information systems will be the most prepared to enter the job market. A knowledge of the Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS)—a locator system that uses satellites—is vital. Environmental scientists and hydrologists must have excellent interpersonal skills, because they usually work as part of a team with other scientists, engineers, and technicians. Strong oral and written communication skills also are essential, because writing technical reports and research proposals and communicating technical and research results to company managers, regulators, and the public are important aspects of the work. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Environmental scientists and hydrologists often begin their careers in field exploration or, occasionally, as research assistants or technicians in laboratories or offices. They are given more dif ficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually, they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or some other management and research position. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because international work is becoming increasingly perva sive, knowledge of a second language can be a valuable skill to employers. Employment Environmental scientists and hydrologists held about 81,000 jobs in 2004. Jobs for hydrologists accounted for only 10 percent of the total. Many more individuals held environmental science faculty positions in colleges and universities, but they are classified as col lege and university faculty. (See the statement on teachers—post secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 44 percent of environmental scientists were employed in State and local governments; 15 percent in management, scien tific, and technical consulting services; 14 percent in architectural, engineering and related services; and 8 percent in the Federal Government. About 5 percent were self-employed. Among hydrologists, 22 percent were employed in architectural, engineering, and related services, and 18 percent worked for man agement, scientific, and technical consulting services. In 2004, the Federal Government employed about 2,500 hydrologists, mostly within the U.S. Department of the Interior for the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and within the U.S. Department of Defense. Another 15 percent worked for State agencies, such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation. About 5 percent of hydrologists were self-employed, most as consultants to industry or government. Job Outlook Employment of environmental scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, while employment of hydrologists should grow much faster than the average. Job growth for environmental scientists and hydrologists should be strongest at private-sector consulting firms. Demand for environmental scientists and hydrologists will be spurred largely by public policy, which will oblige companies and organizations to comply with complex environmental laws and regulations, par ticularly those regarding ground-water decontamination, clean air, and flood control. Job opportunities also will be spurred by a continued general awareness regarding the need to monitor the quality of the envi ronment, to interpret the impact of human actions on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and to develop strategies for restoring ecosystems. Many environmental scientists and hydrologists work in consulting. Consulting firms have hired these scientists to advise and help businesses and government comply with new regulations on issues related to underground tanks, land disposal areas, and other hazardous-waste-management facilities. Currently, environmental consulting is maturing and evolving from investigations to remedia tion and engineering solutions. At the same time, the regulatory climate is evolving from a rigid structure to a more flexible riskbased approach. These factors, coupled with new Federal and State initiatives that integrate environmental activities into the business process itself, will result in a greater focus on waste minimization, resource recovery, pollution prevention, and the consideration of environmental effects during product development. This shift in focus from reactive solutions to preventive management will provide many new opportunities for environmental scientists and hydrolo gists in consulting roles. Some opportunities are expected for environmental scientists at State geological surveys, stemming from the need to conduct envi ronmental site assessments for local governments to help improve the flow of railroad and automobile traffic in urban areas. In addi tion, environmental scientists will be needed to help planners and Professional and Related Occupations communities develop and construct buildings, transportation corridors, and utilities that protect water resources and reflect efficient and beneficial land use. Opportunities will be better for hydrologists as the population increases and moves to more environmentally sensitive locations. For example, as people increasingly migrate toward coastal regions, hydrologists will be needed to assess building sites for potential geologic hazards and to mitigate the effects of natural hazards such as floods and landslides. Hydrologists also will be needed to conduct research on hazardous-waste sites in order to determine the impact of hazardous pollutants on soil and ground water so that engineers can design remediation systems. Demand is growing for hydrolo gists who understand both the scientific and engineering aspects of waste remediation. As States design initiatives to improve water resources by preventing pollution, there should be opportunities for hydrologists in State government. Increased government regula tions, such as those regarding the management of storm water, and issues related to water conservation, deteriorating coastal environ ments, and rising sea levels also will stimulate employment growth for these workers. Federal and State geological surveys depend to a large extent on the public climate and the current budget. Thus, job security for environmental scientists and hydrologists within a State survey may be cyclical. During periods of economic recession, layoffs of environmental scientists and hydrologists may occur in consulting firms; layoffs are much less likely in government. 167 Using their qualitative and quantitative problem-solving skills, physicists', chemists; engineers; mathematicians; surveyors, cartog raphers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; computer systems analysts; and computer scientists and database administra tors may perform similar work in environment-related activities. Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for environmental scientists is available from; ► American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA 22302 1502. Internet: http://www.agiweb.org For information on careers in hydrology, contact: > American Institute of Hydrology, 300 Village Green Circle, Suite #201, Smyrna, GA 30080. Internet: http://www.aihydro.org For career information and a list of education and training pro grams in oceanography and related fields, contact: ^ Marine Technology Society, 5565 Sterrett Place, Suite 108, Columbia, MD 21004. Internet: http://www.mtsociety.org Information on obtaining a position as a hydrologist or an environmental protection specialist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through US AJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Earnings Median annual earnings of environmental scientists were $51,080 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,100 and $67,360. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,610, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $85,940. Median annual earnings of hydrologists were $61,510 in May 2004, with the middle 50 percent earning between $47,080 and $77,910, the lowest 10 percent earning less than $38,580, and the highest 10 percent earning more than $94,460. ■ Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of environmental scientists in May 2004 were as follows: Federal Government............................................................ Management, scientific, and technical consulting services Architectural, engineering, and related services................ Local government............................................................... State government .............................................................. $73,530 51,190 49,160 48,870 46,850 According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, beginning salary offers in July 2005 for graduates with bachelor’s degrees in a environmental science averaged $31,366 a year. In 2005, the Federal Government’s average salary for hydrolo gists in managerial, supervisory, and nonsupervisory positions was $77,182. Related Occupations Environmental scientists and hydrologists perform investigations for the purpose of abating or eliminating sources of pollutants or hazards that affect the environment or some population—plant, animal, or human. Many other occupations deal with preserving or researching the natural environment, including conservation sci entists and foresters, atmospheric scientists, and some biological scientists and science and engineering technicians. Environmental scientists and hydrologists have extensive training in physical sciences, and many apply their knowledge of chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics to explain certain phenomena closely Digitized for related FRASER to the work of geoscientists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Geoscientists_____ ______ _______ (0*NET 19-2041.00, 19-2042.01, 19-2043.00) ____ Significant Points • Work at remote field sites is common. • Federal, State, and local governments employ 24 percent of all geoscientists. • A master’s degree is usually the minimum educational requirement; a Ph.D. degree is required for most high-level research and college teaching positions. • Although employment of geoscientists is expected to grow more slowly than average, good job opportunities are expected in most areas of geoscience. Nature of the Work Geoscientists study the composition, structure, and other physical aspects of the Earth. With the use of sophisticated instruments and by analyzing the composition of the earth and water, geoscientists study the Earth’s geologic past and present. Many geoscientists are involved in searching for adequate supplies of natural resources such as groundwater, metals, and petroleum, while others work closely with environmental and other scientists in preserving and cleaning up the environment. Geoscientists usually study, and are subsequently classified into, one of several closely related fields of geoscience. Geologists study the composition, processes, and history of the Earth. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their formation. They also study the evolution of life by analyzing plant and animal fossils. Geophysicists use the principles of physics, mathematics, and chemistry to study not only the Earth’s surface, but also its internal composition; ground and surface waters; atmosphere; oceans; and magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. 168 Occupational Outlook Handbook Oceanographers use their knowledge of geology and geo physics, in addition to biology and chemistry, to study the world’s oceans and coastal waters. They study the motion and circulation of the ocean waters; the physical and chemical properties of the oceans; and how these properties affect coastal areas, climate, and weather. Oceanographers are further broken down according to their areas of expertise. For example, physi cal oceanographers study the tides, waves, currents, tempera tures, density, and salinity of the ocean. They examine the in teraction of various forms of energy, such as light, radar, sound, heat, and wind, with the sea, in addition to investigating the relationship between the sea, weather, and climate. Chemical oceanographers study the distribution of chemical compounds and chemical interactions that occur in the ocean and on the sea floor. They may investigate how pollution affects the chemis try of the ocean. Geological and geophysical oceanographers study the topographic features and the physical makeup of the ocean floor. Their knowledge can help companies find oil and gas off coastal waters. (Biological oceanographers, often called marine biologists, study the distribution and migration patterns of the many diverse forms of sea life in the ocean, but because they are considered biological scientists, they are not covered in this statement on geoscientists. See the statement on biological scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Geoscientists can spend a large part of their time in the field, identifying and examining rocks, studying information collected by remote sensing instruments in satellites, conducting geological surveys, constructing field maps, and using instruments to measure the Earth’s gravity and magnetic field. For example, they often perform seismic studies, which involve bouncing energy waves off buried layers of rock, to search for oil and gas or to understand the structure of the subsurface layers. Seismic signals generated by an earthquake are used to determine the earthquake’s location and intensity. In laboratories, geologists and geophysicists examine the chemical and physical properties of specimens. They study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Numerous specialties that further differentiate the type of work geoscientists do fall under the two major disciplines of geology and geophysics. For example, petroleum geologists map the sub surface of the ocean or land as they explore the terrain for oil and gas deposits. They use sophisticated geophysical instrumentation and computers to interpret geological information. Engineering geologists apply geologic principles to the fields of civil and en vironmental engineering, offering advice on major construction projects and assisting in environmental remediation and natural hazard-reduction projects. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to their composition and structure. They study the environment surrounding rocks in order to find new mineral resources. Sedimentologists study the nature, origin, distribution, and alteration of sediments, such as sand, silt, and mud. These sediments may contain oil, gas, coal, and many other mineral deposits. Paleontologists study fossils found in geological formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the Earth. Stratigraphers examine the formation and layering of rocks to understand the environment in which they were formed. Volcanologists investigate volcanoes and volcanic phenomena to try to predict the potential for future eruptions and hazards to human health and welfare. Glacial geolo gists study the physical properties and movement of glaciers and ice sheets. Geochemists study the nature and distribution of chemical elements in groundwater and earth materials. Geophysicists specialize in areas such as geodesy, seismol ogy, and magnetic geophysics. Geodesists study the Earth’s https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis size, shape, gravitational field, tides, polar motion, and rotation. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other geophysi cal instruments to detect earthquakes and locate earthquake-related faults. Geomagnetists measure the Earth’s magnetic field and use measurements taken over the past few centuries to devise theoretical models that explain the Earth’s origin. Paleomagnetists interpret fossil magnetization in rocks and sediments from the continents and oceans to record the spreading of the sea floor, the wandering of the continents, and the many reversals of polarity that the Earth’s magnetic field has undergone through time. Other geophysicists study atmospheric sciences and space physics. (See the statement on atmospheric scientists, and physicists and astronomers, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Some geoscientists spend the majority of their time in an office, but many others divide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory work. Work at remote field sites is common. Many geoscientists, such as volcanologists, often take field trips that involve physical activity. Geoscientists in the field may work in warm or cold climates and in all kinds of weather. In their research, they may dig or chip with a hammer, scoop with a net, and carry equipment in a backpack. Oceanographers may spend considerable time at sea on academic research ships. Fieldwork often requires working long hours. Geologists frequently travel to remote field .. Due to the relatively low number of qualified geoscience graduates and the large number of expected retirements, opportunities are expected to be good in most areas of geoscience. Professional and Related Occupations sites by helicopter or four-wheel-drive vehicles and cover large areas on foot. An increasing number of exploration geologists and geophysicists work in foreign countries, sometimes in remote areas and under difficult conditions. Travel often is required to meet with prospective clients or investors. Geoscientists in research positions with the Federal Government or in colleges and universities frequently are required to design programs and write grant proposals in order to continue their data collection and research. Geoscientists in consulting jobs face similar pressures to market their skills and write proposals so that they will 169 About 25 percent of geoscientists were employed in architectural, engineering, and related services, and 20 percent worked for oil and gas extraction companies. In 2004, State agencies such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation employed about 3,600 geoscientists. Another 2,900 worked for the Federal Government, including geologists, geophysicists, and oceanogra phers, mostly within the U.S. Department of the Interior for the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and within the U.S. Department of Defense. About 5 percent of geoscientists were self-employed, most as consultants to industry or government. have steady work. Job Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is adequate for a few entry-level positions, but most geoscientists need at least a master’s degree in general geology or earth science. A master’s degree also is the minimum educational requirement for most entry-level research positions in private industry, Federal agencies, and State geological surveys. A Ph.D. degree is necessary for most high-level research and college teaching positions. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s or higher de gree in a geoscience. In 2005, more than 100 universities offered accredited bachelor’s degree programs in geoscience, about 80 universities had master’s degree programs, and about 60 offered doctoral degree programs. Traditional geoscience courses emphasizing classical geologic methods and topics (such as mineralogy, petrology, paleontol ogy, stratigraphy, and structural geology) are important for all geoscientists. Persons studying physics, chemistry, biology, math ematics, engineering, or computer science may also qualify for some geoscience positions if their course work includes study in geology or natural sciences. Computer skills are essential for prospective geoscientists; stu dents who have experience with computer modeling, data analysis and integration, digital mapping, remote sensing, and geographic information systems will be the most prepared entering the job market. A knowledge of the Global Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS)—a locator system that uses satel lites—has also become essential. Some employers seek applicants with field experience, so a summer internship may be beneficial to prospective geoscientists. Geoscientists must have excellent interpersonal skills, because they usually work as part of a team with other geoscientists and with environmental scientists, engineers, and technicians. Strong oral and written communication skills also are important, because writing technical reports and research proposals, as well as communicating research results to others, are important aspects of the work. Because many jobs require foreign travel, knowledge of a second language is becoming an important attribute to employers. Geoscientists must be inquisitive, be able to think logically, and be capable of complex analytical thinking, including spatial visualization and the ability to develop comprehensive conclusions often from sparse data. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Geoscientists often begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants or technicians in laboratories or offices. They are given more difficult assignments as they gain experience. Eventually, they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or some other management or research position. Employment Geoscientists held about 28,000 jobs in 2004. Many more individu als held geoscience faculty positions in colleges and universities, but they are classified as college and university faculty. (See the state on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Digitized forment FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Although employment growth will vary by occupational specialty, overall employment of geoscientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. However, due to the relatively low number of qualified geoscience graduates and the large number of expected retirements, opportunities are expected to be good in most areas of geoscience. Graduates with a master’s degree may have the best opportunities. Those with a Ph.D. who wish to become col lege and university faculty or to do advanced research may face competition. There are few openings for graduates with only a bachelor’s degree in geoscience, but these graduates may find excellent opportunities as high school science teachers. They also can become science technicians, or enter a wide variety of related occupations. Few opportunities for geoscientists are expected in Federal and State Government, mostly because of budgetary constraints at key agencies, such as the USGS, and the trend among gov ernments toward contracting out to consulting firms. However, departures of geoscientists who retire or leave the Government for other reasons will result in some job openings over the next decade. A small number of new jobs will result from the need for oceanographers to conduct research for the military or for Federal agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on issues related to maintaining healthy and productive oceans. Many geoscientists work in the exploration and production of oil and gas. Historically, employment of petroleum geologists, geophysicists, and some other geoscientists has been cyclical and affected considerably by the price of oil and gas. When prices were low, oil and gas producers curtailed exploration activities and laid off geologists. When prices were higher, companies had the funds and incentive to renew exploration efforts and hire geoscientists in larger numbers. In recent years, a growing worldwide demand for oil and gas and for new exploration and recovery techniques—par ticularly in deep water and previously inaccessible sites in Alaska and the Gulf of Mexico—has returned some stability to the petro leum industry. Growth in this area, though, will be limited due to increasing efficiencies in finding oil and gas. Geoscientists who speak a foreign language and who are willing to work abroad should enjoy the best opportunities, as the need for energy, construction materials, and a broad range of geoscience expertise grows in developing nations. lob growth is expected within management, scientific, and technical consulting services. Demand will be spurred by a continuing emphasis on the need for energy, environmental protection, responsible land management, and water-related issues. Management, scientific, and technical consulting services have increased their hiring of many geoscientists in recent years due to increased government contracting, and also in response to demand for professionals to provide technical assistance and management plans to corporations. Moreover, many of these workers will be needed to monitor the quality of the environment, including aquatic ecosystems, issues related 170 Occupational Outlook Handbook to water conservation, deteriorating coastal environments, and rising sea levels—all of which will stimulate employment growth of geoscientists. An expected increase in highway building and other infrastructure projects will be a source of jobs for engineering geologists. During periods of economic recession, geoscientists may be laid off. Especially vulnerable to layoffs are those in consulting and, to a lesser extent, workers in Government. Employment for those working in the production of oil and gas, however, will largely be dictated by the cyclical nature of the energy sector and changes in government policy. Physicists and Astronomers (0*NET 19-2011.00, 19-2012.00) Significant Points • Scientific research and development services firms and the Federal Government employ 3 out of 5 physicists and astronomers. • Most jobs are in basic research and development, usually requiring a doctoral degree; master’s degree holders qualify for many jobs in applied research and development, while bachelor’s degree holders often qualify as technicians, research assistants, or other types of jobs. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than Earnings Median annual earnings of geoscientists were $68,730 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $49,260 and $98,380; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,700, the highest 10 percent more than $130,750. According to the National Association of Colleges and Em ployers, beginning salary offers in July 2005 for graduates with bachelor’s degrees in geology and related sciences averaged $39,365 a year. In 2005, the Federal Government’s average salary for manage rial, supervisory, and nonsupervisory positions was $83,178 for geologists, $94,836 for geophysicists, and $87,007 for oceanog raphers. The petroleum, mineral, and mining industries are vulnerable to recessions and to changes in oil and gas prices, among other factors, and usually release workers when exploration and drilling slow down. Consequently, they offer higher salaries, but less job security, than other industries. Related Occupations Many geoscientists work in the petroleum and natural-gas indus try, an industry that also employs numerous other workers whose jobs deal with the scientific and technical aspects of the explora tion and extraction of petroleum and natural gas. Among these other workers are engineering technicians, science technicians, petroleum engineers, surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Also, some physicists, chemists, atmospheric scientists, biological scientists, and environmental scientists—as well as mathematicians, computer systems analysts, database administrators, and computer scientists—perform related work both in the exploration and extraction of petroleum and natural gas and in activities having to do with the environment. Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is available from either of the following organizations: ► American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA 22302 1502. Internet: http://www.agiweb.org ► American Association of Petroleum Geologists, P.O. Box 979, Tulsa, OK 74101. Internet: http://www.aapg.org Information on oceanography and related fields is available from: >- Marine Technology Society, 5565 Sterrett Place, Suite 108, Columbia, MD 21004. Internet: http://www.mtsociety.org Information on obtaining a position as a geologist, geophysicist, or oceanographer with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Fed eral Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • average. Competition for jobs is expected; however, graduates with a physics or astronomy degree at any level will find their knowledge of science and mathematics useful for entry to many other occupations. Nature of the Work Physicists explore and identify basic principles and laws governing motion and gravitation, the macroscopic and microscopic behavior of gases, and the structure and behavior of matter, the generation and trans fer between energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe; others apply their knowledge of physics to practical areas, such as the development of advanced materi als, electronic and optical devices, and medical equipment. Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, particle accelerators, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. On the basis of their observations and analysis, they attempt to discover and explain laws describing the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism, and nuclear interactions. Physicists also find ways to apply physical laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics, optics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, and medical instrumentation. Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. Astron omers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun, moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They also apply their knowledge to solve problems in navigation, space flight, and satellite communications and to develop the instrumentation and techniques used to observe and collect astronomical data. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. Physicists who con duct applied research build upon the discoveries made through basic research and work to develop new devices, products, and processes. For example, basic research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and, then, integrated circuits used in computers. Physicists also design research equipment, which often has ad ditional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers are used in surgery, microwave devices function in ovens, and measuring instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number of physicists work in inspection, testing, quality control and other production-related jobs in industry. Much physics research is done in small or medium-sized laboratories. However, experiments in plasma, nuclear, and high-eneigy physics, as well as in some other areas of physics, require extremely Professional and Related Occupations large, expensive equipment, such as particle accelerators. Physicists in these subfields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation in laboratories, research physicists still spend time in offices planning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on research. Almost all astronomers do research. Some are theoreticians, working on the laws governing the structure and evolution of astro nomical objects. Others analyze large quantities of data gathered by observatories and satellites and write scientific papers or reports on their findings. Some astronomers actually operate large space- or ground-based telescopes, usually as part of a team. However, astron omers may spend only a few weeks each year making observations with optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments. For many years, satellites and other space-based instruments, such as the Hubble space telescope, have provided prodigious amounts of astronomical data. New technology resulting in improvements in analytical techniques and instruments, such as computers and optical telescopes and mounts, is leading to a resurgence in ground-based research. A small number of astronomers work in museums hous ing planetariums. These astronomers develop and revise programs presented to the public and may direct planetarium operations. Physicists generally specialize in one of many subfields: elemen tary particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic and molecular physics, physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics), optics, acoustics, space physics, plasma physics, or the physics of fluids. Some spe cialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields. For example, within condensed-matter physics, specialties include superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. However, all physics involves the same fundamental principles, so specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another. Also, grow ing numbers of physicists work in interdisciplinary fields, such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Working Conditions Physicists often work regular hours in laboratories and offices. At times, however, those who are deeply involved in research may work long or irregular hours. Most do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. Some physicists temporarily work away from home at national or international facilities with unique equipment, such as particle accelerators. Astronomers who make observations with ground-based telescopes may spend long periods in observatories; this work usually involves travel to remote locations and may require long hours, including night work. d Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, particle accelerators, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other Digitized forequipment. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 171 Physicists and astronomers whose work depends on grant money often are under pressure to write grant proposals to keep their work funded. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because most jobs are in basic research and development, a doc toral degree is the usual educational requirement for physicists and astronomers. Additional experience and training in a postdoc toral research appointment, although not required, is important for physicists and astronomers aspiring to permanent positions in basic research in universities and government laboratories. Many phys ics and astronomy Ph.D. holders ultimately teach at the college or university level. Master’s degree holders usually do not qualify for basic research positions, but do qualify for many kinds ofjobs requiring a physics back ground, including positions in manufacturing and applied research and development. Increasingly, many master’s degree programs are specifi cally preparing students for physics-related research and development that does not require a Ph.D. degree. These programs teach students specific research skills that can be used in private-industry jobs. In addi tion, a master’s degree coupled with State certification usually qualifies one for teaching jobs in high schools or at 2-year colleges. Those with bachelor’s degrees in physics are rarely qualified to fill positions in research or in teaching at the college level. They are, however, usually qualified to work as technicians or research assistants in engineering-related areas, in software development and other scientific fields, or in setting up computer networks and sophisticated laboratory equipment. Increasingly, some may qualify for applied research jobs in private industry or take on nontraditional physics roles, often in computer science, such as a systems analyst or database administrator. Some become science teachers in secondary schools. Holders of a bachelor’s or master’s degree in astronomy often enter an unrelated field. In addition, they are qualified to work in planetariums running science shows, to assist astronomers doing research, and to operate space-based and ground-based telescopes and other astronomical instrumentation. (See the statements on engineers, geoscientists, computer programmers, computer scien tists and database administrators, computer software engineers, and computer systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 510 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. Undergraduate programs provide a broad background in the natural sciences and mathematics. Typical physics courses include electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic physics, and quantum mechanics. Approximately 185 colleges and universities have departments offering Ph.D. degrees in physics; an additional 68 colleges offer a master’s as their highest degree in physics. Graduate students usu ally concentrate in a subfield of physics, such as elementary particles or condensed matter. Many begin studying for their doctorate im mediately after receiving their bachelor’s degree. About 80 universities grant degrees in astronomy, either through an astronomy, physics, or combined physics-astronomy department. Cur rently, about 40 departments are combined with the physics depart ment and the same number are administered separately. With fewer than 40 doctoral programs in astronomy, applicants face considerable competition for available slots. Those planning a career in the subject should have a very strong physics background. In fact, an undergradu ate degree in either physics or astronomy is excellent preparation, followed by a Ph.D. in astronomy. Mathematical ability, problem-solving and analytical skills, an inquisitive mind, imagination, and initiative are important traits for anyone planning a career in physics or astronomy. Prospective physi cists who hope to work in industrial laboratories applying physics knowledge to practical problems should broaden their educational 172 Occupational Outlook Handbook background to include courses outside of physics, such as economics, information technology, and business management. Good oral and written communication skills also are important because many physi cists work as part of a team, write research papers or proposals, or have contact with clients or customers with nonphysics backgrounds. Many physics and astronomy Ph.D. holders begin their careers in a postdoctoral research position, in which they may work with experienced physicists as they continue to learn about their specialty and develop ideas and results to be used in later work. Initial work may be under the close supervision of senior scientists. After some experience, physicists perform increasingly complex tasks and work more independently. Those who develop new products or processes sometimes form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Experience, either in academic laboratories or through internships, fellowships, or work-study programs in industry, also is useful. Some employers of research physicists, particularly in the information technology industry, prefer to hire individuals with several years of postdoctoral experience. Employment Physicists and astronomers held about 16,000 jobs in 2004. Jobs for astronomers accounted for only 5 percent of the total. About 33 percent of physicists and astronomers worked for scientific re search and development services firms. The Federal Government employed 25 percent, mostly in the U.S. Department of Defense, but also in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and in the U.S. Departments of Commerce, Health and Human Services, and Energy. Other physicists and astronomers worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty, usually research, positions, or for State governments, information technology companies, phar maceutical and medicine manufacturing companies, or electronic equipment manufacturers. In 2004, many physicists and astronomers held faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on teachers— postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although physicists and astronomers are employed in all parts of the country, most work in areas in which universities, large research and development laboratories, or observatories are located. Job Outlook Employment of physicists and astronomers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Federal research expenditures are the major source of physics-related and astronomy-related research funds, especially for basic research. Al though these expenditures are expected to increase over the 2004-14 projection period, resulting in some growth in employment and opportunities, the limited science research funds available still will result in competition for basic research jobs among Ph.D. holders. The need to replace physicists and astronomers who retire or otherwise leave the occupation permanently will account for most expected job openings. Although research and development expenditures in private in dustry will continue to grow, many research laboratories in private industry are expected to continue to reduce basic research, which includes much physics research, in favor of applied or manufactur ing research and product and software development. Nevertheless, persons with a physics background continue to be in demand in the areas of information technology, semiconductor technology, and other applied sciences. This trend is expected to continue; however, many of the new workers will have job titles such as computer software engineer, computer programmer, or systems analyst or developer, rather than physicist. Throughout the 1990s, the number of doctorates granted in phys ics was much greater than the number ofjob openings for physicists, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis resulting in keen competition, particularly for research positions in colleges and universities and in research and development centers. Recent increases in undergraduate physics enrollments, however, may lead to growth in enrollments in graduate physics programs, so that toward the end of the projection period, there may be an increase in the number of doctoral degrees granted that will intensify the competition for job openings. Opportunities may be more numerous for those with a master’s degree, particularly graduates from programs preparing students for ap plied research and development, product design, and manufacturing po sitions in private industry. Many of these positions, however, will have titles other than physicist, such as engineer or computer scientist. Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics or astronomy are not qualified to enter most physicist or astronomer research jobs, but may qualify for a wide range of positions related to en gineering, mathematics, computer science, environmental science, and, for those with the appropriate background, some nonscience fields, such as finance. Those who meet State certification require ments can become high school physics teachers, an occupation in strong demand in many school districts. Most States require new teachers to obtain a master’s degree in education within a certain time. (See the statement on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Despite competition for traditional physics and astronomy research jobs, graduates with a physics or astronomy degree at any level will find their knowledge of science and mathematics useful for entry into many other occupations. Earnings Median annual earnings of physicists were $87,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $66,590 and $ 109,420. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $49,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $132,780. Median annual earnings of astronomers were $97,320 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $66,190 and $ 120,350, the lowest 10 percent less than $43,410, and the highest 10 percent more than $137,860. According to a 2005 National Association of Colleges and Em ployers survey, the average annual starting salary offer to physics doctoral degree candidates was $56,070. The American Institute of Physics reported a median annual salary of $104,000 in 2004 for its full-time members with Ph.D.’s (excluding those in postdoctoral positions); the median was $94,000 for those with master’s degrees and $72,000 for bachelor’s degree holders. Those working in temporary postdoctoral positions earned significantly less. The average annual salary for physicists employed by the Fed eral Government was $104,917 in 2005; for astronomy and space scientists, it was $110,195. Related Occupations The work of physicists and astronomers relates closely to that of engineers, chemists and materials scientists, atmospheric scientists, environmental scientists, geoscientists, computer systems analysts, computer scientists and database administrators, computer program mers, and mathematicians. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from the following organizations: >- American Institute of Physics, Career Services Division and Education and Employment Division, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 3843. Internet: http://www.aip.org ► The American Physical Society, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3844. Internet: http://www.aps.org Professional and Related Occupations 173 Social Scientists and Related Occupations Economists (0*NET 19-3011.00) Significant Points • Slower than average job growth is expected as firms increasingly employ workers to perform more special ized tasks with titles that reflect the specific duties of the job rather than the general title of economist. • Job seekers with a background in economics should have good opportunities, although some of these op portunities will be in related occupations. • Candidates who hold a master’s or Ph.D. degree in economics will have the best employment prospects and advancement opportunities. • Quantitative skills are important in all economics specialties. Nature of the Work Economists study how society distributes scarce resources, such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery, to produce goods and services. They conduct research, collect and analyze data, monitor economic trends, and develop forecasts. They research issues such as energy costs, inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, business cycles, taxes, or employment levels. Economists devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. For example, sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and various mathematical modeling techniques may be used to develop forecasts. Preparing reports, including tables and charts, on research results is an important part of an economist’s job. Presenting economic and statistical concepts in a clear and meaningful way is particularly important for economists whose re search is directed toward making policies for an organization. Some economists also might perform economic analysis for the media. Many economists specialize in a particular area of economics, although general knowledge of basic economic principles is use ful in each area. Microeconomists study the supply and demand decisions of individuals and firms, such as how profits can be maximized and how much of a good or service consumers will demand at a certain price. Industrial economists or organizational economists study the market structure of particular industries in terms of the number of competitors within those industries and examine the market decisions of competitive firms and monopolies. These economists also may be concerned with anti trust policy and its impact on market structure. Macroeconomists study historical trends in the whole economy and forecast future trends in areas such as unemployment, inflation, economic growth, productivity, and investment. Closely related to macroeconomists are monetary economists or financial economists, who study the money and banking system and the effects of changing interest rates. International economists study international financial markets, exchange rates, and the effects of various trade policies such as tariffs. Labor economists or demographic economists study the supply and demand for labor and the determination of wages. These economists also try to explain the reasons for unemployment and the effects of changing demographic trends, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis such as an aging population and increasing immigration, on labor markets. Public finance economists are involved primarily in studying the role of the government in the economy and the effects of tax cuts, budget deficits, and welfare policies. Econometricians investigate all areas of economics and use mathematical techniques such as calculus, game theory, and regression analysis to formulate economic models that help to explain economic relationships and that are used to develop forecasts related to the nature and length of business cycles, the effects of a specific rate of inflation on the economy, the effects of tax legislation on unemployment levels, and other economic phenomena. Many economists have applied these fundamental areas of economics to specific applications such as health, education, agriculture, urban and regional economics, law, history, energy, and the environment. Most economists are concerned with practical applications of economic policy and work for a variety of organizations. Economists working for corporations are involved primarily in microeconomic issues, such as forecasting consumer demand and sales of the firm’s products. Some analyze their competitors’ growth and market share and advise their company on how to handle the competition. Others monitor legislation passed by Congress, such as environmental and worker safety regulations, and assess its impact on their business. Corporations with many international branches or subsid iaries might employ economists to monitor the economic situations in countries where they do business or to provide a risk assessment of a country into which the company might expand. Economists working in economic consulting or research firms may perform the same tasks as economists working for corporations. Economists in consulting firms also perform much of the macroeconomic analysis and forecasting that is conducted in the United States. These economists collect data on various indicators, maintain databases, analyze historical trends, and develop models to forecast growth, inflation, unemployment, or interest rates. Their analyses and forecasts are frequently published in newspapers and journal articles. Another large employer of economists is the government. Econo mists in the Federal Government administer most of the surveys and collect the majority of the economic data characterizing the United States. For example, economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce Pi* fS^. ' ■pr.. Wh. -i Preparing reports, including tables and charts, on research results is an important part of an economist’s job. 174 Occupational Outlook Handbook collect and analyze data on the production, distribution, and consumption of commodities produced in the United States and over seas, while economists employed by the U.S. Department of Labor col lect and analyze data on the domestic economy, including data on prices, wages, employment, productivity, and safety and health. Economists who work for government agencies also assess economic conditions in the United States or abroad in order to estimate the economic effects of specific changes in legislation or public policy. Government economists advise policy makers in areas such as telecommunications deregula tion, Social Security revamping, the effects of tax cuts on the budget deficit, and the effectiveness of imposing tariffs on imported steel. An economist working in State or local government might analyze data on the growth of school-age or prison populations, and on employment and unemployment rates, in order to project future spending needs. Working Conditions Economists have structured work schedules. They often work alone, writing reports, preparing statistical charts, and using computers, but they also may be an integral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, which may require overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data and by the need to attend meetings or conferences. Frequent travel may be necessary. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s or Ph.D. degree in economics is required for many private-sector economist jobs and for advancement to more respon sible positions. Economics includes numerous specialties at the graduate level, such as advanced economic theory, econometrics, international economics, and labor economics. Students should select graduate schools that are strong in specialties in which they are interested. Undergraduate economics majors can choose from a variety of courses, ranging from microeconomics, macroeconomics, and econometrics to more philosophical courses, such as the history of economic thought. Because of the importance of quantitative skills to economists, courses in mathematics, statistics, econometrics, sam pling theory and survey design, and computer science are extremely helpful. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in government agencies, economic consulting or research firms, or financial institutions prior to graduation. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry-level economist positions must have a bachelor’s degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. Whether working in government, industry, research organiza tions, or consulting firms, economists with a bachelor’s degree usually qualify for most entry-level positions as a research assistant, for administrative or management trainee positions, or for various sales jobs. Amaster’s degree usually is required to qualify for more responsible research and administrative positions. Many businesses, research and consulting firms, and government agencies seek indi viduals who have strong computer and quantitative skills and can perform complex research. A Ph.D. is necessary for top economist positions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have a strong background in economics. A master’s degree usually is the minimum requirement for a job as an instructor in a junior or community college. In most colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an instructor. A Ph.D. and extensive publications in academic journals are required for a professorship, tenure, and promotion. Aspiring economists should gain experience gathering and ana lyzing data, conducting interviews or surveys, and writing reports on their findings while in college. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in the field, because much of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the economist’s work, especially in the beginning, may center on these duties. With experience, economists eventually are assigned their own research projects. Related job experience, such as work as a stock or bond trader, might be advantageous. Those considering careers as economists should be able to pay attention to details, because much time is spent on precise data analysis. Patience and persistence are necessary qualities, given that economists must spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. Good communication skills also are useful, as economists must be able to present their findings, both orally and in writing, in a clear, concise manner. Employment Economists held about 13,000jobs in 2004. Government employed 58 percent of economists, in a wide range of government agencies, with 34 percent in Federal government and 24 percent in State and local government. The U.S. Departments of Labor, Agriculture, and State are the largest Federal employers of economists. The remaining jobs were spread throughout private industry, particularly in scientific research and development services and management, scientific, and technical consulting services. A number of econo mists combine a full-time job in government, academia, or business with part-time or consulting work in another setting. Employment of economists is concentrated in large cities. Some work abroad for companies with major international operations, for U.S. Government agencies, and for international organizations, such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and United Nations. In addition to the previously mentioned jobs, economists hold faculty positions in colleges and universities. Economics faculties have flexible work schedules and may divide their time among teach ing, research, consulting, and administration. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of economists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment growth should be the fastest in private industry, especially in management, scientific, and technical consulting services. Rising demand for economic analysis in virtually every industry should stem from the growing complexity of the global economy, the effects of competi tion on businesses, and increased reliance on quantitative methods for analyzing and forecasting business, sales, and other economic trends. Some corporations choose to hire economic consultants to fill these needs, rather than keeping an economist on staff. This prac tice should result in more economists being employed in consulting services. However, job growth will be limited as firms increasingly employ workers to perform more specialized tasks with titles that reflect the specific duties of the job instead of the general title of economist. In addition, few new jobs are expected in government, but the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons will lead to job openings for economists across all industries in which they are employed. Individuals with a background in economics should have job op portunities, although some of these opportunities will be in related occupations. As firms increasingly employ workers to perform more specialized tasks, the best opportunities for individuals with backgrounds in economics are expected to be in positions that have titles other than economist. Some examples of job titles often held by those with an economics background are financial analyst, market analyst, public policy consultant, researcher or research assistant, and econometrician. A master’s or Ph.D. degree, coupled with a strong background in economic theory, mathematics, statistics, and econometrics, Professional and Related Occupations provides the basis for acquiring any specialty within the economics field. Economists who are skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting, and who also have good communications skills, should have the best job opportunities. Like those in many other disciplines, however, Ph.D. holders are likely to face keen competition for tenured teaching positions in colleges and universities. Bachelor’s degree holders may face competition for the limited number of economist positions for which they qualify. However, they will qualify for a number of other positions in which they can take advantage of their economic knowledge by conducting research, developing surveys, or analyzing data. Many graduates with bache lor’s degrees will find jobs in industry and business as management or sales trainees or as administrative assistants. Bachelor’s degree holders with good quantitative skills and a strong background in mathematics, statistics, survey design, and computer science also may be hired by private firms as researchers. Some will find jobs in government. Candidates who meet State certification requirements may become high school economics teachers. The demand for second ary school economics teachers is expected to grow, as economics becomes an increasingly important and popular course. (See the statement on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings Median annual wage and salary earnings of economists were $72,780 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,650 and $96,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,040, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $129,170. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry-level positions. The starting salary for economists having a bachelor’s degree was about $24,667 a year in 2005; however, those with superior academic records could begin at $30,567. Those having a master’s degree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of $37,390. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at $45,239, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $54,221. Starting salaries were slightly higher in selected geographical areas where the prevailing local pay was higher. The average annual salary for economists employed by the Federal Government was $89,441 a year in 2005. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting financial matters, among other subjects. Other occupations in this area include accountants and auditors; actuaries; budget analysts; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; financial manag ers; insurance underwriters; loan officers; and purchasing manag ers, buyers, and purchasing agents. Other occupations involved in market research and data collection are management analysts and market and survey researchers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in business economics, contact: >- National Association for Business Economics, 1233 20th St. NW., Suite 505, Washington, DC 20036. Information on obtaining positions as economists with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through US AJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice re sponse telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Digitized forThese FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 175 Market and Survey Researchers (0*NET 19-3021.00, 19-3022.00) Significant Points • Market and survey researchers need at least a bache lor’s degree, but a master’s degree may be required for employment; continuing education also is important. • Employment is expected to grow faster than average. • Job opportunities should be best for those with a master’s or Ph.D. degree in marketing or a related field and strong quantitative skills. Nature of the Work Market, or marketing, research analysts are concerned with the potential sales of a product or service. Gathering statistical data on competitors and examining prices, sales, and methods of marketing and distribution, they analyze data on past sales to predict future sales. Market research analysts devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. Often, they design telephone, mail, or Internet surveys to assess consumer preferences. They conduct some surveys as personal interviews, going door-to-door, leading focus group discussions, or setting up booths in public places such as shopping malls. Trained interviewers usually conduct the surveys under the market research analyst’s direction. After compiling and evaluating the data, market research analysts make recommendations to their client or employer on the basis of their findings. They provide a company’s management with information needed to make decisions on the promotion, distribution, design, and pricing of products or services. The information also may be used to determine the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or otherwise diversifying the company’s operations. Market research analysts also might develop advertising brochures and commercials, sales plans, and product promotions such as rebates and giveaways. Survey researchers design and conduct surveys for a variety of clients, such as corporations, government agencies, political candidates, and providers of various services. The surveys collect information that is used for performing research, making fiscal or policy decisions, measuring the effectiveness of those deci sions, or improving customer satisfaction. Analysts may conduct opinion research to determine public attitudes on various issues; the research results may help political or business leaders and others assess public support for their electoral prospects or social policies. Like market research analysts, survey researchers may use a variety of mediums to conduct surveys, such as the Internet, personal or telephone interviews, or questionnaires sent through the mail. They also may supervise interviewers who conduct surveys in person or over the telephone. Survey researchers design surveys in many different formats, depending upon the scope of their research and the method of collection. Interview surveys, for example, are common because they can increase participation rates. Survey researchers may consult with economists, statisticians, market research analysts, or other data users in order to design surveys. They also may present survey results to clients. Working Conditions Market and survey researchers generally have structured work schedules. Some often work alone, writing reports, preparing sta tistical charts, and using computers, but they also may be an integral 176 Occupational Outlook Handbook Much of the market and survey researcher’s time is spent on precise data analysis, so those considering careers in the occupation should be able to pay attention to detail. Patience and persistence are necessary qualities because these workers must spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. At the same time, they must work well with others: often, market and survey researchers oversee interviews of a wide variety of individuals. Communication skills are important, too, because researchers must be able to pres ent their findings both orally and in writing, in a clear, concise manner. While certification currently is not required for market and survey researchers, the Marketing Research Association (MRA) offers a certification program for professional researchers. Certification is based on education and experience requirements, as well as on continuing education. Employment Market and survey researchers often use surveys to assess consumer preferences. part of a research team. Market researchers who conduct personal interviews have frequent contact with the public. Most work un der pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, which may require overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by special requests for data, as well as by the need to attend meetings or conferences. Travel may be necessary. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the minimum educational requirement for many market and survey research jobs. However, a master’s degree may be required, especially for technical positions, and increases opportunities for advancement to more responsible positions. Also, continuing education is important in order to keep current with the latest methods of developing, conducting, and analyzing surveys and other data. Market and survey researchers may earn advanced degrees in business administration, marketing, statistics, com munications, or some closely related discipline. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in government agencies, consulting firms, financial institutions, or marketing research firms prior to graduation. In addition to completing courses in business, marketing, and consumer behavior, prospective market and survey researchers should take other liberal arts and social science courses, including economics, psychology, English, and sociology. Because of the importance of quantitative skills to market and survey researchers, courses in mathematics, statistics, sampling theory and survey design, and computer science are extremely helpful. Many cor poration and government executives have a strong background in marketing. A master’s degree is usually the minimum educational require ment for a job as a marketing or survey research instructor in junior and community colleges. In most colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an instructor. A Ph.D. and exten sive publications in academic journals are required for a professorship, tenure, and promotion. While in college, aspiring market and survey researchers should gain experience gathering and analyzing data, conducting interviews or surveys, and writing reports on their findings. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in the field, because much of the initial work may center on these duties. With experience, market and survey researchers eventually are assigned their own research projects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Market and survey researchers held about 212,000 jobs in 2004, most of which—190,000—were held by market research analysts. Because of the applicability of market research to many industries, market research analysts are employed throughout the economy. The industries that employ the largest number of market research analysts were management of companies and enterprises; management, sci entific, and technical consulting services; insurance carriers; credit intermediation and related activities; computer systems design and related services; marketing research and public opinion polling; software publishers; professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers; securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage; and advertising and related services. Survey researchers held about 22,000 jobs in 2004. Survey researchers were employed mainly by professional, scientific, and technical services firms, especially in market research and public opinion polling; scientific research and development services; and management, scientific, and technical consulting services. State government also provided many jobs for survey researchers. A number of market and survey researchers combine a full-time job in government, academia, or business with part-time or consult ing work in another setting. About nine percent of market and survey researchers are self-employed. Besides holding the previously mentioned jobs, many market and survey researchers held faculty positions in colleges and universities. Marketing faculties have flexible work schedules and may divide their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administration. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of market and survey researchers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Many job openings are likely to result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. Job opportunities should be best for those with a master’s or Ph.D. degree in marketing or a related field and strong quanti tative skills. Bachelor’s degree holders may face competition, as many positions, especially the more technical ones, require a master’s or higher degree. Among bachelor’s degree holders, those with good quantitative skills, including a strong back ground in mathematics, statistics, survey design, and computer science, will have the best opportunities. Ph.D. degree holders in marketing and related fields should have a range of oppor tunities in industry and consulting firms. Like those in many other disciplines, however, Ph.D. holders probably will face Professional and Related Occupations keen competition for tenured teaching positions in colleges and universities. Demand for market research analysts should be strong because of an increasingly competitive economy. Marketing research pro vides organizations valuable feedback from purchasers, allowing companies to evaluate consumer satisfaction and plan more effec tively for the future. As companies seek to expand their market and as consumers become better informed, the need for marketing professionals will increase. In addition, as globalization of the marketplace continues, market researchers will increasingly be utilized to analyze foreign markets and competition for goods and services. Market research analysts should have the best opportunities in consulting firms and marketing research firms as companies find it more profitable to contract for market research services rather than support their own marketing department. Increasingly, market research analysts not only are collecting and analyzing informa tion, but also are helping clients implement the analysts’ ideas and recommendations. Other organizations, including computer systems design companies, software publishers, financial services organizations, health care institutions, advertising firms, and insur ance companies, may offer job opportunities for market research analysts. Survey researchers will be needed to meet the growing demand for market and opinion research as an increasingly competi tive economy requires businesses to allocate advertising funds more effectively and efficiently. Earnings Median annual earnings of market research analysts in May 2004 were $56,140. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,510 and $79,990. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,890, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $105,870. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of market research analysts in May 2004 were: Management of companies and enterprises................................. $58,440 Computer systems design and related services............................... 58,100 Insurance carriers......................................................................... Other professional, scientific, and technical services.................. Management, scientific, and technical consulting services......... 51,030 50,950 49,080 Median annual earnings of survey researchers in May 2004 were $26,490. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,920 and $41,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,330, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,740. Median annual earnings of survey researchers in other professional, scientific, and technical services were $22,880. Related Occupations Market and survey researchers perform research to find out how well the market receives products or services. Such research may include planning, implementing, and analyzing surveys to determine the needs and preferences of people. Other jobs using these skills include economists, psychologists, sociologists, statisticians, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers and certification in market research, contact: >- Marketing Research Association, 110 National Dr., Glastonbury, CT 06033. Internet: http://www.mra-net.org For information about careers in survey research, contact: >- Council of American Survey Research Organizations, 170 North Country Rd., Suite 4, Port Jefferson, NY 11777. Internet: http://www.casro.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Psychologists 177 ____________ (0*NET 19-3031.01, 19-3031.02, 19-3031.03, 19-3032.00, 19-3039.99) Significant Points • • • • About 4 out of 10 psychologists are self-employed, compared with less than 1 out of 10 among all profes sional workers. Most specialists, including clinical and counseling psychologists, need a doctoral degree; school psy chologists need an educational specialist degree, and industrial-organizational psychologists need a master’s degree. Competition for admission to graduate psychology programs is keen. Overall employment of psychologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Nature of the Work Psychologists study the human mind and human behavior. Research psychologists investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Psychologists in health service provider fields provide mental health care in hospitals, clinics, schools, or private settings. Psychologists employed in applied settings, such as business, industry, government, or nonprofits, provide training, con duct research, design systems, and act as advocates for psychology. Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their validity. Research methods vary with the topic under study. Psychologists sometimes gather information through controlled laboratory experiments or by administering personality, performance, aptitude, or intelligence tests. Other methods include observation, interviews, questionnaires, clinical studies, and surveys. Psychologists apply their knowledge to a wide range of endeav ors, including health and human services, management, education, law, and sports. In addition to working in a variety of settings, psy chologists usually specialize in one of a number of different areas. Clinical psychologists—who constitute the largest specialty—work most often in counseling centers, independent or group practices, hospitals, or clinics. They help mentally and emotionally disturbed clients adjust to life and may assist medical and surgical patients in dealing with illnesses or injuries. Some clinical psychologists work in physical rehabilitation settings, treating patients with spinal cord injuries, chronic pain or illness, stroke, arthritis, and neurological conditions. Others help people deal with times of personal crisis, such as divorce or the death of a loved one. Clinical psychologists often interview patients and give diagnostic tests. They may provide individual, family, or group psychotherapy and may design and implement behavior modification programs. Some clinical psychologists collaborate with physicians and other specialists to develop and implement treatment and intervention programs that patients can understand and comply with. Other clinical psychologists work in universities and medical schools, where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health and behavioral medicine services. Some administer community mental health programs. Areas of specialization within clinical psychology include health psychology, neuropsychology, and geropsychology. Health psychologists promote good health through health maintenance counseling programs designed to help people achieve goals, such as stopping smoking or losing weight. Neuropsychologists study the 178 Occupational Outlook Handbook relation between the brain and behavior. They often work in stroke and head injury programs. Geropsychologists deal with the special problems faced by the elderly. The emergence and growth of these specialties reflects the increasing participation of psychologists in providing direct services to special patient populations. Often, clinical psychologists will consult with other medical per sonnel regarding the best treatment for patients, especially treatment that includes medication. Clinical psychologists generally are not permitted to prescribe medication to treat patients; only psychiatrists and other medical doctors may prescribe certain medications. (See the statement on physicians and surgeons elsewhere in the Handbook.) However, two States—Louisiana and New Mexico—currently allow clinical psychologists to prescribe medication with some limitations, and similar proposals have been made in other States. Counseling psychologists use various techniques, including interviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with problems of everyday living. They work in settings such as university counseling centers, hospitals, and individual or group practices. (See also the statements on counselors and social work ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) School psychologists work with students in elementary and sec ondary schools. They collaborate with teachers, parents, and school personnel to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environ ments for all students; address students’ learning and behavior prob lems; improve classroom management strategies or parenting skills; counter substance abuse; assess students with learning disabilities and gifted and talented students to help determine the best way to educate them; and improve teaching, learning, and socialization strategies. They also may evaluate the effectiveness of academic programs, prevention programs, behavior management procedures, and other services provided in the school setting. Industrial-organizational psychologists apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of worklife. They also are involved in research on management and marketing problems. They screen, train and counsel applicants for jobs, as well as perform or ganizational development and analysis. An industrial psychologist might work with management to reorganize the work setting in order to improve productivity or quality of life in the workplace. Industrial psychologists frequently act as consultants, brought in by manage ment to solve a particular problem. Developmental psychologists study the physiological, cognitive, and social development that takes place throughout life. Some specialize in behavior during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, or changes that occur during maturity or old age. Developmental psychologists also may study developmental disabilities and their effects. Increasingly, research is developing ways to help elderly people remain independent as long as possible. Social psychologists examine people’s interactions with oth ers and with the social environment. They work in organizational consultation, marketing research, systems design, or other applied psychology fields. Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and perception. Experimental or research psychologists work in university and private research centers and in business, nonprofit, and governmental organizations. They study the behavior of both human beings and ani mals, such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of study in experimental research include motivation, thought, attention, learning and memory, sensory and perceptual processes, effects of substance abuse, and genetic and neurological factors affecting behavior. Working Conditions A psychologist’s subfield and place of employment determine his or her working conditions. Clinical, school, and counseling https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Psychologists who deal directly with patients must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. psychologists in private practice have their own offices and set their own hours. However, they often offer evening and weekend hours to accommodate their clients. Those employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facilities may work shifts that include evenings and weekends, while those who work in schools and clinics generally work regular hours. Psychologists employed as faculty by colleges and universities divide their time between teaching and research and also may have administrative responsibilities; many have part-time consulting practices. Most psychologists in government and industry have structured schedules. Increasingly, many psychologists are working as part of a team, consulting with other psychologists and professionals. Many experience pressures because of deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel may be required in order to attend conferences or conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree usually is required for employment as an indepen dent licensed clinical or counseling psychologist. Psychologists with a Ph.D. qualify for a wide range of teaching, research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities, health care services, elementary and secondary schools, private industry, and government. Psychol ogists with a Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree usually work in clinical positions or in private practices, but they also sometime teach, conduct research, or carry out administrative responsibilities. A doctoral degree generally requires 5 to 7 years of graduate study. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computer-based analysis, are an integral part of graduate study and are necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. may be based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation. In clinical or counseling psychology, the require ments for the doctoral degree include at least a 1-year internship. A specialist degree is required in most States for an individual to work as a school psychologist, although a few States still credential school psychologists with master’s degrees. A specialist (Ed.S.) Professional and Related Occupations degree in school psychology requires a minimum of 3 years of full-time graduate study (at least 60 graduate semester hours) and a 1-year internship. Because their professional practice addresses educational and mental health components of students’ develop ment, school psychologists’ training includes coursework in both education and psychology. Persons with a master’s degree in psychology may work as industrial-organizational psychologists. They also may work as psychological assistants under the supervision of doctoral-level psy chologists and may conduct research or psychological evaluations. A master’s degree in psychology requires at least 2 years of full-time graduate study. Requirements usually include practical experience in an applied setting and a master’s thesis based on an original research project. Competition for admission to graduate psychology programs is keen. Some universities require applicants to have an undergradu ate major in psychology. Others prefer only coursework in basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sci ences and in statistics and mathematics. A bachelor’s degree in psychology qualifies a person to as sist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs. Bachelor’s degree holders may work as research or ad ministrative assistants for psychologists. Some work as technicians in related fields, such as marketing research. Many find employment in other areas, such as sales or business management. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entrylevel positions. However, competition for these jobs is keen because this is one of the few areas in which one can work as a psychologist without an advanced degree. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology, as well as accrediting institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. The National Association of School Psychologists, with the assistance of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, also is involved in the accreditation of advanced degree programs in school psychology. Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of patient care—including clinical, counseling, and school psychologists—must meet certification or licensing requirements in all States and the District of Columbia. Licensing laws vary by State and by type of position and require licensed or certified psycholo gists to limit their practice to areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. Clinical and counseling psychologists usually require a doctorate in psychol ogy, the completion of an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, all States require that appli cants pass an examination. Most State licensing boards administer a standardized test, and many supplement that with additional oral or essay questions. Some States require continuing education for renewal of the license. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) awards the Nationally Certified School Psychologist (NCSP) designation, which recognizes professional competency in school psychology at a national, rather than State, level. Currently, 26 States recognize the NCSP and allow those with the certification to transfer credentials from one State to another without taking a new certification exam. In States that recognize the NCSP, the requirements for certification or licensure and those for the NCSP often are the same or similar. Requirements for the NCSP include the completion of 60 graduate semester hours in school psychology; a 1,200-hour internship, 600 hours of which must be completed https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 179 in a school setting; and a passing score on the National School Psychology Examination. The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) rec ognizes professional achievement by awarding specialty certifica tion, primarily in clinical psychology, clinical neuropsychology, and counseling, forensic, industrial-organizational, and school psychology. Candidates for ABPP certification need a doctorate in psychology, postdoctoral training in their specialty, five years of experience, professional endorsements, and a passing grade on an examination. Aspiring psychologists who are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, good communication skills, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important qualities for persons wishing to do clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work both independently and as part of a team. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities, because achieving results in the psychological treatment of patients or in research may take a long time. Employment Psychologists held about 179,000 jobs in 2004. Educational institutions employed about 1 out of 4 psychologists in positions other than teaching, such as counseling, testing, research, and administration. Almost 2 out of 10 were employed in health care, primarily in offices of mental health practitioners, physicians’ offices, outpatient mental health and substance abuse centers, and private hospitals. Government agencies at the State and local levels employed psychologists in public hospitals, clinics, correctional facilities, and other settings. After several years of experience, some psychologists—usually those with doctoral degrees—enter private practice or set up private research or consulting firms. About 4 out of 10 psychologists were self-employed in 2004, compared with less than 1 out of 10 among all professional workers. In addition to the previously mentioned jobs, many psychologists held faculty positions at colleges and universities and as high school psychology teachers. (See the statements on teachers—postsecond ary and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, because of increased de mand for psychological services in schools, hospitals, social service agencies, mental health centers, substance abuse treatment clinics, consulting firms, and private companies. Among the specialties in this field, school psychologists—espe cially those with a specialist degree or higher—may enjoy the best job opportunities. Growing awareness of how students’ mental health and behavioral problems, such as bullying, affect learning is increas ing demand for school psychologists to offer student counseling and mental health services. Clinical and counseling psychologists will be needed to help people deal with depression and other mental disorders, marriage and family problems, job stress, and addiction. The rise in health care costs associated with unhealthy lifestyles, such as smok ing, alcoholism, and obesity, has made prevention and treatment more critical. An increase in the number of employee assistance programs, which help workers deal with personal problems, also should spur job growth in clinical and counseling specialties. Industrial-organizational psychologists will be in demand to help to boost worker productivity and retention rates in a wide range of businesses. Industrial-organi zational psychologists will help companies deal with issues such as workplace diversity and antidiscrimination policies. Companies also 180 Occupational Outlook Handbook will use psychologists’ expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to develop tools for marketing evaluation and statistical analysis. Demand should be particularly strong for persons holding doctor ates from leading universities in applied specialties—such as coun seling, health, and school psychology. Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and computer science may have a competitive edge over applicants without background. Master’s degree holders in fields other than industrial-organi zational psychology will face keen competition for jobs, because of the limited number of positions that require only a master’s degree. Master’s degree holders may find jobs as psychological assistants or counselors, providing mental health services under the direct supervision of a licensed psychologist. Still others may find jobs involving research and data collection and analysis in universi ties, government, or private companies. Opportunities directly related to psychology will be limited for bachelor’s degree holders. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school psychology teachers. Earnings Median annual earnings of wage and salary clinical, counseling, and school psychologists in May 2004 were $54,950. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,850 and $71,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,280, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,250. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of clinical, counseling, and school psychologists in May 2004 were: Offices of other health practitioners.............................................. $64,460 Elementary and secondary schools............................................... 58,360 Outpatient care centers.................................................................. 46,850 Individual and family services...................................................... 42,640 Median annual earnings of wage and salary industrial-organi zational psychologists in May 2004 were $71,400. The middle 50 percent earned between $56,880 and $93,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $45,620, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $125,560. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups with special needs. Others who do this kind of work include clergy, counselors, physicians and sur geons, social workers, sociologists, and special education teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational requirements, financial as sistance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact: > American Psychological Association, Research Office and Education Directorate, 750 1st St. N.E., Washington, DC 20002-4242. Internet: http://www.apa.org/students For information on careers, educational requirements, certifica tion, and licensing of school psychologists, contact: > National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Hwy., Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.nasponline.org Information about State licensing requirements is available from: > Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 241245, Montgomery, AL 36124-1245. Internet: http://www.asppb.org Information about psychology specialty certifications is avail able from: >- American Board of Professional Psychology, Inc., 300 Drayton St., 3rd Floor, Savannah, GA 31401. Internet: http://www.abpp.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Urban and Regional Planners (0*NET 19-3051.00) Significant Points • Local governments employ 7 out of 10 urban and regional planners. • Most entry-level jobs require a master’s degree; bachelor’s degree holders may find some entry-level positions, but advancement opportunities are limited. • Most new jobs will be in affluent, rapidly growing urban and suburban communities. Nature of the Work Planners develop long- and short-term plans to use land for the growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural commu nities, while helping local officials make decisions concerning social, economic, and environmental problems. Because local governments employ the majority of urban and regional plan ners, they often are referred to as community, regional, or city planners. Planners promote the best use of a community’s land and re sources for residential, commercial, institutional, and recreational purposes. Planners may be involved in various other activities, including making decisions relating to establishing alternative public transportation systems, developing resources, and protect ing ecologically sensitive regions. Urban and regional planners address issues such as traffic congestion, air pollution, and the ef fects of growth and change on a community. They may formulate plans relating to the construction of new school buildings, public housing, or other kinds of infrastructure. Some planners are in volved in environmental issues ranging from pollution control to wetland preservation, forest conservation, and the location of new landfills. Planners also may be involved in drafting legislation on environmental, social, and economic issues, such as sheltering the homeless, planning a new park, or meeting the demand for new correctional facilities. Planners examine proposed community facilities, such as schools, to be sure that these facilities will meet the changing de mands placed upon them over time. They keep abreast of economic and legal issues involved in zoning codes, building codes, and environmental regulations. They ensure that builders and devel opers follow these codes and regulations. Planners also deal with land-use issues created by population movements. For example, as suburban growth and economic development create more new jobs outside cities, the need for public transportation that enables workers to get to those jobs increases. In response, planners develop transportation models and explain their details to planning boards and the general public. Before preparing plans for community development, planners report on the current use of land for residential, business, and com munity purposes. Their reports include information on the loca tion and capacity of streets, highways, airports, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recreational sites. They also provide data on the types of industries in the community, the characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. Using this information, along with input from citizens’ advi sory committees, planners design the layout of land uses for buildings and other facilities, such as subway lines and stations. Planners prepare reports showing how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost. Professional and Related Occupations Planners use computers to record and analyze information and to prepare reports and recommendations for government executives and others. Computer databases, spreadsheets, and analytical techniques are utilized to project program costs and forecast future trends in employment, housing, transportation, or population. Computerized geographic information systems en able planners to map land areas, to overlay maps with geographic variables such as population density, and to combine or manipulate geographic information to produce alternative plans for land use or development. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and public officials and may function as mediators in community disputes, presenting alternatives that are acceptable to opposing parties. Planners may prepare material for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legislative committees and elected officials to explain and defend their proposals. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in a single area, such as transportation, demography, housing, historic preservation, urban design, environmental and regulatory issues, or economic development. In small organizations, planners do various kinds of planning. Working Conditions Urban and regional planners often travel to inspect the features of land under consideration for development or regulation, includ ing its current use and the types of structures on it. Some local government planners involved in site development inspections spend most of their time in the field. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they frequently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. Planners may experience the pressure of deadlines and tight work schedules, as well as political pressure generated by interest groups affected by proposals related to urban develop ment and land use. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For jobs as urban and regional planners, employers prefer workers who have advanced training. Most entry-level jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require a master’s degree from an accredited program in urban or regional plan ning or a master’s degree in a related field, such as urban design — I 181 or geography. A bachelor’s degree from an accredited plan ning program, coupled with a master’s degree in architecture, landscape architecture, or civil engineering, is good prepara tion for entry-level planning jobs in various areas, including urban design, transportation, and the environment. A master’s degree from an accredited planning program provides the best training for a wide range of planning fields. Although gradu ates from one of the limited number of accredited bachelor’s degree programs qualify for some entry-level positions, their advancement opportunities often are limited, unless they acquire an advanced degree. Courses in related disciplines, such as architecture, law, earth sciences, demography, economics, finance, health administration, geographic information systems, and management, are highly recommended. Because familiarity with computer models and sta tistical techniques is important, courses in statistics and computer science also are recommended. In 2005,68 colleges and universities offered an accredited master’s degree program, and 15 offered an accredited bachelor’s degree program, in urban or regional planning. Accreditation for these programs is from the Planning Accreditation Board, which consists of representatives of the American Institute of Certified Planners, the American Planning Association, and the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning. Most graduate programs in planning require a minimum of 2 years of study. Specializations most commonly offered by planning schools are environmental planning, land use and comprehensive plan ning, economic development, housing, historic preservation, and social planning. Other popular offerings include commu nity development, transportation, and urban design. Graduate students spend considerable time in studios, workshops, and laboratory courses, learning to analyze and solve planning problems. They often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. Local government planning offices frequently offer students internships, providing experi ence that proves invaluable in obtaining a full-time planning position after graduation. The American Institute of Certified Planners, a professional insti tute within the American Planning Association, grants certification to individuals who have the appropriate combination of education and professional experience and who pass an examination. Certification may be helpful for promotion. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and be able to reconcile different viewpoints and make constructive policy recommendations. The ability to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing, is necessary for anyone in terested in this field. After a few years of experience, planners may advance to as signments requiring a high degree of independent judgment, such as designing the physical layout of a large development or recom mending policy and budget options. Some public-sector planners are promoted to community planning director and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials, speaking to civic groups, and supervising a staff. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a larger jurisdiction with more complex problems and greater responsibili ties or into related occupations, such as director of community or economic development. Employment Urban and regional planners develop plans to use landfor the growth and revitalization of communities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Urban and regional planners held about 32,000 jobs in 2004. About 7 out of 10 were employed by local governments. Companies in volved with architectural, engineering, and related services, as well 182 Occupational Outlook Handbook as management, scientific, and technical consulting services, employ an increasing proportion of planners in the private sector. Others are employed in State government agencies dealing with housing, transportation, or environmental protection, and a small number work for the Federal Government. Social Scientists, Other (0*NET 19-3041.00, 19-3091.01, 19-3091.02, 19-3092.00, 19-3093.00, 19-3094.00) Significant Points Job Outlook Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment growth will be driven by the need for State and local governments to provide public services such as regulation of commercial development, the environment, transportation, housing, and land use and development for an expanding population. Nongovernmental initiatives dealing with historic preservation and redevelopment will provide additional openings. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace experienced planners who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Graduates with a master’s degree from an accredited program should have an advantage in the job market. Most new jobs for urban and regional planners will be in lo cal government, as planners will be needed to address an array of problems associated with population growth, especially in affluent, rapidly expanding communities. For example, new housing develop ments require roads, sewer systems, fire stations, schools, libraries, and recreation facilities that must be planned for in the midst of a consideration of budgetary constraints. Small-town chambers of commerce, economic development authorities, and tourism bureaus may hire planners, preferably with some background in marketing and public relations. The fastest job growth for urban and regional planners will occur in the private sector, primarily in professional, scientific, and technical services. For example, planners may be employed by these firms to help design security measures for a building that meet a desired security level, but that also are subtle and blend in with the surrounding area. Flowever, because the private sec tor employs fewer than 2 out of 10 urban and regional planners, not as many new jobs will be created in the private sector as in government. Earnings Median annual earnings of urban and regional planners were $53,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,950 and $67,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,840, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,610. Median annual earnings in local government, the indus try employing the largest number of urban and regional planners, were $52,520. Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the growth of urban, suburban, and rural communities. Others whose work is similar in clude architects, civil engineers, environmental engineers, landscape architects, and geographers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers, salaries, and certification in urban and regional planning is available from: > American Planning Association, 1776 Massachusetts Ave. N.W., Wash ington, DC 20036-1904. Internet: http://www.planning.org Information on accredited urban and regional planning programs is available from: >■ Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning, 6311 Mallard Trace, Tallahassee, FL 32312. Internet: http://www.acsp.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • About half worked for Federal, State, and local govern ments, mostly for the Federal Government. • The educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of all occupations. • Anthropologists and archaeologists will experience average growth, but slower-than-average employment growth is expected for geographers, historians, political scientists, and sociologists because they enjoy fewer opportunities outside of government and academic set tings. • Competition for jobs will remain keen for all special ties because many of these social scientists compete for jobs with other workers, such as psychologists, statisti cians, and market and survey researchers. Nature of the Work The major social science occupations covered in this statement include anthropologists, archaeologists, geographers, historians, political scientists, and sociologists. (Economists, market and survey researchers, psychologists, and urban and regional planners are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Social scientists study all aspects of society—from past events and achievements to human behavior and relationships among groups. Their research provides insights that help us understand different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, and respond to change. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists suggest solutions to social, business, personal, governmental, and environmental problems. Research is a major activity of many social scientists, who use a variety of methods to assemble facts and construct theories. Ap plied research usually is designed to produce information that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Collecting information takes many forms, including in terviews and questionnaires to gather demographic and opinion data; living and working among the population being studied; performing field investigations; analyzing historical records and documents; experimenting with human or animal subjects in a laboratory; and preparing and interpreting maps and computer graphics. The work of specialists in social science varies greatly, although specialists in one field may find that their research overlaps work being conducted in another discipline. Anthropologists study the origin and the physical, social, and cul tural development and behavior of humans. They may examine the way of life, archaeological remains, language, or physical characteristics of people in various parts of the world. Some compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cultures. Anthropologists usu ally concentrate in sociocultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, or biophysical anthropology. Sociocultural anthropologists study the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in settings that range from unindustrialized societies to modem urban centers. Linguistic anthro pologists investigate the role of, and changes to, language over time in various cultures. Biophysical anthropologists research the evolution of the human body, look for the earliest evidences of human life, and analyze how culture and biology influence one another. Physical Professional and Related Occupations anthropologists examine human remains found at archaeological sites in order to understand population demographics and factors that affected these populations, such as nutrition and disease. Archaeologists examine and recover material evidence, such as the ruins of buildings, tools, pottery, and other objects remaining from past human cultures in order to determine the chronology, history, customs, and living habits of earlier civilizations. Most anthropologists and archaeologists specialize in a particular region of the world. Geographers analyze distributions of physical and cultural phenom ena on local, regional, continental, and global scales. Economic geog raphers study the distribution of resources and economic activities. Po litical geographers are concerned with the relationship of geography to political phenomena, whereas cultural geographers study the geography of cultural phenomena. Physical geographers examine variations in climate, vegetation, soil, and landforms and their implications for hu man activity. Urban and transportation geographers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geographers study the physical, eco nomic, political, and cultural characteristics of regions ranging in size from a congressional district to entire continents. Medical geographers investigate health care delivery systems, epidemiology (the study of the causes and control of epidemics), and the effect of the environment on health. Most geographers use geographic information systems (GIS) technology to assist with their work. For example, they may use GIS to create computerized maps that can track information such as population growth, traffic patterns, environmental hazards, natural resources, and weather patterns, after which they use the information to advise govern ments on the development of houses, roads, or landfills. Historians research, analyze, and interpret the past. They use many sources of information in their research, including govern ment and institutional records, newspapers and other periodicals, photographs, interviews, films, and unpublished manuscripts such as personal diaries and letters. Historians usually specialize in a coun try or region, a particular period, or a particular field, such as social, intellectual, cultural, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed information on individuals. Other historians help study and preserve archival materials, artifacts, and historic build ings and sites. Political scientists study the origin, development, and operation of political systems and public policy. They conduct research on a wide range of subjects, such as relations between the United States and other countries, the institutions and political life of nations, the politics of small towns or a major metropolis, and the decisions of 183 the U.S. Supreme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decision making, ideology, and public policy, they analyze the structure and operation of governments, as well as various po litical entities. Depending on the topic, a political scientist might conduct a public-opinion survey, analyze election results or public documents, or interview public officials. Sociologists study society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the behavior of, and interaction among, groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Sociologists are concerned with the characteristics of so cial groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the effect of social traits such as gender, age, or race on a person’s daily life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmak ers, administrators, and others who are interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as social organization, stratification, and mobility; racial and ethnic relations; education; the family; social psychology; urban, mral, political, and comparative sociology; gender relations; demography; gerontology; criminology; and sociological practice. Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. Generally working behind a desk, either alone or in collaboration with other social scientists, they read and write research articles or reports. Many experience the pressures of writing and publishing, as well as those associated with deadlines and tight schedules. Sometimes they must work overtime, for which they usually are not compensated. Social scientists often work as an integral part of a research team, among whose members good communications skills are important. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend meetings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures, climates, and languages. Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropolo gists, archaeologists, and geographers may travel to remote areas, live among the people they study, learn their languages, and stay for long periods at the site of their investigations. They may work under rugged conditions, and their work may involve strenuous physical exertion. Social scientists employed by colleges and universities usually have flexible work schedules, often dividing their time among teaching, research, writing, consulting, and administrative respon sibilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Social scientists often read and write research articles or reports. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of all occupations. The Ph.D. or an equivalent degree is a minimum require ment for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top-level nonacademic research and administrative posts. Graduates with master’s degrees in applied specialties usually have better opportunities outside of colleges and universities, although the situ ation varies by field. Graduates with a master’s degree in a social science may qualify for teaching positions in community colleges. Bachelor’s degree holders have limited opportunities and, in most social science occupations, do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does, however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of entry-level jobs, such as research assistant, administrative aide, or management or sales trainee. With the addition of sufficient education courses, social science graduates also can qualify for teaching positions in secondary and elementary schools. 184 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for many social scientists. Mathematical and quantitative research methods increasingly are being used in geography, political science, and other fields. The ability to utilize computers for research purposes is mandatory in most disciplines. Most geographers—and increas ing numbers of archaeologists— also will need to be familiar with GIS technology. Many social science students find that internships or field experi ence is beneficial. Numerous local museums, historical societies, government agencies, and other organizations offer internships or volunteer research opportunities. Archaeological field schools in struct future anthropologists, archaeologists, and historians in how to excavate, record, and interpret historical sites. Depending on their jobs, social scientists may need a wide range of personal characteristics. Intellectual curiosity and creativity are fun damental personal traits, because social scientists constantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas. The ability to think logi cally and methodically is important to a political scientist comparing, for example, the merits of various forms of government. Objectivity, having an open mind, and systematic work habits are important in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is essential for an an thropologist, who might have to spend years studying artifacts from an ancient civilization before making a final analysis and interpretation. Excellent written and oral communication skills also are necessary for all these professionals. Employment Social scientists held about 18,000 jobs in 2004. Many worked as researchers, administrators, and counselors for a wide range of employers. About half worked for Federal, State, and local govern ments, mostly in the Federal Government. Other employers included scientific research and development services; management, scien tific, and technical consulting services; business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations; and architectural, engineering, and related firms. Many individuals with training in a social science discipline teach in colleges and universities and in secondary and elementary schools. (For more information, see teachers—postsecondary and teachers— preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) The proportion of social scientists who teach varies by specialty: for example, the academic world usually is a more important source of jobs for graduates in history than for graduates in most other social science fields. Job Outlook Overall employment of social scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2014. However, projected growth rates vary by specialty. Anthropologists and archae ologists will experience average employment growth. Employment of geographers, historians, political scientists, and sociologists will grow more slowly than average, mainly because these workers enjoy fewer opportunities outside of government and academic settings. Competition will remain keen for social science positions. Many jobs in policy, research, or marketing for which social scien tists qualify are not advertised exclusively as social scientist positions. Because of the wide range of skills and knowledge possessed by the social scientists discussed in this Handbook state ment, many compete for jobs with other workers, such as market and survey researchers, psychologists, engineers, urban and regional planners, and statisticians. A few social scientists will find opportunities as university faculty, although competition for these jobs also will remain keen. Usually, there are more graduates than available faculty positions, although retirements among faculty are expected to rise in the next few https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis years. The growing importance and popularity of social science subjects in secondary schools is strengthening the demand for social science teachers at that level. Anthropologists and archaeologists will see the majority of their employment growth in the management, scientific, and technical consulting services industry. Anthropologists who work as con sultants often apply anthropological knowledge and methods to problems ranging from economic development issues to forensics. Also, as construction projects increase, archaeologists will be needed to perform preliminary excavations in order to preserve historical sites and artifacts. Geographers will have opportunities to utilize their skills to advise government, real estate developers, utilities, and telecommunications firms on where to build new roads, buildings, power plants, and cable lines. Geographers also will advise on environmental matters, such as where to build a landfill or preserve wetland habitats. Geogra phers with a background in GIS will find numerous job opportunities applying GIS technology in nontraditional areas, such as emergency assistance, where GIS can track locations of ambulances, police, and fire rescue units and their proximity to the emergency. Workers in these jobs may not necessarily be called “geographers”, but instead may be referred to by a different title, such as “GIS analyst” or “GIS specialist.” GIS technology also will be utilized in areas of growing importance, such as homeland security and defense. Historians, political scientists, and sociologists will find jobs in policy or research. Historians may find opportunities with historic preservation societies as public interest in preserving and restoring historical sites increases. Political scientists will be able to utilize their knowledge of political institutions to further the interests of nonprofit, political lobbying, and social organizations. Sociologists may find Work conducting policy research for consulting firms and nonprofit organizations, and their knowledge of society and social behavior may be used by a variety of companies in product development, marketing, and advertising. Job growth will be very slow in the Federal Govern ment, a key employer of social scientists. Earnings In May 2004, anthropologists and archaeologists had median annual earnings of $43,890; geographers, $58,970; historians, $44,490; political scientists, $86,750; and sociologists, $57,870. In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at a yearly salary of $24,677 or $30,567 in 2005, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s degree could start at $37,390, and those with a Ph.D. degree could begin at $45,239, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $54,221. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Related Occupations Social scientists’ duties and training outlined in this statement are similar to those of other occupations covered elsewhere in the Handbook, in cluding other social science occupations: economists, market and survey researchers, psychologists, and urban and regional planners. Many social scientists conduct surveys, study social problems, teach, and work in museums, performing tasks similar to those of statisticians; counselors; social workers; teachers—postsecondary: teachers—pre school, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and archivists, curators, and museum technicians. Political scientists are concerned with the function of government, including the legal system, as are lawyers; paralegals and legal as sistants; and judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers. Many political scientists analyze and report on current events, much as do news analysts, reporters, and correspondents. Professional and Related Occupations Along with conservation scientists and foresters, atmospheric scientists, and environmental scientists and hydrologists, geog raphers are concerned with the earth’s environment and natural resources. Geographers also use GIS computer technology to make maps. Other occupations with similar duties are surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; computer systems analysts; and computer scientists and database administrators. Sources of Additional Information Detailed information about economists, market and survey research ers, psychologists, and urban and regional planners is presented elsewhere in the Handbook. For information about careers in anthropology, contact: >■ American Anthropological Association, 2200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 600, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.aaanet.org For information about careers in archaeology, contact: 185 >- Society for American Archaeology, 900 2nd St. N.E., Suite 12, Wash ington, DC 20002-3560. Internet: http://www.saa.org >- Archaeological Institute of America, 656 Beacon St., 6th Floor, Boston, MA 02215-2006. Internet: http://www.archaeological.org For information about careers in geography, contact: ► Association ofAmerican Geographers, 1710 16th St. N.W., Washington, DC 20009-3198. Internet: http://www.aag.org Information on careers for historians is available from: >• American Historical Association, 400A St. S.E., Washington, DC 20003 3889. Internet: http://www.historians.org For information about careers in political science, contact: >■ American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. N.W., Washington, DC 20036-1206. Internet: http://www.apsanet.org >■ National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administra tion, 1120 G St. N.W., Suite 730, Washington, DC 20005-3869. Internet: http://www.naspaa.org Information about careers in sociology is available from: >- American Sociological Association, 1307 New York Ave. N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20005-4712. Internet: http://www.asanet.org Science Technicians (0*NET 19-4011.01, 19-4011.02, 19-4021.00, 19-4031.00, 19-4041.01, 19-4041.02, 19-4051.01, 19-4051.02, 19-4091.00, 19-4092.00, 19-4093.00) Significant Points • Science technicians in production jobs can be employed on day, evening, or night shifts; some other technicians work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations. • Many employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training or an associate’s degree. • Projected job growth varies among occupational specialties; for example, forensic science technicians will grow much faster than average, while chemical technicians will grow more slowly than average. • Job opportunities are expected to be best for graduates of applied science technology programs. Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development and to help invent and improve products and processes. How ever, their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. Technicians set up, operate, and maintain laboratory instruments, monitor experiments, make observations, calculate and record results, and often develop conclusions. They must keep detailed logs of all of their work-related activities. Those who perform production work monitor manufacturing processes and may be involved in ensuring quality by testing products for proper proportions of ingredients, for purity, or for strength and durability. As laboratory instrumentation and procedures have become more complex, the role of science technicians in research and development has expanded. In addition to performing routine tasks, many technicians now develop and adapt laboratory pro cedures to achieve the best results, interpret data, and devise solutions to problems, under the direction of scientists. More over, technicians must master the laboratory equipment, so that https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis they can adjust settings when necessary and recognize when equipment is malfunctioning. The increasing use of robotics to perform many routine tasks has freed technicians to operate more sophisticated laboratory equipment. Science technicians make extensive use of computers, computer-interfaced equipment, robotics, and high-technology industrial applications, such as biologi cal engineering. Most science technicians specialize, learning skills and working in the same disciplines in which scientists work. Occupational titles, therefore, tend to follow the same structure as those for scientists. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food, fiber, and animal research, pro duction, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians breed animals for the purpose of investigating nutrition. Food science technicians assist food scientists and technologists in research and de velopment, production technology, and quality control. For example, food science technicians may conduct tests on food additives and preservatives to ensure compliance with Food and Drug Administration regulations regarding color, texture, and nutrients. These technicians analyze, record, and compile test results; order supplies to maintain laboratory inventory; and clean and sterilize laboratory equipment. Biological technicians work with biologists studying living organisms. Many assist scientists who conduct medical research— helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example. Those who work in pharmaceutical companies help develop and manufacture medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations. Those working in the field of microbiology generally work as labora tory assistants, studying living organisms and infectious agents. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances, such as blood, food, and drugs, and some examine evidence in a forensic science laboratory. Biological technicians working in biotechnology laboratories use the knowledge and tech niques gained from basic research by scientists, including gene splicing and recombinant DNA, and apply them in product development. 186 Occupational Outlook Handbook Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical en gineers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Generally, there are two types of chemical technicians: research and development technicians who work in experimental laboratories and process control technicians who work in manufacturing or other industrial plants. Many research and development chemical technicians conduct a va riety of laboratory procedures, from routine process control to complex research projects. For example, they may collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels, or they may produce compounds through complex organic synthesis. Most process technicians work in manufacturing, testing packaging for design, integrity of materials, and envi ronmental acceptability. Often, process technicians who work in plants also focus on quality assurance, monitoring product quality or production processes and developing new production techniques. A few work in shipping to provide technical support and expertise for these functions. Environmental science and protection technicians perform laboratory and field tests to monitor environmental resources and determine the contaminants and sources of pollution in the environment. They may collect samples for testing or be involved in abating, controlling, or remediating sources of environmental pollution. Some are responsible for waste management opera tions, control and management of hazardous materials inventory, or general activities involving regulatory compliance. Many environmental science technicians employed at private consulting firms work directly under the supervision of an environmental scientist. Forensic science technicians investigate crimes by collect ing and analyzing physical evidence. Often, they specialize in areas such as DNA analysis or firearm examination, performing tests on weapons or on substances such as fiber, glass, hair, tissue, and body fluids to determine their significance to the investigation. Proper collection and storage methods are impor tant to protect the evidence. Forensic science technicians also prepare reports to document their findings and the laboratory techniques used, and they may provide information and expert opinion to investigators. When criminal cases come to trial, forensic science technicians often give testimony, as expert witnesses, on specific laboratory findings by identifying and classifying substances, materials, and other evidence collected at the scene of a crime. Some forensic science technicians work closely with other experts or technicians. For example, a forensic science technician may consult either a medical expert about the exact time and cause of a death or a technician who specializes in DNA typing in hopes of matching a DNA type to a suspect. Forest and conservation technicians compile data on the size, content, and condition of forest land tracts. These work ers usually work in a forest under the supervision of a forester, conducting specific tasks such as measuring timber, supervis ing harvesting operations, assisting in roadbuilding operations, and locating property lines and features. They also may gather basic information, such as data on species and populations of trees, disease and insect damage, tree seedling mortality, and conditions that may pose a fire hazard. In addition, forest and conservation technicians train and lead forest and con servation workers in seasonal activities, such as planting tree seedlings, putting out forest fires, and maintaining recreational facilities. Increasing numbers of forest and conservation tech nicians work in urban forestry—the study of individual trees in cities—and other nontraditional specialties, rather than in forests or rural areas. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many employers prefer science technicians who have at least 2 years of specialized training or an associate degree. Geological and petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells, using ad vanced instruments lowered into the wells or analyzing the mud from the wells. In oil and gas exploration, these technicians collect and examine geological data or use scanning electron microscopes to test geological samples to determine their petro leum content and their mineral and element composition. Some petroleum technicians, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well-drilling operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts. Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists in research. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers. Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Most work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occasionally work irregular hours to monitor experiments that cannot be completed during regular working hours. Production technicians often work in 8-hour shifts around the clock. Others, such as agricultural, forest and conservation, geological and petroleum, and environmental science and protec tion technicians, perform much of their work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations. Some science technicians may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemicals or radioactive isotopes, nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation, and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing organisms or radioactive agents. Forensic science technicians often are exposed to human body fluids and firearms. However, these working condi tions pose little risk if proper safety procedures are followed. For forensic science technicians, collecting evidence from crime scenes can be distressing and unpleasant. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for ajob as a science technician. Many employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training or an associate’s degree in applied science or science-related Professional and Related Occupations technology. Because employers’ preferences vary, however, some science technicians have a bachelor’s degree in chemistry, biology, or forensic science or have taken several science and math courses at 4-year colleges. Many technical and community colleges offer associate’s degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in science and mathematics. A number of 2-year associate’s degree programs are designed to provide easy transfer to a 4-year college or university. Technical institutes usually offer technician training, but provide less theory and general education than do technical or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 1-year certificate programs and 2-year associate’s degree programs are common. Approximately 20 colleges or universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in forensic science; about another 20 schools offer a bachelor-of-science degree in chemistry, biochemistry, or genetic engineering with an emphasis on forensic science or criminology; a few additional schools offer a bachelor-ofscience degree with an emphasis in a specialty area, such as criminology, pathology, jurisprudence, investigation, odontol ogy, toxicology, or forensic accounting. In contrast to some other science technician positions that require only a 2-year degree, forensic science positions usually require a 4-year degree to work in the field. Knowledge and understanding of legal procedures also can be helpful. Prospective forestry and conservation technicians can choose from more than 20 associate’s degree programs in forest technology accredited by the Society of American Foresters. Most chemical process technicians have a 2-year degree, usu ally an associate’s degree in process technology, although in some cases a high school diploma is sufficient. These workers usually receive additional on-the-job training. Entry-level workers whose college training encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of diagnostic laboratory equipment generally require less on-the-job training. Those with a high school diploma typically begin work as trainees under the direct supervision of a more experienced process technician. Many with only a high school diploma eventually earn a 2-year degree in process technology, often paid for by their employer. Some schools offer cooperative-education or internship programs, allowing students the opportunity to work at a local company or some other workplace while attending classes during alternate terms. Participation in such programs can significantly enhance a student’s employment prospects. Persons interested in careers as science technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate’s or bachelor’s degree program, should be laboratory oriented, with an emphasis on bench skills. A solid background in applied basic chemistry, physics, and math is vital. Because computers often are used in research and development laboratories, technicians should have strong computer skills, especially in computer modeling. Communication skills also are important: technicians often are required to report their findings both orally and in writing. In addition, technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork is common. Organi zational ability, an eye for detail, and skill in interpreting scientific results are important as well. A high mechanical aptitude, attention to detail, and analytical thinking are all important characteristics of science technicians. Prospective science technicians can acquire good career preparation through 2-year formal training programs that com bine the teaching of scientific principles and theory with practi cal hands-on application in a laboratory setting with up-to-date equipment. Graduates of 4-year bachelor’s degree programs in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 187 science who have considerable experience in laboratory-based courses, have completed internships, or have held summer jobs in laboratories also are well qualified for science technician posi tions and are preferred by some employers. However, those with a bachelor’s degree who accept technician jobs generally cannot find employment that uses their more advanced academic education. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a scientist or a more experienced technician. Job candidates whose training or educational back ground encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including computers and related equipment, usually require a short period of on-the-job training. As they gain experience, technicians take on more responsibility and carry out assignments under only general supervision, and some eventually become supervisors. However, technicians employed at universities often have their fortunes tied to those of particular professors; when those professors retire or leave, these technicians face uncertain employment prospects. Employment Science technicians held about 324,000 jobs in 2004. As indicated by the following tabulation, chemical and biological technicians accounted for 39 percent of all jobs: Biological technicians................................ Chemical technicians...................................................................... Forest and conservation technicians.............................................. Environmental science and protection technicians, including health.......................................................................... Agricultural and food science technicians..................................... Geological and petroleum technicians........................................... Forensic science technicians........................................................... Nuclear technicians........................................................................ 64,000 62,000 33,000 31,000 23,000 11,000 9,800 7,300 Chemical technicians held jobs in a wide range of manufactur ing and service-providing industries. Thirty-five percent worked in chemical manufacturing and another 26 percent worked in pro fessional, scientific, or technical services firms. About 27 percent of biological technicians also worked in professional, scientific, or technical services firms; most other biological technicians worked in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing or for Federal, State, or local governments. Significant numbers of environmental science and protection technicians also worked for State and local governments and professional, scientific, and technical services firms. About 75 percent of forest and conservation technicians held jobs in the Federal Government; another 13 percent worked for State governments. Around 18 percent of agricultural and food science technicians worked for food-processing companies; most of the rest worked for scientific research and development services firms and State governments. Approximately 23 percent of all geological and petroleum technicians worked for oil and gas extraction companies, and forensic science technicians worked primarily for State and local governments. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be best for graduates of applied science technology programs who are well trained on equipment used in industrial and government laboratories and production facilities. As the instrumentation and techniques used in industrial research, development, and production become increasingly more complex, employers are seeking individuals with highly developed technical and communication skills. Overall emplovyment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 188 Occupational Outlook Handbook the year 2014. The continued growth of scientific and medical research—particularly research related to biotechnology—as well as the development and production of technical products should stimulate demand for science technicians in many industries. The increase in the number of biological technicians will be about as fast as average, as the growing number of agricultural and medicinal products developed with the use of biotechnology techniques will boost demand for these workers. Also, stronger competition among pharmaceutical companies and an aging population are expected to contribute to the need for innovative and improved drugs, further spurring demand for biological technicians. The fastest employment growth of biological technicians should occur in the pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing industry and educational services. Job growth for chemical technicians is projected to be slower than average. The chemical manufacturing industry, the major employer of chemical technicians, is anticipated to experience a decline in overall employment as companies downsize and turn to outside contractors to provide specialized services. Some of these contractors will be in other lower-wage countries, further limiting employment growth. Job opportunities are expected to be more plentiful in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing as the public continues to demand newer and better pharmaceuticals. To meet this demand, pharmaceutical manufacturing firms are expected to continue to devote money to research and develop ment, either through in-house teams or, increasingly, by contracting to professional, scientific, and technical services firms, spurring employment growth of chemical technicians in that industry. An increasing focus on quality assurance will require a greater number of process technicians, further stimulating demand for these workers. Employment of environmental science and protection technicians should grow about as fast as the average; these workers will be needed to help regulate waste products; to collect air, water, and soil samples for measuring levels of pollutants; to monitor compliance with envi ronmental regulations; and to clean up contaminated sites. Limited demand for forest and conservation technicians within the Federal Government will lead to slower-than-average growth in this occupation, due to general downsizing and continued reductions in timber management on Federal lands. Opportunities at State and local governments within specialties such as urban forestry and geographic information systems (GIS)—a locator system that uses satellites—may, however, provide some new jobs. In addi tion, an increased emphasis on specific conservation issues, such as environmental protection, preservation of water resources, and control of exotic and invasive pests, may provide some employ ment opportunities. Few opportunities will be available in the private sector. Employment of agricultural and food science technicians is projected to grow about as fast as the average. Best opportunities will be in specific segments of the food-processing industry and in agricultural biotechnology, specifically in scientific research and development services. Research—particularly biotechnological research—will be necessary as it becomes increasingly important to balance greater agricultural output with protection and preserva tion of soil, water, and the ecosystem. In particular, research will be needed to combat insects and diseases as they further adapt to pesticides and as soil fertility and water quality continue to need improvement. State and local government also should provide many opportunities due both to projected increases in employ ment and as the need to replace retiring workers is expected to accelerate. Jobs for forensic science technicians are expected to increase much faster than average. Crime scene technicians who work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for State Public Safety Departments should experience favorable employment prospects. Jobseekers with a 4-year degree in a forensic science will enjoy much better opportunities than those with only a 2-year degree. Slower-than-average employment growth is expected for geological and petroleum technicians because employment in the oil and gas extraction and mining industries, among the largest employers of geological and petroleum technicians, is expected to decline. Due to a lack of qualified candidates, however, prospec tive jobseekers should experience little competition for positions, especially in energy-related fields. Job opportunities also will be favorable in professional, scientific, and technical services firms because geological and petroleum technicians will be needed to assist environmental scientists and geoscientists as they provide consultation services for companies regarding environmental policy and Federal Government mandates, such as those requiring lower sulfur emissions. Along with opportunities created by growth, many job openings should arise from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. During periods of economic reces sion, science technicians may be laid off. Earnings Median hourly earnings of science technicians in May 2004 were as follows: Nuclear technicians......................................................................... $28.46 Forensic science technicians........................................................... 21.16 Geological and petroleum technicians............................................ 19.35 Chemical technicians...................................................................... 18.35 Environmental science and protection technicians, including health.......................................................................... 16.99 Biological technicians...................................................................... 15.97 Agricultural and food science technicians...................................... 14.29 Forest and conservation technicians............................................... 13.14 In 2005, the average annual salary in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the Federal Government was $38,443 for biological science technicians; $50,264 for physical science tech nicians; $62,854 for geodetic technicians; $48,238 for hydrologic technicians; and $58,725 for meteorological technicians. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles at a level usually acquired in 2-year associate’s degree programs include engineering technicians, broadcast and sound engineering tech nicians and radio operators, drafters, and health technologists and technicians, especially clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and radiologic technologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: ► American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Publications, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.acs.org For career information and a list of undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs in forensic sciences, contact: >- American Academy of Forensic Sciences, P.O. Box 669, Colorado Springs, CO, 80901. Internet: http://www.aafs.org For general information on forestry technicians and a list of schools offering education in forestry, send a self-addressed, stamped business envelope to: >- Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.safnet.org Professional and Related Occupations 189 Community and Social Services Occupations Counselors __ (0*NET 21-1011.00, 21-1012.00, 21-1013.00, 21-1014.00, 21-1015.00, 21-1019.99) Significant Points • School counselors must be certified, and other counsel ors must be licensed to practice in all but two States. • A master’s degree generally is needed to become a licensed counselor. Job opportunities for counselors should be very good because job openings are expected to exceed the num ber of graduates from counseling programs. State and local governments employ about 4 in 10 counselors, and the health services industry employs most of the others. • • Nature of the Work Counselors assist people with personal, family, educational, mental health, and career decisions and problems. Their duties depend on the individuals they serve and on the settings in which they work. Educational, vocational, and school counselors provide individu als and groups with career and educational counseling. In school settings—elementary through postsecondary—they usually are called school counselors, and they work with students, including those with academic and social development problems and those with special needs. They advocate for students and work with other individuals and organizations to promote the academic, career, personal, and social development of children and youths. School counselors help students evaluate their abilities, interests, talents, and personality characteristics in order to develop realistic academic and career goals. Counselors use interviews, counseling sessions, interest and aptitude assessment tests, and other methods to evaluate and advise students. They also operate career information centers and career education programs. High school counselors advise students regarding college majors, admission requirements, entrance exams, financial aid, trade or technical schools, and apprenticeship programs. They help students develop job search skills, such as resume writing and interviewing techniques. College career plan ning and placement counselors assist alumni or students with career development and job-hunting techniques. Elementary school counselors observe younger children during classroom and play activities and confer with their teachers and parents to evaluate the children’s strengths, problems, or special needs. In conjunction with teachers and administrators, they make sure that the curriculum addresses both the academic and the emo tional development needs of students. Elementary school counsel ors do less vocational and academic counseling than do secondary school counselors. School counselors at all levels help students to understand and deal with social, behavioral, and personal problems. These counsel ors emphasize preventive and developmental counseling to provide students with the life skills needed to deal with problems before they occur and to enhance students’ personal, social, and academic growth. Counselors provide special services, including alcohol and drug prevention programs and conflict resolution classes. They also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis try to identify cases of domestic abuse and other family problems that can affect a student’s development. Counselors interact with students individually, in small groups, or with entire classes. They consult and collaborate with parents, teachers, school administrators, school psychologists, medical professionals, and social workers in order to develop and implement strategies to help students be suc cessful in the education system. Vocational counselors who provide mainly career counseling outside the school setting are also referred to as employment coun selors or career counselors. Their chief focus is helping individuals with career decisions. Vocational counselors explore and evaluate the client’s education, training, work history, interests, skills, and personality traits, and arrange for aptitude and achievement tests to assist the client in making career decisions. They also work with individuals to develop their job-search skills, and they assist clients in locating and applying for jobs. In addition, career counselors provide support to persons experiencing job loss, job stress, or other career transition issues. Rehabilitation counselors help people deal with the personal, social, and vocational effects of disabilities. They counsel people with disabilities resulting from birth defects, illness or disease, accidents, or the stress of daily life. They evaluate the strengths and limitations of individuals, provide personal and vocational counseling, and arrange for medical care, vocational training, and job placement. Rehabilitation counselors interview both individu als with disabilities and their families, evaluate school and medical reports, and confer and plan with physicians, psychologists, occu pational therapists, and employers to determine the capabilities and skills of the individual. Conferring with the client, they develop a rehabilitation program that often includes training to help the per son develop job skills. Rehabilitation counselors also work toward increasing the client’s capacity to live independently. Mental health counselors work with individuals, families, and groups to address and treat mental and emotional disorders and to promote optimum mental health. They are trained in a variety of therapeutic techniques used to address a wide range of issues, includ ing depression, addiction and substance abuse, suicidal impulses, stress management, problems with self-esteem, issues associated with aging, job and career concerns, educational decisions, issues related to mental and emotional health, and family, parenting, and marital or other relationship problems. Mental health counselors often work closely with other mental health specialists, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, and school counselors. (Information on physicians and sur geons, psychologists, registered nurses, and social workers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors help people who have problems with alcohol, drugs, gambling, and eating disorders. They counsel individuals who are addicted to drugs, helping them to identify behaviors and problems related to their addiction. They also conduct programs aimed at preventing addictions from occurring in the first place. These counselors hold sessions designed for individuals, families, or groups. Marriage and family therapists apply principles, methods, and therapeutic techniques to individuals, families, couples, or organiza tions in order to resolve emotional conflicts. In doing so, they modify people’s perceptions and behaviors, enhance communication and un derstanding among family members, and help to prevent family and individual crises. Marriage and family therapists also may engage 190 Occupational Outlook Handbook in psychotherapy of a nonmedical nature, make appropriate referrals to psychiatric resources, perform research, and teach courses about human development and interpersonal relationships. Other counseling specialties include gerontological, multicul tural, and genetic counseling. A gerontological counselor provides services to elderly persons and their families when they face chang ing lifestyles as they grow older. A multicultural counselor helps employers adjust to an increasingly diverse workforce. Genetic counselors provide information and support to families who have members with birth defects or genetic disorders and to families who may be at risk for a variety of inherited conditions. These counselors identify families at risk, investigate the problem that is present in the family, interpret information about the disorder, analyze inheritance patterns and risks of recurrence, and review available options with the family. Working Conditions Some school counselors work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation, but increasing numbers, espe cially those working in middle and high schools, are employed on 11 -month or full-year contracts. They usually work the same hours as teachers, but may travel more frequently to attend conferences and conventions. College career planning and placement counselors work long and irregular hours during student recruiting periods. Rehabilitation counselors usually work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed counselors and those working in mental health and community agencies, such as substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors, frequently work evenings in order to counsel clients who work during the day. Both mental health counselors and marriage and family therapists also often work flexible hours to accommodate families in crisis or working couples who must have evening or weekend appointments. Counselors must possess high physical and emotional energy to handle the array of problems that they address. Dealing daily with these problems can cause stress. Although the risk of litigation is relatively low, it is still prudent for counselors in all fields to hold some form of personal liability insurance. Because privacy is es sential for confidential and frank discussions with clients, counselors usually have private offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require school counselors to hold a State school counseling certification and to have completed at least some graduate course V'il Hm Counselors help people with personal, family, educational, mental health, and career decisions and problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis work; most require the completion of a master’s degree. Some States require public school counselors to have both counseling and teach ing certificates and to have had some teaching experience before receiving certi fication. For counselors based outside of schools, 48 States and the District of Columbia have some form of counselor licensure that governs their practice of counseling. Requirements typically include the completion of a master’s degree in counseling, the accumulation of 2 years or 3,000 hours of supervised clinical experience beyond the master’s degree level, the passage of a Staterecognized exam, adherence to ethical codes and standards, and the completion of annual continuing education requirements. Counselors must be aware of educational and training require ments that are often very detailed and that vary by area and by coun seling specialty. Prospective counselors should check with State and local governments, employers, and national voluntary certification organizations in order to determine which requirements apply. As mentioned, a master’s degree is typically required to be li censed as a counselor. A bachelor’s degree often qualifies a person to work as a counseling aide, rehabilitation aide, or social service worker. Some States require counselors in public employment to have a master’s degree; others accept a bachelor’s degree with appropriate counseling courses. Counselor education programs in colleges and universities usually are found in departments of education or psychology. Fields of study include college student affairs, elementary or secondary school counseling, education, ge rontological counseling, marriage and family counseling, substance abuse counseling, rehabilitation counseling, agency or community counseling, clinical mental health counseling, counseling psychol ogy, career counseling, and related fields. Courses are grouped into eight core areas: Human growth and development, social and cultural diversity, relationships, group work, career development, assessment, research and program evaluation, and professional identity. In an accredited master’s degree program, 48 to 60 semester hours of graduate study, including a period of supervised clinical experience in counseling, are required. Graduate programs in career, community, gerontological, mental health, school, student affairs, and marriage and family counsel ing are accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). While completion of a CACREP-accredited program is not necessary to become a counselor, it makes it easier to fulfill the requirements for State licensing. Another organization, the Council on Rehabilitation Education (CORE), accredits graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. Accredited master’s degree programs include a mini mum of 2 years of full-time study, including 600 hours of supervised clinical internship experience. Some counselors elect to be nationally certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc. (NBCC), which grants the general practice credential “National Certified Counselor.” To be certified, a counselor must hold a master’s degree with a con centration in counseling from a regionally accredited college or university; must have at least 2 years of supervised field experi ence in a counseling setting (graduates from counselor education programs accredited by CACREP are exempted); must provide two professional endorsements, one of which must be from a recent supervisor; and must have a passing score on the NBCC’s National Counselor Examination for Licensure and Certification (NCE). This national certification is voluntary and is distinct from State licensing. However, in some States, those who pass the national exam are exempted from taking a State certification exam. NBCC also offers specialty certifications in school, clini cal mental health, and addiction counseling, which supplement the national certified counselor designation. These specialty certifica tions require passage of a supplemental exam. To maintain their Professional and Related Occupations certification, counselors retake and pass the NCE or complete 100 credit hours of acceptable continuing education every 5 years. Another organization, the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, offers voluntary national certification for rehabilitation counselors. Some employers may require rehabilitation counselors to be nationally certified. To become certified, rehabilitation counselors usually must graduate from an accredited educational program, complete an internship, and pass a written examination. (Certification requirements vary according to an applicant’s educational history. Employment experience, for example, is required for those with a counseling degree in a specialty other than rehabilitation.) After meet ing these requirements, candidates are designated “Certified Rehabilitation Counselors.” To maintain their certification, counselors must successfully retake the certification exam or complete 100 credit hours of acceptable continuing education every 5 years. Other counseling organizations also offer certification in particu lar counseling specialties. Usually, becoming certified is voluntary, but having certification may enhance one’s job prospects. Some employers provide training for newly hired counselors. Others may offer time off or provide help with tuition if it is needed to complete a graduate degree. Counselors must participate in graduate studies, workshops, and personal studies to maintain their certificates and licenses. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong desire to help others and should possess the ability to inspire respect, trust, and confidence. They should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Counselors must follow the code of ethics associated with their respective certifications and licenses. Prospects for advancement vary by counseling field. School counselors can move to a larger school; become directors or supervi sors of counseling, guidance, or pupil personnel services; or, usu ally with further graduate education, become counselor educators, counseling psychologists, or school administrators. (Psychologists and education administrators are covered elsewhere in the Hand book.) Some counselors choose to work for a State’s department of education. For marriage and family therapists, doctoral education in family therapy emphasizes the training of supervisors, teachers, researchers, and clinicians in the discipline. Counselors can become supervisors or administrators in their agencies. Some counselors move into research, consulting, or col lege teaching or go into private or group practice. Employment Counselors held about 601,000 jobs in 2004. Employment was distributed among the counseling specialties as follows: Educational, vocational, and school counselors.......................... 248,000 Rehabilitation counselors.............................................................. 131,000 Mental health counselors.............................................................. 96,000 Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors.................. 76,000 Marriage and family therapists..................................................... 24,000 Counselors, all other..................................................................... 25,000 Educational, vocational, and school counselors work primarily in elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. Other types of counselors work in a wide variety of public and private establishments, including healthcare facilities; job training, career development, and vocational rehabilitation centers; social agencies; correctional institutions; and residential care facilities, such as halfway houses for criminal offenders and group homes for children, the elderly, and the disabled. Some sub https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 191 stance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors work in therapeutic communities where addicts live while undergoing treatment. Counselors also work in organizations engaged in community improve ment and social change, drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs, and State and local government agencies. A growing number of counselors are self-employed and work in group practices or private practice, due in part to new laws allowing counselors to be paid for their services by insurance companies and to the growing recognition that counselors are well-trained, effective professionals. Job Outlook Overall employment of counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition, numer ous job openings will occur as many counselors retire or leave the profession. While job prospects will vary with location and spe cialization, opportunities generally should be very good because the number of job openings that arise should exceed the number of graduates of counseling programs. Rehabilitation counselors and substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors, in particular, should experience excellent prospects. Employment of school counselors is expected to grow with increases in student enrollments at postsecondary schools and colleges and as more States require elementary schools to employ counselors. Expansion of the responsibilities of school counselors should also lead to increases in their employment. For example, counselors are becoming more involved in crisis and preventive counseling, helping students deal with issues ranging from drug and alcohol abuse to death and suicide. Although schools and govern ments realize the value of counselors in helping their students to achieve academic success, budget constraints at every school level will dampen job growth of school counselors. However, Federal grants and subsidies may help to offset tight budgets and allow the reduction in student-to-counselor ratios to continue. Job prospects should be more favorable in rural and inner-city schools. Demand for vocational or career counselors should grow as multiple job and career changes become common for workers and as workers become increasingly aware of the counselors’ services. In addition, State and local governments will employ growing numbers of counselors to assist beneficiaries of welfare programs who exhaust their eligibility and must find jobs. Other opportunities for employ ment counselors will arise in private job-training centers that provide training and other services to laid-off workers and others seeking to acquire new skills or new careers. Demand is expected to be strong for substance abuse and behav ioral disorder counselors because drug offenders are increasingly being sent to treatment programs rather than to jail. Mental health counselors will be needed to staff statewide networks that are being established to improve services for children and adolescents with serious emotional disturbances and for their family members. Under managed care systems, insurance companies are increasingly provid ing for reimbursement of counselors as a less costly alternative to psychiatrists and psychologists. The number of people who will need rehabilitation counseling is expected to grow as advances in medical technology allow more people to survive injury or illness and live independently again. In addition, legislation requiring equal employment rights for people with disabilities will spur demand for counselors, who not only help these people make a transition into the workforce but also help companies to comply with the law. Employment of mental health counselors and marriage and family therapists will grow as more people become comfortable with seeking professional help for a variety of health, personal, and family problems. Employers are also increasingly offering employee assistance programs that provide mental health and 192 Occupational Outlook Handbook alcohol and drug abuse counseling. More people are expected to use these services as society focuses on ways of developing mental well-being, such as controlling stress associated with job and fam ily responsibilities. Earnings Median annual earnings of educational, vocational, and school counselors in May 2004 were $45,570. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,530 and $58,400. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,390. School counselors can earn additional income working summers in the school system or in other jobs. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of educational, vocational, and school counselors in 2004 were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools............................................... $51,160 Junior colleges.............................................................................. 45,730 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... 39,110 Individual and family services...................................................... 30,240 Vocational rehabilitation services................................................. 27,800 Median annual earnings of substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors in May 2004 were $32,130. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,840 and $40,130. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,600. Median annual earnings of mental health counselors in May 2004 were $32,960. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,660 and $43,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,810. Median annual earnings of rehabilitation counselors in May 2004 were $27,870. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,110 and $36,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,560, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $48,130. For substance abuse, mental health, and rehabilitation counselors, government employers generally pay the highest wages, followed by hospitals and social service agencies. Residential care facilities often pay the lowest wages. Median annual earnings of marriage and family therapists in May 2004 were $38,980. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,260 and $49,990. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,080. Median annual earnings in May 2004 were $33,620 in individual and family social services, the industry employing the largest number of marriage and family therapists. Self-employed counselors who have well-established practices, as well as counselors employed in group practices, usually have the highest earnings. Related Occupations Counselors help people evaluate their interests, abilities, and disabilities and deal with personal, social, academic, and career problems. Others who help people in similar ways include teachers, social and human service assistants, social workers, psychologists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses, members of the clergy, occupational therapists, and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about counseling, as well as information on specialties such as college, mental health, rehabilitation, multicul tural, career, marriage and family, and gerontological counseling, contact: >- American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304-3300. Internet: http://www.counseling.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on school counselors, contact: >- American School Counselors Association, 1101 King St., Suite 625, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.schoolcounselor.org For information on accredited counseling and related training programs, contact: ► Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Pro grams, American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., 4th floor, Alexandria, VA 22304. Internet: http://www.cacrep.org For information on national certification requirements for coun selors, contact: >- National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc., 3 Terrace Way, Suite D, Greensboro, NC 27403-3660. Internet: http://www.nbcc.org State departments of education can supply information on those colleges and universities offering guidance and counseling training that meets State certification and licensure requirements. State employment service offices have information about job opportunities and entrance requirements for counselors. Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists (Q*NET 21-1092.00) Significant Points • State and local governments employ most workers. • A bachelor’s degree in social work, criminal justice, or a related field usually is required. • Employment growth, which is projected to be about as fast as average, depends on government funding. Nature of the Work Many people who are convicted of crimes are placed on proba tion instead of being sent to prison. During probation, offenders must stay out of trouble and meet various other requirements. Probation officers, who are called community supervision of ficers in some States, supervise people who have been placed on probation. Correctional treatment specialists, who may also be known as case managers, counsel and create rehabilitation plans for offenders to follow when they are no longer in prison or on parole. Parole officers and pretrial services officers perform many of the same duties that probation officers perform. The difference is that parole officers supervise offenders who have been released from prison, whereas probation officers work with those who are sentenced to probation instead of prison. In some States, the jobs of parole and probation officers are combined. Pretrial ser vices officers conduct pretrial investigations, the findings of which help determine whether suspects should be released before their trial. When suspects are released before their trial, pretrial services officers supervise them to make sure they adhere to the terms of their release and that they show up for trial. Occasionally, in the Federal courts system, probation officers perform the functions of pretrial services officers. Probation officers supervise offenders on probation or parole through personal contact with the offenders and their families. Instead of requiring offenders to meet officers in their offices, many officers meet offenders in their homes and at their places of employment or therapy. Probation and parole agencies also seek the assistance of community organizations, such as religious institutions, neighborhood groups, and local residents, to monitor the behavior of many offenders. Some offenders are required to wear an electronic device so that probation officers Professional and Related Occupations 193 can monitor their location and movements. Probation officers may arrange for offenders to get substance abuse rehabilitation or job training. Probation officers usually work with either adults or juveniles exclusively. Only in small, usually rural, jurisdictions do probation officers counsel both adults and their homes. Other technological advancements, such as electronic monitoring devices and drug screening, also have assisted probation officers and correctional treatment specialists in supervising and counseling offenders. juveniles. Probation officers also spend much of their time working for the courts. They investigate the backgrounds of the accused, write presentence reports, and recommend sentences. They review sentencing recommendations with offenders and their families before submitting them to the court. Probation offi cers may be required to testify in court as to their findings and recommendations. They also attend hearings to update the court on offenders’ efforts at rehabilitation and compliance with the terms of their sentences. Correctional treatment specialists work in jails, prisons, or parole or probation agencies. In jails and prisons, they evaluate the prog ress of inmates. They also work with inmates, probation officers, and other agencies to develop parole and release plans. Their case reports are provided to the appropriate parole board when their clients are eligible for release. In addition, they plan education and training programs to improve offenders’ job skills and pro vide them with coping, anger management, and drug and sexual abuse counseling either individually or in groups. They usually write treatment plans and summaries for each client. Correctional treatment specialists working in parole and probation agencies perform many of the same duties as their counterparts who work in correctional institutions. The number of cases a probation officer or correctional treatment specialist handles at one time depends on the needs of offenders and the risks they pose. Higher risk offenders and those who need more counseling usually command more of the officer’s time and resources. Caseload size also varies by agency jurisdiction. Con sequently, officers may handle from 20 to more than 100 active cases at a time. Computers, telephones, and fax machines enable the officers to handle the caseload. Probation officers may telecommute from Working Conditions CM CflAKD SSsiil Probation officers attend court hearings, testify, and make sentencing recommendations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work with criminal offenders, some of whom may be dangerous. In the course of supervising offenders, they usually interact with many other individuals, such as family members and friends of their clients, who may be angry, upset, or difficult to work with. Workers may be assigned to fieldwork in high- crime areas or in institutions where there is a risk of violence or communicable disease. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists are required to meet many court-imposed deadlines, which contribute to heavy workloads. In addition, extensive travel and fieldwork may be required to meet with offenders who are on probation or parole. Workers may be required to carry a firearm or other weapon for protection. They generally work a 40-hour week, but some may work longer. They may be on call 24 hours a day to supervise and assist offenders at any time. They also may be required to collect and transport urine samples of offenders for drug testing. All of these factors make for a stressful work environment. Although the high stress levels can make these jobs very difficult at times, this work also can be very rewarding. Many workers obtain personal satisfaction from counseling members of their community and helping them become productive citizens. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Background qualifications for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists vary by State, but a bachelor’s degree in social work, criminal justice, or a related field is usually required. Some employers require previous experience or a master’s degree in criminal justice, social work, psychology, or a related field. Applicants usually are administered written, oral, psycho logical, and physical examinations. Most probation officers and some correctional treatment specialists are required to complete a training program sponsored by their State government or the Federal Government, after which a certification test may be required. Prospective probation officers or correctional treatment special ists should be in good physical and emotional condition. Most agen cies require applicants to be at least 21 years old and, for Federal employment, not older than 37. Those convicted of felonies may not be eligible for employment in this occupation. Familiarity with the use of computers often is required due to the increasing use of computer technology in probation and parole work. Candidates also should be knowledgeable about laws and regulations pertaining to corrections. Probation officers and correctional treatment special ists should have strong writing skills because they are required to prepare many reports. • Most probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work as trainees or on a probationary period for up to a year before being offered a permanent position. A typical agency has several levels of probation and parole officers and correctional treatment specialists, as well as supervisors. A graduate degree, such as a master’s degree in criminal justice, social work, or psychology, may be helpful for advancement. Employment Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists held about 93,000 jobs in 2004. Most jobs are in State or local 194 Occupational Outlook Handbook governments. In some States, the State government employs all probation officers and correctional treatment specialists; in other States, local governments are the only employers. In still other States, both levels of government employ these workers. Jobs are more plentiful in urban areas. Probation officers and correc tional treatment specialists who work for the Federal Government are employed by the U.S. courts and by the U.S. Department of Justice’s Bureau of Prisons. Social and Human Service Assistants (0*NET 21-1093.00) Significant Points • While a bachelor’s degree usually is not required, employers increasingly seek individuals with relevant work experience or education beyond high school. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than aver age. Job opportunities should be excellent, particularly for applicants with appropriate postsecondary education, but pay is low. Job Outlook Employment of probation officers and correctional treatment specialists is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to openings due to growth, many openings will be created by replacement needs, especially openings due to the large number of these workers who are expected to retire. This occupation is not attractive to some potential entrants due to relatively low earnings, heavy workloads, and high stress. Mandatory sentencing guidelines calling for longer sen tences and reduced parole for inmates have resulted in a large increase in the prison population. However, mandatory sentencing guidelines are being reconsidered in many States because of budgetary constraints, court decisions, and doubts about the guidelines’ effectiveness. Instead, there may be more emphasis in many States on rehabilitation and alternate forms of punishment, such as probation, spurring demand for probation and parole officers and correctional treatment specialists. However, the job outlook depends primarily on the amount of government funding that is allocated to corrections, and especially to probation systems. Although community supervision is far less expensive than keeping offenders in prison, a change in political trends toward more imprisonment and away from community supervision could result in reduced employment opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of probation officers and correctional treatment specialists in May 2004 were $39,600. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,500 and $52,100. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,310, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,660. In May 2004, median annual earn ings for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists employed in State government were $39,810; those employed in local government earned $40,560. Higher wages tend to be found in urban areas. Related Occupations Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists counsel criminal offenders while they are in prison or on parole. Other oc cupations that involve similar responsibilities include social workers, social and human service assistants, and counselors. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists also play a major role in maintaining public safety. Other occupations related to corrections and law enforcement include police and detectives, correctional officers, and firefighting occupations. • Nature of the Work Social and human service assistant is a generic term for people with a wide array ofjob titles, including human service worker, case manage ment aide, social work assistant, community support worker, mental health aide, community outreach worker, life skill counselor, or geron tology aide. They usually work under the direction of workers from a variety of fields, such as nursing, psychiatry, psychology, rehabilitative or physical therapy, or social work. The amount of responsibility and supervision they are given varies a great deal. Some have little direct supervision; others work under close direction. Social and human service assistants provide direct and indirect client services to ensure that individuals in their care reach their maximum level of functioning. They assess clients’ needs, estab lish their eligibility for benefits and services such as food stamps, Medicaid, or welfare, and help to obtain them. They also arrange for transportation and escorts, if necessary, and provide emotional support. Social and human service assistants monitor and keep case records on clients and report progress to supervisors and case managers. Social and human service assistants play a variety of roles in a community. They may organize and lead group activities, assist cli ents in need of counseling or crisis intervention, or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. In halfway houses, group homes, and government-supported housing programs, they assist adults who need supervision with personal hygiene and daily living skills. They review clients’ records, ensure that they take correct doses of medica tion, talk with family members, and confer with medical personnel and other caregivers to gain better insight into clients’ backgrounds and needs. Social and human service assistants also provide emotional support and help clients become involved in their own well-being, in community recreation programs, and in other activities. In psychiatric hospitals, rehabilitation programs, and outpatient clinics, social and human service assistants work with professional care providers, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, and social work ers, to help clients master everyday living skills, communicate more effectively, and get along better with others. They support the client’s participation in a treatment plan, such as individual or group counsel ing or occupational therapy. Sources of Additional Information Working Conditions For information about criminal justice job opportunities in your area, contact your State’s department of corrections, criminal justice, or probation. Further information about probation officers and correctional treatment specialists is available from: >- American Probation and Parole Association, P.O. Box 11910, Lexington, KY 40578. Internet: http://www.appa-net.org Working conditions of social and human service assistants vary. Some work in offices, clinics, and hospitals, while others work in group homes, shelters, sheltered workshops, and day programs. Many work under close supervision, while others work much of the time on their own, such as those who spend their time in the field visiting clients. Sometimes visiting clients can be dan gerous even though most agencies do everything they can to ensure https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 195 responsibility, and the ability to manage time effectively. Many human services jobs involve direct contact with people who are vulnerable to exploitation or mistreatment; therefore, patience, understanding, and a strong desire to help others are highly valued characteristics. Formal education almost always is necessary for advancement. In general, advancement requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in human services, counseling, rehabilitation, social work, or a related field. Typically, advancement brings case management, supervision, and administration roles. Employment Social and human service assistants held about 352,000 jobs in 2004. More than half worked in the health care and social assistance industries. One in three were employed by State and local govern ments, primarily in public welfare agencies and facilities for mentally disabled and developmentally challenged individuals. Social and human service assistants provide client services to ensure that individuals in their care function as well as possible. their workers’ safety. Most work a 40-hour week, although some work in the evening and on weekends. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Under staffing and relatively low pay may add to the pressure. Turnover is reported to be high, especially among workers without academic preparation for this field. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While a bachelor’s degree usually is not required for entry into this occupation, employers increasingly seek individuals with relevant work experience or education beyond high school. Certificates or associate degrees in subjects such as social work, human services, gerontology, or one of the social or behavioral sciences meet most employers’ requirements. Some jobs may require a bachelor s or master’s degree in human services or a related field such as counsel ing, rehabilitation, or social work. Human services degree programs have a core curriculum that trains students to observe patients and record information, conduct patient interviews, implement treatment plans, employ problem solving techniques, handle crisis intervention matters, and use proper case management and referral procedures. General educa tion courses in liberal arts, sciences, and the humanities also are part of the curriculum. Most programs offer the opportunity to take specialized courses related to addictions, gerontology, child protec tion, and other areas. Many degree programs require completion of a supervised internship. Educational attainment often influences the kind of work employ ees may be assigned and the degree of responsibility that may be entrusted to them. For example, workers with no more than a high school education are likely to receive extensive on-the-job training to work in direct-care services, while employees with a college degree might be assigned to do supportive counseling, coordinate program activities, or manage a group home. Social and human service assis tants with proven leadership ability, either from previous experience or as a volunteer in the field, often have greater autonomy in their work. Regardless of the academic or work background of employees, most employers provide some form of inservice training, such as seminars and workshops, to their employees. There may be additional hiring requirements in group homes. For example, employers may require employees to have a valid driver’s license or to submit to a criminal background investigation. Employers try to select applicants who have a strong desire to help others, have effective communication skills, a strong sense of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities for social and human service assistants are expected to be excellent, particularly for applicants with appropriate postsec ondary education. The number of social and human service assistants is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations between 2004 and 2014—ranking the occupation among the most rapidly growing. Many additional job opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who advance into new positions, retire, or leave the workforce for other reasons. There will be more competi tion for jobs in urban areas than in rural areas, but qualified applicants should have little difficulty finding employment. Faced with rapid growth in the demand for social and human services many employers increasingly rely on social and human service assistants to undertake greater responsibility for delivering services to clients. Opportunities are expected to be good in private social service agencies, which provide such services as adult day care and meal delivery programs. Employment in private agencies will grow as State and local governments continue to contract out services to the private sector in an effort to cut costs. Demand for social services will expand with the growing elderly population, who are more likely to need these services. In addition, more social and human service assistants will be needed to provide services to pregnant teenagers, the homeless, the mentally disabled and developmentally challenged, and substance abusers. Some private agencies have been employing more social and human service assistants in place of social workers, who are more educated and, thus, more highly paid. Job training programs also are expected to require additional social and human service assistants. As social welfare policies shift focus from benefit-based programs to work-based initiatives there will be more demand for people to teach job skills to the people who are new to, or returning to, the workforce. Residential care establishments should face increased pressures to respond to the needs of the mentally and physically disabled. Many of these patients have been deinstitutionalized and lack the knowl edge or the ability to care for themselves. Also, more communitybased programs and supportive independent-living sites are expected to be established to house and assist the homeless and the mentally and physically disabled. As substance abusers are increasingly being sent to treatment programs instead of prison, employment of social and human service assistants in substance abuse treatment programs also will grow. The number of jobs for social and human service assistants in local governments will grow but not as fast as employment for social and human service assistants in other industries. Employment in the public sector may fluctuate with the level of funding provided by 196 Occupational Outlook Handbook State and local governments. Also, some State and local govern ments are contracting out selected social services to private agencies in order to save money. Earnings Median annual earnings of social and human service assistants were $24,270 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 19,220 and $30,900. The top 10 percent earned more than $39,620, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,480. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of social and human service assistants in May 2004 were: State government.......................................................................... $29,270 Local government........................................................................... 28,230 Individual and family services...................................................... 23,400 Vocational rehabilitation services................................................. 21,770 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities........................................................... 20,410 Related Occupations Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of social and human service assistants include social workers; clergy; counselors; child care workers; occupational therapist assistants and aides; physical therapist assistants and aides; and nursing, psychi atric, and home health aides. Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2-year and 4-year colleges, available at librar ies or career counseling centers. For information on programs and careers in human services, contact: >■ National Organization for Human Services, 5601 Brodie Lane, Suite 620-215, Austin, TX 78745. Internet: http://www.nohse.org >- Council for Standards in Human Services Education, Harrisburg Area Community College, Human Services Program, One HACC Dr., Harrisburg, PA 17110-2999. Internet: http://www.cshse.org Information on job openings may be available from State employment service offices or directly from city, county, or State departments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources. Social Workers (C)*NET 21 -102 LOO, 21 -1022.00, 21 -1023.00, 21 -1029.99) Significant Points • About 9 out of 10 jobs were in health care and social assistance industries, as well as State and local govern ment agencies. • While a bachelor’s degree is the minimum require ment, a master’s degree in social work or a related field has become the standard for many positions. • Employment is projected to grow faster than average. • Competition for jobs is expected in cities, but opportu nities should be good in rural areas. Nature of the Work Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to help improve people’s lives. Social workers help people function the bestfor way they can in their environment, deal with their relationships, Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and solve personal and family problems. Social workers often see clients who face a life-threatening disease or a social problem, such as inadequate housing, unemployment, a serious illness, a disability, or substance abuse. Social workers also assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, sometimes involving child or spousal abuse. Social workers often provide social services in health-related settings that now are governed by managed care organizations. To contain costs, these organizations emphasize short-term intervention, ambulatory and community-based care, and greater decentralization of services. Most social workers specialize. Although some conduct research or are involved in planning or policy development, most social work ers prefer an area of practice in which they interact with clients. Child, family, and school social workers provide social services and assistance to improve the social and psychological functioning of children and their families and to maximize the family well-being and academic functioning of children. Some social workers assist single parents, arrange adoptions, or help find foster homes for neglected, abandoned, or abused children. In schools, they address such problems as teenage pregnancy, misbehavior, and truancy and advise teachers on how to cope with problem students. Increasingly, school social work ers are teaching workshops to an entire class. Some social workers specialize in services for senior citizens, running support groups for family caregivers or for the adult children of aging parents, advising elderly people or family members about choices in areas such as hous ing, transportation, and long-term care, and coordinating and monitoring these services. Through employee assistance programs, they may help workers cope with job-related pressures or with personal problems that affect the quality of their work. Child, family, and school social workers typically work for individual and family services agencies, schools, or State or local governments. These social workers may be known as child welfare social workers, family services social workers, child protective services social workers, occupational social workers, or gerontology social workers. Medical and public health social workers provide persons, families, or vulnerable populations with the psychosocial support needed to cope with chronic, acute, or terminal illnesses, such as Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, or AIDS. They also advise family caregivers, counsel patients, and help plan for patients’ needs after discharge by arranging for at-home services, from meals-on-wheels to oxygen equipment. Some work on interdisciplinary teams that evaluate certain kinds of patients—geriatric or organ transplant pa tients, for example. Medical and public health social workers may work for hospitals, nursing and personal care facilities, individual and family services agencies, or local governments. Mental health and substance abuse social workers assess and treat individuals with mental illness or substance abuse problems, including abuse of alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs. Such services include individual and group therapy, outreach, crisis intervention, social rehabilitation, and training in skills of everyday living. They also may help plan for supportive services to ease patients’ return to the community. Mental health and substance abuse social workers are likely to work in hospitals, substance abuse treatment centers, individual and family services agencies, or local governments. These social workers may be known as clinical social workers. (Counselors and psychologists, who may provide similar services, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other types of social workers include social work planners and policymakers, who develop programs to address such is sues as child abuse, homelessness, substance abuse, poverty, and violence. These workers research and analyze policies, programs, and regulations. They identify social problems and suggest legisla tive and other solutions. They may help raise funds or write grants to support these programs. Professional and Related Occupations 197 Master’s degree programs prepare graduates for work in their chosen field of concentration and continue to develop the skills re quired to perform clinical assessments, manage large caseloads, take on supervisory roles, and explore new ways of drawing upon social services to meet the needs of clients. Master’s programs last 2 years and include a minimum of 900 hours of supervised field instruction, or internship. A part-time program may take 4 years. Entry into a master’s program does not require a bachelor’s degree in social work, but courses in psychology, biology, sociology, economics, political science, and social work are recommended. In addition, a second language can be very helpful. Most master s programs offer advanced standing for those with a bachelor’s degree from an Social workers often see clients who face inadequate housing, unemployment, serious illness, disability, or substance abuse. Working Conditions Full-time social workers usually work a standard 40-hour week; however, some occasionally work evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergencies. Some, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies, work part time. Social workers usually spend most of their time in an office or residential facility, but also may travel locally to visit clients, meet with service providers, or attend meetings. Some may use one of several offices within a local area in which to meet with clients. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Understaffing and large caseloads add to the pressure in some agencies. To tend to patient care or client needs, many hospitals and long-term care facilities are employing social work ers on teams with a broad mix of occupations, including clinical specialists, registered nurses, and health aides. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in social work (BSW) degree is the most common minimum requirement to qualify for a job as a social worker; however, majors in psychology, sociology, and related fields may qualify for some entry-level jobs, especially in small community agencies. Although a bachelor’s degree is sufficient for entry into the field, an advanced degree has become the standard for many positions. A master’s degree in social work (MSW) is typically required for positions in health settings and is required for clinical work as well. Some jobs in public and private agencies also may require an advanced degree, such as a master’s degree in social services policy or administration. Supervisory, administrative, and staff training positions usually require an advanced degree. College and university teaching positions and most research appointments normally require a doctorate in social work (DSW or Ph.D.). As of 2004, the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) ac credited 442 BSW programs and 168 MSW programs. The Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education (GADE) 1 isted 80 doctoral programs in social work (DSW or Ph.D.). BSW programs prepare graduates for direct service positions, such as caseworker, and include courses in social work values and ethics, dealing with a culturally di verse clientele, at-risk populations, promotion of social and economic justice, human behavior and the social environment, social welfare policy and services, social work practice, social research methods, and field education. Accredited BSW programs require a minimum 400 hours of supervised field experience. Digitized forof FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis accredited social work program. All States and the District of Columbia have licensing, certifica tion, or registration requirements regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. Although standards for licensing vary by State, a growing number of States are placing greater emphasis on communications skills, professional ethics, and sensitivity to cultural diversity issues. Most States require two years (3,000 hours) of supervised clinical experience for licensure of clinical social workers. In addition, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) offers voluntary credentials. Social workers with an MSW may be eligible for the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW), the Qualified Clinical Social Worker (QCSW), or the Diplomate in Clinical Social Work (DCSW) credential, based on their professional experience. Credentials are particularly impor tant for those in private practice; some health insurance providers require social workers to have them in order to be reimbursed for services. Social workers should be emotionally mature, objective, and sensitive to people and their problems. They must be able to handle responsibility, work independently, and maintain good working relationships with clients and coworkers. Volunteer or paid jobs as a social work aide offer ways of testing one’s interest in this field. Advancement to supervisor, program manager, assistant direc tor, or executive director of a social service agency or department is possible, but usually requires an advanced degree and related work experience. Other career options for social workers include teaching, research, and consulting. Some of these workers also help formulate government policies by analyzing and advocating policy positions in government agencies, in research institutions, and on legislators’ staffs. Some social workers go into private practice. Most private practitioners are clinical social workers who provide psycho therapy, usually paid for through health insurance or by the client themselves. Private practitioners must have at least a master’s degree and a period of supervised work experience. A network of contacts for referrals also is essential. Many private practitioners split their time between working for an agency or hospital and working in their private practice. They may continue to hold a position at a hospital or agency in order to receive health and life insurance. Employment Social workers held about 562,000 jobs in 2004. About 9 out of 10 jobs were in health care and social assistance industries, as well as State and local government agencies, primarily in departments of health and human services. Although most social workers are em ployed in cities or suburbs, some work in rural areas. The following tabulation shows 2004 employment by type of social worker: Child, family, and school social workers.............. Mental health and substance abuse social workers Medical and public health social workers............. Social workers, all other........................................ 272.000 116.000 110,000 64,000 198 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Competition for social worker jobs is expected in cities, where de mand for services often is highest and training programs for social workers are prevalent. However, opportunities should be good in rural areas, which often find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. By specialty, job prospects may be best for those social workers with a background in gerontology and substance abuse treatment. Employment of social workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. The rapidly growing elderly population and the aging baby boom generation will create greater demand for health and social services, resulting in particularly rapid job growth among gerontology social workers. Many job openings also will stem from the need to replace social workers who leave the occupation. As hospitals continue to limit the length of patient stays, the demand for social workers in hospitals will grow more slowly than in other areas. Because hospitals are releasing patients earlier than in the past, social worker employment in home health care services is growing. However, the expanding senior population is an even larger factor. Employment opportunities for social workers with backgrounds in gerontology should be good in the growing numbers of assisted-living and senior-living communities. The expanding senior population also will spur demand for social workers in nurs ing homes, long-term care facilities, and hospices. Strong demand is expected for substance abuse social work ers over the 2004-14 projection period. Substance abusers are increasingly being placed into treatment programs instead of being sentenced to prison. Because of the increasing numbers of individu als sentenced to prison or probation who are substance abusers, correctional systems are increasingly requiring substance abuse treatment as a condition added to their sentencing or probation. As this trend grows, demand will increase for treatment programs and social workers to assist abusers on the road to recovery. Employment of social workers in private social service agencies also will increase. However, agencies increasingly will restructure services and hire more lower paid social and human service assistants instead of social workers. Employment in State and local government agencies may grow somewhat in response to increasing needs for public welfare, family services, and child protection services; however, many of these services will be contracted out to private agencies. Employment levels in public and private social services agencies may fluctuate, depending on need and government funding levels. Employment of school social workers also is expected to grow as expanded efforts to respond to rising student enrollments and continued emphasis on integrating disabled children into the general school population lead to more jobs. There could be competition for school social work jobs in some areas because of the limited number of openings. The availability of Federal, State and local funding will be a major factor in determining the actual job growth in schools. Opportunities for social workers in private practice will expand, but growth may be somewhat hindered by restrictions that managed care organizations put on mental health services. The growing popularity of employee assistance programs is expected to spur demand for private practitioners, some of whom provide social work services to corpora tions on a contractual basis. However, the popularity of employee assistance programs will fluctuate with the business cycle, because businesses are not likely to offer these services during recessions. Earnings Median annual earnings of child, family, and school social workers were $34,820 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,840 and $45,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,130, and the top 10 percent earned more than $57,860. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of child, family, and school social workers in May 2004 were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Elementary and secondary schools............................................... $44,300 Local government ........................................................................ 40 620 State government ......................................................................... 35,070 Individual and family services...................................................... 30 680 Other residential care facilities..................................................... 30,550 Median annual earnings of medical and public health social work ers were $40,080 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $31,620 and $50,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,390, and the top 10 percent earned more than $58,740. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and public health social workers in May 2004 were: General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... $44,920 Home health care services............................................................ 42 710 Local government......................................................................... 39,390 Nursing care facilities................................................................... 35,680 Individual and family services...................................................... 32,100 Median annual earnings of mental health and substance abuse social workers were $33,920 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,730 and $43,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,590, and the top 10 percent earned more than $54,180. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of mental health and substance abuse social workers in May 2004 were: Psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals.................................... $36,170 Local government......................................................................... 35 720 Outpatient care centers.................................................................. 33,220 Individual and family services...................................................... 32 810 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities......................................................... 29 110 Median annual earnings of social workers, all other were $39,440 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,350 and $51,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,080, and the top 10 percent earned more than $62,720. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of social workers, all other in May 2004 were: Local government......................................................................... $42,570 State government............................................................................. 40,940 Individual and family services......................................................... 32,280 About 1 out of 5 social workers is a member of a union. Many belong to the union associated with their place of employment. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occupations with similar duties include the clergy, counselors, probation officers and correctional treatment specialists, psycholo gists, and social and human services assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in social work and vol untary credentials for social workers, contact: >- National Association of Social Workers, 750 First St. N.E., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20002-4241. Internet: http://www.socialworkers.org For a listing of accredited social work programs, contact: >- Council on Social Work Education, 1725 Duke St., Suite 500, Alexandria, VA 22314-3457. Internet: http://www.cswe.org Information on licensing requirements and testing procedures for each State may be obtained from State licensing authorities, or from: >- Association of Social Work Boards, 400 South Ridge Pkwy., Suite B, Culpeper, VA 22701. Internet: http://www.aswb.org Professional and Related Occupations 199 Legal Occupations Court Reporters (0*NET 23-2091.00) Significant Points • Job prospects are expected to be excellent as job open ings continue to outnumber jobseekers. • Demand for real-time and broadcast captioning and translating will spur employment growth. • The amount of training required to become a court reporter varies with the type of reporting chosen. • Job opportunities should be best for those with certifica tion. Nature of the Work Court reporters typically create verbatim transcripts of speeches, conversations, legal proceedings, meetings, and other events when written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspon dence, records, or legal proof. Court reporters play a critical role not only injudicial proceedings, but also at every meeting where the spoken word must be preserved as a written transcript. They are responsible for ensuring a complete, accurate, and secure legal record. In addition to preparing and protecting the legal record, many court reporters assist judges and trial attorneys in a variety of ways, such as organizing and searching for information in the official record or making suggestions to judges and attorneys regarding courtroom administration and procedure. Increasingly, court reporters are providing closed-captioning and real-time translating services to the deaf and hard-of-hearing community. There are several methods of court reporting. The most common method is called stenographic. Using a stenotype machine, stenotypists document all statements made in official proceedings, The machine allows them to press multiple keys at a time to record combinations of letters representing sounds, words, or phrases. These symbols are electronically recorded and then translated and displayed as text in a process called computer-aided transcription. Real-time court reporting is another method of court reporting, wherein stenotype machines used for real-time caption ing are linked directly to the computer. As the reporter keys in the symbols, they instantly appear as text on the screen. This process, called Communications Access Realtime Translation (CART), is used in courts, in classrooms, at meetings, and for closed caption ing for the hearing-impaired on television. Electronic reporting refers to the use of audio equipment to record court proceedings. The court reporter monitors the pro cess, takes notes to identify speakers, and listens to the recording to ensure clarity and quality. The equipment used may include analog tape recorders or digital equipment. Electronic reporters and transcribers often are responsible for producing a subsequent written transcript of the recorded proceeding. Another method of court reporting is called voice writing. Using the voice-writing method, a court reporter speaks directly into a voice silencer—a hand-held mask contain ing a microphone. As the reporter repeats the testimony into the recorder, the mask prevents the reporter from being heard testimony. Voice writers record everything that is said Digitized for during FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis by judges, witnesses, attorneys, and other parties to a proceed ing, including gestures and emotional reactions. Regardless of the method used, accuracy in court reporting is crucial because the court reporter is the only person creating an official transcript. In a judicial setting, for example, appeals often depend on the court reporter’s transcript. Some voice writers produce a transcript in real time, using com puter speech recognition technology. Other voice writers prefer to translate their voice files after the proceeding is over, or they transcribe the files manually, without using speech recognition at all. In any event, speech recognition-enabled voice writers pursue not only court reporting careers, but also careers as closed captioners, CART reporters for hearing-impaired individuals, and Internet streaming text providers or caption providers. Court reporters who use either the stenographic or voice-writ ing method are responsible for a number of duties both before and after transcribing events. First, they must create and maintain the computer dictionary that they use to translate stenographic strokes or voice files into written text. They may customize the dictionary Court reporters prepare written transcripts, make copies, and provide information from the transcripts to courts, counsels, parties, and the public. 200 Occupational Outlook Handbook with parts of words, entire words, or terminology specific to the pro ceeding, program, or event—such as a religious service—they plan to transcribe. After documenting proceedings, court reporters must edit their CAT translation for correct grammar, for accurate identifi cation of proper names and places, and to ensure that the record or testimony is discernible. They usually prepare written transcripts, make copies, and provide information from the transcript to courts, counsels, parties, and the public on request. Court reporters also develop procedures for easy storage and retrieval of all stenographic notes and voice files in paper or digital format. Although many court reporters record official proceedings in the courtroom, others work outside the courtroom. For example, they may take depositions for attorneys in offices and document proceed ings of meetings, conventions, and other private activities. Still others capture the proceedings taking place in government agencies at all levels, from the U.S. Congress to State and local governing bodies. Court reporters who specialize in captioning live television programming for people with hearing loss are commonly known as stenocaptioners. They work for television networks or cable stations, captioning news, emergency broadcasts, sporting events, and other programming. With CART and broadcast captioning, the level of understanding gained by a person with hearing loss depends entirely on the skill of the stenocaptioner. In an emergency, such as a tornado or a hurricane, people’s safety may depend on the accuracy of information provided in the form of captioning. Working Conditions The majority of court reporters work in comfortable settings, such as offices of attorneys, courtrooms, legislatures, and conventions. An increasing number of court reporters work from home-based offices as independent contractors, or freelancers. Work in this occupation presents few hazards, although sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring, and workers can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye strain. Workers also risk repetitive stress injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome. In addition, the pressure to be accurate and fast can be stressful. Many official court reporters work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed court reporters, or freelancers, usually work flexible hours, including part time, evenings, and weekends, or they may be on call. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The amount of training required to become a court reporter varies with the type of reporting chosen. It usually takes less than a year to become a voice writer, while electronic reporters and transcrib ers learn their skills on the job. In contrast, the average length of time it takes to become a stenotypist is 33 months. Training is offered by about 160 postsecondary vocational and technical schools and colleges. The National Court Reporters Association (NCRA) has approved about 70 programs, all of which offer courses in stenotype computer-aided transcription and real-time reporting. NCRA-approved programs require students to capture a minimum of 225 words per minute, a requirement for Federal Government employment as well. Some States require court reporters to be notary publics. Others require the Certified Court Reporter (CCR) designation, for which a reporter must pass a State test administered by a board of examiners. The NCRA confers the entry-level designation Registered Professional Reporter (RPR) upon those who pass a four-part examination and participate in mandatory continuing education programs. Although voluntary, the designation is recognized as a mark of distinction in the field. A reporter may obtain additional certifications that demonstrate higher levels of competency, such as Registered Merit Reporter (RMR) or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Registered Diplomate Reporter (RDR). The RDR is the highest level of certification available to court reporters. To earn it, a court reporter must either have 5 consecutive years of experience as an RMR or be an RMR and hold a 4-year bachelor’s degree. The NCRA also offers the designations Certified Realtime Re porter (CRR), Certified Broadcast Captioner (CBC), and Certified CART Provider (CCP). These designations promote and recognize competence in instantaneously converting the spoken word into the written word. Some States require voice writers to pass a test and to earn State licensure. As a substitute for State licensure, the National Verbatim Reporters Association offers three national certifications to voice writ ers: Certified Verbatim Reporter (CVR), the Certificate of Merit (CM), and Real-Time Verbatim Reporter (RVR). Earning these certifications is sufficient to be licensed in States where the voice method of court reporting is permitted. To get the CM or RVR, one must first earn the CVR. Candidates for the CVR must pass a written test covering spelling, punctuation, vocabulary, legal and medical terminology, and also must pass three 5-minute dictation and transcription examina tions that test for speed, accuracy, and silence. Passing the CM exam requires high levels of speed, knowledge, and accuracy. The RVR measures the candidate’s skill at real-time transcription. To retain these certifications, the voice writer must obtain continuing education credits. Credits are given for voice writer education courses, continu ing legal education courses, and college courses. The American Association of Electronic Reporters and Transcrib ers (AAERT) certifies electronic court reporters. Certification is voluntary and includes a written and a practical examination. To be eligible to take the exams, candidates must have at least 2 years of court reporting or transcribing experience, must be eligible for notary public commissions in their States, and must have completed high school. AAERT offers three types of certificates—Certified Elec tronic Court Reporter (CER), Certified Electronic Court Transcriber (CET), and Certified Electronic Court Reporter and Transcriber (CERT). Some employers may require electronic court reporters and transcribers to obtain certificates once they are eligible. In addition to possessing speed and accuracy, court reporters must have excellent listening skills, as well as good English grammar, vo cabulary, and punctuation skills. Voice writers must learn to listen and speak simultaneously and very quickly, while also identifying speak ers and describing peripheral activities in the courtroom or deposition room. They must be aware of business practices and current events as well as the correct spelling of names of people, places, and events that may be mentioned in a broadcast or in court proceedings. For those who work in courtrooms, an expert knowledge of legal terminology and criminal and appellate procedure is essential. Because capturing proceedings requires the use of computerized stenography or speech recognition equipment, court reporters must be knowledgeable about computer hardware and software applications. With experience and education, court reporters can advance to administrative and management, consulting, or teaching positions. Employment Court reporters held about 18,000 jobs in 2004. About 60 percent worked for State and local governments, a reflection of the large number of court reporters working in courts, legislatures, and various agencies. Most of the remaining wage and salary workers worked for court reporting agencies. Around 13 percent of court reporters were self-employed. Job Outlook Job opportunities for court reporters are expected to be excellent as job openings continue to outnumber jobseekers. Court reporters with certification should have the best job opportunities. The favorable job Professional and Related Occupations market reflects the fact that fewer people are entering this profession, particularly as stenographic typists. Employment of court reporters is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Demand for court reporter services will be spurred by the continuing need for accurate transcription of proceedings in courts and in pretrial depositions, and by the growing need to create captions for live or prerecorded television and to provide other real-time translating services for the deaf and hard-of-hearing community. Voice writ ers have become more widely accepted because of the difficulty in attracting workers and as the accuracy of speech recognition technology improves. Still, many courts allow only stenotypists to perform court reporting duties; as a result, demand for these highly skilled reporters will remain high. Federal legislation mandates that, by 2006, all new television programming must be captioned for the deaf and hard-of-hearing. In addition, the Americans with Disabilities Act gives deaf and hard-ofhearing students in colleges and universities the right to request access to real-time translation in their classes. Both of these factors are expected to increase demand for court reporters to provide real-time captioning and CART services. Although these services forgo transcripts and differ from traditional court reporting, which uses computer-aided transcrip tion to turn spoken words into permanent text, they require the same skills that court reporters learn in their training. Despite increasing numbers of civil and criminal cases, bud get constraints are expected to limit the ability of Federal, State, and local courts to expand, thereby also limiting the demand for traditional court reporting services in courtrooms and other legal venues. Further, because of the difficulty in attracting workers and in efforts to control costs, many courtrooms have installed tape recorders that are maintained by electronic court reporters and transcribers to record court proceedings. However, courts use electronic reporters and transcribers only in a limited capacity, and court reporters will continue to be used in felony trials and other proceedings. Despite the use of audiotape and videotape technol ogy, court reporters can quickly turn spoken words into readable, searchable, permanent text, and they will continue to be needed to produce written legal transcripts and proceedings for publication. Earnings Court reporters had median annual earnings of $42,920 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,680 and $60,760. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $23,690, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $80,300. Median an nual earnings in May 2004 were $41,070 for court reporters working in local government. Both compensation and compensation methods for court reporters vary with the type of reporting job, the experience of the individual reporter, the level of certification achieved, and the region of the country. Official court reporters earn a salary and a per-page fee for transcripts. Many salaried court reporters supplement their income by doing freelance work. Freelance court reporters are paid per job and receive a per-page fee for transcripts. CART providers are paid by the hour. Stenocaptioners receive a salary and benefits if they work as employees of a captioning company; stenocaptioners working as independent contractors are paid by the hour. Related Occupations Workers in several other occupations type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are secretaries and administrative assistants; medical transcriptionists; data entry and information pro cessing workers; receptionists and information clerks; and human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping. Other workers provide legal support include paralegals and legal assistants. Digitized for who FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 201 Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for court reporters. For information about careers, training, and certification in court reporting, contact: >■ National Court Reporters Association, 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vienna, VA22182. Internet: http://www.ncraonline.org >- United States Court Reporters Association, RO. Box 465, Chicago, IL 60690-0465. Internet: http://www.uscra.org ► National Verbatim Reporters Association, 207 Third Ave., Hattiesburg, MS 39401. Internet: http://www.nvra.org >- American Association of Electronic Reporters and Transcribers, 23812 Rock Circle, Bothell, WA 98021-8573. Internet: http://www.aaert.org Judges, Magistrates, and Other Judicial Workers (Q*NET 23-1021.00, 23-1022.00, 23-1023.00) Significant Points • • • A bachelor’s degree and work experience are the minimum requirements for a judgeship or magistrate position, but most workers filling these positions also have law degrees. Overall employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average, but varies by occupational specialty. Judges and magistrates are expected encounter compe tition for jobs because of the prestige associated with serving on the bench. Nature of the Work Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers apply the law and oversee the legal process in courts according to local, State, and Federal statutes. They preside over cases concerning every aspect of society, from traffic offenses to disputes over the management of professional sports to issues concerning the rights of huge corporations. All judicial workers must ensure that trials and hear ings are conducted fairly and that the court safeguards the legal rights of all parties involved. The most visible responsibility of judges is presiding over trials or hearings and listening as attorneys represent the parties present. Judges rule on the admissibility of evidence and the meth ods of conducting testimony, and they may be called on to settle disputes between opposing attorneys. Also, they ensure that rules and procedures are followed, and, if unusual circumstances arise for which standard procedures have not been established, judges interpret the law to determine the manner in which the trial will proceed. Judges often hold pretrial hearings for cases. They listen to allegations and determine whether the evidence presented merits a trial. In criminal cases, judges may decide that persons charged with crimes should be held in jail pending trial, or they may set conditions for their release. In civil cases, they occasionally impose restrictions on the parties until a trial is held. In many trials, juries are selected to decide guilt or innocence in criminal cases or liability and compensation in civil cases. Judges instruct juries on applicable laws, direct them to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdict. When the law does not require a jury trial or when the parties waive their right to a jury, judges decide cases. In such instances, the judge determines guilt in criminal cases and imposes sentences; in civil cases, the judge awards relief—such as compensation for damages to the 202 Occupational Outlook Handbook parties to the lawsuit, called litigants. Judges also work outside the courtroom in their chambers or private offices. There, judges read documents on pleadings and motions, research legal issues, write opinions, and oversee the court’s operations. In some jurisdictions, judges also manage the courts’ administrative and clerical staff. Judges’ duties vary according to the extent of their jurisdictions and powers. General trial court judges of the Federal and State court systems have jurisdiction over any case in their system. They usually try civil cases transcending the jurisdiction of lower courts and all cases involving felony offenses. Federal and State appellate courtjudges, al though few in number, have the power to ovenule decisions made by trial court or administrative lawjudges; appellate court judges exercise their power if they determine that legal errors were made in a case or if legal precedent does not support the judgment of the lower court. Appellate court judges rule on a small number of cases and rarely have direct contact with litigants. Instead, they usually base their decisions on lower court records and on lawyers’ written and oral arguments. Many State court judges preside in courts whose jurisdiction is limited by law to certain types of cases. A variety of titles are as signed to these judges; among the most common are municipal court judge, county courtjudge, magistrate, andjustice ofthe peace. Traffic violations, misdemeanors, small-claims cases, and pretrial hearings constitute the bulk of the work of State court judges, but some States allow these judges to handle cases involving domestic relations, probate, contracts, and other selected areas of the law. Administrative law judges, sometimes called hearing officers or adjudicators, are employed by government agencies to make determi nations for administrative agencies. These judges make decisions, for example, on a person’s eligibility for various Social Security or workers' compensation benefits, on protection of the environment, on the enforce ment of health and safety regulations, on employment discrimination, and on compliance with economic regulatory requirements. Arbitration, mediation, and conciliation—collectively called ap propriate dispute resolution (ADR)—are alternative processes that can be used to settle disputes between parties. All ADR hearings are private and confidential, and the processes are less formal than a court trial. If no settlement is reached through ADR, no state ments made during the proceedings are admissible as evidence in any subsequent litigation. There are two types of arbitration—compulsory and voluntary. Dur ing compulsory arbitration, opposing parties submit their dispute to one or more impartial persons, called arbitrators, for a final and non binding decision. Either party may reject the ruling and request a trial in court. Voluntary arbitration is a process in which opposing parties choose one or more arbitrators to hear their dispute and submit a final, binding decision. Arbitrators usually are attorneys or business persons with expertise in a particular field. The parties identify, in advance, the issues to be resolved by arbitration, the scope of the relief to be awarded, and many of the procedural aspects of the process. Mediation, or neutral evaluation, involves an attempt by the par ties to resolve their dispute with the aid of a neutral third party. This process generally is used when the parties wish to preserve their relationship. A mediator may offer suggestions, but resolution of the dispute rests with the parties themselves. Mediation proceedings also are confidential and private. If the parties are unable to reach a settle ment, they are free to pursue other options. The parties usually decide in advance how they will contribute to the cost of mediation. How ever, many mediators volunteer their services, or they may be court staff. Courts ask that voluntary mediators provide their services at the lowest possible rate and that parties split the cost. Depending on the type of case, court-referred community mediation centers may charge a small fee to the parties involved in mediation. Conciliation, or facilitation, is similar to mediation. The concilia tor’s role is to guide the parties to a settlement. The parties must decide https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Judges must ensure that trials and hearings are conductedfairly and that the court safeguards the legal rights of all parties involved. in advance whether they will be bound by the conciliator’s recommen dations; they generally share equally in the cost of the conciliation. Working Conditions Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. Work in these occupations presents few hazards, although sitting in the same position in the courtroom for long periods can be tiring. Most judges wear robes when they are in a courtroom. Judges typically work a standard 40-hour week, but many work more than 50 hours per week. Some judges with limited jurisdiction are employed part time and divide their time between their judicial responsibilities and other careers. Arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators usually work in private of fices or meeting rooms; no public record is made of the proceedings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree and work experience usually constitute the minimum requirements for a judgeship or magistrate position. A number of lawyers become judges, and most judges have first been lawyers. In fact, Federal and State judges usually are required to be lawyers. About 40 States allow nonlawyers to hold limitedjurisdiction judgeships, but opportunities are better for those with law experience. Federal administrative law judges must be lawyers and pass a competitive examination administered by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Some State administrative law judges and other hearing officials are not required to be lawyers. Federal administrative law judges are appointed by various Federal agencies, with virtually lifetime tenure. Federal mag istrate judges are appointed by district judges—the life-tenured Federal judges of district courts—to serve in a U.S. district court for 8 years. A part-time Federal magistrate judge’s term of office is 4 years. Some State judges are appointed, but the remainder are elected in partisan or nonpartisan State elections. Many State and local judges serve fixed renewable terms ranging from 4 or 6 years for some trial court judgeships to as long as 14 years or even life for other trial or appellate court judgeships. Judicial nominating commissions, composed of members of the bar and the public, are Professional and Related Occupations 203 used to screen candidates for judgeships in many States and for must gain political support to be elected or appointed, and getting some Federal judgeships. All States have some type of orientation for newly elected or appointed judges. The Federal Judicial Center, American Bar Association, National Judicial College, and National Center for State Courts provide judicial education and training forjudges and other judicial-branch personnel. General and continuing education courses usually last from a few days to 3 weeks in length. More than half of all States, as well as Puerto Rico, require judges to enroll in continuing education courses while serving on the bench. Training and education requirements for arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators differ from those forjudges. Mediators who practice in State-funded or court-funded mediation programs usually must meet specific training or experience standards, which vary by State and court. In most States, individuals who offer private mediation services do not need a license, certification, or specific coursework; however, many private mediators and most of those affiliated with mediation organizations and programs have completed mediation training and agreed to comply with certain ethical standards. For example, the American Arbitration Association (AAA) requires mediators listed on its mediation panel to complete an AAA training course, receive rec ommendations from the trainers, and complete an apprenticeship. Training for arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators is available through independent mediation programs, national and local me diation membership organizations, and postsecondary schools. In 2004,16 colleges or universities in the United States offered master’s degrees in dispute resolution or conflict management, and 2 offered doctoral degrees. Many more schools offer conflict-management specializations within other degree programs. Degrees in public policy, law, and related fields also provide good background for prospective arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators. that support can be expensive. Employment of arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Many individuals and businesses try to avoid litigation, which can involve lengthy delays, high costs, unwanted publicity, and ill will. Arbitration and other alternatives to litigation usually are faster, less expensive, and more conclusive, spurring demand for the services of arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators. Administra tive law judges also are expected to experience average growth in Employment Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers held 47,000 jobs in 2004. Judges, magistrates, and magistrate judges held 27,000 jobs, all in State and local governments. Administrative law judges, adju dicators, and hearing officers held about 16,000 jobs; 52 percent in State governments, 29 percent Federal Government, and 20 percent in local governments. Arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators held another 5,200 jobs. Approximately 40 percent worked for State and local governments. The remainder worked for labor organizations, law offices, insurance carriers, and other private companies and for or ganizations that specialize in providing dispute resolution services. Job Outlook Overall employment ofjudges, magistrates, and other judicial workers is projected to about as fast at the average for all occupations through 2014. Budgetary pressures at all levels of government will hold down the hiring of judges, despite rising caseloads, particularly in Federal courts. Most job openings will arise as judges retire. However, ad ditional openings will occur when new judgeships are authorized by law or when judges are elevated to higher judicial offices. Public concerns about crime and safety, as well as a public willingness to go to court to settle disputes, should spur demand forjudges. Both the quantity and the complexity of judges’ work have increased because of developments in information technol ogy, medical science, electronic commerce, and globalization. The prestige associated with serving on the bench will ensure continued competition forjudge and magistrate positions. However, a growing number of judges and candidates for judgeships are choosing to forgo the bench and work in the private sector, where pay is significantly higher. This movement may lessen the competition somewhat. Be coming a judge often is difficult because judicial candidates must Digitized forcompete FRASER with other qualified people and because they frequently https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis employment. Earnings Judges, magistrate judges, and magistrates had median annual earnings of $93,070 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,140 and $124,400. The top 10 percent earned more than $141,750, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $29,920. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of judges, magistrate judges, and magistrates in May 2004 were $111,810 in State government and $65,800 in local government. Administrative law judges, adjudicators, and hearing officers earned a median of $68,930, and arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators earned a median of $54,760. In the Federal court system, the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court earned $208,100 in 2005, and the Associate Justices earned $199,200. Federal court of appeals judges earned $171,800 a year, while district court judges had salaries of $162,100, as did judges in the Court of Federal Claims and the Court of International Trade. Federal judges with limited jurisdiction, such as magistrates and bankruptcy court judges, had salaries of $149,132. According to a 2004 survey by the National Center for State Courts, salaries of chief justices of State high courts averaged $130,461 and ranged from $95,000 to $191,483. Annual salaries of associate justices of the State highest courts averaged $126,159 and ranged from $95,000 to $175,575. Salaries of State intermediate ap pellate court judges averaged $122,682 and ranged from $94,212 to $164,604. Salaries of State judges of general jurisdiction trial courts averaged $113,504 and ranged from $88,164 to $158,100. Most salaried judges are provided health, life, and dental insur ance; pension plans; judicial immunity protection; expense accounts; vacation, holiday, and sick leave; and contributions to retirement plans made on their behalf. In many States, judicial compensation committees, which make recommendations on the amount of salary increases, determine judicial salaries. States without commissions have statutes that regulate judicial salaries, link judicial salaries to the increases in pay for Federal judges, or adjust annual pay according to the change in the Consumer Price Index, calculated by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Related Occupations Legal training and mediation skills are useful to those in many other occupations, including counselors; lawyers; paralegals and legal assistants; title examiners, abstractors, and searchers; law clerks; and detectives and criminal investigators. Sources of Additional Information Information on judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers may be obtained from: >• National Center for State Courts, 300 Newport Ave., Williamsburg, VA 23185-4147. Internet: http://www.ncsconline.org Information on arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators may be obtained from: ► American Arbitration Association, 335 Madison Ave., Floor 10, New York, NY 10017-4605. Internet: http://www.adr.org 204 Occupational Outlook Handbook Lawyers (0*NET 23-1011.00) Significant Points • Competition for job openings should be keen because of the large number of students graduating from law school each year. • Formal requirements to become a lawyer generally include a 4-year college degree, 3 years of law school, and passing a written bar examination; however, some requirements may vary by State. • Competition for admission to most law schools is intense. • About 3 out of 4 lawyers practiced privately, either as partners in law firms or in solo practices. Nature of the Work The legal system affects nearly every aspect of our society, from buying a home to crossing the street. Lawyers form the backbone of this vital system, linking it to society in numerous ways. For that reason, they hold positions of great responsibility and are obligated to adhere to a strict code of ethics. Lawyers, also called attorneys, act as both advocates and advisors in our society. As advocates, they represent one of the parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting evidence and arguing in court to support their client. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients concerning their legal rights and obligations and suggest particular courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as an advocate or an advisor, all attorneys research the intent of laws and judicial decisions and apply the law to the specific circumstances faced by their client. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field of specialization and position. Although all lawyers are licensed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more frequently than others. Trial lawyers, who specialize in trial work, must be able to think quickly and speak with ease and authority. In addition, familiarity with courtroom rules and strategy is particularly important in trial work. Still, trial lawyers spend the majority of their time outside the courtroom, conducting research, interviewing clients and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for a trial. Lawyers may specialize in a number of areas, such as bank ruptcy, probate, international, or elder law. Those specializing in environmental law, for example, may represent interest groups, waste disposal companies, or construction firms in their dealings with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other Federal and State agencies. These lawyers help clients prepare and file for licenses and applications for approval before certain activities may occur. In addition, they represent clients’ interests in administrative adjudications. Some lawyers specialize in the growing field of intellectual property, helping to protect clients’ claims to copyrights, artwork under contract, product designs, and computer programs. Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality of insurance transactions, guiding the company in writing insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect the companies from unwarranted claims. When claims are filed against insurance companies, these attorneys review the claims and represent the companies in court. Most lawyers are in private practice, concentrating on criminal or civil law. In criminal law, lawyers represent individuals who have been charged with crimes and argue their cases in courts of law. Attorneys https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis dealing with civil law assist clients with litigation, wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Other lawyers handle only public-interest cases—civil or criminal—which may have an impact extending well beyond the individual client. Lawyers are sometimes employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as “house counsel” and usually advises the company concerning legal issues related to its business activities. These issues might involve patents, govern ment regulations, contracts with other companies, property interests, or collective bargaining agreements with unions. A significant number of attorneys are employed at the various levels of government. Lawyers who work for State attorneys general, prosecutors, public defenders, and courts play a key role in the crimi nal justice system. At the Federal level, attorneys investigate cases for the U.S. Department of Justice and other agencies. Government lawyers also help develop programs, draft and interpret laws and legislation, establish enforcement procedures, and argue civil and criminal cases on behalf of the government. Other lawyers work for legal aid societies—private, nonprofit organizations established to serve disadvantaged people. These law yers generally handle civil, rather than criminal, cases. A relatively small number of trained attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more subjects; however, some serve as administrators. Others work full time in nonacademic settings and teach part time. (For additional information, see the Handbook section on teachers—postsecondary.) Lawyers are increasingly using various forms of technology to perform their varied tasks more efficiently. Although all lawyers continue to use law libraries to prepare cases, some supplement conventional printed sources with computer sources, such as the Internet and legal databases. Software is used to search this legal lit erature automatically and to identify legal texts relevant to a specific case. In litigation involving many supporting documents, lawyers may use computers to organize and index material. Lawyers also utilize electronic filing, videoconferencing, and voice-recognition technology to share information more effectively with other parties involved in a case. Working Conditions Lawyers do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. They sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places of busi ness and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They may travel to attend meetings, gather evidence, and appear before courts, legislative bodies, and other authorities. Lawyers research the intent of the laws and judicial decisions and apply the law to the specific circumstances faced by their client. Professional and Related Occupations Salaried lawyers usually have structured work schedules. Lawyers who are in private practice may work irregular hours while conduct ing research, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often work long hours, and of those who regularly work full time, about half work 50 hours or more per week. They may face particularly heavy pressure when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. Although legal work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Because lawyers in private practice often can determine their own workload and the point at which they will retire, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State or other jurisdiction, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules estab lished by the jurisdiction’s highest court. All States require that applicants for admission to the bar pass a written bar examina tion; most States also require applicants to pass a separate written ethics examination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one State occasionally may be admitted to the bar in another without taking an examination if they meet the latter jurisdiction’s standards of good moral character and a specified period of legal experience. In most cases, however, lawyers must pass the bar examination in each State in which they plan to practice. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifications for those practic ing before or in them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an appli cant usually must earn a college degree and graduate from a law school accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. ABA accreditation signifies that the law school—particularly its library and faculty—meets certain standards developed to promote quality legal education. As of 2005, there were 191 ABA-accreditcd law schools; others were approved by State authorities only. With certain exceptions, graduates of schools not approved by the ABA are restricted to taking the bar examina tion and practicing in the State or other jurisdiction in which the school is located; most of these schools are in California. In 2005, seven States—California, Maine, New York, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming—accepted the study of law in a law office as qualification for taking the bar examination; three jurisdic tions—California, the District of Columbia, and New Mexico—now accept the study of law by correspondence. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before the students enter law school or during their early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 48 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands require the 6-hour Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the overall bar examination; the MBE is not required in Louisiana or Washington. The MBE covers a broad range of issues, and sometimes a locally prepared State bar examination is given in addition to it. The 3-hour Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) is used as part of the bar examination in several States. States vary in their use of MBE and MEE scores. Many States also require Multistate Performance Testing (MPT) to test the practical skills of beginning lawyers. Requirements vary by State, although the test usually is taken at the same time as the bar exam and is a one-time requirement. The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate followed by 3 years of law school. Law school applicants Digitized forstudy, FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 205 must have a bachelor’s degree to qualify for admission. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divisions, which usually require 4 years of study; about 1 in 10 graduates from ABA-approved schools attended part time. Although there is no recommended “prelaw” major, prospective lawyers should develop proficiency in writing and speaking, reading, researching, analyzing, and thinking logically—skills needed to suc ceed both in law school and in the profession. Regardless of major, a multidisciplinary background is recommended. Courses in English, foreign languages, public speaking, government, philosophy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful. For example, prospective patent lawyers need a strong background in engineering or science, and future tax lawyers must have extensive knowledge of accounting. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good undergraduate grades, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the quality of the applicant’s undergraduate school, any prior work experience, and sometimes, a personal interview. However, law schools vary in the weight they place on each of these and other factors. All law schools approved by the ABA require applicants to take the LSAT. Nearly all law schools require applicants to have certified transcripts sent to the Law School Data Assembly Service, which then submits the applicants’ LSAT scores and their standardized records of college grades to the law schools of their choice. Both this service and the LSAT are administered by the Law School Admission Council. Competition for admission to many law schools—especially the most prestigious ones—generally is intense, with the number of applicants greatly exceeding the number that can be admitted. During the first year or year and a half of law school, students usually study core courses, such as constitutional law, contracts, prop erty law, torts, civil procedure, and legal writing. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporate law. Law students often acquire practical experience by participating in school-sponsored legal clinic activities; in the school’s moot court competitions, in which students conduct appel late arguments; in practice trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers and judges; and through research and writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. A number of law schools have clinical programs in which stu dents gain legal experience through practice trials and projects under the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clinics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part-time or summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and corporate legal departments also provide valuable experience. Such training can lead directly to a job after graduation and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships also may be an important source of financial aid. In 2004, law school graduates in 52 jurisdictions were required to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on pro fessional responsibility and judicial conduct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken during law school, usually after completing a course on legal ethics. Law school graduates receive the degree ofjuris doctor (J.D.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law degrees may be desir able for those planning to specialize, research, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which usually require an ad ditional semester or year of study. Joint degree programs are offered 206 Occupational Outlook Handbook in a number of areas, including law and business administration or public administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep informed about legal and nonlegal developments that affect their practices. Currently, 40 States and jurisdictions mandate continuing legal education (CLE). Many law schools and State and local bar associa tions provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent developments. Some States allow CLE credits to be obtained through participation in seminars on the Internet. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Indi viduals planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associates, and the public. Perseverance, creativity, and reasoning ability also are essential to lawyers, who often analyze complex cases and handle new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually start as associates and work with more experienced lawyers or judges. After several years of gaining more responsibilities, some lawyers are admitted to partnership in their firm or go into practice for themselves. Some experienced lawyers are nominated or elected to judgeships. (See the section on judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others become full-time law school faculty or administrators; a growing number of these lawyers have advanced degrees in other fields as well. Some attorneys use their legal training in administrative or managerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal department to another department often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. Employment Lawyers held about 735,000jobs in 2004. Approximately 3 out of 4 lawyers practiced privately, either as partners in law firms or in solo practices. Most salaried lawyers held positions in government or with corporations or nonprofit organizations. The greatest number of lawyers working in government were employed at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers work for many different agencies, but are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense. Many salaried lawyers working outside of government are employed as house counsel by public utilities, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing firms, and other busi ness firms and nonprofit organizations. Some also have part-time independent practices, while others work part time as lawyers and full time in another occupation. Job Outlook Employment of lawyers is expected to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through 2014, primarily as a result of growth in the population and in the general level of business activities. Job growth among lawyers also will result from increasing demand for legal services in such areas as health care, intellectual property, venture capital, energy, elder, antitrust, and environmental law. In addition, the wider availability and affordability of legal clinics should result in increased use of legal services by middle-income people. However, growth in demand for lawyers will be limited as businesses, in an effort to reduce costs, increasingly use large accounting firms and paralegals to perform some of the same func tions that lawyers do. For example, accounting firms may provide employee-benefit counseling, process documents, or handle various other services previously performed by a law firm. Also, mediation and dispute resolution increasingly are being used as alternatives to litigation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Competition for job openings should continue to be keen be cause of the large number of students graduating from law school each year. Graduates with superior academic records from highly regarded law schools will have the best job opportunities. Per haps as a result of competition for attorney positions, lawyers are increasingly finding work in nontraditional areas for which legal training is an asset, but not normally a requirement—for example, administrative, managerial, and business positions in banks, insurance firms, real estate companies, government agencies, and other organizations. Employment opportunities are expected to continue to arise in these organizations at a growing rate. As in the past, some graduates may have to accept positions in areas outside of their field of interest or for which they feel overqualified. Some recent law school graduates who have been unable to find permanent positions are turning to the growing num ber of temporary staffing firms that place attorneys in short-term jobs until they are able to secure full-time positions. This service allows companies to hire lawyers on an “as-needed” basis and per mits beginning lawyers to develop practical skills while looking for permanent positions. Because of the keen competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mobility and work experience assume greater importance. The willingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job, but to be licensed in another State, a lawyer may have to take an additional State bar examination. In addition, employers are increasingly seeking graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a specialty, such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Employment growth for lawyers will continue to be concen trated in salaried jobs, as businesses and all levels of government employ a growing number of staff attorneys and as employment in the legal services industry grows. Most salaried positions are in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. The number of self-employed lawyers is expected to decrease slowly, reflecting the difficulty of establishing a profitable new practice in the face of competi tion from larger, established law firms. Moreover, the growing complexity of law, which encourages specialization, along with the cost of maintaining up-to-date legal research materials, favors larger firms. For lawyers who wish to work independently, establishing a new practice will probably be easiest in small towns and expand ing suburban areas. In such communities, competition from larger, established law firms is likely to be less keen than in big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients. Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, demand declines for some discre tionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves, and these establish ments may even cut staff to contain costs. Several factors, how ever, mitigate the overall impact of recessions on lawyers; during recessions, for example, individuals and corporations face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces requiring legal action. Earnings Lawyers In May 2004, the median annual earnings of all lawyers were $94,930. The middle half of the occupation earned between $64,620 and $143,620. Median annual earnings in the industries Professional and Related Occupations employing the largest numbers of lawyers in May 2004 were as follows: Paralegals and Legal Assistants (0*NET 23-2011.00) Management of companies and enterprises............................... $ 126,250 Federal Government.................................................................... 108,090 Legal services.................................................................................. 99,580 Local government ......................................................................... 73,410 State government .......................................................................... 70,280 80,000 60,000 44,700 40,000 Source: National Association of Law Placement Salaries of experienced attorneys vary widely according to the type, size, and location of their employer. Lawyers who own their own practices usually earn less than those who are partners in law firms. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations to supplement their income until their practice is well established. Most salaried lawyers are provided health and life insurance, and contributions are made to retirement plans on their behalf. Lawyers who practice independently are covered only if they arrange and pay for such benefits themselves. Related Occupations Legal training is necessary in many other occupations, including paralegals and legal assistants; law clerks; title examiners, abstrac tors, and searchers; and judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on law schools and a career in law may be obtained from the following organizations: >- American Bar Association, 321 North Clark St., Chicago, IL 60610. Internet: http://www.abanet.org > National Association for Law Placement, 1025 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 1110, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nalp.org Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Ser vice, the law school application process, and financial aid available to law students may be obtained from: >- Law School Admission Council, P.O. Box 40, Newtown, PA 18940. Internet: http://www.lsac.org Information on obtaining positions as lawyers with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Manage ment through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interac tive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. The requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State or other jurisdiction also may be obtained at the State capital, from the clerk of the Supreme Court, or from the administrator of the State Digitized forBoard FRASER of Bar Examiners. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ___ Significant Points About 7 out of 10 work for law firms; others work for corporate legal departments and government agencies. • Most entrants have an associate’s degree in paralegal studies, or a bachelor’s degree coupled with a certifi cate in paralegal studies. Employment is projected to grow much faster than average, as employers try to reduce costs by hiring paralegals to perform tasks formerly carried out by lawyers. Competition for jobs should continue; experienced, for mally trained paralegals should have the best employ ment opportunities. • Type of work Private practice.............................................................................. Business/industry.......................................................................... Judicial clerkship and government................................................ Academe....................................................................................... ________________ • Median salaries of lawyers 9 months after graduation from law school in 2004 varied by type of work, as indicated in table 1. Table 1. Median salaries of lawyers 9 months after graduation, 2004 All graduates................................................................................. $55,000 207 • Nature of the Work While lawyers assume ultimate responsibility for legal work, they often delegate many of their tasks to paralegals. In fact, parale gals—also called legal assistants—are continuing to assume a grow ing range of tasks in the Nation’s legal offices and perform many of the same tasks as lawyers. Nevertheless, they are still explicitly prohibited from carrying out duties that are considered to be the practice of law, such as setting legal fees, giving legal advice, and presenting cases in court. One of a paralegal’s most important tasks is helping lawyers pre pare for closings, hearings, trials, and corporate meetings. Paralegals investigate the facts of cases and ensure that all relevant information is considered. .-They also identify appropriate laws, judicial deci sions, legal articles, and other materials that are relevant to assigned cases. After they analyze and organize the information, paralegals may prepare written reports that attorneys use in determining how cases should be handled. Should attorneys decide to file lawsuits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal arguments, draft pleadings and motions to be filed with the court, obtain affida vits, and assist attorneys during trials. Paralegals also organize and track files of all important case documents and make them available and easily accessible to attorneys. In addition to this preparatory work, paralegals perform a num ber of other vital functions. For example, they help draft contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and instruments of trust. They also may assist in preparing tax returns and planning estates. Some paralegals coordinate the activities of other law office employees and maintain financial office records. Various additional tasks may differ, depending on the employer. Paralegals are found in all types of organizations, but most are employed by law firms, corporate legal departments, and various government offices. In these organizations, they can work in many different areas of the law, including litigation, personal injury, cor porate law, criminal law, employee benefits, intellectual property, labor law, bankruptcy, immigration, family law, and real estate. As the law has become more complex, paralegals have responded by becoming more specialized. Within specialties; functions often are broken down further so that paralegals may deal with a specific area. For example, paralegals specializing in labor law may con centrate exclusively on employee benefits. The duties of paralegals also differ widely with the type of organization in which they are employed. Paralegals who work for corporations often assist attorneys with employee contracts, 208 Occupational Outlook Handbook shareholder agreements, stock-option plans, and employee benefit plans. They also may help prepare and file annual financial reports, maintain corporate minutes’ record resolutions, and prepare forms to secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals often monitor and review government regulations to ensure that the corporation is aware of new requirements and is operating within the law. Increasingly, experi enced paralegals are assuming additional supervisory responsibilities such as overseeing team projects and serving as a communications link between the team and the corporation. The duties of paralegals who work in the public sector usually vary within each agency. In general, paralegals analyze legal mate rial for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for at torneys, and collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings. They may prepare informative or explanatory material on laws, agency regulations, and agency policy for general use by the agency and the public. Paralegals employed in community legal-service proj ects help the poor, the aged, and others who are in need of legal assistance. They file forms, conduct research, prepare documents, and, when authorized by law, may represent clients at administra tive hearings. Paralegals in small and medium-size law firms usually perform a variety of duties that require a general knowledge of the law. For example, they may research judicial decisions on improper police arrests or help prepare a mortgage contract. Paralegals employed by large law firms, government agencies, and corporations, however, are more likely to specialize in one aspect of the law. Familiarity with computers use and technical knowledge have become essential to paralegal work. Computer software packages and the Internet are used to search legal literature stored in computer databases and on CD-ROM. In litigation involving many supporting documents, paralegals usually use computer databases to retrieve, organize, and index various materials. Imaging software allows paralegals to scan documents directly into a database, while bill ing programs help them to track hours billed to clients. Computer software packages also are used to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of various tax strategies for clients. 3'*’ «u?<i ' ' >• m Hi t . Paralegals prepare written reports that attorneys use in determining how cases should be handled. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Paralegals employed by corporations and government usually work a standard 40-hour week. Although most paralegals work year round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year and then are released when the workload diminishes. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes work very long hours when they are under pressure to meet deadlines. Some law firms reward such loyalty with bonuses and additional time off. These workers handle many routine assignments, particu larly when they are inexperienced. As they gain experience, paralegals usually assume more varied tasks with additional responsibility. Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to become a paralegal. The most common is through a community college paralegal program that leads to an associate’s degree. The other common method of entry, mainly for those who already have a college degree, is through a program that leads to a certification in paralegal studies. A small number of schools also offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees in paralegal studies. Some employers train paralegals on the job, hiring college graduates with no legal experience or promoting experienced legal secretaries. Other entrants have experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice or in criminal justice, nursing, or health administration for personal injury practice. An estimated 1,000 colleges and universities, law schools, and proprietary schools offer formal paralegal training programs. Ap proximately 260 paralegal programs are approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). Although many programs do not require such approval, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for admission to these programs vary. Some require certain college courses or a bachelor’s degree, others accept high school graduates or those with legal experience, and a few schools require standard ized tests and personal interviews. Paralegal programs include 2-year associate degree’s programs, 4-year bachelor’s degree programs, and certificate programs that can take only a few months to complete. Most certificate programs provide intensive and, in some cases, specialized paralegal training for individuals who already hold college degrees, while associate’s and bachelor’s degree programs usually combine paralegal training with courses in other academic subjects. The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better programs usually include job placement services. Programs generally offer courses introducing students to the legal applications of computers, including how to perform legal research on the Internet. Many paralegal training programs also offer an internship in which students gain practi cal experience by working for several months in a private law firm, the office of a public defender or attorney general, a bank, a corporate legal department, a legal aid organization, or a govern ment agency. Experience gained in internships is an asset when one is seeking a job after graduation. Prospective students should examine the experiences of recent graduates before enrolling in a paralegal program. Although most employers do not require certification, earn ing a voluntary certificate from a professional society may offer advantages in the labor market. The National Association of Legal Assistants (NALA), for example, has established standards for certification requiring various combinations of education and experience. Paralegals who meet these standards are eligible to Professional and Related Occupations take a 2-day examination, given three times each year at several regional testing centers. Those who pass this examination may use the Certified Legal Assistant (CLA) designation. The NALA also offers an advanced paralegal certification for those who want to spe cialize in other areas of the law. In addition, the Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, administered through the National Federation of Paralegal Associations, offers professional recognition to paralegals with a bachelor’s degree and at least 2 years of experience. Those who pass this examination may use the Registered Paralegal (RP) designation. Paralegals must be able to document and present their findings and opinions to their supervising attorney. They need to under stand legal terminology and have good research and investigative skills. Familiarity with the operation and applications of computers in legal research and litigation support also is important. Paralegals should stay informed of new developments in the laws that affect their area of practice. Participation in continuing legal education seminars allows paralegals to maintain and expand their knowledge of the law. Because paralegals frequently deal with the public, they should be courteous and uphold the ethical standards of the legal profession. The National Association of Legal Assis tants, the National Federation of Paralegal Associations, and a few States have established ethical guidelines for paralegals to follow. Paralegals usually are given more responsibilities and require less supervision as they gain work experience. Experienced para legals who work in large law firms, corporate legal departments, or government agencies may supervise and delegate assignments to other paralegals and clerical staff. Advancement opportunities also include promotion to managerial and other law-related posi tions within the firm or corporate legal department. However, some paralegals find it easier to move to another law firm when seeking increased responsibility or advancement. Employment Paralegals and legal assistants held about 224,000jobs in 2004. Pri vate law firms employed 7 out of 10 paralegals and legal assistants; most of the remainder worked for corporate legal departments and various levels of government. Within the Federal Government, the U.S. Department of Justice is the largest employer, followed by the Social Security Administration and the U.S. Department of the Treasury. A small number of paralegals own their own businesses and work as freelance legal assistants, contracting their services to attorneys or corporate legal departments. Job Outlook Employment for paralegals and legal assistants is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Employers are trying to reduce costs and increase the availability and efficiency of legal services by hiring paralegals to perform tasks formerly carried out by lawyers. Besides new jobs created by employment growth, additional job openings will arise as people leave the occupation. Despite projections of rapid employment growth, competition for jobs should continue as many people seek to go into this profession; however, experienced, formally trained paralegals should have the best employment opportunities. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals, but a growing array of other organizations, such as corporate legal departments, insurance companies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks hire paralegals. Corporations in particular are boosting their in-house legal departments to cut costs. Demand for paralegals also is expected to grow as an ex https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 209 panding population increasingly requires legal services, especially in areas such as intellectual property, health care, international law, elder issues, criminal law, and environmental law. Paralegals who specialize in areas such as real estate, bankruptcy, medical malpractice, and product liability should have ample employ ment opportunities. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for legal services. Paralegal employment is expected to increase as organizations presently employing paralegals assign them a growing range of tasks and as paralegals are increasingly employed in small and medium-size establishments. A growing number of experienced paralegals are expected to establish their own businesses. Job opportunities for paralegals will expand in the public sector as well. Community legal-service programs, which provide assis tance to the poor, elderly, minorities, and middle-income families, will employ additional paralegals to minimize expenses and serve the most people. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business cycle. During recessions, demand declines for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Corporations are less inclined to initiate certain types of litigation when falling sales and profits lead to fis cal belt tightening. As a result, full-time paralegals employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off or have their work hours reduced. However, during recessions, corpora tions and individuals are more likely to face other problems that require legal assistance, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces. Paralegals, who provide many of the same legal services as lawyers at a lower cost, tend to fare relatively better in difficult economic conditions. Earnings Earnings of paralegals and legal assistants vary greatly. Sal aries depend on education, training, experience, the type and size of employer, and the geographic location of the job. In general, paralegals who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. In addition to earning a sal ary, many paralegals receive bonuses. In May 2004, full-time wage and salary paralegals and legal assistants had median annual earnings, including bonuses, of $39,130. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,040 and $49,950. The top 10 percent earned more than $61,390, while the bottom 10 per cent earned less than $25,360. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of paralegals in May 2004 were as follows: Federal Government..................................................................... $59,370 Local government ........................................................................ 38,260 Legal services............................................................................... 37,870 State government ......................................................................... 34,910 Related Occupations Among the other occupations that call for a specialized understand ing of the law and the legal system, but do not require the extensive training of a lawyer, are law clerks; title examiners, abstractors, and searchers; claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators; and occupational health and safety specialists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a paralegal can be obtained from: 210 Occupational Outlook Handbook >- Standing Committee on Paralegals, American Bar Association, 321 North Clark St., Chicago, IL 60610. Internet: http://www.abanet.org/legalservices/paralegals For information on the Certified Legal Assistant exam, schools that offer training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for paralegals, contact: ► National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1516 South Boston St., Suite 200, Tulsa, OK 74119. Internet: http://www.nala.org Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer training programs, job postings for paralegals, the Paralegal Advanced Compe tency Exam, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from: >- National Federation of Paralegal Associations, 2517 Eastlake Ave. East, Suite 200, Seattle, WA 98102. Internet: http://www.paralegals.org Information on paralegal training programs, including the pamphlet How to Choose a Paralegal Education Program, may be obtained from: ► AmericanAssociation for Paralegal Education, 19 Mantua Rd., Mt. Royal, NJ 08061. Internet: http://www.aafpe.org Information on obtaining positions as paralegals and legal as sistants with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Govern ment’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 -8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Education, Training, Library, and Museum Occupations Archivists, Curators, and Museum Technicians (0*NET 25-4011.00, 25-4012.00, 25-4013.00) Significant Points • Most worked in museums, historical sites, and similar institutions; educational institutions; or in Federal, State, or local government. • A graduate degree and related work experience gener ally are required. • Keen competition is expected for most jobs because qualified applicants generally outnumber job openings. Nature of the Work Archivists, curators, and museum technicians acquire and preserve important documents and other valuable items for permanent storage or display. They work for museums, governments, zoos, colleges and universities, corporations, and other institutions that require experts to preserve important records. They also describe, catalogue, analyze, exhibit, and maintain valuable objects and collections for the benefit of researchers and the public. These documents and collections may include works of art, transcripts of meetings, coins and stamps, living and preserved plants and animals, and historic objects, buildings, and sites. Archivists and curators plan and oversee the arrangement, cata loguing, and exhibition of collections and, along with technicians and conservators, maintain collections. Archivists and curators may coordinate educational and public outreach programs, such as tours, workshops, lectures, and classes, and may work with the boards of institutions to administer plans and policies. They also may research topics or items relevant to their collections. Although some duties of archivists and curators are similar, the types of items they deal with differ: curators usually handle objects with cultural, biological, or historical significance, such as sculptures, textiles, and paintings, while archivists handle mainly records and docu ments that are retained because of their importance and potential value in the future. Archivists collect, organize, and maintain control over a wide range of information deemed important enough for permanent safekeeping. This information takes many forms: photographs, films, video and sound recordings, computer tapes, and video and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis optical disks, as well as more traditional paper records, letters, and documents. Archivists work for a variety of organizations, including government agencies, museums, historical societies, corporations, and educational institutions that use or generate records of great potential value to researchers, exhibitors, genealogists, and others who would benefit from having access to original source material. Archivists maintain records in accordance with accepted standards and practices that ensure the long-term preservation and easy retrieval of the documents. Records may be saved on any medium, including paper, film, videotape, audiotape, electronic disk, or computer. They also may be copied onto some other format to protect the original and to make the records more accessible to researchers who use them. As various storage media evolve, archivists must keep abreast of technological advances in electronic information storage. Archivists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can more accurately determine which records in that area qualify for retention and should become part of the archives. Archivists also may work with specialized forms of records, such as manuscripts, electronic records, photographs, cartographic records, motion pic tures, and sound recordings. Computers are increasingly being used to generate and maintain archival records. Professional standards for the use of computers in handling archival records are still evolving. Expanding computer capabilities that allow more records to be stored and exhibited electronically have transformed, and are expected to continue to transform, many aspects of archival collections. Curators administer the affairs of museums, zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, nature centers, and historic sites. The head curator of the museum is usually called the museum director. Curators direct the acquisition, storage, and exhibition of collections, including negotiating and authorizing the purchase, sale, exchange, or loan of collections. They are also responsible for authenticating, evaluating, and categorizing the specimens in a collection. Curators oversee and help conduct the institution’s research projects and re lated educational programs. Today, an increasing part of a curator’s duties involves fundraising and promotion, which may include the writing and reviewing of grant proposals, journal articles, and publicity materials, as well as attendance at meetings, conventions, and civic events. Most curators specialize in a particular field, such as botany, art, paleontology, or history. Those working in large institutions may be highly specialized. A large natural-history museum, for example, would employ separate curators for its collections of birds, fishes, insects, and mammals. Some curators maintain their collec tions, others do research, and others perform administrative tasks. Professional and Related Occupations In small institutions with only one or a few curators, one curator may be responsible for a number of tasks, from maintaining collections to directing the affairs of the museum. Conservators manage, care for, preserve, treat, and document works of art, artifacts, and specimens—work that may require sub stantial historical, scientific, and archaeological research. They use x rays, chemical testing, microscopes, special lights, and other labora tory equipment and techniques to examine objects and determine their condition, their need for treatment or restoration, and the appropriate method for preserving them. Conservators document their findings and treat items to minimize their deterioration or to restore them to their original state. Conservators usually specialize in a particular material or group of objects, such as documents and books, paintings, decorative arts, textiles, metals, or architectural material. Museum technicians assist curators by performing various preparatory and maintenance tasks on museum items. Some mu seum technicians also may assist curators with research. Archives technicians help archivists organize, maintain, and provide access to historical documentary materials. Working Conditions The working conditions of archivists and curators vary. Some spend most of their time working with the public, providing refer ence assistance and educational services. Others perform research or process records, which often means working alone or in offices with only a few people. Those who restore and install exhibits or ' ‘1/3: —I Archivists organize and maintain documents such as photographs, manuscripts, and letters. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 211 work with bulky, heavy record containers may lift objects, climb, or stretch. Those in zoos, botanical gardens, and other outdoor museums and historic sites frequently walk great distances. Curators who work in large institutions may travel extensively to evaluate potential additions to the collection, organize exhibitions, and conduct research in their area of expertise. However, travel is rare for curators employed in small institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist, conservator, or curator usually requires graduate education and related work experience. While complet ing their formal education, many archivists and curators work in archives or museums to gain the “hands-on” experience that many employers seek. Although archivists earn a variety of undergraduate degrees, a graduate degree in history or library science, with courses in archival science, is preferred by most employers. Also, a few institutions now offer master’s degrees in archival studies. Some positions may require knowledge of the discipline related to the collection, such as business or medicine. Many colleges and universities offer courses or practical training in archival science as part of their history, library science; or other curriculum. The Academy of Certified Archivists offers voluntary certification for archivists. The designation “Certi fied Archivist” is obtained by those with at least a master’s degree and a year of appropriate archival experience. The certification process requires candidates to pass a written examination, and they must renew their certification periodically. Archivists need research and analytical ability to understand the content of documents and the context in which they were created and to decipher deteriorated or poor-quality printed matter, handwritten manuscripts, photographs, or films. A background in preservation management is often required of archivists because they are respon sible for taking proper care of their records. Archivists also must be able to organize large amounts of information and write clear instructions for its retrieval and use. In addition, computer skills and the ability to work with electronic records and databases are very important. Because electronic records are becoming the prevalent form of recordkeeping, and archivists must create searchable databas es, a knowledge of Web technology is increasingly being required. Many archives, including one-person shops, are very small and have limited opportunities for promotion. Archivists typically ad vance by transferring to a larger unit that has supervisory positions. A doctorate in history, library science, or a related field may be needed for some advanced positions, such as director of a State archive. For employment as a curator, most museums require a master’s degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum’s specialty—art, history, or archaeology—or in museum studies. Many employers prefer a doctoral degree, particularly for curators in natural history or science museums. Earning two graduate degrees—in museum studies (museology) and a specialized subject—gives a candidate a distinct advantage in thi s competitive j ob market. In small museums, curatorial positions may be available to individuals with a bachelor’s degree. For some positions, an internship of full-time museum work supplemented by courses in museum practices is needed. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. For historic and artistic conservation, courses in chemistry, physics, and art are desirable. Because curators—particularly those in small museums—may have administrative and managerial responsibilities, courses in business administration, public relations, marketing, and fundraising also are recommended. Like archivists, curators need computer skills and the ability to work with electronic databases. Many curators are responsible for posting information on the Internet, so they also need to be familiar with digital imaging, scanning technology, and copyright law. 212 Occupational Outlook Handbook Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of duties, among which are the design and presentation of exhibits. In small museums, curators need manual dexterity to build exhibits or restore objects. Leadership ability and business skills are important for museum directors, while marketing skills are valuable in increasing museum attendance and fundraising. In large museums, curators may advance through several levels of responsibility, eventually becoming the museum director. Curators in smaller museums often advance to larger ones. Individual re search and publications are important for advancement in larger institutions. When hiring conservators, employers look for a master’s degree in conservation or in a closely related field, together with substantial experience. There are only a few graduate programs in museum con servation techniques in the United States. Competition for entry to these programs is keen; to qualify, a student must have a background in chemistry, archaeology or studio art, and art history, as well as work experience. For some programs, knowledge of a foreign language also is helpful. Conservation apprenticeships or internships as an undergraduate can enhance one’s admission prospects. Graduate programs last 2 to 4 years, the latter years of which include internship training. A few individuals enter conservation through apprentice ships with museums, nonprofit organizations, and conservators in private practice. Apprenticeships should be supplemented with courses in chemistry, studio art, and history. Apprenticeship train ing, although accepted, is a more difficult route into the conservation profession. Museum technicians usually need a bachelor’s degree in an ap propriate discipline of the museum’s specialty, training in museum studies, or previous experience working in museums, particularly in the design of exhibits. Similarly, archives technicians usually need a bachelor’s degree in library science or history, or relevant work experience. Technician positions often serve as a steppingstone for individuals interested in archival and curatorial work. Except in small museums, a master’s degree is needed for advancement. Relatively few schools grant a bachelor’s degree in museum studies. More common are undergraduate minors or tracks of study that are part of an undergraduate degree in a related field, such as art history, history, or archaeology. Students interested in further study may obtain a master’s degree in museum studies, offered in colleges and universities throughout the country. However, many employers feel that, while museum studies are helpful, a thorough knowledge of the museum’s specialty and museum work experience are more important. Continuing education, which enables archivists, curators, and museum technicians to keep up with developments in the field, is available through meetings, conferences, and workshops sponsored by archival, historical, and museum associations. Some larger organizations, such as the National Archives, offer such training in-house. archivists. State and local governments also have numerous historical museums, parks, libraries, and zoos employing curators. Some large corporations that have archives or record centers employ archivists to manage the growing volume of records created or main tained as required by law or necessary to the firms’ operations. Religious and fraternal organizations, professional associations, conservation organizations, major private collectors, and research firms also employ archivists and curators. Conservators may work under contract to treat particular items, rather than as regular employees of a museum or other institution. These conservators may work on their own as private contractors, or they may work as an employee of a conservation laboratory or regional conservation center that contracts their services to museums. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected for most jobs as archivists, curators, and museum technicians because qualified applicants generally outnumber job openings. Graduates with highly specialized train ing, such as master’s degrees in both library science and history, with a concentration in archives or records management and ex tensive computer skills, should have the best opportunities for jobs as archivists. A curator job also is attractive to many people, and many applicants have the necessary training and knowledge of the subject, but there are only a few openings. Consequently, candidates may have to work part time, as an intern, or even as a volunteer as sistant curator or research associate after completing their formal education. Substantial work experience in collection management, research, exhibit design, or restoration, as well as database manage ment skills, will be necessary for permanent status. The job outlook for conservators may be more favorable, particu larly for graduates of conservation programs. However, competition is stiff for the limited number of openings in these programs, and applicants need a technical background. Conservation program graduates with knowledge of a foreign language and a willingness to relocate will have an advantage over less qualified candidates. Employment of archivists, curators, and museum technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Jobs are expected to grow as public and private or ganizations emphasize establishing archives and organizing records and information and as public interest in science, art, history, and technology increases. Museum and zoo attendance has experienced a drop in recent years because of a weak economy, but the long-term trend has been a rise in attendance, and this trend is expected to continue. There is healthy public and private support for and interest in museums, which will generate demand for archivists, curators, and museum technicians. However, museums and other cultural institu tions can be subject to cuts in funding during recessions or periods of budget tightening, reducing demand for these workers. Although the rate of turnover among archivists and curators is relatively low, the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or stop working will create some additional job openings. Employment Archivists, curators, and museum technicians held about 27,000jobs in 2004. About 34 percent were employed in museums, historical sites, and similar institutions, and 16 percent worked for State and private educational institutions, mainly college and university libraries. Nearly 28 percent worked in Federal, State, and local government, excluding educational institutions. Most Federal archivists work for the National Archives and Records Administration; others manage military archives in the U.S. Department of Defense. Most Federal Government cura tors work at the Smithsonian Institution, in the military museums of the Department of Defense, and in archaeological and other museums and historic sites managed by the U.S. Department of the Interior. All State governments have archival or historical-record sections employing https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of archivists in May 2004 were $36,470. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,900 and $46,480. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,780, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,260. Median annual earnings of curators in May 2004 were $43,620. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,790 and $58,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,360, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $77,490. Median annual earnings of museum technicians and conservators in May 2004 were $31,820. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,770 and $43,020. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 18,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,260. Professional and Related Occupations In 2005, the average annual salary for archivists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial posi tions was $75,876; for museum curators, $76,126; for museum specialists and technicians, $55,291; and for archives technicians, $41,347. Related Occupations The skills that archivists, curators, and museum technicians use in preserving, organizing, and displaying objects or information of historical interest are shared by artists and related workers; librar ians; and anthropologists and archeologists, historians, and other social scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information on archivists and on schools offering courses in archival studies, contact: >- Society of American Archivists, 527 South Wells St., 5th floor, Chicago, IL 60607-3922. Internet: http://www.archivists.org For general information about careers as a curator and schools offering courses in museum studies, contact: >- American Association of Museums, 1575 Eye St. NW., Suite 400, Wash ington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aam-us.org For information about careers and education programs in con servation and preservation, contact: >■ American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://aic.stanford.edu For information about archivists and archivist certification, contact: >• Academy of Certified Archivists, 48 Howard St., Albany, NY 12207. Internet: http://www.certifledarchivists.org For information about government archivists, contact: > National Association of Government Archivists and Records Administra tors, 48 Howard St., Albany, NY 12207. Internet: http://wvvw.nagara.org Information on obtaining positions as archivists, curators, and museum technicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Fed eral Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461 -8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. 213 in implementing new technology in the classroom. Instructional coordinators often specialize in specific subjects, such as reading, language arts, mathematics, or social studies. Instructional coordinators evaluate how well a school or training program’s curriculum, or plan of study, meets students’ needs. They research teaching methods and techniques and develop procedures to determine whether program goals are being met. To aid in their evaluation, they may meet with members of educational commit tees and advisory groups to learn about subjects—English, history, or mathematics, for example—and to relate curriculum materials to these subjects, to students’ needs, and to occupations for which these subjects are good preparation. They also may develop ques tionnaires and interview school staff about the curriculum. Based on their research and observations of instructional practice, they recommend instruction and curriculum improvements. Another duty some instructional coordinators have is to review textbooks, software, and other educational materials and make rec ommendations on purchases. They monitor materials ordered and the ways in which teachers use them in the classroom. They also supervise workers who catalogue, distribute, and maintain a school’s educational materials and equipment. Instructional coordinators develop effective ways to use tech nology to enhance student learning. They monitor the introduc tion of new technology, including the Internet, into a school’s curriculum. In addition, instructional coordinators might recom mend installing educational computer software, such as interactive books and exercises designed to enhance student literacy and develop math skills. Instructional coordinators may invite experts—such as computer hardware, software, and library or media specialists—into the classroom to help integrate technological materials into a school’s curriculum. Many instructional coordinators plan and provide onsite educa tion for teachers and administrators. They may train teachers about the use of materials and equipment or help them to improve their skills. Instructional coordinators also mentor new teachers and train experienced ones in the latest instructional methods. This role becomes especially important when a school district introduces new content, program innovations, or a different organizational structure. For example, when a State or school district introduces standards or tests that must be met by students in order to pass to the next grade, instructional coordinators often must advise teachers on the content of the standards and provide instruction on implementing the standards in the classroom. Instructional Coordinators (Q*NET 25-9031.00) Significant Points • • • 4*44 Many instructional coordinators have experience as teachers or education administrators. A bachelor’s degree is the minimum educational re quirement, but a graduate degree is preferred. The need to meet new educational standards will create more demand for instructional coordinators to train teachers and develop new materials. 44 . Nature of the Work Instructional coordinators, also known as curriculum specialists, staff development specialists, or directors of instructional mate rial, play a large role in improving the quality of education in the classroom. They develop curricula, select textbooks and other ma terials, train teachers, and assess educational programs in terms of quality and adherence to regulations and standards. They also assist https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Instructional coordinators work with teachers and administrators to develop new curricula and methods of teaching. 214 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Instructional coordinators, including those employed by school dis tricts, often work year round, usually in offices or classrooms. Some spend much of their time traveling between schools meeting with teachers and administrators. The opportunity to shape and improve instructional curricula and work in an academic environment can be satisfying. However, some instructional coordinators find the work stressful because the occupation requires continual accountability to school administrators and it is not uncommon for people in this occupation to work long hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for instructional coordina tors is a bachelor’s degree, usually in education. Most employers, however, prefer candidates with a master’s or higher degree. State licensing is necessary for instructional coordinators in public school systems, although specific requirements vary by State. In some States, a teaching license is needed, while in others instructional coordinators need an education administrator license. Instructional coordinators should have training in curriculum development and instruction, or in the specific field for which they are responsible, such as mathematics or history. Instructional coordinators must have a good understanding of how to teach specific groups of students, in addition to expertise in developing educational materials. As a result, many persons transfer into instructional coordinator jobs after working for several years as teachers. Work experience in an education administrator position, such as principal or assistant principal, also can be beneficial. Helpful college courses may include those in curriculum develop ment and evaluation, instructional approaches, or research design, which teaches how to create and implement research studies to determine the effectiveness of a given method of instruction or cur riculum , or to measure and improve student performance. Moreover, instructional coordinators usually are required to take continuing education courses to keep their skills current. Topics for continu ing education courses may include teacher evaluation techniques, curriculum training, new teacher induction, consulting and teacher support, and observation and analysis of teaching. Instructional coordinators must be able to make sound decisions about curriculum options and to organize and coordinate work efficiently. They should have strong interpersonal and communica tion skills. Familiarity with computer technology also is important for instructional coordinators, who are increasingly involved in gathering and coordinating technical information for students and teachers. Depending on experience and educational attainment, instructional coordinators may advance to higher administrative positions in a school system, or to management or executive positions in private industry. instrumental in developing new curricula to meet the demands of a changing society and in training the teacher workforce. Although budget constraints may limit employment growth to some extent, a continuing emphasis on improving the quality of education is expected to result in an increasing demand for these workers. Also, as an increased emphasis on accountability at all levels of govern ment causes more schools to focus on improving educational quality and student performance, growing numbers of coordinators will be needed to incorporate the standards into existing curricula and make sure teachers and administrators are informed of the changes. Op portunities are expected to be best for those who specialize in subject areas that have been targeted for improvement by the No Child Left Behind Act—namely, reading, math, and science. Instructional coordinators also will be needed to provide classes on using technology in the classroom, to keep teachers up-todate on changes in their fields, and to demonstrate new teaching techniques. Additional job growth for instructional coordinators will stem from the increasing emphasis on lifelong learning and on programs for students with special needs, including those for whom English is a second language. These students often require more educational resources and consolidated planning and management within the educational system. Earnings Median annual earnings of instructional coordinators in May 2004 were $48,790. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,940 and $65,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $81,210. Related Occupations Instructional coordinators are professionals involved in education and training and development, which requires organizational, admin istrative, teaching, research, and communication skills. Occupations with similar characteristics include preschool, kindergarten, elemen tary, middle, and secondary school teachers; postsecondary teachers; education administrators; counselors; and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Sources of Additional Information Information on requirements and job opportunities for instructional coordinators is available from local school systems and State depart ments of education. Librarians (C>*NET 25-4021.00) Employment Instructional coordinators held about 117,000 jobs in 2004. More than 2 in 5 worked for local governments, mainly in public schools and school district offices. One in 5 worked in private education, primarily in private elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schools and educational consulting firms. About 1 in 5 worked for State gov ernments in public colleges and universities or State departments of education. The remainder worked mostly in the following industries: Individual and family services; child day care services; scientific research and development services; and management, scientific, and technical consulting services. Significant Points • A master’s degree in library science usually is required; special librarians may need an additional graduate or professional degree. • A large number of retirements in the next decade is expected to result in many job openings for librarians to replace those who leave. • Librarians increasingly use information technology to perform research, classify materials, and help students and library patrons seek information. Job Outlook Employment of instructional coordinators is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Over the next decade, instructional coordinators will be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The traditional concept of a library is being redefined from a place to access paper records or books to one that also houses the most Professional and Related Occupations advanced media, including CD-ROM, the Internet, virtual librar ies, and remote access to a wide range of resources. Consequently, librarians, or information professionals, increasingly are com bining traditional duties with tasks involving quickly changing technology. Librarians assist people in finding information and us ing it effectively for personal and professional purposes. Librarians must have knowledge of a wide variety of scholarly and public information sources and must follow trends related to publish ing, computers, and the media in order to oversee the selection and organization of library materials. Librarians manage staff and develop and direct information programs and systems for the public, to ensure that information is organized in a manner that meets users’ needs. Most librarian positions incorporate three aspects of library work: User services, technical services, and administrative services. Still, even librarians specializing in one of these areas have other responsibilities. Librarians in user services, such as reference and children’s librarians, work with patrons to help them find the information they need. The job involves analyzing users’ needs to determine what information is appropriate, as well as searching for, acquiring, and providing the information. The job also includes an instructional role, such as showing users how to access information. For example, librarians commonly help users navigate the Internet so they can search for relevant information efficiently. Librarians in technical services, such as acquisitions and cataloguing, acquire and prepare materials for use and often do not deal directly with the public. Librarians in administrative services oversee the management and planning of libraries: negotiate contracts for services, materials, and equip ment; supervise library employees; perform public-relations and fundraising duties; prepare budgets; and direct activities to ensure that everything functions properly. In small libraries or information centers, librarians usually handle all aspects of the work. They read book reviews, publishers’ announcements, and catalogues to keep up with current literature and other available resources, and they select and purchase ma terials from publishers, wholesalers, and distributors. Librarians prepare new materials by classifying them by subject matter and describe books and other library materials to make them easy to find. Librarians supervise assistants, who prepare cards, computer records, or other access tools that direct users to resources. In large libraries, librarians often specialize in a single area, such as acqui sitions, cataloguing, bibliography, reference, special collections, or administration. Teamwork is increasingly important to ensure quality service to the public. Librarians also compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual materials on particular subjects; analyze collections; and recommend materials. They collect and organize books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. In addition, they coordinate programs such as storytelling for children and literacy skills and book talks for adults, conduct classes, publicize services, provide reference help, write grants, and oversee other administrative matters. Librarians are classified according to the type of library in which they work: A public library; school library media center; college, university, or other academic library; or special library. Some li brarians work with specific groups, such as children, young adults, adults, or the disadvantaged. In school library media centers, librarians—often called school media specialists—help teachers develop curricula, acquire materials for classroom instruction, and sometimes team teach. Librarians also work in information centers or libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional associations, unions, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 215 medical centers, hospitals, religious organizations, and research laboratories. They acquire and arrange an organization’s informa tion resources, which usually are limited to subjects of special interest to the organization. These special librarians can provide vital information services by preparing abstracts and indexes of current periodicals, organizing bibliographies, or analyzing background information and preparing reports on areas of par ticular interest. For example, a special librarian working for a corporation could provide the sales department with information on competitors or new developments affecting the field. A medical librarian may provide information about new medical treatments, clinical trials, and standard procedures to health professionals, patients, consumers, and corporations. Government document librarians, who work for government agencies and depository libraries in each of the States, preserve government publications, records, and other documents that make up a historical record of government actions. Many libraries have access to remote databases and maintain their own computerized databases. The widespread use of automation in libraries makes database-searching skills important to librarians. Li brarians develop and index databases and help train users to develop searching skills for the information they need. Some libraries are forming consortiums with other libraries to allow patrons to access a wider range of databases and to submit information requests to several libraries simultaneously. The Internet also has greatly ex panded the amount of available reference information. Librarians must be aware of how to use these resources in order to locate information. Librarians with computer and information systems skills can work as automated-systems librarians, planning and operating com puter systems, and as information architects, designing information storage and retrieval systems and developing procedures for collect ing, organizing, interpreting, and classifying information. These librarians analyze and plan for future information needs. (See the section on computer scientists and database administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) The increasing use of automated information sys tems is enabling librarians to focus on administrative and budgeting responsibilities, grant writing, and specialized research requests, while delegating more technical and user services responsibilities to technicians. (See the section on library technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) More and more, librarians are applying their information man agement and research skills to arenas outside of libraries—for nformation UMKlt ■i )!*<*»«***•>■. |fcj SSI unnimHH Librarians provide research assistance to patrons and help them to find needed resources. 216 Occupational Outlook Handbook example, database development, reference tool development, information systems, publishing, Internet coordination, market ing, web content management and design, and training of data base users. Entrepreneurial librarians sometimes start their own consulting practices, acting as freelance librarians or information brokers and providing services to other libraries, businesses, or government agencies. Working Conditions Librarians spend a significant portion of time at their desks or in front of computer terminals; extended work at video display terminals can cause eyestrain and headaches. Assisting users in obtaining information or books for their jobs, homework, or rec reational reading can be challenging and satisfying, but working with users under deadlines can be demanding and stressful. Some librarians lift and carry books, and some climb ladders to reach high stacks, although most modem libraries have readily acces sible stacks. Librarians in small organizations sometimes shelve books themselves. More than 2 out of 10 librarians work part time. Public and col lege librarians often work weekends and evenings, as well as some holidays. School librarians usually have the same workday and vacation schedules as classroom teachers. Special librarians usu ally work normal business hours, but in fast-paced industries—such as advertising or legal services—they can work longer hours when needed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in library science (MLS) is necessary for librar ian positions in most public, academic, and special libraries and in some school libraries. The Federal Government requires that the librarians it employs have an MLS or the equivalent in education and experience. Many colleges and universities offer MLS pro grams, but employers often prefer graduates of the approximately 56 schools accredited by the American Library Association. Most MLS programs require a bachelor’s degree, but no specific under graduate program is required. Most MLS programs take one year to complete; some take two. A typical graduate program includes courses in the founda tions of library and information science, including the history of books and printing, intellectual freedom and censorship, and the role of libraries and information in society. Other basic courses cover the selection and processing of materials, the or ganization of information, reference tools and strategies, and user services. Courses are adapted to educate librarians to use new resources brought about by advancing technology, such as online reference systems, Internet search methods, and automated circu lation systems. Course options can include resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloguing, indexing, and abstract ing; library administration; and library automation. Computerrelated course work is an increasingly important part of an MLS degree. Some programs offer interdisciplinary degrees combining technical courses in information science with traditional training in library science. The MLS degree provides general preparation for library work, but some individuals specialize in a particular area, such as reference, technical services, or children’s services. A Ph.D. degree in library and information science is advantageous for a college teaching posi tion or for a top administrative job in a college or university library or large library system. In addition to an MLS degree, most special librarians supple ment their education with knowledge of the field in which they are specializing, sometimes earning a master’s, doctoral, or pro fessional degree in the subject. Areas of specialization include https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis medicine, law, business, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. For example, a librarian working for a law firm may also be a licensed attorney, holding both library science and law degrees, while medical librarians should have a strong background in the sciences. In some jobs, knowledge of a foreign language is needed. States generally have certification requirements for librarians in public schools and local libraries, though there are wide variations among States. Many require school librarians, often called library media specialists, to be certified as teachers in addition to having courses in library science. An MLS is needed in some States, often with a library media specialization, while in others a master’s in education with a specialty in school library media or educational media is needed. Twenty-four States also require certification of librarians employed in local library systems, while several others have voluntary certification guidelines. Librarians participate in continuing education and training, once they are on the job, in order to keep abreast of new information systems brought about by changing technology. Experienced librarians can advance to administrative positions, such as department head, library director, or chief information of ficer. Employment Librarians held about 159,000 jobs in 2004. Most worked in school and academic libraries, but one-fourth worked in public libraries. The remainder worked in special libraries or as information professionals for companies and other organizations. Job Outlook Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period. However, job opportunities are expected to be very good because a large num ber of librarians are expected to retire in the coming decade. More than 3 in 5 librarians are aged 45 or older and will become eligible for retirement in the next 10 years, which will result in many job openings. Also, the number of people going into this profession has fallen in recent years, resulting in more jobs than applicants in some cases. Growth in the number of librarians will be limited by govern ment budget constraints and the increasing use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems. Both will result in the hiring of fewer librarians and the replacement of librarians with less costly library technicians and assistants. Computerized systems make cataloguing easier, allowing library technicians to perform the work. In addition, many libraries are equipped for users to access library computers directly from their homes or offices. That way, users can bypass librarians altogether and conduct research on their own. However, librarians will still be needed to manage staff, help users develop database-searching techniques, address complicated reference requests, and define users’ needs. Jobs for librarians outside traditional settings will grow the fastest over the decade. Nontraditional librarian jobs include work ing as information brokers and working for private corporations, nonprofit organizations, and consulting firms. Many companies are turning to librarians because of their research and organizational skills and their knowledge of computer databases and library auto mation systems. Librarians can review vast amounts of information and analyze, evaluate, and organize it according to a company’s specific needs. Librarians also are hired by organizations to set up information on the Internet. Librarians working in these set tings may be classified as systems analysts, database specialists and trainers, webmasters or web developers, or local area network (LAN) coordinators. Professional and Related Occupations 217 Earnings Salaries of librarians vary according to the individual’s qualifica tions and the type, size, and location of the library. Librarians with primarily administrative duties often have greater earnings. Me dian annual earnings of librarians in May 2004 were $45,900. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,980 and $56,960. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,930, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,200. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of librarians in May 2004 were as follows: Library Technicians (Q*NET 25-4031.00) Significant Points • Training requirements range from a high school di ploma to an associate degree, but computer skills are necessary for all workers. • Increasing use of computerized circulation and infor mation systems should continue to spur job growth, but many libraries’ budget constraints should moderate growth. • Employment should grow rapidly in special libraries because growing numbers of professionals and other workers use those libraries. Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... $47,830 Elementary and secondary schools............................................... 47,580 Local government......................................................................... 42,500 Other information services............................................................ 40,000 The average annual salary for all librarians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $74,630 in 2005. About three in ten librarians are a member of a union or are covered under a union contract. Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organiza tional, and communication skills include archivists, curators, and museum technicians; and computer and information scientists, research. School librarians have many duties similar to those of school teachers. Librarians are increasingly storing, cataloguing, and accessing information with computers. Other jobs that use similar computer skills include systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a librarian and information on ac credited library education programs and scholarships, contact: >- American Library Association, Office for Human Resource Develop ment and Recruitment, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org For information on a career as a special librarian, contact: >- Special Libraries Association,331 South Patrick St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.sla.org For information on a career as a law librarian, scholarship infor mation, and a list of ALA-accredited schools offering programs in law librarianship, contact: >- American Association of Law Libraries, 53 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 940, Chicago, IL 60604. Internet: http://www.aallnet.org For information on employment opportunities for health sciences librarians and for scholarship information, credentialing information, and a list of MLA-accredited schools offering programs in health sciences librarianship, contact: >• Medical Library Association, 65 East Wacker Place, Suite 1900, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.mlanet.org Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress can be obtained directly from: > Human Resources Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE., Washington, DC 20540-2231. Internet: http://www.loc.gov/hr State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships available through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the particular State of interest. Several of these agencies maintain job hot lines reporting openings for librarians. State departments of education can furnish information on certi fication requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Library technicians both help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material and assist users in finding information. Library technicians usually work under the supervision of a librarian, although they work independently in certain situations. Technicians in small libraries handle a range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. As libraries increasingly use new technologies—such as CD-ROM, the Internet, virtual libraries, and automated databases—the duties of library technicians will expand and evolve accordingly. Library technicians are assuming greater responsibilities, in some cases tak ing on tasks previously performed by librarians. (See the section on librarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on the employer, library technicians can have other titles, such as library technical assistant or media aide. Library technicians direct library users to standard references, organize and maintain periodicals, prepare volumes for binding, handle interli brary loan requests, prepare invoices, perform routine cataloguing and coding of library materials, retrieve information from computer databases, and supervise support staff. The widespread use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems has resulted in technicians handling technical services—such as entering catalogue information into the library’s computer—that were once performed by librarians. Technicians assist with customizing databases. In addition, technicians in struct patrons in how to use computer systems to access data. The increased automation of recordkeeping has reduced the amount of clerical work performed by library technicians. Many libraries now offer self-service registration and circulation areas with computers, decreasing the time library technicians spend manually recording and inputting records. Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equipment, such as projectors, tape and CD players, and DVD and videocassettc players, and assist users with microfilm or microfiche readers. They also design posters, bulletin boards, or displays. Library technicians in school libraries encourage and teach students to use the library and media center. They also help teachers obtain instructional materials, and they assist students with special assignments. Some work in special libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional societies, medical centers, and research laboratories, where they conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the organization. To extend library services to more patrons, many libraries operate bookmobiles, often run by library technicians. The technicians take 218 Occupational Outlook Handbook trucks stocked with books, or bookmobiles, to designated sites on a regular schedule, frequently stopping at shopping centers, apart ment complexes, schools, and nursing homes. Bookmobiles also may be used to extend library service to patrons living in remote areas. Depending on local conditions, the technicians may operate a bookmobile alone or may be accompanied by another library employee. Library technicians who drive bookmobiles are responsible for answering patrons’ questions, receiving and checking out books, collecting fines, maintaining the book collection, shelving materials, and occasionally operating audiovisual equipment to show slides or films. They participate, and may assist, in planning programs spon sored by the library, such as reader advisory programs, used-book sales, or outreach programs. Technicians who drive the bookmobile keep track of their mileage, the materials lent out, and the amount of fines collected. In some areas, they are responsible for maintenance of the vehicle and any photocopiers or other equipment in it. They record statistics on circulation and the number of people visiting the bookmobile. Technicians also may record requests for special items from the main library and arrange for the materials to be mailed or delivered to a patron during the next scheduled visit. Many bookmobiles are equipped with personal computers and CD-ROM systems linked to the main library system, allowing technicians to reserve or locate books immediately. Some bookmobiles now offer Internet access to users. Working Conditions Technicians answer questions and provide assistance to library users. Those who prepare library materials sit at desks or computer terminals for long periods and can develop headaches or eyestrain from working with the terminals. Some duties, like calculating circu lation statistics, can be repetitive and boring. Others, such as perform ing computer searches with the use of local and regional library net works and cooperatives, can be interesting and challenging. Library technicians may lift and carry books, climb ladders to reach high stacks, and bend low to shelve books on bottom shelves. Library technicians in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (aca demic) libraries also work weekends, evenings and some holidays. Library technicians in special libraries usually work normal business hours, although they often work overtime as well. The schedules of library technicians who drive bookmobiles de pend on the size of the area being served. Some bookmobiles operate every day, while others go only on certain days. Some bookmobiles operate in the evenings and weekends, to give patrons as much access to the library as possible. Because library technicians who operate bookmobiles may be the only link some people have to the library, much of their work consists of helping the public. They may assist handicapped or elderly patrons to the bookmobile or shovel snow to ensure their safety. They may enter hospitals or nursing homes to deliver books to patrons who are bedridden. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library technicians vary widely, rang ing from a high school diploma to specialized postsecondary training. Some employers hire individuals with work experi ence or other training; others train inexperienced workers on the job. Many employers prefer to hire technicians who have an associate degree or some other postsecondary training. Given the rapid spread of automation in libraries, computer skills are a necessity, with knowledge of databases, library automation systems, online library systems, online public access systems, and circulation systems particularly valuable. Many bookmobile drivers are required to have a commercial driver’s license. Some community colleges offer an associate degree or certifi cate programs designed for library technicians. Programs include both liberal arts and library-related study. Students learn about library and media organization and operation, as well as how to order, process, catalogue, locate, and circulate library materials and work with library automation. Libraries and associations offer continuing education courses to keep technicians abreast of new developments in the field. Library technicians usually advance by assuming added responsibilities. For example, technicians often start at the circula tion desk, checking books in and out. After gaining experience, they may become responsible for storing and verifying information. As they advance, they may become involved in budget and personnel matters in their departments. Some library technicians advance to supervisory positions and are in charge of the day-to-day operation of their departments. Employment Library technicians held about 122,000 jobs in 2004; almost half worked in county or municipal public libraries. Most of the rest worked in school or academic libraries, while some worked in spe cial libraries for health and legal services. The Federal Government employs library technicians primarily at the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Library of Congress. Job Outlook -v,iWS < ■sBfSBHwaasiii mm Library technicians assist patrons with routine requests and handle the circulation of library materials. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of library technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to jobs opening up through employment growth, some job openings will result from the need to replace library technicians who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force. The increasing use of library automation is expected to con tinue to spur job growth among library technicians. Computerized information systems have simplified certain tasks, such as descrip tive cataloguing, which can now be handled by technicians instead of librarians. For example, technicians now can easily retrieve information from a central database and store it in the library’s computer. Although efforts to contain costs could dampen employ ment growth of library technicians in school, public, and college and university libraries, cost containment efforts could also result in hiring more library technicians than librarians. Growth in the number of professionals and other workers who use special libraries should result in good job opportunities for library technicians in those settings. Professional and Related Occupations Earnings Median annual earnings of library technicians in May 2004 were $24,940. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,640 and $32,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,760, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $40,730. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of library technicians in May 2004 were as follows: Colleges, universities, and professional schools.... .........................$28,940 Local government..............................................................................23,560 Other information services.................................................................22,550 Elementary and secondary schools....................................................22,510 Salaries of library technicians in the Federal Government aver aged $39,647 in 2005. Related Occupations Library technicians perform organizational and administrative duties. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include library assistants, clerical; information and record clerks; and medi cal records and health information technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on training programs for library/media technical assistants, write to: >• American Library Association, Office for Human Resource Development and Recruitment, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress can be obtained directly from: >• Human Resources Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE., Washington, DC 20540-2231. Internet: http://www.loc.gov/hr State library agencies can furnish information on requirements for technicians and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job hot lines reporting openings for library technicians. State departments of education can furnish information on require ments and job opportunities for school library technicians. 219 Some teacher assistants perform exclusively noninstructional or clerical tasks, such as monitoring nonacademic settings. Playground and lunchroom attendants are examples of such assistants. Most teacher assistants, however, perform a combination of instructional and clerical duties. They generally provide instructional reinforce ment to children, under the direction and guidance of teachers. They work with students individually or in small groups—listening while students read, reviewing or reinforcing class lessons, or helping them find information for reports. At the secondary school level, teacher assistants often specialize in a certain subject, such as math or science. Teacher assistants often take charge of special projects and prepare equipment or exhibits, such as for a science demonstration. Some assistants work in computer laboratories, help ing students using computers and educational software programs. In addition to instructing, assisting, and supervising students, teacher assistants grade tests and papers, check homework, keep health and attendance records, do typing and filing, and duplicate materials. They also stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. Many teacher assistants work extensively with special education students. As schools become more inclusive, integrating special edu cation students into general education classrooms, teacher assistants in both general education and special education classrooms increas ingly assist students with disabilities. Teacher assistants attend to a disabled student’s physical needs, including feeding, teaching good grooming habits, or assisting students riding the schoolbus. They also provide personal attention to students with other special needs, such as those who speak English as a second language, or those who need remedial education. Teacher assistants help assess a student’s progress by observing performance and recording relevant data. While the majority of teacher assistants work in primary and secondary educational settings, others work in preschools and other child care centers. Often one or two assistants will work with a lead teacher in order to better provide the individual attention that young children require. In addition to assisting in educational instruction, they also supervise the children at play and assist in feeding and other basic care activities. Teacher Assistants (Q*NET 25-9041.00) Significant Points • About 4 in 10 teacher assistants work part time. • Educational requirements range from a high school diploma to some college training. • Workers with experience in helping special education students, or who can speak a foreign language, will be especially in demand. Nature of the Work Teacher assistants provide instructional and clerical support for class room teachers, allowing teachers more time for lesson planning and teaching. Teacher assistants tutor and assist children in learning class material using the teacher’s lesson plans, providing students with indi vidualized attention. Teacher assistants also supervise students in the cafeteria, schoolyard, and hallways, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, and help prepare materials for instruction. Teacher assistants also are called teacher aides or instructional aides. Some as sistants refer to themselves as paraeducators or paraprofessionals. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis f. t r m Teacher assistants work with small groups of students to help them learn skills such as reading comprehension. 220 Occupational Outlook Handbook Teacher assistants also work with infants and toddlers who have developmental delays or other disabilities. Under the guidance of a teacher or therapist, teacher assistants perform exercises or play games to help the child develop physically and behaviorally. Some teacher assistants work with young adults to help them obtain a job or to apply for community services for the disabled. Employment Working Conditions Job Outlook Approximately 4 in 10 teacher assistants work part time. However, even among full-time workers, about 16 percent work less than 40 hours per week. Most assistants who provide educational instruction work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year. Teacher assistants work in a va riety of settings—including preschools, child care centers, and religious and community centers, where they work with young adults—but most work in classrooms in elementary, middle, and secondary schools. They also work outdoors supervising recess when weather allows, and they spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. Seeing students develop and gain appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, working closely with students can be both physically and emotionally tiring. Teacher assistants who work with special education students often perform more strenuous tasks, including lifting, as they help students with their daily routine. Those who perform clerical work may tire of administrative duties, such as copying materials or typing. Employment of teacher assistants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. In addition to job openings stemming from employment growth, numerous openings will arise as assistants leave their jobs and must be replaced. Many assistant jobs require limited formal education and offer relatively low pay so each year many transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force to assume family responsibilities, to return to school, or for other reasons. School enrollments are projected to increase only slowly over the next decade, but special education students and students for whom English is not their first language—the student populations for which teacher assistants are most needed—are expected to grow faster and increase as a share of the total school-age population. Legislation that requires students with disabilities and non-native English speak ers to receive an education “equal” to that of other students, will continue to generate jobs for teacher assistants to accommodate these students’ special needs. Children with special needs require much personal attention, and special education teachers, as well as general education teachers with special education students, rely heavily on teacher assistants. The greater focus on quality and accountability that has been placed on education in recent years also is likely to lead to an in creased demand for teacher assistants. Growing numbers of teacher assistants may be needed to help teachers prepare students for standardized testing and to provide extra assistance to students who perform poorly on standardized tests. This growth may be moder ated, however, as schools are encouraged to allocate resources to hiring more full teachers for instructional purposes. An increasing number of after-school programs and summer programs also will create new opportunities for teacher assistants. Opportunities for teacher assistant jobs are expected to be best for persons with at least 2 years of formal education after high school. Persons who can speak a foreign language should be in particular demand in school systems with large numbers of students whose families do not speak English at home. Demand is expected to vary by region of the country. Areas in which the population and school enrollments are expected to grow faster, such as many communities in the South and West, should have rapid growth in the demand for teacher assistants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher assistants vary by State or school district and range from a high school diploma to some col lege training, although employers increasingly prefer applicants with some college training. Teacher assistants with instructional responsibilities usually require more training than do those who do not perform teaching tasks. Federal regulations require teacher as sistants with instructional responsibilities in Title I schools—those with a large proportion of students from low-income households—to meet one of three requirements: hold a 2-year or higher degree, have a minimum of 2 years of college, or pass a rigorous State or local assessment. Many schools also require previous experience in working with children and a valid driver’s license. Some schools may require the applicant to pass a background check. A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate degree or certificate programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher assistants. However, most teacher assistants receive on-thejob training. Those who tutor and review lessons with students must have a thorough understanding of class materials and instructional methods, and should be familiar with the organization and opera tion of a school. Teacher assistants also must know how to operate audiovisual equipment, keep records, and prepare instructional materials, as well as have adequate computer skills. Teacher assistants should enjoy working with children from a wide range of cultural backgrounds, and be able to handle class room situations with fairness and patience. Teacher assistants also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good writing skills and be able to com municate effectively with students and teachers. Teacher assistants who speak a second language, especially Spanish, are in great demand for communicating with growing numbers of students and parents whose primary language is not English. Advancement for teacher assistants—usually in the form of higher earnings or increased responsibility—comes primarily with experience or additional education. Some school districts provide time away from the job or tuition reimbursement so that teacher assis tants can earn their bachelor’s degrees and pursue licensed teaching positions. In return for tuition reimbursement, assistants are often required to teach a certain length of time for the school district. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Teacher assistants held almost 1.3 million jobs in 2004. Nearly 3 in 4 worked for State and local government education institu tions, mostly at the preschool and elementary school level. Private schools, child care centers, and religious organizations employed most of the rest. Earnings Median annual earnings of teacher assistants in May 2004 were $19,410. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,410 and $24,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29,220. Full-time workers usually receive health coverage and other benefits. Teacher assistants who work part time ordinarily do not re ceive benefits. In 2004, about 3 out of 10 teacher assistants belonged to unions— mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Educa tion Association—which bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. Related Occupations Teacher assistants who instruct children have duties similar to those of preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school Professional and Related Occupations 221 teachers, as well as special education teachers. However, teacher assistants do not have the same level of responsibility or training. The support activities of teacher assistants and their educational back grounds are similar to those of childcare workers, library technicians, and library assistants. Teacher assistants who work with children with disabilities perform many of the same functions as occupational therapy assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information For information on teacher assistants, including training and certi fication, contact: >• American Federation of Teachers, Paraprofessional and School Related Personnel Division, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http ://www.aft.org/psrp/index.htm >- National Education Association, Educational Support Personnel Division, 1201 16th Street, NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nea.org/esphome/ For information on a career as a teacher assistant, contact: >- National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals, 6526 Old Main Hill, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322. Internet: http://www.nrcpara.org Human resource departments of school systems, school adminis trators, and State departments of education also can provide details about employment opportunities and required qualifications for teacher assistant jobs. ,ff\ T 15'' Teachers—Adult Literacy and Remedial Education (0*NET 25-3011.00) Significant Points • • • Many adult literacy and remedial education teachers work part time and receive no benefits; unpaid volun teers also teach these subjects. Most programs require teachers to have at least a bachelor’s degree; a public school teaching license is required for public programs in some States. Opportunities for teachers of English as a second language are expected to be very good because their classes should be in demand by the increasing number of residents with limited English skills. Nature of the Work Adult literacy and remedial education teachers instmet adults and out-of-school youths in reading, writing, speaking English, and performing elementary mathematical calculations—basic skills that equip them to solve problems well enough to become active participants in our society, to hold a job, and to further their educa tion. The instruction provided by these teachers can be divided into three principle categories: remedial or adult basic education (ABE) is geared toward adults whose skills are either at or below an eighthgrade level; adult secondary education (ASE) is geared towards students who wish to obtain their General Educational Development (GED) certificate or other high school equivalency credential; and English literacy instruction for adults with limited proficiency in English. Traditionally, the students in these adult education classes have been primarily those who did not graduate high school or who passed through school without acquiring the knowledge needed to meet their educational goals or to participate fully in today’s highskill society. Increasingly, however, students in these classes are Digitized forimmigrants FRASER or other people whose native language is not English. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Adult literacy teachers use role-playing and problem-solving exercises to help students learn. Educators who work with adult English-language learners are usually called teachers of English as a second language (ESL) or teachers of English to speakers of other languages (ESOL). Remedial education teachers, more commonly called adult basic education teachers, teach basic academic courses in mathematics, lan guages, history, reading, writing, science, and other areas, using instruc tional methods geared toward adult learning. They teach these subjects to students 16 years of age and older who demonstrate the need to in crease their skills in one or more of the subject areas mentioned. Classes are taught to appeal to a variety of learning styles and usually include large-group, small-group, and one-on-one instruction. Because the students often are at different proficiency levels for different subjects, adult basic education teachers must make individual assessments of each student’s abilities beforehand. In many programs, the assessment is used to develop an individualized education plan for each student. Teachers are required to evaluate students periodically to determine their progress and potential for advancement to the next level. Teachers in remedial or adult basic education may have to assist students in acquiring effective study skills and the self-confidence they need to reenter an academic environment. Teachers also may encounter students with a learning or physical disability that requires additional expertise. Teachers should possess an understanding of how to help these students achieve their goals, but they also may need to have the knowledge to detect challenges their students may have and provide them with access to a broader system of additional services that are required to address their challenges. 222 Occupational Outlook Handbook For students who wish to get a GED credential in order to get a job or qualify for postsecondary education, adult secondary education, or GED, teachers provide help in acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills to pass the test. The GED tests students in subject areas such as reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies, while at the same time measuring students’ communication, informa tion-processing, problem-solving, and critical-thinking skills. The emphasis in class is on acquiring the knowledge needed to pass the GED test, as well as preparing students for success in further educational endeavors. ESOL teachers help adults to speak, listen, read, and write in English, often in the context of real-life situations to promote learning. More advanced students may concentrate on writing and conversational skills or focus on learning more academic or job-re lated communication skills. ESOL teachers teach adults who possess a wide range of cultures and abilities and who speak a variety of languages. Some of their students have a college degree and many advance quickly through the program owing to a variety of factors, such as their age, previous language experience, educational back ground, and native language. Others may need additional time due to these same factors. Because the teacher and students often do not share a common language, creativity is an important part of fostering communication in the classroom and achieving learning goals. All adult literacy and remedial teachers must prepare lessons beforehand, do any related paperwork, and stay current in their fields. Attendance for students is mostly voluntary and course work is rarely graded. Many teachers also must learn the latest uses for computers in the classroom, as computers are increasingly being used to supplement instruction in basic skills and in teaching ESOL. Working Conditions A large number of adult literacy and remedial education teachers work part time. Some have several part-time teaching assignments or work full time in addition to their part-time teaching job. Classes for adults are held on days and at times that best accommodate students who may have a job or family responsibilities. Because many of these teachers work with adult students, they do not encounter some of the behavioral or social problems sometimes found with younger students. Adults attend by choice, are highly motivated, and bring years of experience to the class room—attributes that can make teaching these students rewarding and satisfying. However, many adult education programs are located in cramped facilities that lack modem amenities, which can be frus trating for teachers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Requirements for teaching adult literacy and basic and secondary educa tion vary by State and by program. Programs that are ran by State and local governments require high accountability to student achievement standards. Most States require teachers in these programs to have some form of credential; the most common are a public school teacher license, an adult education credential, or both. However, programs in States that do not have these requirements still generally require that adult education teachers have at least a bachelor’s degree and, preferably, a master’s degree. Teaching experience, especially with adults, also is preferred or required. Those programs run by private religious, community, or volunteer organizations generally develop standards based on their own needs and organizational goals, but generally also require paid teachers to have at least a bachelor’s degree. Volunteers usually do not need a bachelor’s degree, but often must attend a training program before they are allowed to work with students. Most programs recommend that adult literacy and basic and secondary education teachers take classes or workshops on teaching adults, using technology to teach, working with learners from a variety https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of cultures, and teaching adults with learning disabilities. ESOL teach ers also should have courses or training in second-language acquisition theory and linguistics. In addition, knowledge of the citizenship and naturalization process may be useful. Knowledge of a second lan guage is not necessary to teach ESOL students, but can be helpful in understanding the students’ perspectives. GED teachers should know what is required to pass the GED and be able to instruct students in the subject matter. Training for literacy volunteers usually consists of instruction in effective teaching practices, needs assessment, lesson planning, the selection of appropriate instructional materials, charac teristics of adult learners, and cross-cultural awareness. Adult education and literacy teachers must have the ability to work with students who come from a variety of cultural, educational, and economic backgrounds. They must be understanding and respectful of their students’ circumstances and be familiar with their concerns. All teachers, both paid and volunteer, should be able to communicate well and motivate their students. Professional development among adult education and literacy teach ers varies widely. Both part-time and full-time teachers are expected to participate in ongoing professional development activities in order to keep current on new developments in the field and to enhance skills already acquired. Each State’s professional development system reflects the unique needs and organizational structure of that State. Attendance by teachers at professional development workshops and other activities is often outlined in State or local policy. Some teachers are able to access professional development activities through alternative delivery systems such as the Internet or distance learning. Opportunities for advancement for adult education and lit eracy teachers again vary from State to State and program to program. Some part-time teachers are able to move into full-time teaching positions or program administrator positions, such as coordinator or director, when such vacancies occur. Others may decide to use their classroom experience to move into policy work at a nonprofit organization or with the local, State, or Federal gov ernment or to perform research. Employment Teachers of adult literacy and remedial education held about 98,000 jobs in 2004. About 1 in 3 was self-employed. Many additional teachers worked as unpaid volunteers. Many of the jobs are fed erally funded, with additional funds coming from State and local governments. State and local governments employ the majority of these teachers, who work in adult learning centers, libraries, commu nity colleges, juvenile detention centers, and corrections institutions, among other places. Others work for private educational institutions and for social service organizations, such as job-training or residential care facilities. Job Outlook Opportunities for jobs as adult literacy and remedial education teachers are expected to be favorable. Employment is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, and a large number of job openings is expected due to the need to replace people who leave the occupation or retire. As employers increasingly require a more literate workforce, workers’ demand for adult literacy, basic education, and secondary education classes is expected to grow. Significant employment growth is anticipated especially for ESOL teachers, who will be needed by the increasing number of immigrants and other residents living in this country that need to learn, or improve, their English skills. In addi tion, greater proportions of these groups are expected to take ESOL classes. Demand for ESOL teachers will be greatest in States that have large populations of residents who have limited English skills—such as California, Florida, Texas, and New York,. However, many other Professional and Related Occupations parts of the Nation have begun to attract large numbers of immigrants, making good opportunities in this field widely available. The demand for adult literacy and basic and secondary education often fluctuates with the economy. When the economy is good and workers are hard to find, employers relax their standards and hire workers without a degree or GED or good proficiency in English. As the economy softens, employers can be more selective, and more students may find that they need additional education to get a job. In addition, adult education classes often are subject to changes in fund ing levels, which can cause the number of teaching jobs to fluctuate from year to year. In particular, budget pressures may limit Federal funding of adult education, which may cause programs to rely more on volunteers if other organizations and governments do not make up the difference. Other factors such as immigration policies and the relative prosperity of the United States compared with other countries also may have an impact on the number of immigrants entering this country and, consequently, on the demand for ESOL teachers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of adult literacy and remedial education teachers were $18.74 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.07 and $25.49. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.57, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34.94. Part time adult literacy and remedial education instructors are usually paid by the hour or for each class that they teach, and receive few or no benefits. Full-time teachers are generally paid a salary and In addition to their teaching duties, many postsecondary teachers original research in their field of study. Digitized forconduct FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 223 receive health insurance and other benefits if they work for a school system or government. Related Occupations The work of adult literacy and remedial education teachers is closely related to that of other types of teachers, especially preschool, kin dergarten, elementary school, middle school, and secondary school teachers. In addition, adult literacy and basic and secondary edu cation teachers require a wide variety of skills and aptitudes. Not only must they be able to teach and motivate students (including, at times, those with learning disabilities), but they also must often take on roles as advisers and mentors. Workers in other occupa tions that require these aptitudes include special-education teachers, counselors, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on adult literacy, basic and secondary education pro grams, and teacher certification requirements is available from State departments of education, local school districts, and literacy resource centers. Information also may be obtained through local religious and charitable organizations. For information on adult education and family literacy programs, contact >- The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Edu cation, Potomac Center Plaza, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20202. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/about/officesAist/ovae/index.html For information on teaching English as a second language, contact >- The Center for Adult English Language Acquisition, 4646 40th St. NW., Washington, DC 20016. Internet: http://www.cal.org/caela Teachers—Postsecondary (0*NET 25-1011.00, 25-1021.00, 25-1022.00, 25-1031.00, 25-1032.00, 25-1041.00, 25-1042.00, 25-1043.00, 25-1051.00,25-1052.00, 25 1053.00, 25-1054.00, 25-1061.00, 25-1062.00, 25-1063.00, 25-1064.00, 25-1065.00, 25-1066.00, 25-1067.00, 25-1069.99,25-1071.00, 25 1072.00, 25-1081.00,25-1082.00, 25-1111.00,25-1112.00, 25-1113.00, 25-1121.00, 25-1122.00, 25-1123.00, 25-1124.00, 25-1125.00, 25 1126.00, 25-1191.00, 25-1192.00, 25-1193.00, 25-1194.00, 25-1199.99) Significant Points • Opportunities for postsecondary teaching jobs are ex pected to be good, but many new openings will be for part-time or non-tenure-track positions. • Prospects for teaching jobs will be better and earn ings higher in academic fields in which many qualified teachers opt for nonacademic careers, such as health specialties, business, and computer science, for ex ample. Educational qualifications for postsecondary teacher jobs range from expertise in a particular field to a Ph.D, depending on the subject being taught and the type of educational institution. • Nature of the Work Postsecondary teachers instruct students in a wide variety of academic and vocational subjects beyond the high school level that may lead to a degree or to improvement in one’s knowledge or career skills. These teachers include college and university faculty, postsecondary career and technical education teachers, and graduate teaching assistants. 224 Occupational Outlook Handbook College and university faculty make up the majority of postsec ondary teachers. They teach and advise more than 16 million fulland part-time college students and perform a significant part of our Nation’s research. Faculty also keep up with new developments in their field and may consult with government, business, nonprofit, and community organizations. Faculty usually are organized into departments or divisions, based on academic subject or field. They usually teach several different related courses in their subject—algebra, calculus, and statistics, for example. They may instruct undergraduate or graduate students, or both. College and university faculty may give lectures to several hundred students in large halls, lead small seminars, or supervise students in laboratories. They prepare lectures, exercises, and laboratory experiments; grade exams and papers; and advise and work with students individually. In universities, they also supervise graduate students’ teaching and research. College faculty work with an increasingly varied stu dent population made up of growing shares of part-time, older, and culturally and racially diverse students. Faculty keep abreast of developments in their field by reading current literature, talking with colleagues, and participating in professional conferences. They may also do their own research to expand knowledge in their field. They may perform experiments; collect and analyze data; and examine original documents, litera ture, and other source material. From this process, they arrive at conclusions, and publish their findings in scholarly journals, books, and electronic media. Most college and university faculty extensively use computer technology, including the Internet; e-mail; CD-ROMS; and software programs, such as statistical packages. They may use computers in the classroom as teaching aids and may post course content, class notes, class schedules, and other information on the Internet. The use of e-mail, chat rooms, and other techniques has greatly improved communications between students and teachers and among students Some faculty use the Internet to teach courses to students at remote sites. These so-called “distance learning” courses are an increasingly popular option for non-traditional students such as working adults. While more convenient for students, faculty who teach these courses must be able to adapt existing courses to make them successful online or design a new course that takes advantage of the format. Most faculty members serve on academic or administrative com mittees that deal with the policies of their institution, departmental matters, academic issues, curricula, budgets, equipment purchases, and hiring. Some work with student and community organizations. De partment chairpersons are faculty members who usually teach some courses but have heavier administrative responsibilities. The proportion of time spent on research, teaching, administra tive, and other duties varies by individual circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at universities normally spend a significant part of their time doing research; those in 4-year colleges, somewhat less; and those in 2-year colleges, relatively little. The teaching load, however, often is heavier in 2-year colleges and somewhat lighter at 4-year institutions. Full professors at all types of institutions usually spend a larger portion of their time conducting research than do assistant professors, instructors, and lecturers. In addition to traditional 2- and 4-year institutions, an increas ing number of faculty work in alternative schools or in programs that are aimed at providing career-related education for work ing adults. Courses are usually offered online or on nights and weekends. Faculty at these programs generally work part time and are only responsible for teaching, with little to no administrative and research responsibilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Postsecondary vocational education teachers, also known as postsecondary career and technical education teachers, provide instruction for occupations that require specialized training, but may not require a 4-year degree, such as welder, dental hygienist, x-ray technician, auto mechanic, and cosmetologist. Classes often are taught in an industrial or laboratory setting where students are provided hands-on experience. For example, welding instructors show students various welding techniques and essential safety practices, watch them use tools and equipment, and have them repeat procedures until they meet the specific standards required by the trade. Increasingly, career and technical education teachers are integrating academic and vocational curriculums so that students obtain a variety of skills that can be applied to the “real world.” Career and technical education teachers have many of the same responsibilities that other college and university faculty have. They must prepare lessons, grade papers, attend faculty meetings, and keep abreast of developments in their field. Career and technical educa tion teachers at community colleges and career and technical schools also often play a key role in students’ transition from school to work by helping to establish internship programs for students and by fa cilitating contact between students and prospective employers. Graduate teaching assistants, often referred to as graduate TAs, assist faculty, department chairs, or other professional staff at col leges and universities by performing teaching or teaching-related duties. In addition to their work responsibilities, assistants have their own school commitments, as they are also students who are working towards earning a graduate degree, such as a Ph.D. Some teaching assistants have full responsibility for teaching a course—usually one that is introductory in nature—which can include preparation of lectures and exams, and assigning final grades to students. Others provide assistance to faculty members, which may consist of a vari ety of tasks such as grading papers, monitoring exams, holding office hours or help-sessions for students, conducting laboratory sessions, or administering quizzes to the class. Teaching assistants generally meet initially with the faculty member whom they are going to as sist in order to determine exactly what is expected of them, as each faculty member may have his or her own needs. For example, some faculty members prefer assistants to sit in on classes, while others assign them other tasks to do during class time. Graduate teaching assistants may work one-on-one with a faculty member or, for large classes, they may be one of several assistants. Working Conditions Postsecondary teachers who work full time usually have flexible schedules. They must be present for classes, usually 12 to 16 hours per week, and for faculty and committee meetings. Most establish regular office hours for student consultations, usually 3 to 6 hours per week. Otherwise, teachers are free to decide when and where they will work, and how much time to devote to course prepara tion, grading, study, research, graduate student supervision, and other activities. Some teach night and weekend classes. This is particularly true for teachers at 2-year community colleges or institutions with large enrollments of older students who have full-time jobs or family responsibilities. Most colleges and universities require teachers to work 9 months of the year, which allows them the time to teach ad ditional courses, do research, travel, or pursue nonacademic interests during the summer and school holidays. Colleges and universities usually have funds to support research or other professional devel opment needs of full time faculty, including travel to conferences and research sites. About 3 out of 10 college and university faculty worked part time in 2004. Some part-timers, known as “adjunct faculty,” have primary jobs outside of academia—in government, private industry, Professional and Related Occupations or nonprofit research—and teach “on the side.” Others prefer to work part-time hours or seek full-time jobs but are unable to obtain them due to intense competition for available openings. Some work part time in more than one institution. Some adjunct faculty are not qualified for tenure-track positions because they lack a doctoral degree. University faculty may experience a conflict between their re sponsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do research and publish their findings. This may be a particular problem for young faculty seeking advancement in 4-year research universities. Also, recent cutbacks in support workers and the hiring of more part time faculty have put a greater administrative burden on full-time faculty. Requirements to teach online classes also have added greatly to the workloads of postsecondary teachers. Many find that developing the courses to put online, plus learning how to operate the technology and answering large amounts of e-mail, is very time-consuming. Graduate TAs usually have flexibility in their work schedules like college and university faculty, but they also must spend a consider able amount of time pursuing their own academic coursework and studies. The number of hours that TAs work varies, depending on their assignments. Work may be stressful, particularly when assis tants are given full responsibility for teaching a class; however, these types of positions allow graduate students the opportunity to gain valuable teaching experience. This experience is especially helpful for those graduate teaching assistants who seek to become faculty members at colleges and universities after completing their degree. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The education and training required of postsecondary teachers varies widely, depending on the subject taught and educational institution employing them. Educational requirements for teachers are gener ally the highest at 4-year research universities while experience and expertise in a related occupation is the principal qualification at career and technical institutes. Postsecondary teachers should communicate and relate well with students, enjoy working with them, and be able to motivate them. They should have inquiring and analytical minds, and a strong desire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. Additionally, they must be self-motivated and able to work in an environment in which they receive little direct supervision. Training requirements for postsecondary career and technical education teachers vary by State and by subject. In general, teach ers need a bachelor’s or higher degree, plus at least 3 years of work experience in their field. In some fields, a license or certificate that demonstrates one’s qualifications may be all that is required. Teachers update their skills through continuing education, in order to maintain certification. They must also maintain ongoing dialogue with busi nesses to determine the most current skills needed in the workplace. Four-year colleges and universities usually consider doctoral degree holders for full-time, tenure-track positions, but may hire master’s degree holders or doctoral candidates for certain disci plines, such as the arts, or for part-time and temporary jobs. Most college and university faculty are in four academic ranks—profes sor, associate professor, assistant professor, and instructor. These positions usually are considered to be tenure-track positions. Most faculty members are hired as instructors or assistant professors. A smaller number of additional faculty members, called lecturers, are usually employed on contracts for a single academic term and are not on the tenure track. In 2-year colleges, master’s degree holders fill most full-time positions. However, in certain fields where there may be more applicants than available jobs, institutions can be more selective in hiring practices. In these fields, Master’s degree holders may Digitized fortheir FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 225 be passed over in favor of candidates holding Ph.Ds. Many 2-year institutions increasingly prefer job applicants to have some teaching experience or experience with distance learning. Preference also may be given to those holding dual master’s degrees, especially at smaller institutions, because they can teach more subjects. Schools and programs that provide education and training for working adults generally hire people who are experienced in the field to teach part time. A master’s degree is also usually required. Doctoral programs take an average of 6 years of full-time study beyond the bachelor’s degree, including time spent completing a master’s degree and a dissertation. Some programs, such as those in the humanities, may take longer to complete; others, such as those in engineering, usually are shorter. Candidates specialize in a subfield of a discipline—for example, organic chemistry, counseling psychology, or European history—but also take courses covering the entire discipline. Programs typically include 20 or more increasingly specialized courses and seminars plus comprehensive examinations on all major areas of the field. Candidates also must complete a dissertation—a written report on original research in the candidate’s major field of study. The dissertation sets forth an original hypothesis or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the humanities, they study original documents and other published material. The dissertation is done under the guidance of one or more faculty advisors and usually takes 1 or 2 years of full-time work. Some students, particularly those who studied in the natural sciences, spend additional years after earning their degree on post doctoral research and study before taking a faculty position. Some Ph.D.s are able to extend postdoctoral appointments, or take new ones, if they are unable to find a faculty job. Most of these appoint ments offer a nominal salary. Obtaining a position as a graduate teaching assistant is a good way to gain college teaching experience. To qualify, candidates must be enrolled in a graduate school program. In addition, some colleges and universities require teaching assistants to attend classes or take some training prior to being given responsibility for a course. Although graduate teaching assistants usually work at the institu tion and in the department where they are earning their degree, teach ing or internship positions for graduate students at institutions that do not grant a graduate degree have become more common in recent years. For example, a program called Preparing Future Faculty, ad ministered by the Association of American Colleges and Universities and the Council of Graduate Schools, has led to the creation of many now-independent programs that offer graduate students at research universities the opportunity to work as teaching assistants at other types of institutions, such as liberal arts or community colleges. Working with a mentor, the graduate students teach classes and learn how to improve their teaching techniques. They may attend faculty and com mittee meetings, develop a curriculum, and learn how to balance the teaching, research, and administrative roles that faculty play. These programs provide valuable learning opportunities for graduate students interested in teaching at the postsecondary level, and also help to make these students aware of the differences among the various types of institutions at which they may someday work. For faculty, a major step in the traditional academic career is attaining tenure. New tenure-track faculty usually are hired as in structors or assistant professors, and must serve a period—usually 7 years—under term contracts. At the end of the period, their record of teaching, research, and overall contribution to the institution is reviewed; tenure is granted if the review is favorable. Those denied tenure usually must leave the institution. Tenured professors can not be fired without just cause and due process. Tenure protects the faculty’s academic freedom—the ability to teach and conduct research without fear of being fired for advocating controversial or unpopular 226 Occupational Outlook Handbook ideas. It also gives both faculty and institutions the stability needed for effective research and teaching, and provides financial security for faculty. Some institutions have adopted post-tenure review policies to encourage ongoing evaluation of tenured faculty. The number of tenure-track positions is declining as institutions seek flexibility in dealing with financial matters and changing student interests. Institutions rely more heavily on limited term contracts and part-time, or adjunct, faculty, thus shrinking the total pool of tenured faculty. Limited-term contracts—typically 2- to 5 years, may be terminated or extended when they expire, but generally do not lead to the granting of tenure. In addition, some institutions have limited the percentage of faculty who can be tenured. For most postsecondary teachers, advancement involves a move into administrative and managerial positions, such as departmental chairperson, dean, and president. At 4-year institutions, such ad vancement requires a doctoral degree. At 2-year colleges, a doctorate is helpful but not usually required, except for advancement to some top administrative positions. (Deans and departmental chairpersons are covered in the Handbook statement on education administrators, while college presidents are included in the Handbook statement on top executives.) Employment Postsecondary teachers held nearly 1.6 million jobs in 2004. Most were employed in public and private 4-year colleges and universities and in 2-year community colleges. Other postsecondary teachers are employed by schools and institutes that specialize in training people in a specific field, such as technology centers or culinary schools, or work for businesses that provide professional development courses to employees of companies. Some career and technical education teachers work for State and local governments and job training facilities. The following tabulation shows postsecondary teaching jobs in specialties having 20,000 or more jobs in 2004: Health specialties teachers.............................................................. 150,000 Graduate teaching assistants.......................................................... 143,000 Vocational education teachers....................................................... 127,000 Business teachers............................................................................ 85,000 Art, drama, and music teachers....................................................... 78,000 Biological science teachers............................................................. 76,000 English language and literature teachers......................................... 69,000 Education teachers.......................................................................... 60,000 Mathematical science teachers........................................................ 53,000 Computer science teachers......... ..................................................... 45,000 Engineering teachers....................................................................... 42,000 Nursing instructors and teachers................................................... 41,000 Psychology teachers........................................................................ 37,000 Foreign language and literature teachers........................................ 27,000 Communications teachers............................................................... 26,000 History teachers.............................................................................. 24,000 Chemistry teachers.......................................................................... 23,000 Philosophy and religion teachers.................................................... 23,000 Job Outlook Overall, employment of postsecondary teachers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. A significant proportion of these new jobs will be part-time positions. Job opportunities are generally expected to be very good—although they will vary somewhat from field to field—as numerous openings for all types of postsecondary teachers result from retirements of current postsecondary teachers and continued increases in student enrollments. Projected growth in college and university enrollment over the next decade stems mainly from the expected increase in the popula tion of 18- to 24-year-olds, who constitute the majority of students at https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis postsecondary institutions, and from the increasing number of high school graduates who choose to attend these institutions. Adults re turning to college to enhance their career prospects or to update their skills also will continue to create new opportunities for postsecond ary teachers, particularly at community colleges and for-profit insti tutions that cater to working adults. However, many postsecondary educational institutions receive a significant portion of their funding from State and local governments, so expansion of public higher education will be limited by State and local budgets. Nevertheless, in addition to growth in enrollments, the need to replace the large numbers of postsecondary teachers who are likely to retire over the next decade will also create a significant number of openings. Many postsecondary teachers were hired in the late 1960s and the 1970s to teach members of the baby boom generation, and they are expected to retire in growing numbers in the years ahead. Ph.D. recipients seeking jobs as postsecondary teachers will experience favorable job prospects over the next decade. While competition will remain tight for tenure-track positions at 4-year colleges and universities, there will be a considerable number of part-time or renewable, term appointments at these institutions and positions at community colleges available to them. Opportunities for master’s degree holders are also expected to be favorable, as community colleges and other institutions that employ them, such as professional career education programs, are expected to experi ence considerable growth. Opportunities for graduate teaching assistants are expected to be very good due to prospects for much higher undergradu ate enrollments coupled with more modest graduate enrollment increases. Constituting almost 9 percent of all postsecondary teachers, graduate teaching assistants play an integral role in the postsecondary education system, and they are expected to continue to do so in the future. One of the main reasons why students attend postsecondary insti tutions is to prepare themselves for careers, so the best job prospects for postsecondary teachers are likely to be in fields where job growth is expected to be strong over the next decade. These will include fields such as business, health specialties, nursing, and biological sciences. Community colleges and other institutions offering career and technical education have been among the most rapidly growing, and these institutions are expected to offer some of the best opportuni ties for postsecondary teachers. Earnings Median annual earnings of all postsecondary teachers in May 2004 were $51,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,590 and $72,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $99,980. Earnings for college faculty vary according to rank and type of institution, geographic area, and field. According to a 2004-05 sur vey by the American Association of University Professors, salaries for full-time faculty averaged $68,505. By rank, the average was $91,548 for professors, $65,113 for associate professors, $54,571 for assistant professors, $39,899 for instructors, and $45,647 for lecturers. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on average, than do those in 2-year schools. In 2004-05, faculty sala ries averaged $79,342 in private independent institutions, $66,851 in public institutions, and $61,103 in religiously affiliated private colleges and universities. In fields with high-paying nonacademic alternatives—medicine, law, engineering, and business, among others—earnings exceed these averages. In others fields—such as the humanities and education—they are lower. Many faculty members have significant earnings in addition to their base salary, from consulting, teaching additional courses, research, writing for publication, or other employment. In addition, Professional and Related Occupations 227 many college and university faculty enjoy some unique benefits, including access to campus facilities, tuition waivers for dependents, housing and travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. Part-time faculty usually have fewer benefits than full-time faculty. Earnings for postsecondary career and technical education teachers vary widely by subject, academic credentials, experience, and region of the country. Part-time instructors usually receive few benefits. Related Occupations Postsecondary teaching requires the ability to communicate ideas well, motivate students, and be creative. Workers in other occupa tions that require these skills are teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; education administrators; librar ians; counselors; writers and editors; public relations specialists; and management analysts. Faculty research activities often are similar to those of scientists, as well as to those of managers and administrators in industry, government, and nonprofit research organizations. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies related to a field of study often pro vide information on academic and nonacademic employment opportunities. Names and addresses of many of these societies appear in statements elsewhere in the Handbook. Special publications on higher education, such as The Chronicle of Higher Education, list specific employment opportunities for faculty. These publications are available in libraries. For information on the Preparing Future Faculty program, contact; >- Council of Graduate Schools, One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 430, Wash ington, DC 20036-1173. Internet: http://www.preparing-faculty.org For information on postsecondary career and technical education teaching positions, contact State departments of career and technical education. General information on adult and career and technical education is available from: >• Association for Career and Technical Education, 1410 King St., Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.acteonline.org Teachers—Preschool, Kindergarten, Elementary, Middle, and Secondary (0*NET 25-2011.00, 25-2012.00, 25-2021.00, 25-2022.00, 25-2023.00, 25-2031.00, 25-2032.00) Significant Points • Public school teachers must have at least a bachelor’s degree, complete an approved teacher education pro gram, and be licensed. • Many States offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities are expected as retirements, especially among secondary school teachers, outweigh slowing enrollment growth; opportunities will vary by geographic area and subject taught. • Nature of the Work Teachers act as facilitators or coaches, using interactive discussions and “hands-on” approaches to help students learn and apply concepts subjects such as science, mathematics, or English. They utilize Digitized forin FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■’ _______ In addition to core subjects, teachers instruct students infields such as photography and painting. “props” or “manipulatives” to help children understand abstract con cepts, solve problems, and develop critical thought processes. For example, they teach the concepts of numbers or of addition and subtraction by playing board games. As the children get older, the teachers use more sophisticated materials, such as science apparatus, cameras, or computers. To encourage collaboration in solving problems, students are increasingly working in groups to discuss and solve problems together. Preparing students for the future workforce is a major stimulus generating changes in education. To be prepared, students must be able to interact with others, adapt to new technology, and think through problems logically. Teachers provide the tools and the environment for their students to develop these skills. Preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What children learn and experience during their early years can shape their views of them selves and the world and can affect their later success or failure in school, work, and their personal lives. Preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers introduce children to mathematics, lan guage, science, and social studies. They use games, music, artwork, films, books, computers, and other tools to teach basic skills. Preschool children learn mainly through play and interactive activities. Preschool teachers capitalize on children’s play to further language and vocabulary development (using storytelling, rhyming games, and acting games), improve social skills (having the children work together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and introduce scientific and mathematical concepts (showing the children how to balance and count blocks when building a bridge or how to mix colors when painting). Thus, a less structured approach, including small-group lessons, one-on-one instruction, and learning through creative activities such as art, dance, and music, is adopted to teach preschool children. Play and hands-on teaching also are used by kindergarten teachers, but academics begin to take priority in kin dergarten classrooms. Letter recognition, phonics, numbers, and awareness of nature and science, introduced at the preschool level, are taught primarily in kindergarten. 228 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers work as a team and are jointly responsible for a group of students in at least one subject. In other schools, a teacher may teach one special subject—usually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical education—to a number of classes. A small but growing number of teachers instruct multilevel classrooms, with students at several different learning levels. Middle school teachers and secondary school teachers help students delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and expose them to more information about the world. Mid dle and secondary school teachers specialize in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, history, or biology. They also can teach subjects that are career oriented. Vocational education teachers, also referred to as career and technical or career-technol ogy teachers, instruct and train students to work in a wide variety of fields, such as healthcare, business, auto repair, communica tions, and, increasingly, technology. They often teach courses that are in high demand by area employers, who may provide input into the curriculum and offer internships to students. Many voca tional teachers play an active role in building and overseeing these partnerships. Additional responsibilities of middle and secondary school teachers may include career guidance and job placement, as well as follow-ups with students after graduation. (Special education teachers—who instruct elementary and secondary school students who have a variety of disabilities—are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.) ■ Computers play an integral role in the education teachers provide. Resources such as educational software and the Internet expose students to a vast range of experiences and promote interac tive learning. Through the Internet, students can communicate with other students anywhere in the world, allowing them to share experi ences and differing viewpoints. Students also use the Internet for individual research projects and to gather information. Computers are used in other classroom activities as well, from solving math problems to learning English as a second language. Teachers also may use computers to record grades and perform other administrative and clerical duties. They must continually update their skills so that they can instruct and use the latest technology in the classroom. Teachers often work with students from varied ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds. With growing minority populations in most parts of the country, it is important for teachers to work effectively with a diverse student population. Accordingly, some schools offer training to help teachers enhance their awareness and understanding of different cultures. Teachers may also include multicultural pro gramming in their lesson plans, to address the needs of all students, regardless of their cultural background. Teachers design classroom presentations to meet students’ needs and abilities. They also work with students individually. Teachers plan, evaluate, and assign lessons; prepare, administer, and grade tests; listen to oral presentations; and maintain classroom discipline. They observe and evaluate a student’s performance and potential and increasingly are asked to use new assessment methods. For example, teachers may examine a portfolio of a student’s artwork or writing in order to judge the student’s overall progress. They then can provide additional assistance in areas in which a student needs help. Teachers also grade papers, prepare report cards, and meet with parents and school staff to discuss a student’s academic progress or personal problems. In addition to conducting classroom activities, teachers oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and accompany students on field trips. They may identify students with physical or mental problems and refer the students to the proper authorities. Secondary school teachers occasionally assist students https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in choosing courses, colleges, and careers. Teachers also participate in education conferences and workshops. In recent years, site-based management, which allows teachers and parents to participate actively in management decisions regard ing school operations, has gained popularity. In many schools, teachers are increasingly involved in making decisions regarding the budget, personnel, textbooks, curriculum design, and teaching methods. Working Conditions Seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation of knowledge and learning can be very rewarding. However, teaching may be frustrating when one is dealing with unmotivated or disre spectful students. Occasionally, teachers must cope with unruly behavior and violence in the schools. Teachers may experience stress in dealing with large classes, heavy workloads, or old schools that are run down and lack many modern amenities. Accountability standards also may increase stress levels, with teachers expected to produce students who are able to exhibit satisfactory performance on standardized tests in core subjects. Many teachers, particularly in public schools, are also frustrated by the lack of control they have over what they are required to teach. Teachers in private schools generally enjoy smaller class sizes and more control over establishing the curriculum and setting stan dards for performance and discipline. Their students also tend to be more motivated, since private schools can be selective in their admissions processes. Teachers are sometimes isolated from their colleagues because they work alone in a classroom of students. However, some schools allow teachers to work in teams and with mentors to enhance their professional development. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Part-time schedules are more common among preschool and kindergarten teachers. Al though some school districts have gone to all-day kindergartens, most kindergarten teachers still teach two kindergarten classes a day. Most teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation during the summer. During the vacation break, those on the 10-month schedule may teach in summer ses sions, take other jobs, travel, or pursue personal interests. Many enroll in college courses or workshops to conti chedule typically work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. Preschool teachers working in day care settings often work year round. Most States have tenure laws that prevent public school teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain tenure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, normally 3 years. Tenure does not absolutely guarantee a job, but it does provide some security. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public school teachers to be licensed. Licensure is not required for teachers in pri vate schools in most States. Usually licensure is granted by the State Board of Education or a licensure advisory committee. Teachers may be licensed to teach the early childhood grades' (usually pre school through grade 3); the elementary grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8); the middle grades (grades 5 through 8); a secondary-education subject area (usually grades 7 through 12); or a special subject, such as reading or music (usually grades kindergarten through 12). Requirements for regular licenses to teach kindergarten through grade 12 vary by State. However, all States require general educa tion teachers to have a bachelor’s degree and to have completed an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits, as well as supervised practice teaching. Some States also require technology training and the attainment of a minimum grade point average. A number of States require that teachers obtain a master’s degree in education within a specified period after they begin teaching. Almost all States require applicants for a teacher’s license to be tested for competency in basic skills, such as reading and writing, and in teaching. Almost all also require the teacher to exhibit proficiency in his or her subject. Many school systems are presently moving toward implementing performance-based systems for licensure, which usually require a teacher to demonstrate satisfactory teaching performance over an extended period in order to obtain a provisional license, in addition to passing an examination in their subject. Most States require continuing education for renewal of the teacher’s license. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers licensed in one State to become licensed in another. Many States also offer alternative licensure programs for teach ers who have a bachelor’s degree in the subject they will teach, but who lack the necessary education courses required for a regular license. Many of these alternative licensure programs are designed to ease shortages of teachers of certain subjects, such as mathemat ics and science. Other programs provide teachers for urban and rural schools that have difficulty filling positions with teachers from traditional licensure programs. Alternative licensure programs are intended to attract people into teaching who do not fulfill traditional licensing standards, including recent college graduates who did not complete education programs and those changing from another career to teaching. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under provisional licensure. After working under the close supervision of experienced educators for 1 or 2 years while tak ing education courses outside school hours, they receive regular licensure if they have progressed satisfactorily. In other programs, college graduates who do not meet licensure requirements take only those courses that they lack and then become licensed. This approach may take 1 or 2 semesters of full-time study. States may issue emergency licenses to individuals who do not meet the requirements for a regular license when schools cannot attract enough qualified teachers to fill positions. Teachers who need to be licensed may enter programs that grant a master’s degree in education, as well as a license. In many States, vocational teachers have many of the same re quirements for teaching as their academic counterparts. However, because knowledge and experience in a particular field are important criteria for the job, some States will license vocational education teachers without a bachelor’s degree, provided they can demonstrate expertise in their field. A minimum number of hours in education courses may also be required. Licensing requirements for preschool teachers also vary by State. Requirements for public preschool teachers are generally more stringent than those for private preschool teachers. Some States require a bachelor’s degree in early childhood education, while others require an associate’s degree, and still others require certification by a nationally recognized authority. The Child Development Associate (CDA) credential, the most common type of certification, requires a mix of classroom training and experience working with children, along with an independent assessment of an individual’s competence. Private schools are generally exempt from meeting State licensing standards. For secondary school teacher jobs, they prefer candidates who have a bachelor’s degree in the subject they intend to teach, or in childhood education for elementary school teachers. They seek candidates among recent college graduates as well as from those who have established careers in other fields. Private schools associ ated with religious institutions also desire candidates who share the values that are important to the institution. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 229 In some cases, teachers of kindergarten through high school may attain professional certification in order to demonstrate com petency beyond that required for a license. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards offers a voluntary national certification. To become nationally accredited, experienced teach ers must prove their aptitude by compiling a portfolio showing their work in the classroom and by passing a written assessment and evaluation of their teaching knowledge. Currently, teachers may become certified in a variety of areas, on the basis of the age of the students and, in some cases, the subject taught. For example, teachers may obtain a certificate for teaching English language arts to early adolescents (aged 11 to 15), or they may become certified as early childhood generalists. All States recognize national certifica tion, and many States and school districts provide special benefits to teachers holding such certification. Benefits typically include higher salaries and reimbursement for continuing education and certification fees. In addition, many States allow nationally certified teachers to carry a license from one State to another. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education currently accredits teacher education programs across the United States. Graduation from an accredited program is not necessary to become a teacher, but it does make it easier to fulfill licensure requirements. Generally, 4-year colleges require students to wait until their sophomore year before applying for admission to teacher education programs. Traditional education programs for kindergar ten and elementary school teachers include courses—designed spe cifically for those preparing to teach—in mathematics, physical sci ence, social science, music, art, and literature, as well as prescribed professional education courses, such as philosophy of education, psychology of learning, and teaching methods. Aspiring secondary school teachers most often major in the subject they plan to teach while also taking a program of study in teacher preparation. Teacher education programs are now required to include classes in the use of computers and other technologies in order to maintain their accreditation. Most programs require students to perform a student teaching internship. Many States now offer professional development schools— partnerships between universities and elementary or secondary schools. Students enter these 1-year programs after completion of their bachelor’s degree. Professional development schools merge theory with practice and allow the student to experience a year of teaching firsthand, under professional guidance. In addition to being knowledgeable in their subject, teachers must have the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as understand the students’ educa tional and emotional needs. Teachers must be able to recognize and respond to individual and cultural differences in students and employ different teaching methods that will result in higher student achievement. They should be organized, dependable, patient, and creative. Teachers also must be able to work cooperatively and communicate effectively with other teachers, support staff, parents, and members of the community. With additional preparation, teachers may move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, instructional coordinators, or guidance counselors. Teachers may become administrators or supervisors, although the number of these positions is limited and competition can be intense. In some systems, highly qualified, experienced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while keeping most of their own teaching responsibilities. Preschool teachers usually work their way up from assistant teacher, to teacher, to lead teacher—who may be responsible for the instruction of several classes—and, finally, to director of the center. Preschool teachers with a bachelor’s degree frequently are 230 Occupational Outlook Handbook qualified to teach kindergarten through grade 3 as well. Teaching at these higher grades often results in higher pay. Employment Preschool, kindergarten, elementary school, middle school, and secondary school teachers, except special education, held about 3.8 million jobs in 2004. Of the teachers in those jobs, about 1.5 million are elementary school teachers, 1.1 million are secondary school teachers, 628,000 are middle school teachers, 431,000 are preschool teachers, and 171,000 are kindergarten teachers. The majority work in local government educational services. About 10 percent work for private schools. Preschool teachers, except special education, are most often employed in child daycare services (61 percent), religious organizations (12 percent), local government educational services (9 percent), and private educational services (7 percent). Employment of teachers is geographically distributed much the same as the population. Job Outlook Job opportunities for teachers over the next 10 years will vary from good to excellent, depending on the locality, grade level, and subject taught. Most job openings will result from the need to replace the large number of teachers who are expected to retire over the 2004 14 period. Also, many beginning teachers decide to leave teaching after a year or two—especially those employed in poor, urban schools—creating additional job openings for teachers. Shortages of qualified teachers will likely continue, resulting in competition among some localities, with schools luring teachers from other States and districts with bonuses and higher pay. Through 2014, overall student enrollments in elementary, middle, and secondary schools—a key factor in the demand for teachers—are expected to rise more slowly than in the past as children of the baby boom generation leave the school system. This will cause employ ment to grow as fast as the average for teachers from kindergarten through the secondary grades. Projected enrollments will vary by region. Fast-growing States in the West—particularly California, Idaho, Hawaii, Alaska, Utah, and New Mexico—will experience the largest enrollment increases. Enrollments in the South will increase at a more modest rate than in recent years, while those in the Northeast and Midwest are expected to hold relatively steady or decline. Teachers who are geographically mobile and who obtain licensure in more than one subject should have a distinct advantage in finding a job. The job market for teachers also continues to vary by school location and by subject taught. Job prospects should be better in inner cities and rural areas than in suburban districts. Many inner cit ies—often characterized by overcrowded, ill-equipped schools and higher-than-average poverty rates—and rural areas—characterized by their remote location and relatively low salaries—have difficulty attracting and retaining enough teachers. Currently, many school districts have difficulty hiring qualified teachers in some subject areas—most often mathematics, science (especially chemistry and physics), bilingual education, and foreign languages. Increasing en rollments of minorities, coupled with a shortage of minority teachers, should cause efforts to recruit minority teachers to intensify. Also, the number of non-English-speaking students will continue to grow, creating demand for bilingual teachers and for those who teach English as a second language. Specialties that have an adequate number of qualified teachers include general elementary education, physical education, and social studies. Qualified vocational teachers also are currently in demand in a variety of fields at both the middle school and secondary school levels. The number of teachers employed is dependent as well on State and local expenditures for education and on the enactment of leg https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis islation to increase the quality and scope of public education. At the Federal level, there has been a large increase in funding for education, particularly for the hiring of qualified teachers in lower income areas. Also, some States are instituting programs to improve early childhood education, such as offering full day kindergarten and universal preschool. These last two programs, along with projected higher enrollment growth for preschool age children, will create many new jobs for preschool teachers, which are expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations. The supply of teachers is expected to increase in response to reports of improved job prospects, better pay, more teacher involve ment in school policy, and greater public interest in education. In recent years, the total number of bachelor’s and master’s degrees granted in education has increased steadily. Because of a shortage of teachers in certain locations, and in anticipation of the loss of a number of teachers to retirement, many States have implemented policies that will encourage more students to become teachers. In addition, more teachers may be drawn from a reserve pool of career changers, substitute teachers, and teachers completing alternative certification programs. Earnings Median annual earnings of kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers ranged from $41,400 to $45,920 in May 2004; the lowest 10 percent earned $26,730 to $31,180; the top 10 percent earned $66,240 to $71,370. Median earnings for preschool teachers were $20,980. According to the American Federation of Teachers, beginning teachers with a bachelor’s degree earned an average of $31,704 in the 2003-04 school year. The estimated average salary of all public elementary and secondary school teachers in the 2003-04 school year was $46,597. Private school teachers generally earn less than public school teachers, but may be given other benefits, such as free or subsidized housing. In 2004, more than half of all elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers belonged to unions—mainly the American Fed eration of Teachers and the National Education Association—that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and other terms and conditions of employment. Fewer preschool and kindergarten teachers were union members—about 17 percent in 2004. Teachers can boost their salary in a number of ways. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and work ing with students in extracurricular activities. Getting a master’s degree or national certification often results in a raise in pay, as does acting as a mentor. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer by teaching summer school or performing other jobs in the school system. Related Occupations Preschool, kindergarten, elementary school, middle school, and secondary school teaching requires a variety of skills and aptitudes, including a talent for working with children; organizational, admin istrative, and recordkeeping abilities; research and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; patience; and creativity. Workers in other occupations requiring some of these aptitudes include teachers—postsecondary; counselors; teacher assistants; education administrators; librarians; child care workers; public relations specialists; social workers; and athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensure or certification requirements and approved teacher training institutions is available from local school systems and State departments of education. Professional and Related Occupations 231 Information on the teaching profession and on how to become a teacher can be obtained from: > Recruiting New Teachers, Inc., 385 Concord Ave., Suite 103, Belmont, MA 02478. Internet: http://www.recruitingteachers.org Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues may be obtained from the following sources: > American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20001. >- National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. A list of institutions with accredited teacher education programs can be obtained from: > National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20036-1023. Internet: http://www.ncate.org Information on alternative certification programs can be obtained from: >- National Center for Alternative Certification, 1901 PennsylvaniaAveNW, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.teach-now.org For information on vocational education and vocational educa tion teachers, contact: > Association for Career and Technical Education, 1410 King St., Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.acteonline.org For information on careers in educating children and issues affecting preschool teachers, contact either of the following orga nizations: >- National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1509 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.naeyc.org > Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009-3575. Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org Teachers—Self-Enrichment Education __________ (Q*NET 25-3021.00) Significant Points • Part-time jobs, a lack of benefits, and self-employed workers are relatively common among self-enrichment • Teachers should have knowledge and enthusiasm for their subject, but little formal training is required. • Demand for self-enrichment courses is expected to rise as more people embrace lifelong learning and as growth continues in the numbers of retirees, who have teachers. more free time to take classes. Nature of the Work Self-enrichment teachers provide instruction in a wide variety of subjects that students take for personal enrichment or self improvement. Some teach a series of classes that provide stu dents with useful life skills, such as cooking, personal finance, and time management classes. Others provide group instruction intended solely for recreation, such as photography, pottery, and painting courses. Many others provide one-on-one instruction in a variety of subjects, including dance, singing, or playing a musi cal instmment. The instruction self-enrichment teachers provide seldom leads to a particular degree and attendance is voluntary, but dedicated, talented students sometimes go on to careers in the arts. Teachers who conduct courses on academic subjects in a non academic setting, such as literature, foreign language, and history courses, are also included in this occupation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A self-enrichment teacher instructs a class in gardening. Self-enrichment teachers provide instruction on a wide range of subjects, so they may have styles and methods of instruction that differ greatly. Most self-enrichment classes are relatively informal and not demanding of instructors. Some classes, such as pottery or sewing, may be largely hands-on, with the instruc tor demonstrating methods or techniques for the class, observ ing students as they attempt to do it themselves, and pointing out mistakes to students and offering suggestions to improve techniques. Other classes, such as those involving financial planning or religion and spirituality, may be more similar to a lecture in nature or rely more heavily on group discussions. Self enrichment teachers may also teach classes offered through religious institutions, such as marriage preparation or classes in religion for children. Many of the classes that self-enrichment educators teach are shorter in duration than classes taken for academic credit; some finish in 1 or 2 days to several weeks. These brief classes tend to be introduc tory in nature and generally focus on only one topic—for example, a cooking class that teaches students how to make bread. Some self-enrichment classes introduce children and youths to activities such as piano or drama, and may be designed to last anywhere from 1 week to several months. Many self enrichment teachers provide one-on-one lessons to students. The instructor may only work with the student for an hour or two a week, but direct the student what they should practice in the interim until their next lesson. Many instructors work with the same students on a weekly basis for years and derive satisfaction from observing them mature and gain expertise. The most talented students may go on to paid careers as craft artists, painters, sculptors, dancers, singers, or musicians. All self-enrichment teachers must prepare lessons beforehand and stay current in their fields. Many self enrichment teachers are self employed and provide instruction as a business. As such, they must collect any fees or tuition and keep records of students whose accounts are prepaid or in arrears. Although not a require ment for most types of classes, teachers may use computers and other modern technologies in their instruction or to maintain business records. 232 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Few self-enrichment education teachers are full time salaried workers. Most either work part time or are self-employed. Some have several part-time teaching assignments, but it is most common for teachers to have a full time job in another occupation, often related to the subject that they teach, in addition to their part-time teaching job. Although jobs in this occupation are primarily part time and pay is low, most teachers enjoy their work because it gives them the opportunity to share a subject they enjoy with others. Many classes for adults are held in the evenings and on week ends in order to accommodate students who have a job or family responsibilities. Similarly, self-enrichment classes for children are usually held after school, on weekends, or during school vacations. Students in self-enrichment programs attend by choice so they tend to be highly motivated and eager to learn. Students also often bring unique experiences of their own to classes, which can make teaching these students rewarding and satisfying. Self-enrichment teachers must have a great deal of patience, however, particularly when working with young children. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The main qualification for self-enrichment teachers is expertise in their subject area, but requirements may vary greatly with both the type of class taught and the place of employment. In some cases, a portfolio of one’s work may be required. For example, to secure a job teaching a photography course, an applicant would need to show examples of previous work. Some self-enrichment teachers are trained educators or other professionals who teach enrichment classes in their spare time. In many self-enrichment fields, however, instructors are simply experienced in the field, and want to share that experience with others. In some disciplines, such as art or music, specific teacher training programs are available. Prospective dance teachers, for example, may complete programs that prepare them to instruct any number of types of dance—from ballroom dancing to ballet. In addition to knowledge of their subject, self-enrichment teachers should have good speaking skills and a talent for making the subject interesting. Patience and the ability to explain and instruct students at a basic level are important as well, particularly when one is working with children. Opportunities for advancement in this profession are limited. Some part-time teachers are able to move into full-time teaching positions or program administrator positions, such as coordinator or director, when such vacancies occur. Experienced teachers may mentor new instructors. ticipants in self-enrichment education because they have more time for classes, and as the baby boomers begin to retire, demand for self enrichment education should grow. At the same time, the children of the baby boomer will be entering the age range of another large group of participants, young adults-who often are single and participate for the social as well as the educational experience. Teachers who are knowledgeable in subjects that are not easily researched on the Internet and those that benefit from hands-on experiences, such as cooking, crafts, and the arts, will be in greater demand. Classes on self-improvement, personal finance, and com puter and internet-related subjects are also expected to be popular. Earnings Median hourly earnings of self-enrichment teachers were $14.85 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.39 and $20.80. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.90, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $28.85. Self-enrichment teachers are generally paid by the hour or for each class that they teach. Part-time instructors are usually paid for each class that they teach, and receive few benefits. Full-time teachers are generally paid a salary and may receive health insurance and other benefits.. Related Occupations The work of self-enrichment teachers is closely related to that of other types of teachers, especially preschool, kindergarten, elemen tary school, middle school, and secondary school teachers. Self enrichment teachers also teach a wide variety of subjects that may be related to the work done by those in many other occupations, such as dancers and choreographers; artists and related workers; musicians, singers, and related workers; recreation workers; and athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment of self-enrichment teachers, contact schools or local companies that offer self-enrichment programs. Teachers—Special Education (0*NET 25-2041.00, 25-2042.00, 25-2043.00) Significant Points • All States require teachers to be licensed; licensing re quires the completion of a teacher training program and at least a bachelor’s degree, though many States require a master’s degree. • Excellent job prospects are expected due to rising enrollments of special education students and reported shortages of qualified teachers. • Many States offer alternative licensure programs to at tract people to these jobs who do not have the qualifica tions to become teachers under normal procedures. Employment Teachers of self-enrichment education held about 253,000 jobs in 2004. About 3 in 10 were self-employed. The largest numbers of teachers were employed by public and private educational institu tions, religious organizations, and providers of social assistance and amusement and recreation services. Job Outlook Employment of self-enrichment education teachers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. A large number of job openings is expected, due to both the growth of the occupation as well as to many existing teachers retiring or leav ing their jobs for other reasons. New opportunities arise constantly in this occupation because many self-enrichment education jobs are short term and are often held as a second job. The need for self-enrichment teachers is expected to grow as more people embrace lifelong learning and as course offerings expand. Self-enrichment education will also grow as a result of demographic changes. Retirees are one of the larger groups of par https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Special education teachers work with children and youths who have a variety of disabilities. A small number of special education teach ers work with students with mental retardation or autism, primarily teaching them life skills and basic literacy. However, the majority of special education teachers work with children with mild to moderate disabilities, using the general education curriculum, or modifying it, to meet the child’s individual needs. Most special education teachers Professional and Related Occupations V; * Js «o* vPp )&?;■-£* "f Special education teachers help provide instruction customized to the needs of students with disabilities. instruct students at the elementary, middle, and secondary school level, although some teachers work with infants and toddlers. The various types of disabilities that qualify individuals for spe cial education programs include specific learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, multiple disabilities, hearing impairments, orthopedic impairments, visual impairments, autism, combined deafness and blindness, traumatic brain injury, and other health impairments. Students are classified under one of the categories, and special education teachers are prepared to work with specific groups. Early identification of a child with special needs is an important part of a special education teacher’s job. Early intervention is essential in educating children with disabilities. Special education teachers use various techniques to promote learning. Depending on the disability, teaching methods can include individualized instruction, problem-solving assignments, and smallgroup work. When students need special accommodations in order to take a test, special education teachers see that appropriate ones are provided, such as having the questions read orally or lengthening the time allowed to take the test. Special education teachers help to develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each special education student. The IEP sets personalized goals for each student and is tailored to the student’s individual needs and ability. When appropriate, the pro gram includes a transition plan outlining specific steps to prepare students with disabilities for middle school or high school or, in the case of older students, a job or postsecondary study. Teachers review the IEP with the student’s parents, school administrators, and the student’s general education teacher. Teachers work closely with parents to inform them of their child’s progress and suggest techniques to promote learning at home. Special education teachers design and teach appropriate curricula, assign work geared toward each student’s needs and abilities, and grade papers and homework assignments. They are involved in the students’ behavioral, social, and academic development, helping the students develop emotionally, feel comfortable in social situations, and be aware of socially acceptable behavior. Preparing special education students for daily life after graduation also is an important aspect of the job. Teachers provide students with career counseling or help them learn routine skills, such as balancing a checkbook. As schools become more inclusive, special education teachers and general education teachers are increasingly working together in general education classrooms. Special education teachers help general https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 233 educators adapt curriculum materials and teaching techniques to meet the needs of students with disabilities. They coordinate the work of teachers, teacher assistants, and related personnel, such as therapists and social workers, to meet the individualized needs of the student within inclusive special education programs. A large part of a special education teacher’s job involves interacting with others. Special edu cation teachers communicate frequently with parents, social workers, school psychologists, occupational and physical therapists, school administrators, and other teachers. Special education teachers work in a variety of settings. Some have their own classrooms and teach only special education students; others work as special education resource teachers and offer individu alized help to students in general education classrooms; still others teach together with general education teachers in classes composed of both general and special education students. Some teachers work with special education students for several hours a day in a resource room, separate from their general education classroom. Considerably fewer special education teachers work in residential facilities or tutor students in homebound or hospital environments. Special education teachers who work with infants usually travel to the child’s home to work with the child and his or her parents. Many of these infants have medical problems that slow or preclude normal development. Special education teachers show parents techniques and activities designed to stimulate the infant and encourage the growth and development of the child’s skills. Toddlers usually receive their services at a preschool where special education teachers help them develop social, self-help, motor, language, and cognitive skills, often through the use of play. Technology is playing an increasingly important role in special education. Teachers use specialized equipment such as computers with synthesized speech, interactive educational software programs, and audiotapes to assist children. Working Conditions Special education teachers enjoy the challenge of working with students with disabilities and the opportunity to establish meaning ful relationships with them. Although helping these students can be highly rewarding, the work also can be emotionally and physically draining. Many special education teachers are under considerable stress due to heavy workloads and administrative tasks. They must produce a substantial amount of paperwork documenting each student’s progress and work under the threat of litigation against the school or district by students’ parents if correct procedures are not followed or if the parents feel that their child is not receiving an adequate education, although recent legislation that has been passed is intended to reduce the burden of paperwork and the threat of litigation. The physical and emotional demands of the job cause some special education teachers to leave the occupation. Some schools offer year-round education for special education students, but most special education teachers work only the tradi tional 10-month school year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require special education teachers to be licensed. The State board of education or a licensure ad visory committee usually grants licenses, and licensure varies by State. In some States, special education teachers receive a general education credential to teach kindergarten through grade 12. These teachers then train in a specialty, such as learning disabilities or behavioral disorders. Many States offer general special education licenses across a variety of disability categories, while others license several different specialties within special education. For traditional licensing, all States require a bachelor’s degree and the completion of an approved teacher preparation program with a 234 Occupational Outlook Handbook prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching. However, many States require a master’s degree in special education, involving at least 1 year of additional course work, including a specialization, beyond the bachelor’s degree. Often a prospective teacher must pass a professional assessment test as well. Some States have reciprocity agreements allowing special education teachers to transfer their licenses from one State to another, but many others still require that experienced teachers reapply and pass licensing requirements to work in the State. Many states also offer alternative routes to licensing, since there are not enough graduates from education programs to meet the needs of most schools. Alternative licensure programs are intended to attract people into teaching who do not fulfill traditional licensing standards, including recent college graduates who did not complete education programs and those changing from another career to teaching. Requirements vary by State, but generally require hold ing a bachelor’s degree, successfully accomplishing a period of supervised preparation and induction, and passing an assessment test. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under a provisional license and can obtain a regular license after teaching under the supervision of licensed teachers for a period of 1 to 2 years and completing required education courses. Many colleges and universities across the United States offer programs in special education at the undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral degree levels. Special education teachers usually undergo longer periods of training than do general education teachers. Most bachelor’s degree programs are 4-year programs that include general and specialized courses in special education. However, an increas ing number of institutions are requiring a 5th year or other gradu ate-level preparation. Among the courses offered are educational psychology, legal issues of special education, and child growth and development; programs also include courses imparting knowledge and skills needed for teaching students with disabilities. Some programs require specialization, while others offer generalized special education degrees or a course of study in several specialized areas. The last year of the program usually is spent student teaching in a classroom supervised by a certified teacher. Special education teachers must be patient, able to motivate stu dents, understanding of their students’ special needs, and accepting of differences in others. Teachers must be creative and apply dif ferent types of teaching methods to reach students who are having difficulty learning. Communication and cooperation are essential skills, because special education teachers spend a great deal of time interacting with others, including students, parents, and school faculty and administrators. Special education teachers can advance to become supervi sors or administrators. They may also earn advanced degrees and become instructors in colleges that prepare others to teach special education. In some school systems, highly experienced teachers can become mentors to less experienced ones, providing guidance to those teachers while maintaining a light teaching load. Employment Special education teachers held a total of about 441,000jobs in 2004. A great majority, about 90 percent, work in public schools. Another 6 percent work at private schools. Almost half work in elementary schools. A few worked for individual and social assistance agencies or residential facilities, or in homebound or hospital environments. Job Outlook Employment of special education teachers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Although student enrollments are expected to grow only slowly, additional positions for these workers will be created by continued increases in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the number of special education students needing services, by leg islation emphasizing training and employment for individuals with disabilities, and by educational reforms requiring higher standards for graduation. In addition to job openings resulting from growth, a large number of openings will result from the need to replace special educa tion teachers who switch to teaching general education, change careers altogether, or retire. At the same time, many school districts report difficulty finding sufficient numbers of qualified teachers. As a result, special education teachers should have excellent job prospects. The job outlook varies by geographic area and specialty. Although most areas of the country report difficulty finding qualified applicants, positions in inner cities and rural areas usually are more plentiful than job openings in suburban or wealthy urban areas. Student populations, in general, also are expected to increase more rapidly in certain parts of the country, such as the South and West, resulting in increased demand for special education teachers in those regions. In addition, job opportunities may be better in certain specialties—such as teachers who work with children with multiple disabilities or severe disabilities like autism—because of large increases in the enrollment of special education students classified under those categories. Legislation encouraging early intervention and special education for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers has created a need for early childhood special education teachers. Bilingual special education teachers and those with multicultural experience also are needed to work with an increasingly diverse student population. The number of students requiring special education services has grown steadily in recent years as improvements in identification has allowed learning disabilities to be diagnosed at earlier ages. In addition, medical advances have resulted in more children surviv ing serious accidents or illnesses, but with impairments that require special accommodations. The percentage of foreign-bom special education students also is expected to grow, as teachers become more adept in recognizing learning disabilities in that population. Finally, more parents are expected to seek special services for those of their children who have difficulty meeting the new, higher standards required of students. Earnings Median annual earnings in May 2004 of special education teachers who worked primarily in preschools, kindergartens, and elementary schools were $43,570. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,340 and $55,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,660. Median annual earnings in May 2004 of middle school special education teachers were $44,160. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $35,650 and $57,070. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,230, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,230. Median annual earnings in May 2004 of special education teach ers who worked primarily in secondary schools were $45,700. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,920 and $59,340. The low est 10 percent earned less than $30,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $73,190. In 2004, about 62 percent of special education teachers belonged to unions—mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association—that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. In most schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Some teach ers earn extra income during the summer, working in the school system or in other jobs. Related Occupations Special education teachers work with students who have disabilities and special needs. Other occupations involved with the identification, Professional and Related Occupations evaluation, and development of students with disabilities include psychologists, social workers, speech-language pathologists, au diologists, counselors, teacher assistants, occupational therapists, recreational therapists, and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary. Sources of Additional Information For information on professions related to early intervention and education for children with disabilities, listings of schools with special education training programs, information on teacher cer 235 tification, and general information on related personnel issues, contact: >- The Council for Exceptional Children, 1110 N. Glebe Road, Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22201-5704. Internet: http://www.cec.sped.org > National Center for Special Education Personnel & Related Service Providers, National Association of State Directors of Special Educa tion, 1800 Diagonal Road, Suite 320, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http ://www.personnelcenter.org To learn more about the special education teacher certification and licensing requirements in individual States, contact the State’s department of education. Art and Design Occupations Artists and Related Workers (0*NET 27-1011.00, 27-1012.00, 27-1013.01, 27-1013.02, 27-1013.03, 27-1013.04, 27-1014.00) Significant Points • About 63 percent of artists and related workers are selfemployed. • Keen competition is expected for both salaried jobs and freelance work; the number of qualified workers exceeds the number of available openings because the arts attract many talented people with creative ability. • Artists usually develop their skills through a bachelor’s degree program or other postsecondary training in art or design. • Earnings for self-employed artists vary widely; some well-established artists earn more than salaried artists, while others find it difficult to rely solely on income earned from selling art. Nature of the Work Artists create art to communicate ideas, thoughts, or feelings. They use a variety of methods—painting, sculpting, or illustration—and an assortment of materials, including oils, watercolors, acrylics, pastels, pencils, pen and ink, plaster, clay, and computers. Artists’ works may be realistic, stylized, or abstract and may depict objects, people, nature, or events. Artists generally fall into one of four categories. Art directors formulate design concepts and presentation approaches for visual communications media. Craft artists create or reproduce handmade objects for sale or exhibition. Fine artists, including painters, sculp tors, and illustrators create original artwork, using a variety of media and techniques. Multi-media artists and animators create special effects, animation, or other visual images on film, on video, or with computers or other electronic media. (Designers, including graphic designers, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Art directors develop design concepts and review material that is to appear in periodicals, newspapers, and other printed or digital media. They decide how best to present the information visually, so that it is eye catching, appealing, and organized. Art directors decide which photographs or artwork to use and oversee the layout design and production of the printed material. They may direct workers engaged in artwork, layout design, and copywriting. Craft artists hand-make a wide variety of objects that are sold in their own studios, in retail outlets, or at arts-and-crafts Digitized for either FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis shows. Some craft artists may display their works in galleries and museums. Craft artists work with many different materials—ceram ics, glass, textiles, wood, metal, and paper—to create unique pieces of art, such as pottery, stained glass, quilts, tapestries, lace, candles, and clothing. Many craft artists also use fine-art techniques—for example, painting, sketching, and printing—to add finishing touches to their art. Fine artists typically display their work in museums, commercial art galleries, corporate collections, and private homes. Some of their artwork may be commissioned (done on request from clients), but most is sold by the artist or through private art galleries or dealers. The gallery and the artist predetermine how much each will earn from the sale. Only the most successful fine artists are able to support themselves solely through the sale of their works. Most fine artists have at least one other job to support their art careers. Some work in museums or art galleries as fine-arts directors or as cura tors, planning and setting up art exhibits. A few artists work as art critics for newspapers or magazines or as consultants to foundations or institutional collectors. Other artists teach art classes or conduct workshops in schools or in their own studios. Some artists also hold full-time or part-time jobs unrelated to the art field and pursue fine art as a hobby or second career. Usually, fine artists specialize in one or two art forms, such as painting, illustrating, sketching, sculpting, printmaking, and restoring. Painters, illustrators, cartoonists, and sketch artists work with two-dimensional art forms, using shading, perspective, and color to produce realistic scenes or abstractions. Some artists teach classes or conduct workshops in schools or in their own studios. 236 Occupational Outlook Handbook Illustrators typically create pictures for books, magazines, and other publications and for commercial products such as textiles, wrapping paper, stationery, greeting cards, and calendars. Increas ingly, illustrators are working in digital format, preparing work directly on a computer. Medical and scientific illustrators combine drawing skills with knowledge of biology or other sciences. Medical illustrators draw illustrations of human anatomy and surgical procedures. Scientific illustrators draw illustrations of animal and plant life, atomic and molecular structures, and geologic and planetary formations. The illustrations are used in medical and scientific publications and in audiovisual presentations for teaching purposes. Medical illustrators also work for lawyers, producing exhibits for court cases. Cartoonists draw political, advertising, social, and sports cartoons. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists have comic, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Sketch artists create likenesses of subjects with pencil, charcoal, or pastels. Sketches are used by law enforcement agencies to as sist in identifying suspects, by the news media to depict courtroom scenes, and by individual patrons for their own enjoyment. Sculptors design three-dimensional artworks, either by mold ing and joining materials such as clay, glass, wire, plastic, fabric, or metal or by cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various materials to cre ate mixed-media installations. Some incorporate light, sound, and motion into their works. Printmakers create printed images from designs cut or etched into wood, stone, or metal. After creating the design, the artist inks the surface of the woodblock, stone, or plate and uses a printing press to roll the image onto paper or fabric. Some make prints by pressing the inked surface onto paper by hand or by graphically encoding and processing data, using a computer. The digitized images are then printed on paper with the use of a computer printer. Painting restorers preserve and restore damaged and faded paintings. They apply solvents and cleaning agents to clean the sur faces of the paintings, they reconstmct or retouch damaged areas, and they apply preservatives to protect the paintings. Restoration is highly detailed work and usually is reserved for experts in the field. Multi-media artists and animators work primarily in motion picture and video industries, advertising, and computer systems design services. They draw by hand and use computers to cre ate the large series of pictures that form the animated images or special effects seen in movies, television programs, and computer games. Some draw storyboards for television commercials, movies, and animated features. Storyboards present television commercials in a series of scenes similar to a comic strip and allow an advertising agency to evaluate commercials proposed by the company doing the advertising. Storyboards also serve as guides to placing actors and cameras on the television or motion picture set and to other details that need to be taken care of during the production of commercials. Working Conditions Many artists work in fine- or commercial-art studios located in of fice buildings, warehouses, or lofts. Others work in private studios in their homes. Some fine artists share studio space, where they also may exhibit their work. Studio surroundings usually are well lighted and ventilated; however, fine artists may be exposed to fumes from glue, paint, ink, and other materials and to dust or other residue from filings, splattered paint, or spilled fluids. Artists who sit at drafting tables or who use computers for extended periods may experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Artists employed by publishing companies, advertising agencies, and design firms generally work a standard workweek. During busy https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis periods, they may work overtime to meet deadlines. Self-employed artists can set their own hours, but may spend much time and effort selling their artwork to potential customers or clients and building a reputation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary training is recommended for all artist specialties. Al though formal training is not strictly required, it is very difficult to be come skilled enough to make a living without some training. Many colleges and universities offer programs leading to the bachelor’s or master’s degree in fine arts. Courses usually include core subjects such as English, social science, and natural science, in addition to art history and studio art. Independent schools of art and design also offer postsecondary studio training in the craft, fine, and multi-media arts leading to a certificate in the specialty or to an associate’s or bachelor’s degree in fine arts. Typically, these programs focus more intensively on studio work than do the academic programs in a university setting. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredits about 250 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design; most award a degree in art. Formal educational programs in art also provide training in computer techniques. Computers are used widely in the visual arts, and knowledge and training in computer graphics and other visual display software are critical elements of many jobs in these fields. Medical illustrators must have both a demonstrated artistic ability and a detailed knowledge of living organisms, surgical and medical procedures, and human and animal anatomy. A bachelor’s degree combining art and premedical courses usually is required. However, most medical illustrators also choose to pursue a master’s degree in medical illustration. This degree is offered in five accredited schools in the United States. Art directors usually begin as entry-level artists in advertising, publishing, design, and motion picture production firms. Artists are promoted to art director after demonstrating artistic and leader ship abilities. Some art schools offer coursework in art direction as part of postsecondary training. Depending on the scope of their responsibilities, some art directors also may pursue a degree in art administration, which teaches nonartistic skills such as project management and communication. Those who want to teach fine arts at public elementary or second ary schools must have a teaching certificate in addition to a bachelor’s degree. An advanced degree in fi ne arts or arts administration is nec essary for management or administrative positions in government or in foundations or for teaching in colleges and universities. (See the statements for teachers—postsecondary; and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school elsewhere in the Handbook.) Evidence of appropriate talent and skill, displayed in an artist’s portfolio, is an important factor used by art directors, clients, and others in deciding whether to hire an individual or to contract out work. The portfolio is a collection of handmade, computer-gener ated, photographic, or printed samples of the artist’s best work. As sembling a successful portfolio requires skills usually developed through postsecondary training in art or visual communications. In ternships also provide excellent opportunities for artists to develop and enhance their portfolios. Artists hired by firms often start with relatively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Many artists freelance on a part-time basis while continuing to hold a full-time job until they are established. Others freelance part time while still in school, to develop experience and to build a portfolio of published work. Professional and Related Occupations Freelance artists try to develop a set of clients who regularly contract for work. Some freelance artists are widely recognized for their skill in specialties such as cartooning or children’s book illustration. These artists may earn high incomes and can choose the type of work they do. Craft and fine artists advance professionally as their work circu lates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. Many of the most successful artists continually develop new ideas, and their work often evolves over time. Employment Artists held about 208,000 jobs in 2004. Sixty-three percent were self-employed. Employment was distributed as follows: Multi-media artists and animators.................................................. 94,000 Art directors.................................................................................... 71,000 Fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators............. 29,000 Artists and related workers, allother............................................. 8,500 Craft artists...................................................................................... 6,100 Of the artists who were not self-employed, many worked in adver tising and related services; newspaper, periodical, book, and software publishers; motion picture and video industries; specialized design services; and computer systems design and related services. Some self-employed artists offered their services to advertising agencies, design firms, publishing houses, and other businesses on a contract or freelance basis. Job Outlook Employment of artists and related workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. However, the competition for jobs is expected to be keen for both salaried and freelance jobs in all specialties, because the number of qualified workers exceeds the number of available openings. Also, because the arts attract many talented people with creative ability, the number of aspiring artists continues to grow. Employers in all industries should be able to choose from among the most qualified candidates. Art directors work in a variety of industries, such as advertising, public relations, publishing, and design firms. Despite an expanding number of opportunities, they should experience keen competition for the available openings. Craft and fine artists work mostly on a freelance or commission basis and may find it difficult to earn a living solely by selling thenartwork. Only the most successful craft and fine artists receive major commissions for their work. Competition among artists for the privilege of being shown in galleries is expected to remain acute, and grants from sponsors such as private foundations, State and lo cal arts councils, and the National Endowment for the Arts should remain competitive. Nonetheless, studios, galleries, and individual clients are always on the lookout for artists who display outstanding talent, creativity, and style. Among craft and fine artists, talented individuals who have developed a mastery of artistic techniques and skills will have the best job prospects. The growth in computer graphics packages and stock art Web sites is making it easier for writers, publishers, and art directors to create their own illustrations. As the use of this technology grows, there will be fewer opportunities for illustrators. One exception is the small number of medical illustrators, who will be in greater demand to illustrate journal articles and books as medical research continues to grow. Salaried cartoonists will have fewer job opportunities because many newspapers and magazines are increasingly relying on freelance In addition, many cartoonists are opting to post their work Digitized forwork. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 237 on political Web sites and online publications. As online posting of cartoons increases, many are creating animated or interactive images to satisfy readers’ demands for more sophisticated cartoons. Multi-media artists and animators should have better job op portunities than other artists, but still will experience competition. Demand for these workers will increase as consumers continue to demand more realistic video games, movie and television special effects, and 3D animated movies. Additional job openings will arise from an increasing demand for Web site development and for computer graphics adaptation from the growing number of mobile technologies. Job opportunities for animators of lower-technology, two-dimensional television cartoons could be hampered as these jobs continue to be outsourced overseas. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried art directors were $63,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,890 and $88,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $123,320. Median annual earn ings were $66,900 in advertising and related services. Median annual earnings of salaried craft artists were $23,520 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,950 and $32,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,740, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,490. Median annual earnings of salaried fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators, were $38,060 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,990 and $51,730. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,860. According to the Association of Medical Illus trators, the median earnings in 2005 for salaried medical illustrators were $59,000. Median annual earnings of salaried multi-media artists and ani mators were $50,360 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,980 and $70,730. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $94,260. Median annual earnings were $67,390 in motion picture and video industries and $46,810 in advertising and related services. Earnings for self-employed artists vary widely. Some charge only a nominal fee while they gain experience and build a reputation for their work. Others, such as well-established freelance fine artists and illustrators, can earn more than salaried artists. Many, however, find it difficult to rely solely on income earned from selling paintings or other works of art. Like other self-employed workers, freelance artists must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who apply art skills include architects, except land scape and naval; archivists, curators, and museum technicians; commercial and industrial designers; fashion designers; floral designers; graphic designers; interior designers; jewelers and pre cious stone and metal workers; landscape architects; photographers; and woodworkers. Some workers who use computers extensively, including computer software engineers and desktop publishers, may require art skills. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For information on careers in the craft arts and for a list of schools and workshops, contact: >- American Craft Council Library, 72 Spring St., 6th Floor, New York, NY 10012-4019. Internet: http://www.craftcouncil.org 238 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information on careers in illustration, contact: >- Society of Illustrators, 128 E. 63rd St., New York, NY 10021-7303. Internet: http://www.societyillustrators.org For information on careers in medical illustration, contact: >■ Association of Medical Illustrators, 245 First St., Suite 1800, Cambridge, MA 02142. Internet: http://www.ami.org For information on workshops, scholarships, internships, and competitions for art students interested in advertising careers, contact: > Art Directors Club, 106 W. 29th St., New York, NY 10001. Internet: http://www.adcgIobal.org Commercial and Industrial Designers (Q*NET 27-1021.00) Significant Points • Commercial and industrial designers usually work closely with engineers, materials scientists, marketing and corporate strategy staff, cost estimators, and ac countants. • About 1 out of 3 are self-employed. • A bachelor’s degree in industrial design, architecture, or engineering is required for entry-level positions; however, many commercial and industrial designers choose to pursue a master’s degree in either industrial design or business administration. • Keen competition is expected for most jobs because many qualified individuals are attracted to careers in this field; those with strong backgrounds in engineering and computer-aided design, as well as extensive busi ness expertise, will have the best prospects. Nature of the Work Commercial and industrial designers combine the fields of art, business, and engineering to design the products used every day by businesses and consumers. These designers are responsible for the style, func tion, quality, and safety of most manufactured goods. Usually these designers will specialize in one particular product category. Some specialties include automobiles and other transportation vehicles, ap pliances, technology goods, medical equipment, furniture, toys, tools and construction equipment, and housewares. The first steps in developing a new design, or altering an exist ing one, are to determine the requirements of the client, the ulti mate function for which the design is intended, and its appeal to customers or users. When creating a new design, designers often begin by researching the product user or the context in which the product will be used, and desired product characteristics, such as size, shape, weight, color, materials used, cost, ease of use, fit, and safety. Designers gather this information by meeting with clients, conducting market research, reading design and consumer publica tions, attending trade shows, and visiting potential users, suppliers and manufacturers. Designers then prepare conceptual sketches or diagrams—by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate the vision for the design. After conducting research and consulting with a creative director or other members of the product development team, design ers then create detailed sketches or renderings. Many designers use computer-aided design (CAD) tools to create and better visualize the final product. Computer models allow ease and flexibility in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most commercial and industrial designers use computer-aided industrial design software to prepare conceptual product diagrams. exploring a greater number of design alternatives, thus reducing design costs and cutting the time it takes to deliver a product to market. Industrial designers who work for manufacturing firms also use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) tools to create designs and machine-readable instructions that communicate with automated production tools. Often, designers will create physical models out of clay, wood, and other materials to give clients a better idea of what the finished product will look like. Designers then present the designs and prototypes to their client or managers and incorporate any changes and suggestions. Designers also will work with engineers, accountants, and cost estimators to determine if the product could be made safer, easier to assemble or use, or cheaper to manufacture. Designers also may participate in usability and safety tests with prototypes in order to make further adjustments to the design before it goes to manufacturing. Commercial and industrial designers also work with marketing staff to develop plans to best market the new product or design to consumers. Increasingly, designers are working with corporate strategy staff to ensure that their designs fit into the company’s busi ness plan and strategic vision. This involves designing new products that accurately reflect the company’s image and values. It also involves identifying and designing products that best fit consumers’ needs before a competitor markets a similar product. Increasingly, designers must focus on creating innovative products in addition to considering the style and technical aspects of the product. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers employed by manufacturing establishments, large corporations, or de sign firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfort able settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms, or those who freelance, may work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments. Addi tional hours may be required in order to meet deadlines. Designers may transact business in their own offices or studios or in clients’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other loca tions, such as testing facilities, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, user’s homes or workplaces, and manufacturing facilities. With the increased speed and sophistication of computers and advanced communications networks, designers may form international design Professional and Related Occupations teams, serve a geographically more dispersed clientele, research de sign alternatives by using information on the Internet, and purchase supplies electronically. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in industrial design, architecture, or engi neering is required for most entry-level commercial and indus trial design positions. Many candidates in industrial design also pursue a master’s degree in order to increase their employment opportunities. Creativity and technical knowledge are crucial in this occupation. People in this field also must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail and a sense of balance and proportion. Designers must understand the technical aspects of how the product functions. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a per son’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job. Bachelor’s of fine arts or bachelor’s of science degrees in indus trial design are granted at many colleges and universities, and in private art and design schools. Baccalaureate curriculum includes principles of design, sketching, computer-aided design, industrial materials and processes, manufacturing methods, and some coursework in engineering, physical science, mathematics, psychology, and anthropology. Many programs also include internships in design or manufacturing firms. Commercial and industrial designers also may pursue a master’s degree in industrial design. With the growing emphasis on strategic design and how products fit into the overall business plan, an in creasing number of designers are pursing a master’s degree in busi ness administration in order to gain valuable business skills. Also, a growing number of professionals in other industries, such as marketing and information technology, are entering the industrial design field by pursuing advanced degrees in design. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits about 250 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Approximately 45 of these schools award a degree in industrial design. Many schools require the successful completion of 1 year of basic art and design courses before formal entry into a bachelor’s degree program. Applicants also may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Employers increasingly expect new designers to be familiar with computer-aided design software as a design tool. Designers must also be creative, imaginative, and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas in writing, visually, and verbally. Because tastes in style can change quickly, designers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. As strategic design becomes more important, employers will seek designers with project management skills and knowledge of accounting, marketing, quality assurance, purchasing, and strategic planning. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Beginning commercial and industrial designers usually receive onthe-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to be come teachers in design schools or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced Digitized fordesigners FRASER open their own design firms. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 239 Employment Commercial and industrial designers held about 49,000 jobs in 2004. About 1 out of 3 were self-employed. About 13 percent of designers were employed in either engineering or specialized design services firms. Manufacturing companies employed the rest of com mercial and industrial designers, with the largest number employed in aerospace products and parts manufacturing. Job Outlook Employment of commercial and industrial designers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Employment growth will arise from an expanding economy and from an increase in consumer and business demand for new or up graded products. However, competition for jobs will be keen because many talented individuals are attracted to the design field. The best job opportunities will be in specialized design firms which are used by manufacturers to design products or parts of products. Designers with strong backgrounds in engineering and computer-aided design, as well as extensive business expertise, may have the best prospects. Increasing demand for commercial and industrial designers will stem from the continued emphasis on the quality and safety of products, the increasing demand for new products that are easy and comfortable to use, and the development of high-technology products in consumer electronics, medicine, transportation, and other fields. However, employment can be affected by fluctua tions in the economy. For example, during periods of economic downturns, companies may cut research and development spend ing, including new product development. Increasingly, manufacturers have been outsourcing design work to design services firms in order to cut costs and to find the most qualified design talent. Additionally, some companies use design firms located overseas, especially for design of high-technology products. These overseas design firms are located closer to their suppliers, which reduces the time it takes to design and sell a product—an important consideration when technology is changing quickly. Offshoring of design work, particularly for high-technol ogy products, could continue to have a negative impact on domestic employment of commercial and industrial designers. Despite the increase in design work performed overseas, most design jobs—particularly jobs not related to high-technology product design—will still remain in the U.S. because design is essential to a firm’s success, and firms will want to retain control over the design process. As the demand for design work becomes more consumer-driven, designers also will need to closely monitor, and react to, changing customer demands. Designers will increas ingly have to come up with innovative new products in order to stay competitive. Domestic designers also will be required to work with marketing and strategic planning staffs to design products that will be more usable and appealing to consumers and that accurately define a company’s image and brand. Earnings Median annual earnings for commercial and industrial designers were $52,310 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,130 and $68,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,080, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,250. Related Occupations Workers in other art and design occupations include artists and related workers; fashion designers; floral designers; graphic designers; and interior designers. Some other occupations that require computer-aided design skills are architects, except land scape and naval; computer software engineers; desktop publish ers; drafters; and engineers. 240 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For general career information on commercial and industrial design, contact: >- Industrial Designers Society of America, 45195 Business Court, Suite 250, Dulles, VA 20166-6717. Intemet:http://www.idsa.org For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite21, Reston, VA20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.nrg - ^ - ** Fashion Designers (0*NET 27-1022.00,) Significant Points • • In 2004, two-thirds of salaried fashion designers were employed in either New York or California. • Employers seek designers with a 2- or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, orna mentation, and fashion trends. Job competition is expected to be keen as many design ers are attracted to the creativity and glamour associ ated with the occupation, while relatively few job open ings arise. • More than 1 out of 4 are self-employed. Nature of the Work Fashion designers help create the billions of clothing articles, shoes, and accessories purchased every year by consumers. Designers study fashion trends, sketch designs of clothing and accessories, select colors and fabrics, and oversee the final production of their designs. Clothing designers create and help produce men’s, wom en’s, and children’s apparel, including casual wear, suits, sportswear, formalwear, outerwear, maternity, and intimate apparel. Footwear designers help create and produce different styles of shoes and boots. Accessory designers help create and produce items that add the finishing touches to an outfit, such as handbags, belts, scarves, hats, hosiery, and eyewear. (The work of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some fashion designers specialize in clothing, footwear, or accessory design, while others create designs in all three fashion categories. The design process from initial design inception to final produc tion takes between 18 and 24 months. The first step in creating a design is researching fashion trends and making predictions of future trends. Some designers conduct their own research, while others rely on trend reports published by fashion industry trade groups. Trend reports indicate what styles, colors, and fabrics will be popular for a particular season in the future. Textile manufacturers use these trend reports to begin designing fabrics and patterns while fashion designers begin to sketch preliminary designs. Designers will then visit manufacturers or trade shows to procure samples of fabrics and decide which fabrics to use with which designs. Once designs and fabrics are chosen, a prototype of the article using cheaper materials is created and then worn by a model to see what adjustments to the design need to be made. During this time, designers usually will narrow down their choices of which designs to offer for sale. After the final adjustments and selections have been made, samples of the article using the actual materials are sewn, and then marketed to clothing retailers. Many designs are shown at fashion and trade shows a few times a year. Retailers will then place orders for certain items, which are then manufactured and distributed to stores. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ... /" V Mostfashion designers travel several times a year to trade shows in order to view new fabric and other material samples. Computer-aided design (CAD) is increasingly being used in the fashion design industry. While most designers initially sketch de signs by hand, a growing number also translate these hand sketches to the computer. CAD allows designers to view designs of clothing on virtual models and in various colors and shapes, thus saving time by requiring fewer adjustments of prototypes and samples later. Depending on the size of the design firm and level of experi ence, fashion designers may have varying levels of involvement in different aspects of design and production. In large design firms, fashion designers often are the lead designers who are responsible for creating the designs, choosing the colors and fabrics, and overseeing technical designers who turn the designs into a final product. They are responsible for creating the prototypes and patterns and work with the manufacturers and suppliers during the production stages. Large design houses also employ their own pat ternmakers, tailors, and sewers who create the master patterns for the design and sew the prototypes and samples. Designers working in small firms, or those new to the job, usually perform most of the technical, patternmaking, and sewing tasks in addition to designing the clothing. (The work of pattern makers, hand sewers, and tailors is covered in the statement on textile, apparel, and furnishings oc cupations elsewhere in the Handbook). Fashion designers working for apparel wholesalers or manufac turers create designs for the mass market. These designs are manu factured in various sizes and colors. A small number of high-fashion (haute couture) designers are self-employed and create custom designs for individual clients, usually at very high prices. Other high-fashion designers sell their designs in their own retail stores or cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create a mixture of original garments and those that follow established fashion trends. Some fashion designers specialize in costume design for perform ing arts, motion picture, and television productions. The work of costume designers is similar to other fashion designers. Costume designers perform extensive research into the styles worn during the period in which the performance takes place, or work with directors to select appropriate attire for performances. They make sketches of designs, select fabric and other materials, and oversee the production of the costumes. They also must stay within the costume budget for the particular production. Working Conditions Fashion designers employed by manufacturing establishments, wholesalers, or design firms generally work regular hours in well- Professional and Related Occupations lighted and comfortable settings. Designers who freelance generally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their work day to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Freelance designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments, and are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones in order to maintain a steady income. Regardless of their work setting, all fashion designers occasionally work long hours to meet production deadlines or prepare for fashion shows. The global nature of the fashion business requires constant com munication with suppliers, manufacturers, and customers all over the United States and the world. Most fashion designers travel several times a year to trade and fashion shows in order to learn about the latest fashion trends. Designers also may travel frequently to meet with fabric and materials suppliers and with manufacturers who produce the final apparel products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In fashion design, employers seek individuals with a 2-year or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable about textiles, fabrics, ornamenta tion, and fashion trends. Designers must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail, a sense of balance and propor tion, and an appreciation for beauty. Fashion designers also need excellent communication and problem-solving skills. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage in fashion design. A good portfolio—a col lection of examples of a person’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job. Bachelor’s of fine arts and associate degree programs in fashion design are offered at many colleges, universities, and private art and design schools. Some fashion designers also combine a fashion design degree with a business, marketing, or fashion merchandising degree, especially those who want to run their own business or retail store. Basic coursework includes color, textiles, sewing and tailor ing, pattern making, fashion history, CAD, and design of different types of clothing such as menswear or footwear. Coursework in human anatomy, mathematics, and psychology also is useful. The Nalional Association of Schools of Art and Design accredits approximately 250 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award degrees in fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a program until a student has successfully completed basic art and design courses. Applicants usually have to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. In addition to creativity and sketching ability, fashion designers also need to have sewing and pattemmaking skills, even if they do not perform these tasks themselves. Designers need to be able to understand these skills so they can give proper instructions as to how the garment should be constructed. Fashion designers also need strong sales and presentation skills in order to persuade clients to purchase their designs. Good teamwork and communication skills also are necessary because of the increasingly international nature of the business that requires constant contact with suppliers, manufacturers, and buyers around the world. Aspiring fashion designers can learn these necessary skills through internships with design or manufacturing firms. Some designers also gain valuable experience working in retail stores, as personal stylists, or as custom tailors. Such experience can help designers gain sales and marketing skills while learning what styles and fabrics look good on different people. Designers also can gain exposure to potential employers by entering their designs in student or amateur contests. Because of the global nature of the fashion industry, experience in one of the international fashion centers, such asFRASER Milan or Paris, can be useful. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 241 Beginning fashion designers usually start out as pattern makers or sketching assistants for more experienced designers before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervi sory position. Some designers may start their own design company, or sell their designs in their own retail stores. A few of the most successful designers can work for high-fashion design houses that offer personalized design services to wealthy clients. Employment Fashion designers held about 17,000 jobs in 2004. More than 1 out of 4 were self-employed. About 25 percent of fashion designers worked for apparel and piece goods merchant wholesalers. Another 15 percent worked in cut and sew apparel manufacturing. The re mainder worked for corporate offices involved in the management of companies and enterprises, clothing stores, performing arts com panies, specialized design services firms, textile and textile product mills, and footwear and accessories manufacturers. Employment of fashion designers tends to be concentrated in regional fashion centers. In 2004, two-thirds of salaried fashion designers were employed in either New York or California. Job Outlook Job competition is expected be keen as many designers are attracted to the creativity and glamour associated with the occupation, while relatively few job openings arise because of low job turnover and a small number of new openings created every year. Employment of fashion designers is projected to grow more slowly than the aver age for all occupations through 2014. Employment declines in cut and sew apparel manufacturing are projected to offset increases in apparel wholesalers. Employment growth for fashion designers will stem from a growing population demanding more clothing, footwear, and accessories. Demand is increasing for stylish clothing that is af fordable, especially among middle income consumers. The best job opportunities will be in design firms that design mass market cloth ing sold in department stores and retail chain stores, such as apparel wholesale firms. Few employment opportunities are expected in design firms that cater to high-end department stores and specialty boutiques as demand for expensive, high-fashion design declines relative to other luxury goods and services. Job opportunities in cut and sew manufacturing will continue to decline as apparel is increasingly manufactured overseas. However, employment of fashion designers in this industry will not decline as fast as other occupations because firms are more likely to keep design work in-house. Earnings Median annual earnings for fashion designers were $55,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,800 and $77,580. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $112,840. Earnings in fashion design can vary widely based on the employer and years of experience. Starting salaries in fashion design tend to be very low until designers are established in the industry. Salaried fashion designers usually earn higher and more stable incomes than self-employed or freelance designers. However, a few of the most successful self-employed fashion designers may earn many times the salary of the highest paid salaried designers. Self-employed fashion designers must provide their own benefits and retirement. Related Occupations Workers in other art and design occupations include artists and re lated workers, commercial and industrial designers, floral designers, 242 Occupational Outlook Handbook graphic designers, and interior designers. Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers also design wearable accessories. Other common occupations in the fashion industry include demonstrators, product promoters, and models; photographers; purchasing manag ers, buyers, and purchasing agents; retail salespersons; and textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite21,Reston, VA20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For general information about careers in fashion design, contact: ► Fashion Group International, 8 West 40th St., 7th Floor, New York, NY 10018. Internet: http://www.fgi.org Floral designers Wmm A significant portion of a floral designer’s job is arranging flowers and other greenery into custom displays for special occasions. (0*NET 27-1023.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be good because of relatively high replacement needs stemming from low starting pay and limited advancement opportunities. • Floral design is the only design specialty that does not require formal postsecondary training. • Many floral designers work long hours on weekends and holidays, filling orders and setting up decorations for weddings and other events. • About 1 out of 3 is self-employed. Nature of the Work Floral designers, or florists, cut live, dried, or silk flowers and other greenery and arrange them into displays of various sizes and shapes. They design these displays by selecting flowers, containers, and ribbons and arranging them into bouquets, corsages, centerpieces of tables, wreaths, and the like for weddings, funerals, holidays, and other special occasions. Some floral designers also utilize ac cessories such as balloons, candles, toys, candy, and gift baskets as part of their displays. Job duties can vary by type of employment setting. Most floral designers work in small independent floral shops that specialize in custom orders and also handle large orders for weddings, caterers, or interior designers. Floral designers may meet with customers to discuss the arrangement or work from a written order. They note the occasion, the customer’s preferences, the price of the order, the time the floral display or plant is to be ready, and the place to which it is to be delivered. For special occasions, floral designers usually will help set up floral decorations. Floral designers also will prearrange a few displays to have available for walk-in customers or last-minute orders. Some floral designers also assist interior designers in creating live or silk displays for hotels, restaurants, and private residences. Some florists work in the floral departments of grocery stores or for Internet florists, which specialize in creating prearranged floral decorations and bouquets. These floral retailers also may fill small custom orders for special occasions and funerals, but some grocery store florists do not deliver to clients or handle large custom orders. Florists who work for wholesale flower distributors assist in the selection of different types of flowers and greenery to purchase and sell to retail florists. Wholesale floral designers also select flow ers for displays that they use as examples for retail florists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Self-employed floral designers must handle the various aspects of running their own businesses, such as selecting and purchasing flowers, hiring and supervising staff, and maintaining financial records. Self-employed designers also may run gift shops or wed ding consultation businesses in addition to providing floral design services. Some conduct design workshops for amateur gardeners or others with an interest in floral design. Working Conditions Most floral designers work in comfortable, well-lit spaces in re tail outlets or at home, although working outdoors is sometimes required. Designers also may frequently make short trips delivering flowers, setting up arrangements for special events, and procuring flowers and other supplies. Floral designers have frequent contact with customers and must work to satisfy their demands, including last-minute holiday and funeral orders. Because many flowers are perishable, most orders cannot be completed too far in advance. As a result, some designers often work long hours before and during holidays. Some also work nights and weekends to complete large orders for weddings and other special events. Floral designers may suffer muscle strain from long periods of standing and from repeated finger and arm movements required to make floral arrangements. They are susceptible to back strain from lifting and carrying heavy flower arrangements. Designers also may suffer allergic reactions to certain types of pollen when working with flowers. In ad dition, they frequently use sharp objects—scissors, knives, and metal wire—that can cause injuries if handled improperly. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Floral design is the only design occupation that does not require formal postsecondary training; most floral designers learn their skills on the job. Employers generally look for high school graduates who have cre ativity, a flair for arranging flower, and a desire to learn. Many florists gain their initial experience working as cashiers or delivery people in retail floral stores. The completion of formal design training, however, is an asset for floral designers, particularly those interested in advancing to chief floral designer or in opening their own businesses. Private floral schools, vocational schools, and community col leges award certificates in floral design. These programs generally require a high school diploma for admission and last from several weeks to 1 year. Floral design courses teach the basics of arranging flowers—the different types of flowers there are, their color and tex ture, cutting and taping techniques, tying bows and ribbons, proper handling and care of flowers, floral trends, and pricing. Professional and Related Occupations Some floral designers also may choose to attend an associate’s or bachelor’s degree program at a community college or university. Some programs offer formal degrees in floral design, while others offer de grees in floriculture, horticulture, or ornamental horticulture, which can prepare students for a career in floral design. In addition to floral design courses, these programs teach courses in botany, chemistry, hydrology, microbiology, pesticides, and soil management. Since many floral designers manage their own business, ad ditional courses in business, accounting, marketing, and computer technology can be helpful. The American Institute of Floral Designers offers an accreditation examination as an indication of professional achievement in floral design. The exam consists of a written part covering floral terminol ogy and an onsite floral-arranging test in which candidates have 4 hours to complete five floral designs. The five categories of floral designs are funeral tributes, table arrangements, wedding arrangements, wearable flowers, and in one category of the candidate’s choosing. Floral designers must be creative, service oriented, and able to communicate their ideas visually and verbally. Because trends in floral design change quickly, designers must be open to new ideas and react quickly to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. Individuals in this field need self-discipline to budget their time and meet deadlines. Advancement in the floral field is limited. After a few years of on-the-job training, designers can either advance to a supervisory position or open their own floral shop. Employment Floral designers held about 98,000jobs in 2004. Approximately 1 out of 3 was self-employed. Almost half of all floral designers worked in florist shops. Another 8 percent worked in the floral departments of grocery stores. Others were employed by miscellaneous nondurable goods merchant wholesalers, other general merchandise stores, and in lawn and garden equipment and supply stores. and supplies directly from growers in order to cut costs. In addition, the growth of e-commerce in the floral industry will make it easier for retail florists to locate their own suppliers. Earnings Median annual earnings for wage and salary floral designers were $20,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 16,670 and $25,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,360, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32,370. Median annual earnings were $22,520 in grocery stores and $20,110 in florists. Related Occupations Other art and design occupations include artists and related work ers, commercial and industrial designers, fashion designers, graphic designers, and interior designers. Landscape architects also create designs involving plants and flowers. Other occupations that work directly with plants and flowers include soil and plant scientists; and farm workers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in floral design, contact: >• American Institute of Floral Designers, 720 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Intemet:http;//www.aifd.org >- Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.safnow.org Graphic Designers (Q*NET 27-1024.00) Significant Points • Among the five design occupations, graphic designers are expected to have the most new jobs through 2014; however, job seekers are expected to face keen compe tition for available positions. • Graphic designers with Web site design and animation experience will have the best opportunities. • A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level po sitions; however, an associate degree may be sufficient for technical positions. • About 3 out of 10 designers are self-employed; many do freelance work in addition to holding a salaried job in design or in another occupation. Job Outlook Employment of floral designers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Job opportunities should be good because of the relatively high replacement needs in retail florists that result from comparatively low starting pay and limited opportunities for advancement. The demand for floral designers will continue to grow as flower sales increase as a result of the increasing population and lavishness of weddings and other special events that require floral decorations. As disposable incomes rise, more people also desire fresh flowers in their homes and offices. Increased spending on interior design also is creating demand for stylish artificial arrangements for homes and businesses. Opportunities should be available in grocery store and Internet floral shops as sales of floral arrangements from these outlets grow. The prearranged displays and gifts available in these stores ap peal to consumers because of the convenience and because of prices that are lower than can be found in independent floral shops. As mass marketers capture more of the small flower orders, independent floral shops are increasingly finding themselves un der pressure to remain profitable. Many independent shops have added online ordering systems in order to compete with Internet florists. Others are trying to distinguish their services by special izing in certain areas of floral design or by combining floral design with event planning and interior design services. Some florists also are adding holiday decorating services in which they will set up decorations for businesses and residences. Few job opportunities are expected in floral wholesalers, primar ily because an increasing number of shops are purchasing flowers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 243 Nature of the Work Graphic designers—or graphic artists—plan, analyze, and create visual solutions to communications problems. They decide the most effective way of getting a message across in print, electronic, and film media using a variety of methods such as color, type, il lustration, photography, animation, and various print and layout techniques. Graphic designers develop the overall layout and produc tion design of magazines, newspapers, journals, corporate reports, and other publications. They also produce promotional displays, packaging, and marketing brochures for products and services, design distinctive logos for products and businesses, and develop signs and signage systems—called environmental graphics—for business and government. An increasing number of graphic designers also are developing material for Internet Web pages, interactive media, and multimedia projects. Graphic designers also may produce the credits that appear before and after television programs and movies. 244 Occupational Outlook Handbook and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments. Designers may transact business in their own offices or studios or in clients’ offices. Designers who are paid by the assignment are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones in order to maintain a steady income. All designers sometimes face frustration when their designs are rejected or when their work is not as creative as they wish. Graphic designers may work evenings or weekends to meet production schedules, especially in the printing and publishing industries where deadlines are shorter and more frequent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graphic designers frequently use graphics and layout software to assist in their designs. The first step in developing a new graphic design is to determine the needs of the client, the message the design should portray, and its appeal to customers or users. Graphic designers consider cognitive, cultural, physical, and social factors in planning and executing de signs for the target audience. Designers gather relevant information by meeting with clients, creative or art directors, and by performing their own research. Identifying the needs of consumers is becoming increasingly important for graphic designers as the scope of their work continues to focus on creating corporate communication strate gies in addition to technical design and layout work. Graphic designers prepare sketches or layouts—by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate the vision for the design. They select colors, sound, artwork, photography, animation, style of type, and other visual elements for the design. Designers also select the size and arrangement of the different elements on the page or screen. They also may create graphs and charts from data for use in publications, and often consult with copywriters on any text that may accompany the visual part of the design. Designers then present the completed design to their clients or art or creative director for approval. In printing and publishing firms, graphic designers also may assist the printers by selecting the type of paper and ink for the publication and reviewing the mock-up design for errors before final publication. Graphic designers use a variety of graphics and layout computer software to assist in their designs. Designers creating Web pages or other interactive media designs also will use computer animation and programming packages. Computer software programs allow ease and flexibility in exploring a greater number of design alternatives, thus reducing design costs and cutting the time it takes to deliver a product to market. Graphic designers sometimes supervise assistants who carry out their creations. Designers who run their own businesses also may devote a considerable amount of time to developing new business contacts, examining equipment and space needs, and performing administrative tasks, such as reviewing catalogues and ordering samples. The need for up-to-date computer and communications equipment is an ongoing consideration for graphic designers. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Graphic design ers employed by large advertising, publishing, or design firms gener ally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. De signers in smaller design consulting firms, or those who freelance, generally work on a contract, orjob, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines. Consultants https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level and advanced graphic design positions; although some entry-level technical posi tions may only require an associate degree. In addition to postsec ondary training in graphic design, creativity, and communication and problem-solving skills are crucial. Graphic designers also need to be familiar with computer graphics and design software. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job. Bachelor’s of fine arts degree programs in graphic design are offered at many colleges, universities, and private design schools. The curriculum includes studio art, principles of design, computerized design, commercial graphics production, printing techniques, and Web site design. In addition to design courses, a liberal arts education or a program that includes courses in art his tory, writing, psychology, sociology, foreign languages and cultural studies, marketing, and business are useful in helping designers work effectively with the content of their work. Graphic design ers must effectively communicate complex subjects to a variety of audiences. Increasingly, clients rely on graphic designers to develop the content and the context of the message in addition to performing technical layout work. Associate degrees and certificates in graphic design also are available from 2- and 3-year professional schools. These programs usually focus on the technical aspects of graphic design and include very few liberal arts courses. Graduates of 2-year programs normally qualify as assistants to graphic designers or for positions requiring technical skills only. Individuals who wish to pursue a career in graphic design—and who already possess a bachelor’s degree in another field—can complete a 2-year or 3-year program in graphic design to learn the technical requirements. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design ac credits about 250 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in graphic design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bachelor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Increasingly, employers expect new graphic designers to be famil iar with computer graphics and design software. Graphic designers must continually keep up to date with the development of new and updated software, usually either on their own or through software training programs. Graphic designers also must be creative and able to communicate their ideas in writing, visually, and verbally. Because consumer tastes can change quickly, designers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem solving skills, paying attention to detail, and the ability to work independently and under pressure also are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Professional and Related Occupations Beginning graphic designers usually receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced graphic designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, art or creative director, or other su pervisory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to become teachers in design schools or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced designers open their own firms or choose to specialize in one area of graphic design. Employment Graphic designers held about 228,000 jobs in 2004. About 7 out of 10 were wage and salary designers. Most worked in specialized design services; advertising and related services; printing and related support activities; or newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Other graphic designers produced computer graphics for computer systems design firms or motion picture production firms. A small number of designers also worked in engineering services or for management, scientific, and technical consulting firms. About 3 out of 10 designers were self-employed. Many did free lance work—full time or part time—in addition to holding a salaried job in design or in another occupation. Job Outlook Employment of graphic designers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014, as demand for graphic design continues to increase from advertisers, publishers, and computer design firms. Among the five different design occu pations, graphic designers will have the most new jobs. However, graphic designers are expected to face keen competition for avail able positions. Many talented individuals are attracted to careers as graphic designers. Individuals with a bachelor’s degree and knowl edge of computer design software, particularly those with Web site design and animation experience, will have the best opportunities. Demand for graphic designers should increase because of the rap idly expanding market for Web-based information and expansion of the video entertainment market, including television, movies, video, and made-for-Intemet outlets. Graphic designers with Web site de sign and animation experience will especially be needed as demand for design projects increase for interactive media—Web sites, video games, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other technology. Demand for graphic designers also will increase as advertising firms create print and Web marketing and promotional materials for a growing number of products and services. In recent years, some computer, printing, and publishing firms have outsourced basic layout and design work to design firms overseas. This trend is expected to continue and may have a nega tive impact on employment growth for lower level, technical graphic design workers. However, most higher-level graphic design jobs will remain in the U.S. and will focus on developing communication strategies, called strategic design, for clients and firms in order for them to gain competitive advantages in the market. Strategic design work requires close proximity to the consumer in order to identify and target their needs and interests. Graphic designers with a broad liberal arts education and experience in marketing and business management will be best suited for these positions. Earnings Median annual earnings for graphic designers were $38,030 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,360 and $50,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,220, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,940. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of graphic designers were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 245 Architectural, engineering, and related services.......................... $42,740 Specialized design services.......................................................... 41,620 Advertising and related services.................................................. 40,010 Printing and related support activities.......................................... 32,830 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers............... 32,390 The American Institute of Graphic Arts reported 2005 median annual total cash compensation for graphic designers according to level of responsibility. Entry-level designers earned a median sal ary of $32,000 in 2005, while staff-level graphic designers earned $42,500. Senior designers, who may supervise junior staff or have some decision-making authority that reflects their knowledge of graphic design, earned $56,000. Solo designers, who freelanced or worked under contract to another company, reported median earnings of $60,000. Design directors, the creative heads of design firms or in-house corporate design departments, earned $90,000. Graphic de signers with ownership or partnership interests in a firm or who were principals of the firm in some other capacity earned $100,000. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations in the art and design field include artists and related workers; commercial and industrial design ers; fashion designers; floral designers; and interior designers. Other occupations that require computer-aided design skills include computer software engineers, drafters, and desktop publishers. Other occupations involved in the design, layout, and copy of publications include advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; photographers; writers and editors; and prepress technicians and workers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: >■ NationalAssociationofSchoolsofArtandDesign, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite21, Reston, VA20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For information about graphic, communication, or interaction design careers, contact: ► American Institute of Graphic Arts, 164 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10010. Internet: http://www.aiga.org For information on workshops, scholarships, internships, and competitions for graphic design students interested in advertising careers, contact: >- Art Directors Club, 106 West 29th St., New York, NY 10001. Internet: http://www.adcglobal.org Interior designers (Q*NET 27-1025.00) Significant Points • Keen competition is expected for jobs in interior design because many talented individuals are attracted to ca reers as interior designers. • Individuals with little or no formal training in interior design, as well as those lacking creativity and persever ance, will find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in this occupation. • About 3 out of 10 are self-employed. • Postsecondary education—especially a bachelor’s degree—is recommended for entry-level positions in interior design; licensure is required in 23 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. 246 Occupational Outlook Handbook \ Interior designers look at many fabric and paint samples in order to choose an appropriate design. Nature of the Work Interior designers draw upon many disciplines to enhance the func tion, safety, and aesthetics of interior spaces. Interior designers are concerned with how different colors, textures, furniture, light ing, and space work together to meet the needs of a building’s occupants. Designers are involved in planning the interior spaces of almost all buildings—offices, airport terminals, theaters, shop ping malls, restaurants, hotels, schools, hospitals, and private residences. Designers help to improve these spaces in order to boost office productivity, increase sales, attract a more affluent clientele, provide a more relaxing hospital stay, or increase the building’s market value. Traditionally, most interior designers focused on decorating: choosing a style and color palette and then selecting appropri ate furniture, floor and window coverings, artwork, and lighting. However, an increasing number of designers are becoming more involved in designing architectural detailing, such as crown mold ing and built-in bookshelves, or planning layouts of buildings undergoing renovation, including helping to determine the location of windows, stairways, escalators, and walkways. Interior design ers must be able to read blueprints, understand building and fire codes, and know how to make the space accessible to the disabled. Designers frequently collaborate with architects, electricians, and building contractors to ensure that their designs are safe and meet construction requirements. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Despite the varied building spaces interior designers work with, almost all projects follow the same design process. The first step in developing a new design is to determine the needs of the client, known as programming. The designer usually will meet face-to-face with the client in order to find out how the space will be used and to get an idea of the client’s design preferences and budget. For example, the designer might inquire about a family’s cooking habits if the family is remodeling a kitchen or ask about a store or restaurant’s target customer in order to pick an appropriate design. The designer also will visit the space and take inventory of the existing furniture and equipment as well as identify the any potential design problems and the positive attributes of the space. Following the initial meeting with the client, the designer will formulate a design plan and estimate the costs on the basis of the client’s goals and budget. Today, designs often are created with the use of computer-aided design (CAD), which provides a more detailed layout and also allows for easier corrections than sketches made by hand. Once the designer has completed the proposed design, he or she will present it to the client and make revisions on the basis of the client’s input. When a design concept has been finalized, the designer will begin specifying the materials, finishes, and furnishings required, such as furniture, lighting, flooring, wall covering, and artwork. In addition, depending on the complexity of the project, the designer will need to prepare drawings and submit them for architectural review and approval by a construction inspector to ensure that the design meets all applicable building codes. If a project requires any structural work, the designer will need to work with an architect or engineer for that part of the project. Most designs also will require the hiring of contractors to do such technical work as lighting, plumbing, or electrical wiring. When necessary, the designer will choose qualified contractors and write up work contracts. Finally, the designer will develop a timeline for the project and ensure that it is completed on time, including coordinating the work schedules of contractors if necessary. The designer will oversee the installation of the design elements, and after the project is complete, the designer, together with the client, will pay follow-up visits to the building site to ensure that the client is satisfied with the final product. If the client is not satisfied, the designer will make all necessary corrections. Designers who work as in-store designers for furniture or home and garden stores offer their design services in addition to selling the store’s merchandise. In-store designers provide services simi lar to those offered by other interior designers, such as selecting a style and color scheme that fits the client’s needs or finding suit able accessories and lighting. However, in-store designers rarely visit their clients’ spaces and are limited in using only a particular store’s products. Interior designers sometimes supervise assistants who carry out their creations and perform administrative tasks, such as review ing catalogues and ordering samples. Designers who run their own businesses also may devote a considerable amount of time meeting with clients and contractors, developing new business contacts, examining equipment and space needs, and attending to business matters. Although most interior designers do many kinds of proj ects, some specialize in one area of interior design. Some specialize in the type of building space—usually residential or commercial—while others specialize in a certain design element or type of client, such as health care facilities. The most common specialties of this kind are lighting, kitchen and bath, and closet designs. However, designers can specialize in almost any area of design, including acoustics and noise abate- Professional and Related Occupations ment, security, electronics and home theaters, home spas, and indoor gardens. Three areas of design that are becoming increasingly popular are ergonomic design elder design, and environmen tal—or green—design. Ergonomic design involves designing work spaces and furniture that emphasize good posture and minimize muscle strain on the body. Elder design involves planning interior space to aid in the movement of the elderly and disabled, such as widening passageways to accommodate wheelchairs. Green design involves selecting furniture and car pets that are free of chemicals and hypoallergenic and selecting construction materials that are energy efficient or are made from renewable resources. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Interior design ers employed by large corporations or design firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms or those who freelance gener ally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Con sultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested environments. Interior designers may work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and please clients. Self-employed designers also are under pressure to find new clients in order to maintain a steady income. Designers may transact business in their own offices or studios or in clients’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other locations, such as showrooms, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, and manufacturing facilities. With the increased speed and sophistication of computers and advanced communications networks, designers may form international design teams, serve a geographically more dispersed clientele, research design al ternatives by using information on the Internet, and purchase supplies electronically, all with the aid of a computer in their workplace or studio. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postsecondary education—especially a bachelor’s degree—is recommended for entry-level positions in interior design. In addition, 24 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico register or license interior designers. Following formal training, graduates usually enter a 1-year to 3-year apprenticeship to gain experience before taking a national licensing exam or joining a professional association. Designers in States that do not require the exam may opt to take it as proof of their qualifications. The National Council administers the licensing exam for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ). To be eligible to take the exam, applicants must have at least 6 years of combined education and experience in interior design, of which at least 2 years constitute postsecondary education in design. Once candidates have passed the qualifying exam, they are granted the title of Certified, Registered, or Licensed Interior Designer, depend ing on the State. Continuing education is required in order to maintain one’s licensure. Training programs are available from professional design schools or from colleges and universities and usually take 2 to 4 years to complete. Graduates of 2-year and 3-year programs are awarded certificates or associate’s degrees in interior design and normally qualify as assistants to interior designers upon graduation. Graduates with bachelor’s degrees usually qualify for entry into a formal design apprenticeship program. Basic course- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 247 work includes computer-aided design (CAD), drawing, perspective, spatial planning, color and fabrics, furniture design, architecture, ergonomics, ethics, and psychology. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredits approximately 250 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in interior design. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. The Foundation for Interior Design Education Research also ac credits interior design programs that lead to a bachelor’s degree. In 2005, there were 137 accredited bachelor’s degree programs in interior design in the United States, located primarily in schools of art, architecture, and home economics. After the completion of formal training, interior designers will enter a 1-year to 3-year apprenticeship to gain experience before taking a licensing exam. Most apprentices work in design or architecture firms under the strict supervision of an experienced designer. Apprentices also may choose to gain experience working as an in-store designer in furniture stores. The NCIDQ offers the Interior Design Experience Program (IDEP), which helps entry-level interior designers gain valuable work experience by supervising work experience and offering mentoring services and workshops to new designers. Following the apprenticeship, designers will take the national licensing exam or choose to become members of a professional association. Because registration or licensure is not mandatory in all States, membership in a professional association is an indication of an interior designer’s qualifications and professional standing. The American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) is the largest profes sional association for interior designers in the United States. Interior designers can qualify for membership with at least a 2-year or higher degree and work experience. In addition to national licensure and membership in a profes sional association, optional certifications in kitchen and bath design are available from the National Kitchen and Bath Association. The association offers three different levels of certification for kitchen and bath designers, each completed through training seminars that culminate in certification exams. Employers increasingly prefer interior designers who are familiar with CAD software. Interior designers also increasingly need to know the basics of architecture and engineering in order to ensure that their designs meet building safety codes. In addition to possessing technical knowledge, interior de signers must be creative, imaginative, and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas in writing, visually, and verbally. Because tastes in style can change quickly, design ers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Beginning interior designers receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or some other supervisory position. Some experienced designers open their own firms or decide to specialize in one aspect of interior design. Other designers leave the occupation to become teachers in schools of de sign or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. 248 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Interior designers held about 65,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 3 out of 10 were self-employed. About 2 out of 10 wage and salary interior designers worked in specialized design services. Another 1 out of 10 worked in architectural and landscape architectural services. The remaining of interior designers provided design services in furniture and home-furnishing stores, building mate rial and supplies dealers, and residential building construction companies. Many interior designers also performed freelance work in addition to holding a salaried job in interior design or another occupation. Job Outlook Employment of interior designers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Economic expansion, growing homeowner wealth, and an increased interest in interior design will increase demand for designers. However, interior designers are expected to face keen competition for avail able positions because many talented individuals are attracted to this profession. Individuals with little or no formal training in interior design, as well as those lacking creativity and persever ance, will find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in this occupation. As the economy grows, more private businesses and consum ers will request the services of interior designers. However, design services are considered a luxury expense and may be subject to fluctuations in the economy. For example, decreases in consumer and business income and spending caused by a slow economy can have a detrimental effect on employment of interior designers. Nevertheless, demand from the health care industry is expected to be especially high because of an anticipated in crease in demand for facilities that will accommodate the aging population. Designers will be needed to make these facilities as comfortable and homelike as possible for patients. Demand from businesses in the hospitality industry—hotels, resorts, and restaurants—also is expected to be high because of an expected increase in tourism. Recent increases in homeowner wealth and the growing popu larity of home improvement television programs have increased demand for residential design services. Homeowners increasingly have been using the equity in their homes to finance new additions, remodel aging kitchens and bathrooms, and update the general decor of the home. Many homeowners also have requested design help in adding year-round outdoor living spaces. Growth in home improvement television programs and dis count furniture stores has spurred a trend in do-it-yourself design, which could hamper employment growth of designers. However, some clients will still hire designers for a few initial consulta tions, but then will purchase and install the design elements themselves. Some interior designers are choosing to specialize in one design element in order to create a niche for themselves in an in creasingly competitive market. The demand for kitchen and bath design is growing in response to the increasing demand for home remodeling. Designs utilizing the latest technology, such as home theaters, state-of-the-art conference facilities, and security systems are expected to be especially popular. In addition, demand for home spas, indoor gardens, and outdoor living spaces are expected to continue to increase. Extensive knowledge of ergonomics and green design are expected to be in demand. Ergonomic design has gained in popularity with the growth in the elderly population and work place safety requirements. The public’s growing awareness of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis environmental quality and the growing number of individuals with allergies and asthma are expected to increase the demand for green design. Earnings Median annual earnings for interior designers were $40,670 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,890 and $53,790. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,440, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,220. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of interior designers in May 2004 were as follows: Architectural, engineering, and related services.......................... $44,740 Specialized design services........................................................... 42,000 Furniture stores............................................................................. 37,750 Interior design salaries vary widely with the specialty, type of employer, number of years of experience, and reputation of the individuals. Among salaried interior designers, those in large spe cialized design and architectural firms tend to earn higher and more stable salaries. Interior designers working in retail stores usually earn a commission, which can be irregular. For residential design projects, self-employed interior design ers and those working in smaller firms usually earn a per-hour consulting fee, plus a percentage of the total cost of furniture, lighting, artwork, and other design elements. For commercial projects, they might charge a per-hour consulting fee, charge by the square footage, or charge a flat fee for the whole project. Also, designers who use specialty contractors usually earn a percentage of the contractor’s earnings on the project in return for hiring the contractor. Self-employed designers must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects to enhance their appearance and function include architects, except landscape and naval; artists and related workers; commercial and industrial designers; fashion designers; floral designers; graphic designers; and landscape architects. Sources of Additional Information For information on degrees, continuing education, and licen sure programs in interior design and interior design research, contact: >• American Society of Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave. N.E., Washington, DC 20002-6006. Internet: http://www.asid.org For a list of schools with accredited bachelor’s degree programs in interior design, contact: >- Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 146 Monroe Center N.W., Suite 1318, Grand Rapids, MI 49503-2822. Internet: http://www.fider.org For general information about art and design and a list of ac credited college-level programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools ofArt and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190-5248. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org For information on State licensing requirements and exams, and the Interior Design Experience Program, contact: >- National Council for Interior Design Qualification, 1200 18th St. NW., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20036-2506. Internet: http://www.ncidq.org For information on careers, continuing education, and certifica tion programs in the interior design specialty of residential kitchen and bath design, contact: ► National Kitchen and Bath Association, 687 Willow Grove St., Hackettstown, NJ 07840. Internet: http://www.nkba.org/student Professional and Related Occupations 249 Entertainers and Performers, Sports and Related Occupations Actors, Producers, and Directors (0*NET 27-2011.00, 27-2012.01, 27-2012.02, 27-2012.03, 27-2012.04, 27-2012.05) Significant Points • • • Actors endure long periods of unemployment, intense competition for roles, and frequent rejections in audi tions. Formal training through a university or acting conser vatory is typical; however, many actors, producers, and directors find work on the basis of their experience and talent alone. Because earnings for actors are erratic, many supple ment their incomes by holding jobs in other fields. Actors, producers, and directors work together, often for very long hours, to get the scene done right. Nature of the Work Actors, producers, and directors express ideas and create images in theater, film, radio, television, and other performing arts media. They interpret a writer’s script to entertain, inform, or instruct an audience. Although the most famous actors, producers, and directors work in film, network television, or theater in New York or Los An geles, far more work in local or regional television studios, theaters, or film production companies preparing advertising, public-relations, or independent, small-scale movie productions. Actors perform in stage, radio, television, video, or motion pic ture productions. They also work in cabarets, nightclubs, theme parks, commercials, and “industrial” films produced for training and educational purposes. Most actors struggle to find steady work; only a few ever achieve recognition as stars. Some well-known, experienced performers may be cast in supporting roles. Others work as “extras,” with no lines to deliver, or make brief, cameo ap pearances, speaking only one or two lines. Some actors do voiceover and narration work for advertisements, animated features, books on tape, and other electronic media, including computer games. They also teach in high school or university drama departments, acting conservatories, or public programs. Producers are entrepreneurs, overseeing the business and financial decisions of a motion picture, made-for-television feature, or stage production. They select scripts, approve the development of ideas for the production, arrange financing, and determine the size and cost of the endeavor. Producers hire or approve the selection of directors, principal cast members, and key production staff members. They also negotiate contracts with artistic and design personnel in accordance with collective bargaining agreements and guarantee payment of salaries, rent, and other expenses. Television and radio producers de termine which programs, episodes, or news segments get aired. They may research material, write scripts, and oversee the production of individual pieces. Producers in any medium coordinate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and agents to ensure that each project stays on schedule and within budget. Directors are responsible for the creative decisions of a production. They interpret scripts, express concepts to set and cos tume designers, audition and select cast members, conduct rehears Digitized for als,FRASER and direct the work of cast and crew. They approve the design https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis elements of a production, including the sets, costumes, choreography, and music. Assistant directors cue the performers and technicians to make entrances or to make light, sound, or set changes. Working Conditions Actors, producers, and directors work under constant pressure. Many face stress from the continual need to find their next job. To succeed, actors, producers, and directors need patience and commitment to their craft. Actors strive to deliver flawless performances, often while working under undesirable and unpleasant conditions. Producers and directors organize rehearsals and meet with writers, designers, financial backers, and production technicians. They experience stress not only from these activities, but also from the need to adhere to budgets, union work rules, and production schedules. Acting assignments typically are short term—ranging from 1 day to a few months—which means that actors frequently experience long periods of unemployment between jobs. The uncertain nature of the work results in unpredictable earnings and intense competition for even the lowest-paid jobs. Often, actors, producers, and directors must hold other jobs in order to sustain a living. When performing, actors typically work long, irregular hours. For example, stage actors may perform one show at night while rehearsing another during the day. They also might travel with a show when it tours the country. Movie actors may work on location, sometimes under adverse weather conditions, and may spend considerable time in their trailers or dressing rooms wait ing to perform their scenes. Actors who perform in a television series often appear on camera with little preparation time, because scripts tend to be revised frequently or even written moments before taping. Those who appear five or before a studio audience must be able to handle impromptu situations and calmly ad lib, or substitute, lines when necessary. Evening and weekend work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. On weekends, more than one performance may be held per day. Actors and directors working on movies or television programs— especially those who shoot on location—may work in the early morn ing or late evening hours to film night scenes or tape scenes inside public facilities outside of normal business hours. 250 Occupational Outlook Handbook Actors should be in good physical condition and have the neces sary stamina and coordination to move about theater stages and large movie and television studio lots. They also need to maneuver about complex technical sets while staying in character and projecting their voices audibly. Actors must be fit to endure heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes. Producers and directors ensure the safety of actors by conducting extra rehearsals on the set so that the actors can learn the layout of set pieces and props, by allowing time for warmups and stretching exercises to guard against physical and vocal injuries, and by providing an adequate number of breaks to prevent heat exhaustion and dehydration. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons who become actors, producers, and directors follow many paths. Employers generally look for people with the creative instincts, innate talent, and intellectual capacity to perform. Actors should possess a passion for performing and enj oy entertaining others. Most aspiring actors participate in high school and college plays, work in college radio stations, or perform with local community theater groups. Local and regional theater experience and work in summer stock, on cmise lines, or in theme parks helps many young actors hone their skills and earn qualifying credits toward membership in one of the actors’ unions. Union membership and work experience in smaller communities may lead to work in larger cities, notably New York or Los Angeles. In television and film, actors and directors typically start in smaller television markets or with independent movie produc tion companies and then work their way up to larger media markets and major studio productions. Intense competition, however, can be expected at each level, because ever more applicants will be vying for increasingly fewer numbers of available positions. Formal dramatic training, either through an acting conservatory or a university program, generally is necessary, but some people successfully enter the field without it. Most people studying for a bachelor’s degree take courses in radio and television broadcasting, communications, film, theater, drama, or dramatic literature. Many continue their academic training and receive a Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. Advanced curricula may include courses in stage speech and movement, directing, play writing, and design, as well as intensive acting workshops. The National Association of Schools of Theatre accredits 135 programs in theater arts. A few people go into acting following successful careers in other fields, such as broadcasting or announcing. Actors, regardless of experience level, may pursue workshop training through acting conservatories or mentoring by a drama coach. Actors also research roles so that they can grasp concepts quickly during re hearsals and understand the story’s setting and background. Sometimes actors learn a foreign language or train with a dialect coach to develop an accent to make their characters more realistic. Actors need talent, creativity, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Because competition for parts is fierce, versatility and a wide range of related performance skills, such as singing, dancing, skating, juggling, or miming are especially useful. Experience in horseback riding, fencing, or stage combat also can lift some actors above the average and get them noticed by producers and directors. Actors must have poise, stage pres ence, the capability to affect an audience, and the ability to follow direction. Modeling experience also may be helpful. Physical ap pearance, such as possessing the right size, weight, or features, often is a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find work, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Agents generally earn a percentage of the pay specified in an actor’s contract. Other actors rely solely on attending open auditions for parts. Trade publications list the times, dates, and locations of these auditions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis To become a movie extra, one usually must be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that supplies extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the numbers of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small children—falls below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small pro portion of applicants have succeeded in being listed. There are no specific training requirements for producers. They come from many different backgrounds. Talent, experience, and business acumen are important determinants of success for producers. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers commonly enter the field. Also, many people who start out as ac tors move into directing, while some directors might try their hand at acting. Producers often start in a theatrical management office, working for a press agent, managing director, or business manager. Some start in a performing arts union or service organization. Others work behind the scenes with successful directors, serve on boards of directors, or promote their own projects. No formal training exists for producers; however, a growing number of colleges and universities now offer degree programs in arts management and in managing nonprofits. As the reputations and box-office draw of actors, producers, and directors grow, they might work on bigger budget productions, on net work or syndicated broadcasts, or in more prestigious theaters. Ac tors may advance to lead roles and receive star billing. A few actors move into acting-related jobs, such as drama coaches or directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. Some teach drama privately or in colleges and universities. Employment In 2004, actors, producers, and directors held about 157,000 jobs, primarily in motion picture and video, performing arts, and broadcast industries. Because many others were between jobs, the total number of actors, producers, and directors available for work was higher. Employment in the theater, and other performing arts companies, is cyclical—higher in the fall and spring seasons—and concentrated in New York and other major cities with large com mercial houses for musicals and touring productions. Also, many cities support established professional regional theaters that oper ate on a seasonal or year-round basis. About one-fourth of actors, producers, and directors were self-employed. Actors, producers, and directors may find work in summer festivals, on cruise lines, and in theme parks. Many smaller, nonprofit professional companies, such as repertory companies, dinner theaters, and theaters affiliated with drama schools, acting conservatories, and universities, provide employment opportunities for local amateur talent and professional entertainers. Auditions typically are held in New York for many productions across the country and for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and in films for television is centered in New York and Hollywood. However, small studios are located throughout the country. Many films are shot on location and may employ local professional and nonprofessional actors. In television, opportunities are concentrated in the network centers of New York and Los Angeles, but cable television services and local television stations around the country also employ many actors, producers, and directors. A growing number of actors and other entertainers appear on the payrolls of firms who do accounting and payroll work. Frequently film production companies will hire actors through casting agencies or contract out their payroll services to accounting firms. Similarly, many actors arrange with a company in this industry to collect their pay from producers or entrepreneurs; make the appropriate deduc tions for taxes, union dues, and benefits payments; and pay them Professional and Related Occupations their net earnings for each job. The result of these increasingly more common payroll arrangements is that many actors appear to be work ing for accounting offices, rather than for the theatrical production companies or studios where they actually perform. Job Outlook Employment of actors, producers, and directors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Al though a growing number of people will aspire to enter these profes sions, many will leave the field early because the work—when it is available—is hard, the hours are long, and the pay is low. Competi tion for jobs will be stiff, in part because the large number of highly trained and talented actors auditioning for roles generally exceeds the number of parts that become available. Only performers with the most stamina and talent will find regular employment. Expanding cable and satellite television operations, increasing production and distribution of major studio and independent films, and continued growth and development of interactive media, such as direct-for-Web movies and videos, should increase demand for actors, producers, and directors. However, greater emphasis on national, rather than local, entertainment productions may restrict employment opportunities in the broadcasting industry. Venues for live entertainment, such as Broadway and Off-Broadway theaters, touring productions, and repertory theaters in many major metropolitan areas, as well as theme parks and resorts, are expected to offer many job opportunities. However, prospects in these venues are more variable, because they fluctuate with economic conditions. Earnings Median hourly earnings of actors were $11.28 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.75 and $30.76. The low est 10 percent earned less than $6.63, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56.48. Median annual earnings were $15.20 in performing arts companies and $9.27 in motion picture and video industries. Annual earnings data for actors were not available because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by actors and the short-term nature of many jobs, which may last for 1 day or 1 week; it is extremely rare for actors to have guaranteed employment that exceeded 3 to 6 months. Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of em ployment are covered in collective bargaining agreements between the producers and the unions representing workers. The Actors’ Equity Association (Equity) represents stage actors; the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) covers actors in motion pictures, including television, commercials, and films; and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) represents television and radio studio performers. Some actors who regularly work in several media find it advantageous to join multiple unions, while SAG and AFTRA may share jurisdiction for work in additional areas, such as the production of training or educational films not slated for broadcast, television commercial work, and interactive media. While these unions gener ally determine minimum salaries, any actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum. Under terms of a joint SAG and AFTRA contract covering all unionized workers, motion picture and television actors with speak ing parts earned a minimum daily rate of $716 or $2,483 for a 5-day week as of October 1,2005. Actors also receive contributions to their health and pension plans and additional compensation for reruns and foreign telecasts of the productions in which they appear. According to Equity, the minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions as of June 30, 2005 was $1,422. Actors in Off-Broadway theaters received minimums ranging from $493 to $857 a week as of October 23, 2005, depending on the seating capacity of the theater. Regional theaters that operate under an https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 251 Equity agreement pay actors $531 to $800 per week. For touring productions, actors receive an additional $777 per week for living expenses ($819 per week in higher cost cities). New terms were negotiated under an “experimental touring program” provision for lower budget musicals that tour to smaller cities or that perform for fewer performances at each stop. In an effort to increase the number of paid workweeks while on tour, actors may be paid less than the full production rate for touring shows in exchange for higher per diems and profit participation. Some well-known actors—stars—earn well above the mini mum; their salaries are many times the figures cited, creating the false impression that all actors are highly paid. For example, of the nearly 100,000 SAG members, only about 50 might be con sidered stars. The average income that SAG members earn from acting—less than $5,000 a year—is low because employment is sporadic. Therefore, most actors must supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other occupations. Many actors who work more than a qualifying number of days, or weeks per year or earn over a set minimum pay, are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, which includes hospi talization insurance to which employers contribute. Under some employment conditions, Equity and AFTRA members receive paid vacations and sick leave. Median annual earnings of salaried producers and directors were $52,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,550 and $87,980. Median annual earnings were $75,200 in mo tion picture and video industries and $43,890 in radio and television broadcasting. Many stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers (SSDC), and film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. According to the SSDC, summer theaters offer compensa tion, including “royalties” (based on the number of performances), usually ranging from $2,500 to $8,000 for a 3- to 4-week run. Directing a production at a dinner theater generally will pay less than directing one at a summer theater, but has more potential for generating income from royalties. Regional theaters may hire directors for longer periods, increasing compensation accordingly. The highest-paid directors work on Broadway and commonly earn $50,000 per show. However, they also receive payment in the form of royalties—a negotiated percentage of gross box office receipts—that can exceed their contract fee for long-running box office successes. Stage producers seldom get a set fee; instead, they get a percent age of a show’s earnings or ticket sales. Related Occupations People who work in performing arts occupations that may require acting skills include announcers; dancers and choreographers; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Others working in film- and theater-related occupations are makeup artists, theatrical and per formance; fashion designers; set and exhibit designers; and writers and authors. Producers share many responsibilities with those who work as top executives. Sources of Additional Information For general information about theater arts and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools of Theater, 11250 Roger Bacon DrSuite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nast.arts-accredit.org For general information on actors, producers, and directors, contact any of the following organizations: >■ Actors Equity Association, 165 West 46th St., New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.actorsequity.org 252 Occupational Outlook Handbook >• Screen Actors Guild, 5757 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90036-3600. Internet: http://www.sag.org >- American Federation of Television and Radio Artists—Screen Actors Guild, 4340 East-West Hwy., Suite 204, Bethesda, MD 20814-4411. Internet: http://www.aftra.org or http://www.sag.org Athletes, Coaches, Umpires, and Related Workers (0*NET 27-2021.00, 27-2022.00, 27-2023.00) Significant Points • Work hours are often irregular; travel may be extensive. • Career-ending injuries are always a risk for athletes. • Job opportunities will be best for part-time coaches, sports instructors, umpires, referees, and sports officials in high schools, sports clubs, and other settings. • Competition for professional athlete jobs will continue to be extremely intense; athletes who seek to compete professionally must have extraordinary talent, desire, and dedication to training. Nature of the Work We are a nation of sports fans and sports players. Some of those who participate in amateur sports dream of becoming paid professional ath letes, coaches, or sports officials, but very few beat the long and daunt ing odds of making a full-time living from professional athletics. Those athletes who do make it to professional levels find that careers are short and jobs are insecure. Even though the chances of employment as a professional athlete are slim, there are many opportunities for at least a part-time job as a coach, instructor, referee, or umpire in amateur athletics or in high school, college, or university sports. Athletes and sports competitors compete in organized, officiated sports events to entertain spectators. When playing a game, athletes are required to understand the strategies of their game while obeying the rules and regulations of the sport. The events in which they com pete include both team sports—such as baseball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer—and individual sports—such as golf, tennis, and bowling. The level of play varies from unpaid high school athlet ics to professional sports, in which the best from around the world compete in events broadcast on international television. Being an athlete involves more than competing in athletic events. Athletes spend many hours each day practicing skills and improving teamwork under the guidance of a coach or a sports instructor. They view videotapes to critique their own perfor mances and techniques and to learn their opponents’ tendencies and weaknesses to gain a competitive advantage. Some athletes work regularly with strength trainers to gain muscle and stamina and to prevent injury. Many athletes push their bodies to the limit during both practice and play, so career-ending injury always is a risk; even minor injuries may put a player at risk of replacement. Because competition at all levels is extremely intense and job security is always precarious, many athletes train year round to maintain ex cellent form and technique and peak physical condition. Very little downtime from the sport exists at the professional level. Athletes also must conform to regimented diets during their sports season to supplement any physical training program. Coaches organize amateur and professional athletes and teach them the fundamentals of individual and team sports. (In individual sports, instructors sometimes may fill this role.) Coaches train ath- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Coaches manage their teams during practice and competition and instill good sportsmanship. letes for competition by holding practice sessions to perform drills that improve the athletes’ form, technique, skills, and stamina. Along with refining athletes’ individual skills, coaches are responsible for instilling good sportsmanship, a competitive spirit, and teamwork and for managing their teams during both practice sessions and competitions. Before competition, coaches evaluate or scout the opposing team to determine game strategies and practice specific plays. During competition, coaches may call specific plays intended to surprise or overpower the opponent, and they may substitute play ers for optimum team chemistry and success. Coaches’ additional tasks may include selecting, storing, issuing, and taking inventory of equipment, materials, and supplies. Many coaches in high schools are primarily teachers of academic subjects who supplement their income by coaching part time. (For more information on high school teachers, see the statement on teach ers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary, elsewhere in the Handbook.) College coaches consider coaching a full-time discipline and may be away from home frequently as they travel to scout and recruit prospective players. Sports instructors teach professional and nonprofessional athletes individually. They organize, instruct, train, and lead ath letes in indoor and outdoor sports such as bowling, tennis, golf, and swimming. Because activities are as diverse as weight lifting, gymnastics, scuba diving, and karate, instructors tend to specialize in one or a few activities. Like coaches, sports instructors also may hold daily practice sessions and be responsible for any needed equipment and supplies. Using their knowledge of their sport and of physiol ogy, they determine the type and level of difficulty of exercises, prescribe specific drills, and correct athletes’ techniques. Some instructors also teach and demonstrate the use of training apparatus, such as trampolines or weights, for correcting athletes’ weaknesses and enhancing their conditioning. As coaches do, sports instructors evaluate the athlete and the athlete’s opponents to devise a competi tive game strategy. Coaches and sports instructors sometimes differ in their ap proaches to athletes because of the focus of their work. For example, while coaches manage the team during a game to optimize its chance for victory, sports instructors—such as those who work for professional tennis players—often are not permitted to instruct their athletes during competition. Sports instructors spend more of their time with athletes working one-on-one, which permits them to de sign customized training programs for each individual. Motivating athletes to play hard challenges most coaches and sports instructors Professional and Related Occupations but is vital for the athlete’s success. Many coaches and instructors derive great satisfaction working with children or young adults, helping them to learn new physical and social skills, improve their physical condition, and achieve success in their sport. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials officiate at com petitive athletic and sporting events. They observe the play, detect infractions of rules, and impose penalties established by the rules and regulations of the various sports. Umpires, referees, and sports officials anticipate play and position themselves to best see the ac tion, assess the situation, and determine any violations. Some sports officials, such as boxing referees, may work independently, while others such as umpires work in groups. Regardless of the sport, the job is highly stressful because officials are often required to make a decision in a split second, sometimes resulting in strong disagree ment among competitors, coaches, and spectators. Professional scouts evaluate the skills of both amateur and professional athletes to determine talent and potential. As a sports intelligence agent, the scout’s primary duty is to seek out top athletic candidates for the team he or she represents. At the profes sional level, scouts typically work for scouting organizations or as freelance scouts. In locating new talent, scouts perform their work in secrecy so as not to “tip off’ their opponents about their inter est in certain players. At the college level, the head scout often is an assistant coach, although freelance scouts may aid colleges by reporting to coaches about exceptional players. Scouts at this level seek talented high school athletes by reading newspapers, contact ing high school coaches and alumni, attending high school games, and studying videotapes of prospects’ performances. They also evaluate potential players’ background and personal characteristics, such as motivation and discipline, by talking to the players’ coaches, parents, and teachers. Working Conditions Irregular work hours are the trademark of the athlete. They also are common for coaches, umpires, referees, and other sports officials. People in these occupations often work Saturdays, Sun days, evenings, and holidays. Athletes and full-time coaches usually work more than 40 hours a week for several months during the sports season, if not most of the year. Some coaches in educational institu tions may coach more than one sport, particularly in high schools. Athletes, coaches, and sports officials who participate in competi tions that are held outdoors may be exposed to all weather conditions of the season; those involved in events that are held indoors tend to work in climate-controlled comfort, often in arenas, enclosed stadi ums, or gymnasiums. Athletes, coaches, and some sports officials frequently travel to sporting events by bus or airplane. Scouts also travel extensively in locating talent, often by automobile. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials regularly encounter verbal abuse by fans, coaches, and athletes. The officials also face possible physical assault and, increasingly, lawsuits from injured athletes based on their officiating decisions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education and training requirements for athletes, coaches, um pires, and related workers vary greatly by the level and type of sport. Regardless of the sport or occupation, jobs require immense overall knowledge of the game, usually acquired through years of experience at lower levels. Athletes usually begin competing in their sports while in elementary or middle school, and continue through high school and sometimes college. They play in amateur tournaments and on high school and college teams, where the best attract the attention of professional scouts. Most schools require that participating athletes maintain specific academic standards to remain eligible to play. Becoming a professional athlete is the culmination https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 253 of years of effort. Athletes who seek to compete professionally must have extraordinary talent, desire, and dedication to training. For high school coaching and sports instructor jobs, schools usu ally prefer to hire teachers willing to take on the jobs part time. If no one suitable is found, schools hire someone from outside. Some entry-level positions for coaches or instructors require only experi ence derived as a participant in the sport or activity. Many coaches begin their careers as assistant coaches to gain the knowledge and experience needed to become a head coach. Head coaches at large schools that strive to compete at the highest levels of a sport require substantial experience as a head coach at another school or as an assistant coach. To reach the ranks of professional coaching, a person usually needs years of coaching experience and a winning record in the lower ranks. Head coaches at public secondary schools and sports instructors at all levels usually must have a bachelor’s degree. (For informa tion on teachers, including those specializing in physical education, see the section on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Those who are not teachers must meet State requirements for certification to become a head coach. Certification, however, may not be required for coaching and sports instructor jobs in private schools. Degree programs specifically related to coaching include exercise and sports science, physiology, kinesiology, nutrition and fitness, physical education, and sports medicine. For those interested in becoming a tennis, golf, karate, or other kind of instructor, certification is highly desirable. Often, one must be at least 18 years old and certified in cardiopulmonary resuscita tion (CPR). There are many certifying organizations specific to the various sports, and their training requirements vary. Participation in a clinic, camp, or school usually is required for certification. Part time workers and those in smaller facilities are less likely to need formal education or training. For example, there are two organizations that certify ten nis instructors and coaches—the Professional Tennis Registry, an international organization, and the U.S. Professional Tennis Association. Both organizations offer three levels of certification, but the requirements are slightly different. Each level of certification is based on the candidate’s National Tennis Rating Program rating, teaching experience, and score on the organization’s written and practical certifying exams. There are also minimum age require ments for each level. Each sport has specific requirements for umpires, referees, and other sports officials. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials often begin their careers by volunteering for intramural, community, and recreational league competitions. To officiate at high school athletic events, officials must register with the State agency that oversees high school athletics and pass an exam on the rules of the particular game. For college refereeing, candidates must be certi fied by an officiating school and be evaluated during a probationary period. Some larger college sports conferences require officials to have certification and other qualifications, such as residence in or near the conference boundaries, along with several years of experi ence officiating at high school, community college, or other college conference games. Standards are even more stringent for officials in professional sports. Whereas umpires for high school baseball need a high school diploma or its equivalent, 20/20 vision, and quick reflexes, those seeking to officiate at minor or major league games must attend professional umpire training school. Currently, there are two schools whose curriculums have been approved by the Professional Baseball Umpires Corporation for training. Top graduates are selected for further evaluation while officiating in a rookie minor league. Um pires then usually need 8 to 10 years of experience in various minor 254 Occupational Outlook Handbook leagues before being considered for major league jobs. Becoming an official for professional football also is competitive, as candidates must have at least 10 years of officiating experience, with 5 of them at a collegiate varsity or minor professional level. For the National Football League (NFL), prospective trainees are interviewed by clinical psychologists to determine levels of intelligence and ability to handle extremely stressful situations. In addition, the NFL’s se curity department conducts thorough background checks. Potential candidates are likely to be interviewed by a panel from the NFL officiating department and are given a comprehensive examination on the rules of the sport. Scouting jobs require experience playing a sport at the college or professional level that makes it possible to spot young players who possess extraordinary athletic ability and skills. Most beginning scouting jobs are as part-time talent spotters in a particular area or region. Hard work and a record of success often lead to full-time jobs responsible for bigger territories. Some scouts advance to scouting director jobs or various administrative positions in sports. Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers must relate well to others and possess good communication and leadership skills. Coaches also must be resourceful and flexible to successfully instruct and motivate individuals and groups of athletes. Employment Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers held about 212,000 jobs in 2004. Coaches and scouts held 178,000jobs; athletes, 17,000; and umpires, referees, and other sports officials, 16,000. Nearly 37 percent of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers worked part time, while 20 percent maintained variable schedules. Many sports officials and coaches receive such small and irregular pay ments for their services— occasional officiating at club games, for example—that they may not consider themselves employed in these occupations, even part time. Among those employed in wage and salary jobs, 30 percent held jobs in private educational services. About 15 percent worked in amusement, gambling, and recreation industries, including golf and tennis clubs, gymnasiums, health clubs, judo and karate schools, riding stables, swim clubs, and other sports and recre ation facilities. Another 9 percent worked in the spectator sports industry. About 1 out of 4 workers in this occupation was self-employed, earning prize money or fees for lessons, scouting, or officiating assignments. Many other coaches and sports officials, although technically not self-employed, have such irregular or tenuous work ing arrangements that their working conditions resemble those of self-employment. boards. Population growth dictates the construction of additional schools, particularly in the expanding suburbs, but funding for ath letic programs often is cut first when budgets become tight. Still, the popularity of team sports often enables shortfalls to be offset somewhat by assistance from fundraisers, booster clubs, and parents. Persons who are State-certified to teach academic subjects in addition to physical education are likely to have the best prospects for obtaining coaching and instructor jobs. The need to replace the many high school coaches who change occupations or leave the labor force entirely also will provide some coaching opportunities. Competition for professional athlete jobs will continue to be extremely intense. Opportunities to make a living as a professional in individual sports such as golf or tennis may grow as new tourna ments are established and as prize money distributed to participants increases. Because most professional athletes’ careers last only a few years due to debilitating injuries and age, annual turnover in these jobs is high, creating some job opportunities. However, the talented young men and women who dream of becoming sports superstars greatly outnumber and will compete aggressively for these openings. Opportunities should be best for persons seeking part-time umpire, referee, and other sports official jobs at the high school level. Competition is expected for higher paying jobs at the college level and will be even greater for jobs in professional sports. Compe tition should be very keen for jobs as scouts, particularly for profes sional teams, because the number of available positions is limited. Earnings Median annual earnings of athletes were $48,310 in May 2004. How ever, the highest paid professional athletes earn much more. Median annual earnings of umpires and related workers were $21,260 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,870 and $31,390. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $14,160, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $44,140. In May 2004, median annual earnings of coaches and scouts were $26,350. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,230 and $40,460. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $ 13,320, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $57,800. However, the highest paid professional coaches earn much more. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of coaches and scouts in May 2004 are shown below; Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... $36,610 Other amusement and recreation industries.................................. 26,340 Other schools and instruction........................................................ 22,560 Elementary and secondary schools............................................... 21,970 Civic and social organizations...................................................... 19,020 Job Outlook Employment of athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Employment will grow as the general pub lic continues to participate in organized sports for entertainment, recreation, and physical conditioning. Increasing participation in organized sports by girls and women will boost demand for coaches, umpires, and related workers. Job growth also will be driven by the increasing number of baby boomers approaching retirement, during which they are expected to participate more and require instruction in leisure activities such as golf and tennis. The large number of chil dren of baby boomers also will be active participants in high school and college athletics and will require coaches and instructors. Employment of coaches and instructors also will increase with expansion of school and college athletic programs and growing demand for private sports instruction. Sports-related job growth within education also will be driven by the decisions of local school https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings vary by level of education, certification, and geographic region. Some instructors and coaches are paid a salary, while oth ers may be paid by the hour, per session, or based on the number of participants. Related Occupations Athletes and coaches use their extensive knowledge of physiology and sports to instruct, inform, and encourage sports participants. Other workers with similar duties include dietitians and nutritionists; physical therapists; recreation workers; fitness workers; recreational therapists; and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary. Sources of Additional Information For information about sports officiating for team and individual sports, contact: Professional and Related Occupations 255 > National Association of Sports Officials, 2017 Lathrop Ave., Racine, WI 53405. Internet: http://www.naso.org For more information about certification of tennis instructors and coaches, contact: >• Professional Tennis Registry, P.O. Box 4739, Hilton Head Island, SC 29938. Internet: http://www.ptrtennis.org >- U.S. Professional Tennis Association, 3535 Briarpark Dr., Suite One, Houston, TX 77042. Internet: http://www.uspta.org Dancers and Choreographers (0*NET 27-2031.00, 27-2032.00) Significant Points • • • Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties, but some remain in the field as choreographers, dance teachers, or artistic directors. Most dancers begin formal training at an early age— between 5 and 15—and many have their first profes sional audition by age 17 or 18. Dancers and choreographers face intense competition; only the most talented find regular work. Nature of the Work From ancient times to the present, dancers have expressed ideas, sto ries, and rhythm with their bodies. They use a variety of dance forms that allow free movement and self-expression, including classical bal let, modem dance, and culturally specific dance styles. Many dancers combine performance work with teaching or choreography. Dancers perform in a variety of settings, such as musical produc tions, and may present folk, ethnic, tap, jazz, and other popular kinds of dance. They also perform in opera, musical theater, television, movies, music videos, and commercials, in which they also may sing and act. Dancers most often perform as part of a group, although a few top artists perform solo. Dancers work with choreographers, who create original dances and develop new interpretations of existing dances. Because few dance routines are written down, choreographers instruct performers at rehearsals to achieve the desired effect. In addition, choreographers usually are involved in auditioning performers. Working Conditions Dance is strenuous. Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties because of the physical demands on the body. However, some continue to work in the field as choreographers, dance teachers and coaches, or artistic directors. Others move into administrative positions, such as company managers. A few celebrated dancers, however, continue performing even beyond the age of 50. Daily rehearsals require very long hours. Many dance companies tour for part of the year to supplement a limited performance schedule at home. Dancers who perform in musical productions and other family entertainment spend much of their time on the road; others work in night clubs or on cruise ships. Most dance performances are in the evening, whereas rehearsals and practice take place during the day. As a result, dancers often work very long and late hours. Generally, dancers and choreographers work in modem and temperature-controlled facilities; however, some studios may be older and less comfortable. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training varies with the type of dance and is a continuous part of allFRASER dancers’ careers. Many dancers and dance instructors believe Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dancers must befit and limber to endure the physical demands of their work. that dancers should start with a good foundation in classical dance before selecting a particular dance style. Ballet training for women usually begins at 5 to 8 years of age with a private teacher or through an independent ballet school. Serious training traditionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Men often begin their ballet training between the ages of 10 and 15. Students who demonstrate poten tial in their early teens may seek out more intensive and advanced professional training. At about this time, students should begin to focus their training on a particular style and decide whether to pursue additional training through a dance company’s school or a college dance program. Leading dance school companies often have summer training programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time training programs. Formal training for modem and culturally specific dancers often begins later than training in ballet; however, many folk dance forms are taught to very young children. Many dancers have their first professional auditions by age 17 or 18. Training is an important component of professional dancers’ careers. Dancers normally spend 8 hours a day in class and rehearsal, keeping their bodies in shape and preparing for performances. Their daily training period includes time to warm up and cool down before and after classes and rehearsals. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming training required, some dancers view formal education as secondary. However, a broad, general education including music, literature, history, and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. Dancers sometimes conduct research to learn more about the part they are playing. Many colleges and universities award bachelor’s or master’s degrees in dance, typically through departments of dance, theater, or fine arts. The National Association of Schools of Dance accredits about 60 programs in dance. Many programs concentrate on modem dance, but some also offer courses in jazz, culturally specific, ballet, or classical techniques; dance composition, history, and criticism; and movement analysis. A college education is not essential to obtaining employment as a professional dancer; however, many dancers obtain degrees in unrelated fields to prepare themselves for careers after dance. The completion of a college program in dance and education is essential to qualify to teach dance in college, high school, or elementary school. Colleges and con servatories sometimes require graduate degrees but may accept perfor mance experience. A college background is not necessary, however, for teaching dance or choreography in local recreational programs. Studio schools prefer teachers to have experience as performers. 256 Occupational Outlook Handbook Because of the rigorous practice schedules of most dancers, self-discipline, patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are essential for success in the field. Dancers also must possess good problem-solving skills and an ability to work with people. Good health and physical stamina also are necessary attributes. Above all, dancers must have flexibility, agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, a feeling for music, and a creative ability to express themselves through movement. Because dancers typically perform as members of an ensemble made up of other dancers, musicians, and directors or choreogra phers, they must be able to function as part of a team. They also should be highly motivated and prepared to face the anxiety of inter mittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, more frequent work, bigger and better roles, and higher pay. Some dancers may take on added responsibilities, such as by becoming a dance captain in musical theater or ballet master/ballet mistress in concert dance companies, by leading rehearsals, or by working with less experienced dancers in the absence of the choreographer. Choreographers typically are experienced dancers with years of practice working in the theater. Through their performance as dancers, they develop reputations that often lead to opportunities to choreograph productions. Employment Professional dancers and choreographers held about 38,000 jobs in 2004. Many others were between engagements, so that the total number of people available for work as dancers over the course of the year was greater. Dancers and choreographers worked in a variety of industries, such as private educational services, which includes dance studios and schools, as well as colleges and universities; food services and drinking establishments; performing arts companies, which includes dance, theater, and opera companies; and amusement and recreation venues, such as casinos and theme parks. Over onefifth of dancers and choreographers were self-employed. Most major cities serve as home to major dance companies; however, many smaller communities across the Nation also support home-grown, full-time professional dance companies. Job Outlook Dancers and choreographers face intense competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Employment of dancers and choreographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. The public’s continued interest in dance will sustain larger dance companies, but funding from public and private organiza tions is not expected to keep pace with rising production costs. For many small and midsize organizations, the result will be fewer performances and more limited employment opportunities. Although job openings will arise each year because dancers and choreographers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons, the number of applicants will continue to vastly exceed the number of job openings. National dance companies likely will continue to provide jobs in this field. Opera companies and dance groups affiliated with col leges and universities and with television and motion pictures also will offer some opportunities. Moreover, the growing popularity of dance for recreational and fitness purposes has resulted in increased opportunities to teach dance. Finally, music video channels will provide opportunities for both dancers and choreographers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dancers were $8.54 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.71 and $15.62. The lowest https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 percent earned less than $5.87, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.59. Annual earnings data for dancers were not available, because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by dancers and the short-term nature of many jobs—which may last for 1 day or 1 week—made it extremely rare for dancers to have guaranteed employment that exceeded 3 to 6 months. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of dancers were as follows: Other schools and instruction......................................................... $14.94 Performing arts companies ............................................................ 14.82 Drinking places, alcoholic beverages ............................................. 6.78 Other amusement and recreation industries................................... 7.68 Median annual earnings of salaried choreographers were $33,670 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,530 and $48,940. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,980, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,190. Median annual earnings were $34,090 in “other schools and instruction,” a North American Industry Classification System category that includes dance studios and schools. Dancers who were on tour usually received an additional al lowance for room and board, as well as extra compensation for overtime. Earnings from dancing are usually low because employ ment is part year and irregular. Dancers often supplement their income by working as guest artists with other dance companies, teaching dance, or taking jobs unrelated to the field. Earnings of dancers at many of the largest companies and in commercial settings are governed by union contracts. Dancers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modern dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. of the AFL-CIO; those who appear on live or videotaped television programs belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and on television belong to the Screen Actors Guild; and those in musical theater are members of the Actors’ Equity Association. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, benefits, and other conditions of employment. However, the contract each dancer signs with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. Most salaried dancers and choreographers covered by union contracts receive some paid sick leave and various health and pension benefits, including extended sick pay and family-leave benefits provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Dancers and choreographers not covered by union contracts usually do not enjoy such benefits. Related Occupations People who work in other performing arts occupations include actors, producers, and directors and musicians, singers, and related workers. Those directly involved in the production of dance programs include set and exhibit designers; fashion designers; and barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers. Like danc ers, athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers need strength, flexibility, and agility. Sources of Additional Information For general information about dance and a list of accredited collegelevel programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools of Dance, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasd.arts-accredit.org For information about dance and dance companies, contact: ► Dance/USA, 1156 15th St., NW„ Suite 820, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: www.danceusa.org Professional and Related Occupations Musicians, Singers, and Related Workers ____ 257 __ (0*NET 27-2041.01,27-2041.02, 27-2041.03, 27-2042.01, 27-2042.02) Significant Points • Part-time schedules and intermittent unemployment are common; many musicians supplement their income with earnings from other sources. • Aspiring musicians begin studying an instrument or training their voices at an early age. • Competition for jobs is keen; those who can play sev eral instruments and perform a wide range of musical styles should enjoy the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Musicians, singers, and related workers play musical instru ments, sing, compose or arrange music, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. They may perform solo or as part of a group. Musicians, singers, and related workers entertain live audiences in nightclubs, concert halls, and the aters featuring opera, musical theater, or dance. Many of these entertainers play for live audiences; others perform exclusively for recording or production studios. Regardless of the setting, musicians, singers, and related workers spend considerable time practicing, alone and with their bands, orchestras, or other musical ensembles. Musicians often gain their reputation or professional standing by exhibiting a high level of professionalism and proficiency in a particular kind of music or performance. However, those who leam several related instruments and who can perform equally well in several musical styles have better employment opportunities. Instru mental musicians, for example, may play in a symphony orchestra, rock group, or jazz combo one night, appear in another ensemble the next, and work in a studio band the following day. Some play a variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments or electronic synthesizers. Singers interpret music and text, using their knowledge of voice production, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual style. Singers are often classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, popular, folk, rap, or country and western. Music directors conduct, direct, plan, and lead instrumental or vocal performances by musical groups, such as orchestras, choirs, and glee clubs. Conductors lead instrumental music groups, such as symphony orchestras, dance bands, show bands, and various popular ensembles. These leaders audition and select musicians, choose the music most appropriate for their talents and abilities, and direct rehearsals and performances. Choral directors lead choirs and glee clubs, sometimes working with a band or an orchestra conductor. Directors audition and select singers and lead them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical effects. • Composers create original music such as symphonies, operas, sonatas, radio and television jingles, film scores, and popular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical notation, using har mony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Although most composers and songwriters practice their craft on instruments and transcribe the notes with pen and paper, some use computer Digitized forsoftware FRASERto compose and edit their music. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Musicians and singers perform in a variety of settings, inlcuding concert halls, nightclubs, and outdoor venues. Arrangers transcribe and adapt musical compositions to a particular style for orchestras, bands, choral groups, or individuals. Components of music—including tempo, volume, and the mix of instruments needed—are arranged to express the composer’s message. While some arrangers write directly into a musical composition, others use computer software to make changes. Working Conditions Musicians typically perform at night and on weekends. They spend much additional time practicing or in rehearsal. Full-time musi cians with long-term employment contracts, such as those with symphony orchestras or television and film production companies, enjoy steady work and less travel. Nightclub, solo, or recital musi cians frequently travel to perform in a variety of local settings and may tour nationally or internationally. Because many musicians find only part-time or intermittent work, experiencing unemploy ment between engagements, they often supplement their income with other types of jobs. The stress of constantly looking for work leads many musicians to accept permanent, full-time jobs in other occupations, while working only part time as musicians. Most instrumental musicians work closely with a variety of other people, including their colleagues, agents, employers, sponsors, and audiences. Although they usually work indoors, some perform outdoors for parades, concerts, and festivals. In some nightclubs and restaurants, smoke and odors may be present, and lighting and ventilation may be poor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aspiring musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience playing in a school or community band or an orchestra or with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or choirs often provides good early training and experience. Musicians need extensive and prolonged training and practice to acquire the necessary skills, knowledge, and ability to interpret music at a professional level. Like other artists, musicians and singers continually strive to stretch themselves—exploring dif ferent forms of music. Formal training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or uni versity music program, or in a music conservatory. For university or conservatory study, an audition generally is necessary. The National Association of Schools of Music accredits more than 600 college-level programs in music. Courses typically include 258 Occupational Outlook Handbook music theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and performance in a particular instrument or in voice. Music directors, composers, conductors, and arrangers need considerable related work experience or advanced training in these subjects. Many colleges, universities, and music conservatories grant bachelor’s or higher degrees in music. A master’s or doctoral degree usually is required to teach advanced music courses in colleges and universities; a bachelor’s degree may be sufficient to teach basic courses. A degree in music education qualifies graduates for a State certificate to teach music in public elementary or secondary schools. Musicians who do not meet public school music education requirements may teach in private schools and recreation associations or instruct individual students in private sessions. Musicians must be knowledgeable about a broad range of musical styles but keenly aware of the form that interests them most. Having a broader range of interest, knowledge, and training can help expand employment opportunities and musical abilities. Voice training and private instrumental lessons, taken especially when the indi vidual is young, also help develop technique and enhance one’s performance. Young persons considering careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creativity, poise, and a good stage presence. Be cause quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. To sustain a career as a musician or singer, performers must achieve a level performing excellence and be counted on to be on their game whenever they perform. Moreover, musicians who play in concerts or in nightclubs and those who tour must have physical stamina to endure frequent travel and an irregular performance schedule. Because musicians and singers always must make their performances look effortless, preparation and practice are important. Musicians and singers also must be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and of rejection when auditioning for work. Advancement for musicians usually means becoming bet ter known, finding work more easily, and performing for higher earnings. Successful musicians often rely on agents or managers to find them performing engagements, negotiate contracts, and develop their careers. Employment Musicians, singers, and related workers held about 249,000 jobs in 2004. Around 40 percent worked part time; almost half were self-employed. Many found jobs in cities in which entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Chicago, and Nashville. Musicians, singers, and related workers are employed in a variety of settings. Of those who earn a wage or salary, almost two-thirds were employed by religious organizations and almost one-fourth by performing arts companies such as professional orchestras, small cham ber music groups, opera companies, musical theater companies, and ballet troupes. Musicians and singers also perform in nightclubs and restaurants and for weddings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups may perform in concerts, appear on radio and television broadcasts, and make recordings and music videos. The Armed Forces also offer careers in their bands and smaller musical groups. Job Outlook Competition for jobs for musicians, singers, and related work ers is expected to be keen. The vast number of persons with the desire to perform will continue to greatly exceed the number of openings. Talent alone is no guarantee of success: many people start out to become musicians or singers but leave the profession because they find the work difficult, the discipline demanding, and the long periods of intermittent unemployment unendurable. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Overall employment of musicians, singers, and related workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Most new wage and salary jobs for musicians will arise in religious organizations. Slower-than-average growth is expected for self-employed musicians, who generally perform in nightclubs, concert tours, and other venues. Growth in demand for musicians will generate a number of job opportunities, and many openings also will arise from the need to replace those who leave the field each year because they are unable to make a living solely as musicians or for other reasons. Earnings Median hourly earnings of musicians and singers were $17.85 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.68 and $30.75. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.47, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $53.59. Median hourly earnings were $20.70 in performing arts companies and $12.17 in religious organizations. Annual earnings data for musicians and singers were not available, because of the wide variation in the number of hours worked by musicians and singers and the short-term nature of many jobs, which may last for 1 day or 1 week; it is extremely rare for musicians and singers to have guaranteed employment that exceeds 3 to 6 months. Median annual earnings of salaried music directors and compos ers were $34,570 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $24,040 and $51,770. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,960, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $75,380. Yearly earnings typically reflect the number of gigs a freelance musician or singer played or the number of hours and weeks of salaried contract work, in addition to a performer’s professional reputation and setting: performers who can fill large concert halls, arenas, or outdoor stadiums generally command higher pay than those who perform in local clubs. Soloists or headliners usually receive higher earnings than band members or opening acts. The most successful musicians earn performance or recording fees that far exceed the median earnings. According to the American Federation of Musicians, weekly minimum salaries in major orchestras ranged from about $700 to $2,080 during the 2004-05 performing season. Each orchestra works out a separate contract with its local union, but individual musicians may negotiate higher salaries. Top orchestras have a season ranging from 24 to 52 weeks, with 18 orchestras reporting 52-week contracts. In regional orchestras, minimum salaries are often less because fewer performances are scheduled. Regional orchestra musicians often are paid for their services, without any guarantee of future employment. Community orchestras often have even more limited levels of funding and offer salaries that are much lower for seasons of shorter duration. Although musicians employed by some symphony orchestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks, many other musicians face relatively long periods of unem ployment between jobs. Even when employed, many musicians and singers work part time in unrelated occupations. Thus, their earnings usually are lower than earnings in many other occupations. Moreover, because they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compensation, and few have typi cal benefits such as sick leave or paid vacations. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a local of the American Federation of Musicians. Professional singers who perform live often belong to a branch of the American Guild of Musical Artists; those who record for the broadcast industries may belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. Professional and Related Occupations 259 Sources of Additional Information Related Occupations Musical instrument repairers and tuners (part of precision instrument and equipment repairers) require technical knowledge of musical instruments. Others whose work involves the performing arts include actors, produc ers, and directors; announcers; and dancers and choreographers. For general information about music and music teacher education and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: > National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasm.arts-accredit.org Media and Communication-Related Occupations Announcers (0*NET 27-3011.00, 27-3012.00) Significant Points • • Competition for announcer jobs will continue to be keen. Jobs at small stations usually have low pay, but offer the best opportunities for inexperienced announcers. • Related work experience at a campus radio station or as an intern at a commercial station can be helpful in breaking into the occupation. • Employment is projected to decline. Nature of the Work Announcers in radio and television perform a variety of tasks on and off the air. They announce station program information, such as pro gram schedules and station breaks for commercials, or public service information, and they introduce and close programs. Announcers read prepared scripts or ad lib commentary on the air, as they present news, sports, the weather, time, and commercials. If a written script is required, they may do the research and writing. Announcers also interview guests and moderate panels or discussions. Some provide commentary for the audience during sporting events, at parades, and on other occasions. Announcers often are well known to radio and television audiences and may make promotional appearances and do remote broadcasts for their stations. Radio announcers who broadcast music often are called disc jockeys (DJs). Some DJs specialize in one kind of music, announc ing selections as they air them. Most DJs do not select much of the music they play (although they often did so in the past); instead, they follow schedules of commercials, talk, and music provided to them by management. While on the air, DJs comment on the music, weather, and traffic. They may take requests from listeners, interview guests, and manage listener contests. Newscasters, or anchors, work at large stations and specialize in news, sports, or weather. (See the related statement on news analysts, reporters, and correspondents elsewhere in the Handbook.) Show hosts may specialize in a certain area of interest, such as politics, personal finance, sports, or health. They contribute to the preparation of the program’s content, interview guests, and discuss issues with viewers, listeners, or the studio audience. Announcers at smaller stations may cover all of these areas and tend to have more off-air duties as well. They may operate the control board, monitor the transmitter, sell commercial time to advertisers, keep a log of the station’s daily programming, and produce advertisements and other recorded material. Advances in technology make it possible for announcers to do some work previously performed by broadcast technicians. At many music Digitized forstations, FRASERthe announcer is simultaneously responsible both for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Announcers at radio and television stations provide information to their audiences, including station programming information and public service announcements. announcing and for operating the control board, which is used to broadcast programming, commercials, and public-service an nouncements according to the station’s schedule. (See the state ment on broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Public radio and television announcers are involved in station fundraising efforts. Changes in technology have led to more remote operation of stations. Several stations in different locations of the same region may be operated from one office. Some stations operate overnight without any staff, playing programming from a satellite feed or using programming that was recorded earlier, including segments from announcers. Public address system announcers provide information to the audience at sporting, performing arts, and other events. Some 260 Occupational Outlook Handbook DJs announce and play music at clubs, dances, restaurants, and weddings. They generally have their own equipment with which to produce announcements and other material, and they rent their services out on a job-by-job basis. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, may serve as masters of ceremonies at sports club banquets or may greet customers at openings of sporting goods stores. Working Conditions Announcers usually work in well-lighted, air-conditioned, sound proof studios. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV sta tions—many are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual hours. Many present early-morning shows, when most people are getting ready for work or commuting, while others do late-night programs. The shifts, however, may not be as varied as in the past because new technology is allowing stations to prerecord programs and air them at a later time, especially for the overnight hours. Announcers often work within tight schedules, which can be physically and mentally stressful. For many announcers, the in tangible rewards—creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far outweigh the disad vantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry into this occupation is highly competitive. Formal training in broadcasting from a college, a technical school, or a private broad casting school is valuable. These programs prepare students to work with emerging technologies, a skill that is becoming increas ingly important. Many announcers have a bachelor’s degree in a major such as communications, broadcasting, or journalism. Sta tion officials pay particular attention to taped auditions that show an applicant’s delivery and—in television—appearance and style in commercials, news reports, and interviews. Those hired by televi sion stations usually start out as production assistants, researchers, or reporters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for “on-air” work. A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air job is remote. The best chances for an on-air job for inexperienced announcers may be as a substitute for a fa miliar announcer at a small radio station or on the late-night shift at a larger station. In radio, newcomers usually start out taping interviews and operating equipment. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if they are qualified, may move to a better paying job in a large city. They also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. Competition for employment by networks is particularly intense, and employers look for college graduates with at least several years of successful announcing experience. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and correct grammar. College broadcasting programs offer courses, such as voice and diction, to help students improve their vocal qualities. Television announcers need a neat, pleasing appearance as well. Knowledge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be cov ered in broadcasts improves one’s chances for success. Announcers should be capable of using computers, editing equipment, and other broadcast-related devices because new advances in technology allow more of these responsibilities to be incorporated into an announcer’s work. Announcers also need strong writing skills, because they normally write their own material. In addition, they should be able to ad lib all or part of a show and to work under tight deadlines. The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. High school and college courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and computer science are valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. Students may gain valuable experience at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations while serving as interns. Paid or un paid internships provide students with hands-on training and the chance to establish contacts in the industry. Unpaid interns often receive college credit and are allowed to observe and assist station employees. Although the Fair Labor Standards Act limits the amount of work that unpaid interns may perform in a station, un paid internships are more common than paid internships. Unpaid internships sometimes lead to paid internships, however, which are valuable because interns do work ordinarily performed by regular employees and may even go on the air. Individuals considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should contact personnel managers of radio and television stations, as well as broadcasting trade organizations, to determine the school’s reputa tion for producing suitably trained candidates. Employment Announcers held about 69,000jobs in 2004. About 57 percent were employed in broadcasting. Another 27 percent were self-employed freelance announcers who sold their services for individual assign ments to networks and stations, to advertising agencies and other independent producers, or to sponsors of local events. About 30 percent of all announcers worked part time. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as announcers will be keen because the broadcasting field attracts many more jobseekers than there are jobs. Small radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners, but the pay is low. Applicants who have completed internships and those with related work experience usually receive preference for available positions. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large stations will continue to seek announcers who have proven that they can attract and retain a sizable audience. Announcers who are knowledgeable about busi ness, consumer, and health news also may have an advantage over others. While subject-matter specialization is more common at large stations and the networks, many small stations also encourage it. Employment of announcers is projected to decline through 2014 because of the lack of growth in the number of new radio and television stations and the consolidation of existing stations. Some job openings will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. In some cases, an nouncers leave the field because they cannot advance to better paying jobs. Changes in station ownership, format, and ratings frequently cause periods of unemployment for many announcers. Increasing consolidation of radio and television stations, the advent of new technology, and growth of alternative media sources, such as cable television and satellite radio, will contribute to the ex pected decline in employment of announcers. Consolidation among broadcasting companies may lead to an increased use of syndicated programming and programs originating outside a station’s viewing or listening area. Digital technology is increasing the productivity of announcers, reducing the time required to edit material or perform other off-air technical and production work. Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely, but generally are relatively low, except for announcers who work for large stations in major markets or for networks. Earnings are higher in television than Professional and Related Occupations in radio and higher in commercial broadcasting than in public 261 ~------ broadcasting. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary radio and television announcers in May 2004 were $ 10.64. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.43 and $16.81. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.16, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.61. Median hourly earnings of radio and television announcers were $10.49 in the radio and television broadcasting industry. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary public address and other system announcers in May 2004 were $10.56. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.72 and $16.24. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.33 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.90. Related Occupations The success of announcers depends upon how well they communicate. Others who must be skilled at oral communication include news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; interpreters and translators; salespersons and those in related occupations; and public-relations specialists. Many announcers also must entertain their audience, so their work is similar to other entertainment-related occupations, such as actors, producers, and directors; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Some announcers write their own material, as do writers and editors. Announcers perform a variety of duties, including some technical operations, as do broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Sources of Additional Information General information on the broadcasting industry, in which many announcers are employed, is available from: ► National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators (Q*NET 27-4011.00, 27-4012.00, 27-4013.00, 27-4014.00) Significant Points • • Job applicants will face keen competition for jobs in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher; prospects are expected to be better in small cit ies and towns. Technical school, community college, or college train ing in broadcast technology, electronics, or computer networking provides the best preparation. • About 30 percent work in broadcasting, mainly for ra dio and television stations, and 17 percent work in the motion picture, video, and sound recording industries. • Evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Nature of the Work Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators set up, operate, and maintain a wide variety of electrical and electronic equipment involved in almost any radio or television broadcast, concert, play, musical recording, television show, or movie. With such a range of work, there are many specialized occupations within the field. Audio and video equipment technicians set up and operate audio video equipment, including microphones, sound speakers, video Digitized forand FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators operate a wide variety of electrical and electronic equipment. screens, projectors, video monitors, recording equipment, connecting wires and cables, sound and mixing boards, and related electronic equipment for concerts, sports events, meetings and conventions, presentations, and news conferences. They also may set up and operate associated spotlights and other custom lighting systems. Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors of radio or television broadcasts. These technicians also oper ate control panels to select the source of the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programming. Sound engineering technicians operate machines and equipment to record, synchronize, mix, or reproduce music, voices, or sound effects in recording studios, sporting arenas, theater productions, or movie and video productions. Radio operators mainly receive and transmit communications using a variety of tools. These workers also repair equipment, using such devices as electronic testing equipment, handtools, and power tools. One of their major duties is to help to maintain communica tion systems in good condition. The transition to digital recording, editing, and broadcasting has greatly changed the work of broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Software on desktop computers has replaced specialized electronic equipment in many recording and editing functions. Most radio and television stations have replaced videotapes and audiotapes with computer hard drives and other computer data storage systems. Computer networks linked to specialized equipment dominate modern broadcasting. This transition has forced technicians to learn computer networking and software skills. (See the statement on computer support specialists and systems administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors perform a variety of duties in small stations. In large stations and at the networks, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “en gineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to describe these jobs. Workers in these positions may monitor and log outgoing 262 Occupational Outlook Handbook signals and operate transmitters; set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment; and regulate fidelity, brightness, contrast, volume, and sound quality of television broadcasts. Technicians also work in program production. Recording engineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equipment. They may operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police siren. Sound mixers or re-recording mixers produce soundtracks for movies or television programs. After filming or recording is complete, these workers may use a process called dubbing” to insert sounds. Field technicians set up and operate portable transmission equipment outside the studio. Because television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment and the technology is changing so rapidly, many stations assign technicians exclusively to news. Chief engineers, transmission engineers, and broadcast field supervisors oversee other technicians and maintain broadcasting equipment. Radio operators usually are not required to complete any formal training. This is an entry-level position that generally requires onthe-job training. Licensing is not required for broadcast technicians. However, certification by the Society of Broadcast Engineers is a mark of competence and experience. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a “ham,” or amateur, radio are good experience, as is working in college radio and television stations. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators must have manual dexterity and an aptitude for working with electri cal, electronic, and mechanical systems and equipment. Employment Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators held about 95,000jobs in 2004. Their employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Working Conditions Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. However, those who broadcast news and other programs from locations outside the studio may work outdoors in all types of weather. Technicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. Technicians at large stations and the networks usually work a 40-hour week under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines, and may occasionally work overtime. Technicians at small stations routinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Even though a technician may not be on duty when the station is broadcasting, some technicians may be on call during nonwork hours; these workers must handle any problems that occur when they are on call. Technicians who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule and may work long hours to meet contractual deadlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to prepare for a broadcast and sound engineering technician job is to obtain technical school, community college, or college training in broadcast technology, electronics, or computer networking. In the motion picture industry, people are hired as ap prentice editorial assistants and work their way up to more skilled jobs. Employers in the motion picture industry usually hire experi enced freelance technicians on a picture-by-picture basis. Reputation and determination are important in getting jobs. When starting out, broadcast and sound engineering techni cians learn skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. These beginners often start their careers in small stations and, once experienced, move on to larger ones. Large sta tions usually hire only technicians with experience. Experienced technicians can become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is needed in order to become chief engineer at a large television station. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of developments in the field. Audio and video equipment technicians generally need a high school diploma. Many recent entrants have a community col lege degree or other forms of postsecondary degrees, although they are not always required. These technicians may substitute on-the-job training for formal education requirements. Working in a studio as an assistant is a great way of gaining experience and knowledge. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Audio and video equipment technicians.......................................... 46,000 Broadcast technicians........................................................................ 34 000 Sound engineering technicians.........................................................13,000 Radio operators................................................................................... 2 000 About 30 percent worked in broadcasting (except Internet) and 17 percent worked in the motion picture, video, and sound record ing industries. About 7 percent were self-employed. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than radio stations. Some technicians are employed in other industries, produc ing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Tech nician jobs in television and radio are located in virtually all cities; jobs in radio also are found in many small towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC—the originating centers for most network or news programs. Motion picture production jobs are concentrated in Los Angeles and New York City. Job Outlook People seeking entry-level jobs as technicians in broadcasting are expected to face keen competition in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher and the number of qualified jobseekers typically exceeds the number of openings. Prospects for entry-level positions are expected to be better in small cities and towns for beginners with appropriate training. Overall employment of broadcast and sound engineering techni cians and radio operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Job growth in radio and television broadcasting will be limited by consolidation of ownership of radio and television stations and by labor-saving technical advances, such as computer-controlled programming and remotely controlled transmitters. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is required to examine its media ownership rules quadrennially. Thus, the rules can change periodically. In 2005, FCC regulations stated that a single owner could own up to eight radio stations in a single large market and that a single owner could not own television stations that would reach more than 39 percent of households. Revisions to these rules have been passed by the FCC, but have not been implemented because of legal challenges. When broader common ownership is allowed, stations often are consoli dated and operated from a single location, reducing employment because one or a few technicians can provide support to multiple stations. Technicians who know how to install transmitters will be in demand as television stations install digital transmitters. Although Professional and Related Occupations most television stations are broadcasting in both analog and digital formats and plan to switch entirely to digital, radio stations are only beginning to broadcast digital signals. Employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians in the cable and pay television portion of the broadcasting industry is expected to grow as the range of products and services expands, including cable Internet access and video-on-demand. Employment of these workers in the motion picture industry is expected to grow rapidly. However, job prospects are expected to remain competi tive because of the large number of people who are attracted by the glamour of working in motion pictures. Projected job growth varies among detailed occupations in this field. Employment of audio and video equipment technicians and sound engineering technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Not only will these workers have to set up audio and video equipment, but they will have to maintain and repair it as well. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, as advancements in technology enhance the capabili ties of technicians to produce higher quality radio and television programming. Employment of radio operators, on the other hand, is projected to decline as more stations control programming and operate transmitters remotely. In addition to employment growth, job openings also will re sult from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave this field. Some of these workers leave for other jobs that require knowledge of electronics, such as computer repairer or industrial machinery repairer. Earnings Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than public broadcast ing; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small markets. Median annual earnings of audio and video equipment techni cians in May 2004 were $32,570. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,180 and $44,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,110, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,620. Median annual earnings in motion picture and video industries, which employed the largest number of audio and video equipment technicians, were $33,670. Median annual earnings of broadcast technicians in May 2004 were $28,010. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,240 and $42,760. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,960, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,850. Median annual earnings in radio and television broadcasting, which employed the largest number of broadcast technicians, were $25,220. Median annual earnings of sound engineering technicians in May 2004 were $38,110. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,470 and $56,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,450. Median annual earnings of radio operators in May 2004 were $32,720. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,960 and $43,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,960, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,420. 263 support specialists and systems administrators. Broadcast technicians on some live radio and television programs screen incoming calls; these workers have responsibilities similar to those of communica tions equipment operators. Sources of Additional Information For career information and links to employment resources, contact: >- National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org For information on certification, contact: > Society of Broadcast Engineers, 9247 North Meridian St., Suite 305, Indianapolis, IN 46260. Internet: http://www.sbe.org For information on audio and video equipment technicians, contact: >■ InfoComm International, 11242 Waples Mill Rd., Suite 200, Fairfax, VA 22030. Internet: http://www.infocomm.org Interpreters and Translators (0*NET 27-3091.00) _________ Significant Points • 15 percent of these workers are self-employed. • Work is often sporadic, and many interpreters and translators work part time. • Although training requirements can vary, most inter preters and translators have a bachelor’s degree. • Job outlook varies by specialty and language combination. Nature of the Work Interpreters and translators enable the cross-cultural communi cation necessary in today’s society by converting one language into another. However, these language specialists do more than simply translate words—they relay concepts and ideas between languages. They must thoroughly understand the subject matter in which they work so that they are able to convert information from one language, known as the source language, into another, the target language. In addition, they must remain sensitive to the cultures associated with their languages of expertise. Interpreters and translators are often discussed together because they share some common traits. For example, both need a special ability, known as language combination. This enables them to be Related Occupations Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators need the electronics training necessary to operate technical equip ment, and they generally complete specialized postsecondary programs. Occupations with similar characteristics include engi neering technicians, science technicians, and electrical and elec tronics installers and repairers. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians also may operate computer networks, as do computer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Interpreters help people who speak, read, and write different languages communicate. 264 Occupational Outlook Handbook fluent in at least two languages—a native, or active, language and a secondary, or passive, language; a small number of interpreters and translators are fluent in two or more passive languages. Their active language is the one that they know best and into which they interpret or translate, and their passive language is one of which they have nearly perfect knowledge. Although some people do both, interpretation and translation are different professions. Each requires a distinct set of skills and apti tudes, and most people are better suited for one or the other. While interpreters often work into and from both languages, translators generally work only into their active language. Interpreters convert one spoken language into another—or, in the case of sign-language interpreters, between spoken communication and sign language. This requires interpreters to pay attention care fully, understand what is communicated in both languages, and ex press thoughts and ideas clearly. Strong research and analytical skills, mental dexterity, and an exceptional memory also are important. The first part of an interpreter’s work begins before arriving at the jobsite. The interpreter must become familiar with the subject matter that the speakers will discuss, a task that may involve research to create a list of common words and phrases associated with the topic. Next, the interpreter usually travels to the location where his or her services are needed. Physical presence may not be required for some work, such as telephone interpretation. But it is usually important that the interpreter see the communicators in order to hear and observe the person speaking and to relay the message to the other party. There are two types of interpretation: simultaneous and consecutive. Simultaneous interpretation requires interpreters to listen and speak (or sign) at the same time. In simultaneous inter pretation, the interpreter begins to convey a sentence being spoken while the speaker is still talking. Ideally, simultaneous interpreters should be so familiar with a subject that they are able to anticipate the end of the speaker’s sentence. Because they need a high degree of concentration, simultaneous interpreters work in pairs, with each interpreting for 20- to 30-minute segments. This type of interpreta tion is required at international conferences and is sometimes used in the courts. In contrast to simultaneous interpretation’s immediacy, consecu tive interpretation begins only after the speaker has verbalized a group of words or sentences. Consecutive interpreters often take notes while listening to the speakers, so they must develop some type of note-taking or shorthand system. This form of interpretation is used most often for person-to-person communication, during which the interpreter sits near both parties. Translators convert written materials from one language into another. They must have excellent writing and analytical ability. And because the documents that they translate must be as flawless as possible, they also need good editing skills. Translators’ assignments may vary in length, writing style, and subject matter. When they first receive text to convert into another language, translators usually read it in its entirety to get an idea of the subject. Next, they identify and look up any unfamiliar words. Mul tiple additional readings are usually needed before translators begin to actually write and finalize the translation. Translators also might do additional research on the subject matter if they are unclear about anything in the text. They consult with the text’s originator or issuing agency to clarify unclear or unfamiliar ideas, words, or acronyms. Translating involves more than replacing a word with its equiva lent in another language; sentences and ideas must be manipulated to flow with the same coherence as those in the source document so that the translation reads as though it originated in the target language. Translators also must bear in mind any cultural refer ences that may need to be explained to the intended audience, such as colloquialisms, slang, and other expressions that do not translate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis literally. Some subjects may be more difficult than others to translate because words or passages may have multiple meanings that make several translations possible. Not surprisingly, translated work often goes through multiple revisions before final text is submitted. The way in which translators do their jobs has changed with advancements in technology. Today, nearly all translation work is done on a computer, and most assignments are received and submitted electronically. This enables translators to work from almost anywhere, and a large percentage of them work from home. The Internet provides advanced research capabilities and valuable lan guage resources, such as specialized dictionaries and glossaries. In some cases, use of machine-assisted translation—including memory tools that provide comparisons of previous translations with current work—helps save time and reduce repetition. The services of interpreters and translators are needed in a number of subject areas. While these workers may not completely special ize in a particular field or industry, many do focus on one area of expertise. Some of the most common areas are described below; however, interpreters and translators also may work in a variety of other areas, including business, social services, or entertainment. Conference interpreters work at conferences that involve nonEnglish-speaking attendees. This work includes international business and diplomacy, although conference interpreters also may interpret for any organization that works with foreign language speakers. Employers prefer high-level interpreters who have the ability to translate from at least two passive languages into one active (native) language—for example, the ability to interpret from Spanish and French into English. For some positions, such as those with the United Nations, this qualification is mandatory. Much of the interpreting performed at conferences is simultane ous; however, at some meetings with a small number of attendees, consecutive interpreting also may be used. Usually, interpreters sit in soundproof booths, listening to the speakers through headphones and interpreting into a microphone what is said. The interpreted speech is then relayed to the listener through headsets. When interpreting is needed for only one or two people, the interpreter generally sits behind or next to the attendee and whispers a translation of the proceedings. Guide or escort interpreters accompany either U.S. visitors abroad or foreign visitors in the United States to ensure that they are able to communicate during their stay. These specialists inter pret on a variety of subjects, both on an informal basis and on a professional level. Most of their interpretation is consecutive, and work is generally shared by two interpreters when the assignment requires more than an 8-hour day. Frequent travel, often for days or weeks at a time, is common, an aspect of the job that some find particularly appealing. Judiciary interpreters and translators help people appearing in court who are unable or unwilling to communicate in English. These workers must remain detached from the content of their work and not alter or modify the meaning or tone of what is said. Legal translators must be thoroughly familiar with the language and functions of the U.S. judicial system, as well as other countries’ legal systems. Court interpreters work in a variety of legal settings, such as attorney-client meetings, preliminary hearings, depositions, trials, and arraignments. Success as a court interpreter requires an understanding of both legal terminology and colloquial language. In addition to interpreting what is said, court interpreters also may be required to translate written documents and read them aloud, also known as sight translation. Literary translators adapt written literature from one language into another. They may translate any number of documents, in cluding journal articles, books, poetry, and short stories. Literary translation is related to creative writing; literary translators must create a new text in the target language that reproduces the content Professional and Related Occupations and style of the original. Whenever possible, literary translators work closely with authors in order to best capture their intended meanings and literary characteristics. This type of work often is done as a sideline by university pro fessors; however, opportunities exist for well-established literary translators. As is the case with writers, finding a publisher and maintaining a network of contacts in the publishing industry is a critical part of the job. Most aspiring literary translators begin by submitting a short sample of their work, in the hope that it will be printed and give them recognition. For example, after receiving permission from the author, they might submit to a publishing house a previously unpublished short work, such as a poem or essay. Localization translators constitute a relatively recent and rapidly expanding specialty. Localization involves the complete adaptation of a product for use in a different language and culture. At its earlier stages, this work dealt primarily with software localization, but the specialty has expanded to include the adaptation of Internet sites and products in manufacturing and other business sectors. Translators working in localization need a solid grasp of the languages to be translated, a thorough understanding of technical concepts and vocabulary, and a high degree of knowledge about the intended target audience or users of the product. The goal of these specialists is for the product to appear as if it were originally manu factured in the country where it will be sold and supported. Because software often is involved, it is not uncommon for people who work in this area of translation to have a strong background in computer science or computer-related work experience. Providing language services to health care patients with lim ited English proficiency is the realm of medical interpreters and translators. Medical interpreters help patients to communicate with doctors, nurses, and other medical staff. Translators working in this specialty primarily convert patient materials and informational brochures, issued by hospitals and medical facilities, into the desired language. Medical interpreters need a strong grasp of medical and colloquial terminology in both languages, along with cultural sensi tivity regarding how the patient receives the information. They must remain detached but aware of the patient’s feelings and pain. Sign language interpreters facilitate communication between people who are deaf or hard of hearing and people who can hear. Sign language interpreters must be fluent in English and in American Sign Language (ASL), which combines signing, finger spelling, and specific body language. ASL has its own grammatical rules, sentence structure, idioms, historical contexts, and cultural nuances. Sign language interpreting, like foreign language inter preting, involves more than simply replacing a word of spoken English with a sign representing that word. Most sign language interpreters either interpret, aiding com munication between English and ASL, or transliterate, facilitating communication between English and contact signing—a form of signing that uses a more English language-based word order. Some interpreters specialize in oral interpreting for deaf or hard of hear ing persons who lip-read instead of sign. Other specialties include tactile signing, which is interpreting for persons who are blind as well as deaf by making manual signs into a person’s hands; cued speech; and signing exact English. Self-employed and freelance interpreters and translators need general business skills to successfully manage their finances and careers. They must set prices for their work, bill customers, keep financial records, and market their services to attract new business and build their client base. Working Conditions Working environments of interpreters and translators vary. Interpret work in a variety of settings, such as hospitals, courtrooms, and Digitized forers FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 265 conference centers. They are required to travel to the site—whether it is in a neighboring town or on the other side ol the world—where their services are needed. Interpreters who work over the telephone generally work on call, often in call centers in urban areas, and keep to a standard 5-day, 40-hour workweek. Interpreters for deaf stu dents in schools usually work in a school setting for 9 months out of the year. Translators usually work alone, and they must frequently perform under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules. Many translators choose to work at home; however, technology allows translators to work from virtually anywhere. Because many interpreters and translators freelance, their sched ules are often erratic, with extensive periods of no work interspersed with others requiring long, irregular hours. For those who freelance, a significant amount of time must be dedicated to looking for jobs. In addition, freelancers must manage their own finances, and payment for their services may not always be prompt. Freelancing, however, offers variety and flexibility, and allows many workers to choose which jobs to accept or decline. The number of work-related accidents in these occupations is relatively low. The work can be stressful and exhausting, and transla tion can be lonesome or dull. However, interpreters and translators may use their irregular schedules to pursue other interests, such as traveling, dabbling in a hobby, or working a second job. Many interpreters and translators enjoy what they do and value the ability to control their schedules and workloads. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational backgrounds of interpreters and translators vary. Knowing a language in addition to a native language is essential. Although it is not necessary to have been raised bilingual to succeed, many interpreters and translators grew up speaking two languages. In high school, students can prepare for these careers by taking a broad range of courses that include English writing and comprehen sion, foreign languages, and basic computer proficiency. Other help ful pursuits include spending time abroad, engaging in comparable forms of direct contact with foreign cultures, and reading extensively on a variety of subjects in English and at least one other language. Beyond high school, there are many educational options. Although a bachelor’s degree is often required, interpreters and translators note that it is acceptable to major in something other than a language. However, specialized training in how to do the work is generally required. A number of formal programs in interpreting and translation are available at colleges nationwide and through nonuniversity training programs, conferences, and courses. Many people who work as conference interpreters or in more technical areas—such as localization, engineering, or finance—have master’s degrees, while those working in the community as court or medical interpreters or translators are more likely to complete job-specific training programs. There is currently no universal form of certification required of all interpreters and translators in the United States, but there are a variety of different tests that workers can voluntarily take to demonstrate proficiency. The American Translators Association provides accreditation in more than 24 language combinations for its members; other options include a certification program offered by The Translators and Interpreters Guild. Many interpreters are not certified. Federal courts have certification for Spanish, Navajo, and Haitian Creole interpreters, and many State and municipal courts offer their own forms of certification. The National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators also offers certification for court interpreting. The U.S. Department of State has a three-test series for in terpreters, including simple consecutive interpreting (for escort 266 Occupational Outlook Handbook work), simultaneous interpreting (for court or seminar work), and conference-level interpreting (for international conferences). These tests are not referred to directly as certification, but successful completion often indicates that a person has an adequate level of skill to work in the field. The National Association of the Deaf and the Registry of In terpreters for the Deaf (RID) jointly offer certification for general sign interpreters. In addition, RID offers specialty tests in legal interpreting, speech reading, and deaf-to-deaf interpreting—which includes interpreting between deaf speakers with different native languages and from ASL to tactile signing. Experience is an essential part of a successful career in either interpreting or translation. In fact, many agencies or companies use only the services of people who have worked in the field for 3 to 5 years or who have a degree in translation studies or both. A good way for translators to learn firsthand about the profes sion is to start out working in-house for a company; however, such jobs are not very numerous. Persons seeking to enter interpreter or translator jobs should begin by getting experience whatever way they can—even if it means doing informal or unpaid work. All translation can be used as examples for potential clients, even translation done as practice. Mentoring relationships and internships are other ways to build skills and confidence. Escort interpreting may offer an opportu nity for inexperienced candidates to work alongside a more seasoned interpreter. Interpreters might also find it easier to break into areas with particularly high demand for language services, such as court or medical interpretation. Once interpreters and translators have gained sufficient experience, they may then move up to more difficult or prestigious as signments, may seek certification, may be given editorial responsibility, or may eventually manage or start their own translation agency. Employment Interpreters and translators held about 31,000 jobs in 2004. How ever, the actual number of interpreters and translators is probably significantly higher because many work in the occupation only sporadically. Interpreters and translators are employed in a variety of industries, reflecting the diversity of employment options in the field. About 9,900 worked in public and private educational insti tutions, such as schools, colleges, and universities. About 4,100 worked in health care, many of which worked for hospitals. Another 3,400 worked in other areas of government, such as Federal, State and local courts. Other employers of interpreters and translators include publishing companies, telephone companies, airlines, and interpreting and translating agencies. About 4,600 interpreters and translators are self-employed. To find work, these interpreters and translators may submit resumes to many different employment agencies, and then wait to be contacted when an agency matches their skills with a job. After establishing a few regular clients, interpreters and translators may receive enough work from a few clients to stay busy, and they often hear of sub sequent jobs by word of mouth or through referrals from existing clients. Many who freelance in the occupation work only part time, relying on other sources of income to supplement earnings from interpreting or translation. Job Outlook Employment of interpreters and translators is projected to increase faster than the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 period, reflecting strong growth in the industries employing interpreters and translators. Higher demand for interpreters and translators in recent years has resulted directly from the broadening of international ties and the increase in the number of foreign language speakers in the United States. Both of these trends are expected to continue, contrib uting to relatively rapid growth in the number ofjobs for interpreters https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and translators. Demand will remain strong for translators of the languages referred to as “PFIGS”—Portuguese, French, Italian, German, and Spanish—and the principal Asian languages—Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. In addition, current events and changing political environments, often difficult to foresee, will increase the need for persons who can work with other languages. For example, homeland security needs are expected to drive increasing demand for interpreters and translators of Middle Eastern and North African languages, primarily in Federal Government agencies. Technology has made the work of interpreters and translators easier. However, technology is not likely to have a negative impact on employment of interpreters and translators because such in novations are incapable of producing work comparable with work produced by these professionals. Urban areas, especially those in California and New York, and Washington, DC, provide the largest numbers of employment pos sibilities, especially for interpreters; however, as the immigrant population spreads into more rural areas, jobs in smaller communities will become more widely available. Job prospects for interpreters and translators vary by specialty. In particular, there should be strong demand for specialists in localiza tion, driven by imports and exports, the expansion of the Internet, and demand in other technical areas, such as medicine or law. Rapid em ployment growth among interpreters and translators in health services industries will be fueled by the implementation of relatively recent guidelines regarding compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, which require all health care providers receiving Federal aid to provide language services to non-English speakers. Similarly, the Americans with Disabilities Act and other laws, such as the Rehabilitation Act, mandate that, in certain situations, an interpreter must be available for people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Given the shortage of interpreters and translators meeting the desired skill level of employers, interpreters for the deaf will continue to have favorable employment prospects. On the other hand, job growth is expected to be limited for both conference interpreters and literary translators. Earnings Salaried interpreters and translators had median hourly earnings of $ 16.28 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 12.40 and $21.09. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.67, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.45. Earnings depend on language, subject matter, skill, experience, education, certification, and type of employer, and salaries of inter preters and translators can vary widely. Interpreters and translators with language skills for which there is a greater demand, or for which there are relatively few people with the skills, often have higher earnings. Interpreters and translators with specialized expertise, such as those working in software localization, also generally com mand higher rates. Individuals classified as language specialists for the Federal Government earned an average of $71,625 annually in 2005. Limited information suggests that some highly skilled inter preters and translators—for example, high-level conference interpret ers—working full time can earn more than $100,000 annually. For those who are not salaried, earnings may fluctuate, depending on the availability of work. Furthermore, freelancers do not have any employer-paid benefits. Freelance interpreters usually earn an hourly rate, whereas translators who freelance typically earn a rate per word or per hour. Related Occupations Interpreters and translators use their multilingual skills, as do teach ers of languages. These include teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; teachers—postsecondary; teachers—special education; teachers—adult literacy and remedial Professional and Related Occupations education; and teachers—self-enrichment education. The work of interpreters, particularly guide or escort interpreters, can be likened to that of tour and travel guides, in that they accompany individuals or groups on tours or to places of interest. The work of translators is similar to that of writers and editors, in that they communicate information and ideas through the written word and prepare texts for publication or dissemination. Further more, interpreters or translators working in a legal or health care environment are required to have a knowledge of terms and concepts that is similar to that of professionals working in these fields, such as court reporters or medical transcriptionists. 267 ifiSpi mm essa Sources of Additional Information Organizations dedicated to these professions can provide valuable advice and guidance for people interested in learning more about interpretation and translation. The language services division of local hospitals or courthouses also may have information about available opportunities. For general career information, contact the organizations listed below: >- American Translators Association, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 590, Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.atanet.org >- The Translators and Interpreters Guild, 962 Wayne Avenue, Suite 500, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://www.ttig.org > U.S. Department of State, Office of Language Services, Suite 1400 SA-1, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520. For more detailed information by specialty, contact the associa tion affiliated with that subject area: >- National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, 603 Stew art St., Suite 610, Seattle, WA 98101. Internet: http://www.najit.org > American Literary Translators Association, The University of Texas at Dallas, Box 830688 Mail Station J051, Richardson, TX 75083-0688. Internet: http://www.Iiterarytranslators.org >- Localization Industry Standards Association, 7 Route du MonastereCH-1173, Fechy, Switzerland. Internet: http://www.lisa.org >- Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, 333 Commerce St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.rid.org News Analysts, Reporters, and Correspondents _____ (0*NET 27-3021.00, 27-3022.00) Significant Points • Competition will be keen for jobs at large metropoli tan and national newspapers, broadcast stations, and magazines; most entry-level openings arise at small broadcast stations and publications. • Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in journalism or mass communications and experience gained at school newspapers or broadcasting stations or through internships with news organizations. • Jobs often involve irregular hours, night and weekend work, and pressure to meet deadlines. • Slower than average employment growth is expected. Nature of the Work News analysts, reporters, and correspondents gather information, prepare stories, and make broadcasts that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and report on the actions of public officials, corporate executives, interest groups, and others who exercise power. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis News analysts, reporters, and correspondents examine and interpret news from a variety of sources. News analysts—also called newscasters or news anchors—ex amine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources. News anchors present news stories and introduce video taped news or live transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. News casters at large stations and networks usually specialize in a par ticular type of news, such as sports or weather. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecasted weather conditions. They gather information from national satel lite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained meteorologists and can develop their own weather forecasts. (See the statement on atmospheric scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sportscasters select, write, and deliver sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events. News correspondents report on news occurring in the large U.S. and foreign cities where they are stationed. In covering a story, reporters investigate leads and news tips, look at documents, observe events at the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and also may take photographs or shoot videos. At their office, they organize the material, determine the focus or emphasis, write their stories, and edit accompanying video material. Many reporters enter information or write stories us ing laptop computers and electronically submit the material to their offices from remote locations. In some cases, newswriters write a story from information collected and submitted by reporters. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report “live” from the scene. At times, they later tape an introduction to or com mentary on their story in the studio. Some journalists also interpret the news or offer opinions to readers, viewers, or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists. General-assignment reporters write about newsworthy occur rences—such as accidents, political rallies, visits of celebrities, or business closings—as assigned. Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news about specific topics, such as crime or education. Some reporters spe cialize in fields such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, business, or religion. Investigative reporters cover stories that may take many days or weeks of information gathering. Some publications use teams of reporters instead of assigning each reporter one specific topic, allowing reporters to cover a greater variety of stories. News teams may include reporters, editors, graphic artists, and photog raphers working together to complete a story. Reporters on small publications cover all aspects of the news. They take photographs, 268 Occupational Outlook Handbook write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire-service stories, and write editorials. Some also solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Working Conditions The work of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents is usually hectic. They are under great pressure to meet deadlines. Broadcasts sometimes are aired with little or no time for preparation. Some news analysts, reporters, and correspon dents work in comfortable, private offices; others work in large rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers, as well as the voices of other reporters. Curious onlookers, police, or other emergency workers can distract those reporting from the scene for radio and television. Covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and similar events is often dangerous. Working hours vary. Reporters on morning papers often work from late afternoon until midnight. Radio and television reporters usually are assigned to a day or evening shift. Magazine reporters usually work during the day. Reporters sometimes have to change their work hours to meet a deadline or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work demands long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Because many stations and networks are on the air 24 hours a day, newscast ers can expect to work unusual hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in jour nalism or mass communications, but some hire graduates with other majors. They look for experience at school newspapers or broad casting stations, and internships with news organizations. Largecity newspapers and stations also may prefer candidates with a degree in a subject-matter specialty such as economics, political science, or business. Some large newspapers and broadcasters may hire only experienced reporters. More than 1,200 institutions offer programs in communications, journalism, and related programs. In 2004, 104 of these were ac credited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical curriculum are in liberal arts; the remaining courses are in journalism. Examples of journalism courses are introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history of journalism, and press law and ethics. Students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and television news and production. Those planning newspaper or magazine careers usually specialize in news-editorial journalism. To create stories for online media, they need to learn to use computer software to combine online story text with audio and video elements and graphics. Some schools also offer a master’s or Ph.D. degree in journalism. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others prepare journalism teach ers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. A graduate degree may help those looking to advance. High school courses in English, journalism, and social studies pro vide a good foundation for college programs. Useful college liberal arts courses include English with an emphasis on writing, sociology, political science, economics, history, and psychology. Courses in computer science, business, and speech are useful as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Reporters typically need more than good word-processing skills. Computer graphics and desktop-publishing skills also are useful. Computer-assisted reporting involves the use of computers to analyze data in search of a story. This technique and the inter pretation of the results require computer skills and familiarity with databases. Knowledge of news photography also is valuable for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis entry-level positions, which sometimes combine the responsibilities of a reporter with those of a camera operator or photographer. Employers report that practical experience is the most important part of education and training. Upon graduation many students already have gained much practical experience through part-time or summer jobs or through internships with news organizations. Most newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer reporting and editing internships. Work on high school and college newspapers, at broadcasting stations, or on community papers or U.S. Armed Forces publications also provides practical training. In addition, journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships awarded to college journalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organizations are helpful. Experience as a stringer or freelancer—a part-time reporter who is paid only for stories printed—is advantageous. Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and im partial news. Accuracy is important, both to serve the public and because untrue or libelous statements can lead to lawsuits. A nose for news, persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and physical stamina are important, as is the emotional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and danger ous assignments. Broadcast reporters and news analysts must be comfortable on camera. All reporters must be at ease in unfamiliar places and with a variety of people. Positions involving on-air work require a pleasant voice and appearance. Most reporters start at small publications or broadcast stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. They are usually as signed to cover court proceedings and civic and club meetings, sum marize speeches, and write obituaries. With experience, they report more difficult assignments or specialize in a particular field. Large publications and stations hire few recent graduates; as a rule, they require new reporters to have several years of experience. Some news analysts and reporters can advance by moving to larger newspapers or stations. A few experienced reporters become columnists, correspondents, writers, announcers, or public relations specialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast journalism, who supervise reporters. Some eventually become broadcasting or publishing industry managers. Employment News analysts, reporters, and correspondents held about 64,000jobs in 2004. About 61 percent worked for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Another 25 percent worked in radio and television broadcasting. About 7 percent of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents were self-employed. Job Outlook Competition will continue to be keen for jobs on large metropoli tan and national newspapers, broadcast stations and networks, and magazines. Most job opportunities will be with small-town and suburban newspapers and radio and television stations. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects have an advantage. Also, newspapers increasingly are hiring stringers and freelancers. Journalism graduates have the background for work in closely related fields such as advertising and public relations, and many take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, or other nonmedia positions. Employment of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Many factors will contribute to the limited job growth in this occupation. Consolidation and convergence should continue in the publishing and broadcasting industries. As a result, companies will be better able to allocate their news analysts, Professional and Related Occupations reporters, and correspondents to cover news stories. Constantly improving technology also is allowing workers to do their jobs more efficiently, another factor that will limit the number of work ers needed to cover a story or certain type of news. However, the continued demand for news will create some job opportunities. For example, some job growth likely will occur in newer media areas, such as online newspapers and magazines. Job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who leave their occupations permanently; some news analysts, reporters, and correspondents find the work too stressful and hectic or do not like the lifestyle, and transfer to other occupations. The number of job openings in the newspaper and broadcasting industries—in which news analysts, reporters, and correspondents are employed—is sensitive to economic ups and downs because these industries depend on advertising revenue. 269 Photographers (0*NET 27-4021.01, 27-4021.02) Significant Points • Competition for jobs is expected to be keen because the work is attractive to many people. • Technical expertise, a “good eye,” imagination, and • More than half of all photographers are self-employed; the most successful are adept at operating a business and able to take advantage of opportunities provided by creativity are essential. rapidly changing technologies. Earnings Nature of the Work Salaries for news analysts, reporters, and correspondents vary widely. Median annual earnings of reporters and correspondents were $31,320 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,900 and $47,860. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 18,470, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,250. Me dian annual earnings of reporters and correspondents were $30,070 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers and $34,050 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual earnings of broadcast news analysts were $36,980 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,560 and $68,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,040, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $122,800. Median annual earnings of broadcast news analysts were $37,840 in radio and television broadcasting. Photographers produce and preserve images that paint a picture, tell a story, or record an event. To create commercial-quality photographs, photographers need both technical expertise and creativity. Pro ducing a successful picture requires choosing and presenting a subject to achieve a particular effect, and selecting the appropriate equipment. For example, photographers may enhance the subject’s appearance with natural or artificial light, shoot the subject from an interesting angle, draw attention to a particular aspect of the subject by blurring the background, or use various lenses to produce desired levels of detail at various distances from the subject. Today, most photographers use digital cameras instead of tra ditional silver-halide film cameras, although some photographers use both types, depending on their own preference and the nature of the assignment. Regardless of the camera they use, photographers also employ an array of other equipment—from lenses, filters, and tripods to flash attachments and specially constructed lighting equip ment—to improve the quality of their work. Digital cameras capture images electronically, allowing them to be edited on a computer. Images can be stored on portable memory devices such as compact disks (CDs) or on smaller “minipocket” storage devices such as flash disks, which are small memory cards used in digital cameras. Once the raw image has been transferred to a computer, photographers can use processing software to crop or modify the image and enhance it through color correction and other specialized effects. As soon as a photographer has finished editing the image, it can be sent anywhere in the world over the Internet. Related Occupations News analysts, reporters, and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom good writing ability is essential include writers and editors and public relations specialists. Many news analysts, reporters, and correspondents also must communicate information orally. Others for whom oral communication skills are important are announcers, interpreters and translators, those in sales and related occupations, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on broadcasting education and scholarship re sources, contact: >• National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universities offering degree programs in journalism or communications, and journalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: >• Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc.. P.O. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543 0300. Information on union wage rates for newspaper and magazine reporters is available from: > Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 501 Third St. NW., Suite 250, Washington, DC 20001. For a list of schools with accredited programs in journalism and mass communications, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: > Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communi cations, University of Kansas School of Journalism and Mass Communi cations, Stauffer-Flint Hall, 1435 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, KS 66045. Internet: http://www.ku.edu/~acejmc/STUDENT/STUDENT.SHTML Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Pub lisher International Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis i * - Portrait photographers need both technical skill and artistic creativity. 270 Occupational Outlook Handbook Photographers also can create electronic portfolios of their work and display them on their own webpage, allowing them to reach prospective customers directly. Digital technology also allows the production of larger, more colorful, and more accurate prints or images for use in advertising, photographic art, and scientific research. Photographers who process their own digital images need to have computers, high-quality printers, and editing software, as well as the technical knowledge to use these tools effectively. Photographers who use cameras with silver-halide film often send their film to laboratories for processing. Color film requires expensive equipment and exacting conditions for correct processing and printing. (See the statement on photographic process workers and processing machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other photographers develop and print their own photographs using their own fully equipped darkroom, especially if they use black and white film or seek to achieve special effects. Photographers who do their own film developing must invest in additional developing and printing equipment and acquire the technical skills to operate it. Some photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, commer cial and industrial, scientific, news, or fine arts photography. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Some specialize in wed dings, religious ceremonies, or school photographs and may work on location. Portrait photographers who own and operate their own business have many responsibilities in addition to taking pictures. They must arrange for advertising, schedule appointments, set and adjust equipment, purchase supplies, keep records, bill customers, pay bills, and—if they have employees—hire, train, and direct their workers. Many also process their own images, design albums, and mount and frame the finished photographs. Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of vari ous subjects, such as buildings, models, merchandise, artifacts, and landscapes. These photographs are used in a variety of media, includ ing books, reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial photogra phers often take pictures of equipment, machinery, products, workers, and company officials. The pictures are used for various purposes—for example, analysis of engineering projects, publicity, or records of equip ment development or deployment, such as placement of an offshore oil rig. This photography frequently is done on location. Scientific photographers take images of a variety of subjects to illustrate or record scientific or medical data or phenomena, using knowledge of scientific procedures. They typically possess additional knowledge in areas such as engineering, medicine, biology, or chemistry. News photographers, also called photojournalists, photograph newsworthy people, places, and sporting, political, and community events for newspapers, journals, magazines, or television. Fine arts photographers sell their photographs as fine artwork. In addition to technical proficiency, fine arts photographers need artistic talent and creativity. Self-employed, or freelance, photographers usually specialize in one of the above fields. In addition to carrying out assignments under direct contract with clients, they may license the use of their photographs through stock-photo agencies or market their work directly to the public. Stock-photo agencies sell magazines and other customers the right to use photographs, and pay the photog rapher a commission. These agencies require an application from the photographer and a sizable portfolio of pictures. Once accepted, photographers usually are required to submit a large number of new photographs each year. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers vary considerably. Photog raphers employed in government and advertising studios usually https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis work a 5-day, 40-hour week. On the other hand, news photographers often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Many photographers work part time or on variable schedules. Most photographers spend only a small portion of their work schedule actually taking photographs. Their most common ac tivities are editing images on a computer—if they use a digital cam era—and looking for new business—if they are self-employed. Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios but also may travel to take photographs at the client’s location, such as a school, a company office, or a private home. News and com mercial photographers frequently travel locally, stay overnight on assignments, or travel to distant places for long periods. Some photographers work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings, especially news photographers covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts. Many photog raphers must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. News photographers often work under strict deadlines. Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of expres sion, and flexible scheduling. However, income can be uncertain and the continuous, time consuming search for new clients can be stressful. Some self-employed photographers hire assistants who help seek out new business. Employment Photographers held about 129,000 jobs in 2004. More than half were self-employed, a much higher proportion than for most occupations. Some self-employed photographers have contracts with advertising agencies, magazine publishers, or other businesses to do individual projects for a set fee, while others operate portrait studios or provide photographs to stock-photo agencies. Most salaried photographers work in portrait or commercial photography studios; most of the others work for newspapers, maga zines, and advertising agencies. Photographers work in all areas of the country, but most are employed in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagina tion, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of photography. Entry-level positions in photojournalism or in indus trial or scientific photography generally require a college degree in photography or in a field related to the industry in which the pho tographer seeks employment. Freelance and portrait photographers need technical proficiency, gained through either a degree program, vocational training, or extensive photography experience. Photography courses are offered by many universities, com munity and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and private trade and technical schools. Basic courses in photography cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition. Individuals interested in a career in photography should try to develop contacts in the field by subscribing to photographic news letters and magazines; joining camera clubs; and seeking summer or part-time employment in camera stores, newspapers, or photo studios. Photographers may start out as assistants to experienced photographers. Assistants acquire the technical knowledge needed to be a successful photographer and also learn other skills necessary to run a portrait or commercial photography business. Freelance pho tographers also should develop an individual style of photography to differentiate themselves from the competition. Some photographers enter the field by submitting unsolicited a portfolio of photographs to Professional and Related Occupations magazines and to art directors at advertising agencies; for freelance photographers, a good portfolio is critical. Photographers need good eyesight, artistic ability, and good hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detailoriented. Photographers should be able to work well with others, as they frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, and advertising and publishing specialists. Photographers need to know how to use computer software programs and applications that allow them to prepare and edit images, and those who market directly to clients should be familiar with using the Internet to display their work. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Commercial and fine arts photographers must be imaginative and original. News photographers must not only be good with a camera, but also understand the story behind an event so that their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in recog nizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to capture it. Photographers who operate their own business, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to prepare a business plan; submit bids; write contracts; keep financial records; market their work; hire models, if needed; get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public; obtain releases to use photographs of people; license and price photographs; and secure copyright protection for their work. To protect their rights and their work, self-employed photographers require basic knowledge of licensing and copyright laws, as well as knowledge of contracts and negotiation procedures. After several years of experience, magazine and news photog raphers may advance to photography or picture editor positions. Some photographers teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. 271 and $37,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,000, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,180. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried photographers were $32,800 for newspapers and periodicals and $23,100 for other professional, scientific, and technical services. Salaried photographers—more of whom work full time—tend to earn more than those who are self-employed. Because most freelance and portrait photographers purchase their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining cameras and accessories. Unlike news and commercial photographers, few fine arts photographers are successful enough to support themselves solely through their art. Related Occupations Other occupations requiring artistic talent and creativity include architects, except landscape and naval; artists and related workers; commercial and industrial designers, fashion designers, and graphic designers; and television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors. Photojoumalists are often required to cover news stories much the same as news analysts, reporters, and correspondents. The processing work that photographers do on computers is similar to the work of prepress technicians and workers and desktop publishers. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: >- Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 229 Peachtree St. NE., Suite 2200, Atlanta, GA 30303. Internet: http://www.ppa.com > National Press Photographers Association, Inc., 3200 Croasdaile Dr., Suite 306, Durham, NC 27705. Internet: http://www.nppa.org ► American Society of Media Photographers, Inc., 150 North Second St., Philadelphia, PA 19106. Internet: http://www.asmp.org Job Outlook Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as commercial and news photographers usually is much greater than the number of openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be adept at operating a business and to be among the most creative, able to find and exploit the new opportunities available from rapidly changing technologies. Related work experience, job-related training, or some unique skill or tal ent—such as a background in computers or electronics—also are beneficial to prospective photographers. Employment of photographers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. Growth of Internet versions of magazines, journals, and newspapers will require increasing numbers of commercial photog raphers to provide digital images. The Internet also should make it easier for freelancers to market directly to their customers, increasing opportunities for self-employment. Job growth, however, will be constrained somewhat by the wide spread use of digital photography and the falling price of digital equipment. Improvements in digital technology reduce barriers of entry into this profession and allow more individual consumers and businesses to produce, store, and access photographic images on their own. Declines in the newspaper industry also will reduce demand for photographers to provide still images for print. Salaried jobs in particular may be difficult to find as more companies contract with freelancers rather than hire their own photographers. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried photographers were $26,080 inFRASER May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,380 Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Public Relations Specialists (0*NET 27-3031.00) Significant Points • Although employment is projected to grow faster than average, keen competition is expected for entry-level jobs. • Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in public relations, journalism, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. • Creativity, initiative, and the ability to communicate effectively are essential. Nature of the Work An organization’s reputation, profitability, and even its continued existence can depend on the degree to which its targeted “publics” support its goals and policies. Public relations specialists—also referred to as communications specialists and media specialists, among other titles—serve as advocates for businesses, nonprofit as sociations, universities, hospitals, and other organizations, and build and maintain positive relationships with the public. As managers recognize the importance of good public relations to the success of their organizations, they increasingly rely on public relations special ists for advice on the strategy and policy of such programs. Public relations specialists handle organizational functions such as media, community, consumer, industry, and governmen tal relations; political campaigns; interest-group representation; 272 Occupational Outlook Handbook of the job. They contact people, plan and research, and prepare materials for distribution. They also may handle advertising or sales promotion work to support marketing efforts. Working Conditions Some public relations specialists work a standard 35- to 40-hour week, but unpaid overtime is common. Occasionally, they must be at the job or on call around the clock, especially if there is an emergency or crisis. Public relations offices are busy places; work schedules can be irregular and frequently interrupted. Schedules often have to be rearranged so that workers can meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meetings and community activities, and travel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Public relations specialists serve as advocatesfor businesses, nonprofit associations, universities, hospitals, and other organizations. conflict mediation; and employee and investor relations. They do more than “tell the organization’s story.” They must understand the attitudes and concerns of community, consumer, employee, and public interest groups and establish and maintain cooperative relationships with them and with representatives from print and broadcast journalism. Public relations specialists draft press releases and contact people in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations specialists. Sometimes the subject is an organization and its policies toward its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, energy, or the environment, and what an organization does to advance that issue. Public relations specialists also arrange and conduct programs to keep up contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, they set up speaking engagements and often prepare speeches for company officials. These media specialists represent employers at community projects; make film, slide, or other visual presentations at meetings and school assemblies; and plan conventions. In addition, they are responsible for preparing annual reports and writing proposals for various projects. In government, public relations specialists—who may be called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or communication specialists—keep the public informed about the activities of agencies and officials. For example, public affairs specialists in the U.S. Department of State keep the public informed of travel advisories and of U.S. positions on foreign issues. A press secretary for a member of Congress keeps constituents aware of the representative’s accomplishments. In large organizations, the key public relations executive, who often is a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations departments employ public relations specialists to write, research, prepare materials, maintain contacts, and respond to inquiries. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct public relations for a small organization may deal with all aspects https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis There are no defined standards for entry into a public relations career. A college degree combined with public relations experi ence, usually gained through an internship, is considered excel lent preparation for public relations work; in fact, internships are becoming vital to obtaining employment. The ability to commu nicate effectively is essential. Many entry-level public relations specialists have a college major in public relations, journalism, advertising, or communication. Some firms seek college gradu ates who have worked in electronic or print journalism. Other employers seek applicants with demonstrated communication skills and training or experience in a field related to the firm’s business—information technology, health, science, engineering, sales, or finance, for example. Many colleges and universities offer bachelor’s and postsec ondary degrees in public relations, usually in a journalism or communications department. In addition, many other colleges offer at least one course in this field. A common public relations sequence includes courses in public relations principles and tech niques; public relations management and administration, including organizational development; writing, emphasizing news releases, proposals, annual reports, scripts, speeches, and related items; vi sual communications, including desktop publishing and computer graphics; and research, emphasizing social science research and survey design and implementation. Courses in advertising, journal ism, business administration, finance, political science, psychology, sociology, and creative writing also are helpful. Specialties are offered in public relations for business, government, and nonprofit organizations. Many colleges help students gain part-time internships in public relations that provide valuable experience and training. Membership in local chapters of the Public Relations Student Society of America (affiliated with the Public Relations Society of America) or in student chapters of the International Association of Business Com municators provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations specialists and to make professional contacts that may help them find a job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work is an asset in finding a job. Writing for a school publication or television or radio station provides valuable experience and material for one’s portfolio. Creativity, initiative, good judgment, and the ability to communicate thoughts clearly and simply are essential in this occupation. Decision-making, problem-solving, and research skills also are important. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing personality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychology, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be competitive, yet able to function as part of a team and open to new ideas. Some organizations, particularly those with large public rela tions staffs, have formal training programs for new employees. In Professional and Related Occupations smaller organizations, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of mate rial about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. They also may answer calls from the press and the public, work on invitation lists and details for press conferences, or escort visitors and clients. After gaining experience, they write news releases, speeches, and articles for publication or plan and carry out public relations programs. Public relations specialists in smaller firms usually get all-around experience, whereas those in larger firms tend to be more specialized. The Universal Accreditation Board accredits public rela tions specialists who are members of the Public Relations Society of America and who participate in the Examination for Accreditation in Public Relations process. This process includes both a readiness review and an examination, which are designed for candidates who have at least 5 years of full time work or teaching experience in public relations and who have earned a bachelor’s degree in a communications-related field. The readiness review includes a written submission by each candidate, a portfolio review, and dialogue between the candidate and a three-member panel. Candidates who success fully advance through readiness review and pass the computerbased examination earn the Accredited in Public Relations (APR) designation. The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) also has an accreditation program for profession als in the communications field, including public relations specialists. Those who meet all the requirements of the program earn the Accredited Business Communicator (ABC) designation. Candidates must have at least 5 years of experience and a bachelor’s degree in a communications field and must pass written and oral examinations. They also must submit a portfolio of work samples demonstrating involvement in a range of communications projects and a thorough understanding of communications planning. Employers may consider professional recognition through ac creditation as a sign of competence in this field, which could be especially helpful in a competitive job market. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come to public relations specialists who show that they can handle more demanding assignments. In public relations firms, a beginner might be hired as a research assistant or account coordinator and be promoted to account executive, senior account executive, account manager, and eventually vice president. A similar career path is followed in corporate public relations, although the titles may differ. Some experienced public relations specialists start their own consulting firms. (For more information on public relations managers, see the Handbook statement on advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers.) Employment Public relations specialists held about 188,000jobs in 2004. Public relations specialists are concentrated in service-providing industries such as advertising and related services; health care and social as sistance; educational services; and government. Others worked for communications firms, financial institutions, and government agencies. Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities, where press services and other communications facilities are readily available and many businesses and trade associations have their headquarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, are in New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, and Washington, DC. There is a trend, however, for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 273 public relations jobs to be dispersed throughout the Nation, closer to clients. Job Outlook Keen competition likely will continue for entry-level public relations jobs, as the number of qualified applicants is expected to exceed the number of job openings. Many people are at tracted to this profession because of the high profile nature of the work. Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in journalism, public relations, advertising, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. Applicants without the appropriate educational background or work experience will face the toughest obstacles. Employment of public relations specialists is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through 2014. The need for good public relations in an increasingly competitive business environment should spur demand for public relations specialists in organizations of all types and sizes. The value of a company is measured not just by its balance sheet, but also by the strength of its relationships with those on whom it depends for its success. With the increasing demand for corporate accountability, more emphasis will be placed on improving the image of the client, as well as on building public confidence. Employment in public relations firms should grow as firms hire contractors to provide public relations services rather than support full-time staff. In addition to those arising from employment growth, job opportunities should result from the need to replace public rela tions specialists who leave the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried public relations specialists were $43,830 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,970 and $59,360; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,750, and the top 10 percent earned more than $81,120. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of public relations specialists in May 2004 were: Advertising and related services.................................................. $50,450 Management of companies and enterprises................................. 47,330 Business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations 45,400 Local government ........................................................................ 44,550 Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... 39,610 Related Occupations Public relations specialists create favorable attitudes among vari ous organizations, interest groups, and the public through effective communication. Other workers with similar jobs include advertis ing, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; demonstrators, product promoters, and models; news analysts, re porters, and correspondents; lawyers; market and survey researchers; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and police and detectives involved in community relations. Sources of Additional Information A comprehensive directory of schools offering degree programs, a sequence of study in public relations, a brochure on careers in pub lic relations, and a $5 brochure entitled Where Shall I Go to Study Advertising and Public Relations? are available from: >- Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Maiden Lane, New York, NY 10038-5150. Internet: http://www.prsa.org For information on accreditation for public relations professionals and the IABC Student Web site, contact: >- International Association of Business Communicators, One Hallidie Plaza, Suite 600, San Francisco, CA 94102. 274 Occupational Outlook Handbook iiiiii Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture, cable, and broadcast television industries. Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors (0*NET 27-4031.00, 27-4032.00) Significant Points • Workers acquire their skills through on-the-job or for mal postsecondary training. • Technical expertise, a good eye, imagination, and cre ativity are essential. • • Keen competition for job openings is expected because many talented peopled are attracted to the field. Nature of the Work Television, video, and motion picture camera operators produce im ages that tell a story, inform or entertain an audience, or record an event. Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture, cable, and broadcast television industries. Some camera operators do their own editing. Making commercial-quality movies and video programs requires technical expertise and creativity. Producing successful images requires choosing and presenting interesting material, selecting ap propriate equipment, and applying a good eye and a steady hand to ensure smooth, natural movement of the camera. Camera operators use television, video, or motion picture cam eras to shoot a wide range of material, including television series, studio programs, news and sporting events, music videos, motion pictures, documentaries, and training sessions. Some camera operators film or videotape private ceremonies and special events, such as weddings and conference program sessions. Those who record images on videotape are often called videographers. Many are employed by independent television stations; local affiliate stations of television networks; large cable and television net works; or smaller, independent production companies. Studio camera operators work in a broadcast studio and usually videotape their subjects from a fixed position. News camera operators, also called electronic news gathering (ENG) operators, work as part of a reporting team, following newsworthy events as they unfold. To capture live events, they must anticipate the action and act quickly. ENG operators sometimes edit raw footage on the spot for relay to a television affiliate for broadcast. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commercials. Those who film motion pictures also are known as cinematographers. Some specialize in filming cartoons or special effects. Cinematographers may be an integral part of the action, using cameras in any of several different mounts. For example, the camera operator can be stationary and shoot whatever passes in front of the lens, or the camera can be mounted on a track, with the camera operator responsible for shooting the scene from different angles or directions. Wider use of digital cameras has enhanced the number of angles and the clarity that a camera operator can provide. Other cam era operators sit on cranes and follow the action while crane operators move them into position. Steadicam operators mount a harness and carry the camera on their shoulders to provide a clear picture while they move about the action. Camera operators who work in the en tertainment field often meet with directors, actors, editors, and camera assistants to discuss ways of filming, editing, and improving scenes. Working Conditions Working conditions for camera operators and editors vary considerably. Those employed by television and cable networks and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week; however, they may work longer hours to meet production schedules. ENG operators often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Camera operators and editors working in motion picture production also may work long, irregular hours. ENG operators and those who cover major events, such as conventions or sporting events, frequently travel locally and stay overnight or travel to distant places for longer periods. Camera operators filming television programs or motion pictures may travel to film on location. Some camera operators—especially ENG operators covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts—work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings. Many camera opera tors must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and must stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. ENG operators often work under strict deadlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a good eye, imagination, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of how the camera operates. Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors usually acquire their skills through on-the-job training or formal postsecondary training at vocational schools, colleges, universities, or photographic institutes. Formal education may be required for some positions. Many universities, community and junior colleges, vocationaltechnical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer courses in camera operation and videography. Basic courses cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Film schools also may provide training on the artistic or aesthetic aspects of filmmaking. Individuals interested in camera operations should subscribe to videographic newsletters and magazines, join audio-video clubs, and seek summer or part-time employment in cable and television networks, motion picture studios, or camera and video stores. Camera operators in entry-level jobs learn to set up lights, cam eras, and other equipment. They may receive routine assignments requiring adjustments to their cameras or decisions on what subject matter to capture. Camera operators in the film and television indus tries usually are hired for a project on the basis of recommendations from individuals such as producers, directors of photography, and camera assistants from previous projects or through interviews with Professional and Related Occupations the producer. ENG and studio camera operators who work for televi sion affiliates usually start in small markets to gain experience. Camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail oriented. Camera operators also should have good com munication skills and, if needed, the ability to hold a camera by hand for extended periods. Camera operators who run their own businesses, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to submit bids, write contracts, get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public, obtain releases to use film or tape of people, price their services, secure copyright protection for their work, and keep financial records. With experience, operators may advance to more demand ing assignments or to positions with larger or network television stations. Advancement for ENG operators may mean moving to larger media markets. Other camera operators and editors may become directors of photography for movie studios, advertising agencies, or television programs. Some teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Employment Television, video, and motion picture camera operators held about 28,000 jobs in 2004, and film and video editors held about 20,000. Many are employed by independent television stations, local affiliate stations of television networks or broadcast groups, large cable and television networks, or smaller independent production companies. About 1 in 5 camera operators were selfemployed. Some self-employed camera operators contracted with television networks, documentary or independent filmmakers, advertising agencies, or trade show or convention sponsors to work on individual projects for a set fee, often at a daily rate. Most of the salaried camera operators were employed by televi sion broadcasting stations or motion picture studios. More than half of the salaried film and video editors worked for motion pic ture studios. Most camera operators and editors worked in large metropolitan areas. Job Outlook Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as videographers and movie camera operators usually is much greater than the number of openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative and highly motivated people, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies and adept at operating a business. Related work experience or job-related train ing also can benefit prospective camera operators. Employment of camera operators and editors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Rapid expansion of the entertainment market, especially motion picture production and distribution, will spur growth of camera operators. In addition, computer and Internet services will provide new outlets for interactive productions. Growth will be tempered, however, by the increased off-shore production of motion pictures. Camera operators will be needed to film made-for-the-Intemet broadcasts, such as live music videos, digital movies, sports features, and general informa tion or entertainment programming. These images can be delivered directly into the home either on compact discs or as streaming video over the Internet. Job growth in radio and television broadcasting will be tempered by the use of robocams and Parkervision systems for studio broadcasts; cameras in these systems are automated and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 275 under the control of a single person working either on the studio floor or in a director’s booth. Earnings Median annual earnings for television, video, and motion picture cam era operators were $37,610 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,640 and $56,400. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,730, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $76,100. Median annual earnings were $48,900 in the motion picture and video industries and $29,560 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual earnings for film and video editors were $43,590 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,310 and $63,890. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $93,950. Median annual earn ings were $44,710 in the motion picture and video industries, which employed the largest numbers of film and video editors. Many camera operators who work in film or video are freelanc ers, whose earnings tend to fluctuate each year. Because most freelance camera operators purchase their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining cameras and accessories. Some camera operators belong to unions, including the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and the National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians. Related Occupations Related arts and media occupations include artists and related work ers, broadcast and sound engineering technicians, and radio operators, designers, and photographers. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers as a camera operator, contact: >- International Cinematographer’s Guild, 80 Eighth Avenue, 14th Floor, New York, NY 10011. > National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians, 501 Third Street, NW., 6th floor, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http ://www.nabetcwa.org/ Information about career and employment opportunities for camera operators and film and video editors also is available from local offices of State employment service agencies, local offices of the relevant trade unions, and local television and film production companies that employ these workers. Writers and Editors (0*NET 27-3041.00, 27-3042.00, 27-3043.01, 27-3043.02, 27-3043.03, 27-3043.04) Significant Points • • • Most jobs in this occupation require a college degree in communications, journalism, or English, although a degree in a technical subject may be useful for techni cal-writing positions. The outlook for most writing and editing jobs is expected to be competitive because many people are attracted to the occupation. Online publications and services are growing in num ber and sophistication, spurring the demand for writers and editors, especially those with Web experience. Nature of the Work Communicating through the written word, writers and editors gener ally fall into one of three categories. Writers and authors develop 276 Occupational Outlook Handbook Writers and editors typically conduct library research before writing their stories. original fiction and nonfiction for books, magazines, trade journals, online publications, company newsletters, radio and television broad casts, motion pictures, and advertisements. (Reporters and corre spondents, who collect and analyze facts about newsworthy events, are described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Editors examine propos als and select material for publication or broadcast. They review and revise a writer’s work for publication or dissemination. Technical writers develop technical materials, such as equipment manuals, appendixes, or operating and maintenance instructions. They also may assist in layout work. Most writers and editors have at least a basic familiarity with technology, regularly using personal computers, desktop or elec tronic publishing systems, scanners, and other electronic commu nications equipment. Many writers prepare material directly for the Internet. For example, they may write for electronic newspapers or magazines, create short fiction or poetry, or produce technical documentation that is available only online. Also, they may write text for Web sites. These writers should be knowledgeable about graphic design, page layout, and multimedia software. In addition, they should be familiar with interactive technologies of the Web so that they can blend text, graphics, and sound together. Writers—especially of nonfiction—are expected to establish their credibility with editors and readers through strong research and the use of appropriate sources and citations. Sustaining high ethical standards and meeting publication deadlines are essential. Creative writers, poets, and lyricists, including novelists, play wrights, and screenwriters, create original works—such as prose, poems, plays, and song lyrics—for publication or performance. Some works may be commissioned by a sponsor; others may be written for hire (on the basis of the completion of a draft or an outline). Nonfiction writers either propose a topic or are assigned one, often by an editor or publisher. They gather information about the topic through personal observation, library and Internet research, and interviews. Writers then select the material they want to use, organize it, and use the written word to express ideas and convey information. Writers also revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization or the right phrasing. Copy writers prepare advertising copy for use by publication or broadcast media or to promote the sale of goods and services. Newsletter writers produce information for distribution to association memberships, corporate employees, organizational clients, or the public. Freelance writers sell their work to publishers, publication enterprises, manufacturing firms, public relations departments, or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis advertising agencies. Sometimes, they contract with publishers to write a book or an article. Others may be hired to complete specific assignments, such as writing about a new product or technique. Bloggers write for the Internet. Most bloggers write personal re flections on a subject of close personal or professional interest. Some blogs take the form of a personal diary; others read like reports from the field—first-hand, subjective accounts of an event or an activity. Most blogs are written for recreational reasons with little expectation of earning a fee; however, some blogs promote a busi ness or support a cause and may generate interest or income through other activities. Editors review, rewrite, and edit the work of writers. They may also do original writing. An editor’s responsibilities vary with the employer and type and level of editorial position held. Editorial du ties may include planning the content of books, technical journals, trade magazines, and other general-interest publications. Editors also decide what material will appeal to readers, review and edit drafts of books and articles, offer comments to improve the work, and suggest possible titles. In addition, they may oversee the produc tion of the publications. In the book-publishing industry, an editor’s primary responsibility is to review proposals for books and decide whether to buy the publication rights from the author. Major newspapers and newsmagazines usually employ several types of editors. The executive editor oversees assistant editors, who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as local news, international news, feature stories, or sports. Executive editors generally have the final say about what stories are published and how they are covered. The managing editor usually is responsible for the daily operation of the news department. Assignment editors determine which reporters will cover a given story. Copy editors mostly review and edit a reporter’s copy for accuracy, content, grammar, and style. In smaller organizations, such as small daily or weekly news papers or the membership or publications departments of nonprofit or similar organizations, a single editor may do everything or share responsibility with only a few other people. Executive and managing editors typically hire writers, reporters, and other employees. They also plan budgets and negotiate contracts with freelance writers, sometimes called “stringers” in the news industry. In broadcasting companies, program directors have similar responsibilities. Editors and program directors often have assistants, many of whom hold entry-level jobs. These assistants, such as copy edi tors and production assistants, review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling and check the copy for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They suggest revisions, such as changing words and rearranging sentences, to improve clarity or accuracy. They also carry out research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Production assistants arrange page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising; compose headlines; and prepare copy for printing. Publication assistants who work for publishing houses may read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers, proofread printers’ galleys, and answer letters about published material. Production assistants on small newspapers or in radio stations compile articles available from wire services or the Internet, answer phones, and make photocopies. Technical writers put technical information into easily under standable language. They prepare operating and maintenance manuals, catalogs, parts lists, assembly instructions, sales promotion materials, and project proposals. Many technical writers work with engineers on technical subject matters to prepare written interpreta tions of engineering and design specifications and other information for a general readership. Technical writers also may serve as part of a team conducting usability studies to help improve the design of a product that still is in the prototype stage. They plan and edit Professional and Related Occupations technical materials and oversee the preparation of illustrations, photographs, diagrams, and charts. Science and medical writers prepare a range of formal docu ments presenting detailed information on the physical or medical sciences. They convey research findings for scientific or medical professions and organize information for advertising or public rela tions needs. Many writers work with researchers on technical sub jects to prepare written interpretations of data and other information for a general readership. Working Conditions Some writers and editors work in comfortable, private offices; others work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers, as well as the voices of other writers tracking down information over the telephone. The search for information sometimes requires that writers travel to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, or laboratories, but many find their material through telephone interviews, the library, and the Internet. Advances in electronic communications have changed the work environment for many writers. Laptop computers and wireless com munications technologies allow growing numbers of writers to work from home and even on the road. The ability to e-mail, transmit, and download stories, research, or editorial review materials using the Internet allows writers and editors greater flexibility in where and how they complete assignments. Some writers keep regular office hours, either to maintain contact with sources and editors or to establish a writing routine, but most writers set their own hours. Many writers, especially freelance writers, are paid per assignment; therefore, they work any number of hours necessary to meet a deadline. As a result, writers must be willing to work evenings, nights, or weekends to produce a piece acceptable to an editor or client by the publication deadline. Those who prepare morning or weekend publications and broadcasts also may regularly work nights and weekends. While many freelance writers enjoy running their own businesses and the advantages of working flexible hours, most routinely face the pressures of juggling multiple projects with competing demands and the continual need to find new work in order to earn a living. Deadline pressures and long, erratic work hours—often part of the daily routine in these jobs—may cause stress, fatigue, or burnout; use of computers for extended periods may cause some individuals to experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required for a position as a writer or editor. Although some employers look for a broad liberal arts back ground, most prefer to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English. For those who specialize in a particular area, such as fashion, business, or law, additional background in the chosen field is expected. Knowledge of a second language is helpful for some positions. Increasingly, technical writing requires a degree in, or some knowledge about, a specialized field—for example, engineering, business, or one of the sciences. In many cases, people with good writing skills can acquire specialized knowledge on the job. Some transfer from jobs as technicians, scientists, or engineers. Others begin as research assistants or as trainees in a technical informa tion department, develop technical communication skills, and then assume writing duties. Writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logi cally and should love to write. Creativity, curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self-motivation, and perseverance also are valuable. Writ ersFRASER and editors must demonstrate good judgment and a strong sense Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 277 of ethics in deciding what material to publish. Editors also need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their work. For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to work under pressure is essential. Familiarity with electronic publishing, graphics, and video production equipment increas ingly is needed. Use of electronic and wireless communications equipment to send e-mail, transmit work, and review copy often is necessary. Online newspapers and magazines require knowledge of computer software used to combine online text with graphics, audio, video, and animation. High school and college newspapers, literary magazines, com munity newspapers, and radio and television stations all provide valuable, but sometimes unpaid, practical writing experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and broadcast stations have internships for students. Interns write short pieces, conduct research and interviews, and learn about the publishing or broadcasting business. In small firms, beginning writers and editors hired as assistants may actually begin writing or editing material right away. Opportu nities for advancement can be limited, however. Many writers look for work on a short-term, project-by-project basis. Many small or not-for-profit organizations either do not have enough regular work or cannot afford to employ writers on a full-time basis. However, they routinely contract out work to freelance writers. In larger businesses, jobs usually are more formally structured. Beginners generally do research, fact checking, or copy editing. Advancement to full-scale writing or editing assignments may occur more slowly for newer writers and editors in larger organizations than for employees of smaller companies. Advancement often is more predictable, though, coming with the assignment of more important articles. Advancement for freelancers often means working on larger, more complex projects for more money. Building a reputation and establishing a track record for meeting deadlines also makes it easier to get future assignments, as does instituting long-term freelance relationships with the same publications. The growing popularity of blogs could allow some writers to get their work read; a few well-written blogs may gamer some recogni tion for the author and may lead to a few paid pieces in other print or electronic publications. However, most bloggers do not earn much money writing their blogs. Employment Writers and editors held about 320,000 jobs in 2004. More than one-third were self-employed. Writers and authors held about 142,000 jobs; editors, about 127,000 jobs; and technical writers, about 50,000 jobs. About one-half of the salaried jobs for writ ers and editors were in the information sector, which includes newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; radio and television broadcasting; software publishers; motion picture and sound-recording industries; Internet service providers, Web search portals, and data-processing services; and Internet publishing and broadcasting. Substantial numbers also worked in advertising and related services, computer systems design and related services, and public and private educational services. Other salaried writers and editors worked in computer and electronic product manufactur ing; government agencies; religious organizations; and business, professional, labor, political, and similar organizations. Jobs with major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting compa nies, advertising agencies, and public relations firms are concentrated in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, and San Francisco; however, many writers work elsewhere and travel regularly to meet with personnel at the headquarters. Jobs with newspapers, business and professional journals, and technical and trade magazines are more widely dispersed throughout the country. 278 Occupational Outlook Handbook Thousands of other individuals work as freelance writers, earning some income from their articles, books, and, less commonly, television and movie scripts. Most support themselves with income derived from other sources. Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. The outlook for most writing and editing jobs is expected to be competi tive because many people with writing or journalism training are attracted to the occupation. Employment of salaried writers and editors for newspapers, pe riodicals, book publishers, and nonprofit organizations is expected to increase as demand grows for these publications. Magazines and other periodicals increasingly are developing market niches, appeal ing to readers with special interests. Businesses and organizations are developing newsletters and websites, and more companies are experi menting with publishing materials directly on the Internet. Online publications and services are growing in number and sophistication, spurring the demand for writers and editors, especially those with Web experience. Advertising and public relations agencies, which also are growing, should be another source of new jobs. Opportunities should be best for technical writers and those with training in a specialized field. Demand for technical writers and writ ers with expertise in areas such as law, medicine, or economics is ex pected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the need to communicate it to others. Legal, scientific, and technological developments and discoveries generate demand for people to interpret technical information for a more general audience. Rapid growth and change in the high-technology and electronics industries result in a greater need for people to write users’ guides, instruction manuals, and training materials. This work requires people who not only are technically skilled as writers, but also are familiar with the subject area. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, some openings will arise as experienced workers retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are relatively high in this occupation; many freelancers leave because they cannot earn enough money. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried writers and authors were $44,350 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,720 and $62,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,330, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,260. Median annual earn ings were $54,410 in advertising and related services and $37,010 in newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Median annual earnings for salaried editors were $43,890 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,130 and $58,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,780, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,020. Median annual earn ings of those working for newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers were $43,620. Median annual earnings for salaried technical writers were $53,490 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,440 and $68,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,490, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,780. Median annual earnings in computer systems design and related services were $54,710. According to the Society for Technical Communication, the median annual salary for entry level technical writers was $42,500 in 2004. The median annual salary for midlevel nonsupervisory technical writers was $51,500, and for senior nonsupervisory tech nical writers, $66,000. Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information. Other communications occupations include announcers; interpreters and translators; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; and public relations specialists. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in technical writing, contact: ► Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 901 N. Stuart St., Suite 904, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: www.stc.oig Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Audiologists (0*NET 29-1121.00) Significant Points • Employment growth will be spurred by the expanding population in older age groups that are prone to medi cal conditions that result in hearing problems. • More than half worked in health care facilities; many others were employed by educational services. • A master’s degree in audiology has been the standard credential; however, a clinical doctoral degree is be coming more common for new entrants and is expected to become the new standard for the profession. Nature of the Work Audiologists work with people who have hearing, balance, and related ear problems. They examine individuals of all ages and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis identify those with the symptoms of hearing loss and other au ditory, balance, and related sensory and neural problems. They then assess the nature and extent of the problems and help the individuals manage them. Using audiometers, computers, and other testing devices, they measure the loudness at which a person begins to hear sounds, the ability to distinguish between sounds, and the impact of hearing loss on an individual’s daily life. In addition, audiologists use computer equipment to evalu ate and diagnose balance disorders. Audiologists interpret these results and may coordinate them with medical, educational, and psychological information to make a diagnosis and determine a course of treatment. Hearing disorders can result from a variety of causes includ ing trauma at birth, viral infections, genetic disorders, exposure to loud noise, certain medications, or aging. Treatment may include examining and cleaning the ear canal, fitting and dispensing hearing aids, and fitting and programming cochlear implants. Audiologic treatment also includes counseling on adjusting to hearing loss, train ing on the use of hearing instruments, and teaching communication strategies for use in a variety of environments. For example, they may provide instruction in listening strategies. Audiologists also Professional and Related Occupations may recommend, fit, and dispense personal or large area amplification systems and alerting devices. In audiology (hearing) clinics, audiologists may independently develop and carry out treatment programs. They keep records on the initial evaluation, progress, and discharge of patients. In other settings, audiologists may work with other health and education providers as part of a team in planning and implementing services for children and adults, from birth to old age. Audiologists who diagnose and treat balance disorders often work in collaboration with physicians, and physical and occupational therapists. Some audiologists specialize in work with the elderly, chil dren, or hearing-impaired individuals who need special treatment programs. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ hearing from on-the-job injuries. They measure noise levels in workplaces and conduct hearing protection programs in factories, as well as in schools and communities. Audiologists who work in private practice also manage the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering equipment and supplies. A few audiologists conduct research on types of—and treatment for—hearing, balance, and related disorders. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating these disorders. Working Conditions Audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean, comfortable surroundings. The job is not physically demanding but does require attention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of patients and their families may be demanding. Most full-time audiologists work about 40 hours per week, which may include weekends and evenings to meet the needs of patients. Some work part time. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Audiologists are regulated in 49 States; all require that individuals have at least a master’s degree in audiology. However, a clinical doctoral degree is expected to become the new standard, and several States are currently in the process of changing their regulations to require the Doctor of Audiology (Au.D.) degree or equivalent. A passing score on the national examination on audiology offered through the Praxis Series of the Educational Testing Service also Audiologists diagnose and treat patients with hearing or balance Digitized problems. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 279 is needed. Other requirements typically are 300 to 375 hours of supervised clinical experience and 9 months of postgraduate profes sional clinical experience. Forty-one States have continuing educa tion requirements for licensure renewal. An additional examination and license is required in order to dispense hearing aids in some States. Medicaid, Medicare, and private health insurers generally require practitioners to be licensed to qualify for reimbursement. In 2005, there were 24 master’s degree programs and 62 clinical doctoral programs offered at accredited colleges and universities. Graduation from an accredited program may be re quired to obtain a license. Requirements for admission to programs in audiology include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, and communication. Graduate course work in audiology includes anatomy; physiology; phys ics; genetics; normal and abnormal communication development; auditory, balance, and neural systems assessment and treatment; diagnosis and treatment; pharmacology; and ethics. Audiologists can acquire the Certificate of Clinical Compe tence in Audiology (CCC-A) offered by the American SpeechLanguage-Hearing Association. To earn a CCC, a person must have a graduate degree and 375 hours of supervised clinical experience, complete a 36-week postgraduate clinical fellowship, and pass the Praxis Series examination in audiology, administered by the Educational Testing Service. According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, as of 2007, audiologists will need to have a bachelor’s degree and complete 75 hours of credit toward a doctoral degree in order to seek certification. As of 2012, audiologists will have to earn a doctoral degree in order to be certified. Audiologists may also be certified through the American Board of Audiology. Applicants must earn a master’s or doctoral degree in audiology from a regionally accredited college or university, achieve a passing score on a national examination in audiology, and demonstrate that they have completed a minimum of 2,000 hours of mentored professional practice in a two-year period with a qualified audiologist. Certificants must apply for renewal every three years. They must demonstrate that they have earned 45 hours of approved continuing education within the three-year period. Beginning in 2007, all applicants must earn a doctoral degree in audiology. Audiologists should be able to effectively communicate diag nostic test results, diagnoses, and proposed treatments in a manner easily understood by their patients. They must be able to approach problems objectively and provide support to patients and their families. Because a patient’s progress may be slow, patience, com passion, and good listening skills are necessary. Employment Audiologists held about 10,000 jobs in 2004. More than half of all jobs were in offices of physicians or other health practitio ners, including audiologists; in hospitals; and in outpatient care centers. About 1 in 7 jobs was in educational services, including elementary and secondary schools. Other jobs for audiologists were in health and personal care stores, including hearing aid stores; scientific research and development services; and State and local governments. A small number of audiologists were self-employed in private practice. They provided hearing health care services in their own offices or worked under contract for schools, health care facilities, or other establishments. Job Outlook Employment of audiologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Because 280 Occupational Outlook Handbook hearing loss is strongly associated with aging, rapid growth in older population groups will cause the number of persons with hearing and balance impairments to increase markedly. Medical advances are also improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma victims, who then need assessment and pos sible treatment. Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diagnosis of hearing disorders in infants also will increase employment. Most States now require that all newborns be screened for hearing loss and receive appropriate early intervention services. Employment in educational services will increase along with growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments, includ ing enrollment of special education students. The number of audiologists in private practice will rise due to the increasing demand for direct services to individuals as well as increasing use of contract services by hospitals, schools, and nursing care facilities. Growth in employment of audiologists will be moderated by limitations on insurance reimbursements for the services they provide. Additionally, increased educational requirements may limit the pool of workers entering the profession and any resulting higher salaries may cause doctors to hire more lower paid ear tech nicians to perform the functions that audiologists held in doctor’s offices. Only a few job openings for audiologists will arise from the need to replace those who leave the occupation, because the occupation is small. Earnings Median annual earnings of audiologists were $51,470 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,160 and $62,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,990, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $75,990. According to a 2004 survey by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association, the median annual salary for full-time certified audiologists who worked on a calendar-year basis, generally 11 or 12 months annually, was $56,000. For those who worked on an academic-year basis, usually 9 or 10 months annually, the median annual salary was $53,000. The median starting salary for certified audiologists with one to three years of experience was $45,000 on a calendar-year basis. Related Occupations Audiologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treat ment of hearing problems. Workers in related occupations include occupational therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, psycholo gists, recreational therapists, rehabilitation counselors, and speechlanguage pathologists. Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply informa tion on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on careers in audiology is available from: >- American Academy of Audiology, 11730 Plaza America Dr., Suite 300, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.audiology.org Career information, a description of the CCC-A credential, and a listing of accredited graduate programs, is available from: > American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.asha.org Information on American Board of Audiology certification is available from: ► American Board of Audiology, 11730 Plaza America Dr„ Suite 300, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.americanboardofaudiology.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Chiropractors (Q*NET 29-1011.00) Significant Points • Job prospects should be good; employment is expected to increase faster than average as consumer demand for alternative health care grows. • Chiropractors must be licensed, requiring 2 to 4 years of undergraduate education, the completion of a 4-year chiropractic college course, and passing scores on national and State examinations. • About 58 percent of chiropractors are self-employed. • Earnings are relatively low in the beginning, but in crease as the practice grows. Nature of the Work Chiropractors, also known as doctors ofchiropractic or chiropractic physicians, diagnose and treat patients whose health problems are associated with the body’s muscular, nervous, and skeletal systems, especially the spine. Chiropractors believe that interference with these systems impairs the body’s normal functions and lowers its resistance to disease. They also hold that spinal or vertebral dysfunction alters many important body functions by affecting the nervous system and that skeletal imbalance through joint or articular dysfunction, especially in the spine, can cause pain. The chiropractic approach to health care is holistic, stressing the patient’s overall health and wellness. It recognizes that many factors affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. Chiropractors provide natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments and rely on the body’s inherent recuperative abilities. They also recommend changes in lifestyle—in eating, exercise, and sleeping habits, for example—to their patients. When appropriate, chiropractors consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a stan dard routine to secure the information they need for diagnosis and treatment. They take the patient’s medical history; conduct physical, neurological, and orthopedic examinations; and may order laboratory tests. X rays and other diagnostic images are important tools because of the chiropractor’s emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chiropractors also employ a postural and spinal analysis common to chiropractic diagnosis. In cases in which difficulties can be traced to the involvement of musculoskeletal structures, chiropractors manually adjust the spinal column. Some chiropractors use water, light, massage, ultrasound, electric, acupuncture, and heat therapy. They also may apply supports such as straps, tapes, and braces. Chiropractors counsel patients about wellness concepts such as nutrition, exercise, changes in lifestyle, and stress management, but do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. Some chiropractors specialize in sports injuries, neurology, orthope dics, pediatrics, nutrition, internal disorders, or diagnostic imaging. Many chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who also have the administrative responsibilities of running a practice. In larger of fices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office managers and chiro practic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice are responsible for developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keeping records. Working Conditions Chiropractors work in clean, comfortable offices. Their aver age workweek is about 40 hours, although longer hours are not Professional and Related Occupations Chiropractors provide natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments to patients, including spinal adjustments. uncommon. Solo practitioners set their own hours, but may work evenings or weekends to accommodate patients. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors are sometimes on their feet for long periods. Chiropractors who take x rays must employ appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated exposure to radiation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiro practic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet the educational and examination requirements established by the State. Chiroprac tors can practice only in States where they are licensed. Some States have agreements permitting chiropractors licensed in one State to obtain a license in another without further examination, provided that their educational, examination, and practice credentials meet State specifications. Most State boards require at least 2 years of undergraduate educa tion; an increasing number are requiring a 4-year bachelor’s degree. All boards require the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited chiropractic college leading to the Doctor of Chiropractic degree. For licensure, most State boards recognize either all or part of the four-part test administered by the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State requirements. All States except New Jersey require the completion of a specified number of hours of continuing each year in order to maintain licensure. Chiropractic Digitized education for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 281 associations and accredited chiropractic programs and institutions offer continuing education programs. In 2005, 15 chiropractic programs and 2 chiropractic institutions in the United States were accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education. Applicants are required to have at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study leading toward a bachelor’s degree, including courses in English, the social sciences or humanities, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Many applicants have a bachelor’s degree, which may eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Several chiropractic colleges offer prechiropractic study, as well as a bachelor’s degree program. Recognition of prechiropractic edu cation offered by chiropractic colleges varies among the State boards. Chiropractic programs require a minimum of 4,200 hours of combined classroom, laboratory, and clinical experience. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic programs emphasize classroom and laboratory work in basic science subjects such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology, and biochemistry. The last 2 years stress courses in manipulation and spinal adjustment and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriatrics, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Chiropractic pro grams and institutions grant the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic. Chiropractic colleges also offer Postdoctoral training in orthope dics, neurology, sports injuries, nutrition, rehabilitation, radiology, in dustrial consulting, family practice, pediatrics, and applied chiropractic sciences. Once such training is complete, chiropractors may take spe cialty exams leading to “diplomate” status in a given specialty. Exams are administered by specialty chiropractic associations. Chiropractic requires keen observation to detect physical abnormalities. It also takes considerable manual dexterity, but not unusual strength or endurance, to perform adjustments. Chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are good qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors can set up a new practice, purchase an established one, or enter into partnership with an established practitioner. They also may take a salaried position with an estab lished chiropractor, a group practice, or a health care facility. Employment Chiropractors held about 53,000 jobs in 2004. Approximately 58 percent of chiropractors are self-employed. Most chiropractors are in solo practice, although some are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach, conduct research at chiropractic institutions, or work in hospitals and clinics. Many chiropractors are located in small communities. However, there still often are geographic imbalances in the distribution of chiropractors, in part because many establish practices close to one of the few chiropractic institutions. Job Outlook Job prospects are expected to be good for persons who enter the practice of chiropractic. Employment of chiropractors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 as consumer demand for alternative health care grows. Because chiropractors emphasize the importance of healthy lifestyles and do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery, chiropractic care is appealing to many health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treatment of the back, neck, extremities, and joints has become more accepted as a result of research and changing attitudes about alternative, noninvasive health care practices. The rapidly expanding older population, with its increased likelihood of mechanical and structural problems, also will increase demand for chiropractors. Demand for chiropractic treatment, however, is related as well to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health 282 Occupational Outlook Handbook insurance. Although more insurance plans now cover chiropractic services, the extent of such coverage varies among plans. Increas ingly, chiropractors must educate communities about the benefits of chiropractic care in order to establish a successful practice. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. Chiropractors usually remain in the occupation until they retire; few transfer to other occupations. Establishing a new practice will be easiest in areas with a low concentration of chiropractors. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried chiropractors were $69,910 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,710 and $118,280 a year. In 2005, the mean salary for chiropractors was $104,363, accord ing to a survey conducted by Chiropractic Economics magazine. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earn ings are relatively low in the beginning and increase as the practice grows. Geographic location and the characteristics and qualifications of the practitioner also may influence earnings. Self-employed chiro practors must provide their own health insurance and retirement. Related Occupations Chiropractors treat patients and work to prevent bodily disorders and injuries. So do athletic trainers, massage therapists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a chiropractor is available from the following organizations: >• American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.acatoday.org > International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://ww w.chiropractic.org For a list of chiropractic programs and institutions, as well as general information on chiropractic education, contact: >- Council on Chiropractic Education, 8049 North 85th Way, Scottsdale, AZ 85258-4321. Internet: http://www.cce-usa.org For information on State education and licensure requirements, contact: >■ Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 5401 W. 10th St., Suite 101, Greeley, CO 80634-4400. Internet: http://www.fclb.org For more information on the national chiropractic licensing exam, contact: ► National Board of Chiropractic Examiners, 901 54th Ave., Suite 101, Greeley, CO 80634-4400. Internet: http://www.nbce.org For information on admission requirements to a specific chiro practic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, contact the college’s admissions office. Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose, prevent, and treat problems with teeth or mouth tissue. They remove decay, fill cavities, examine x rays, place protective plastic sealants on children’s teeth, straighten teeth, and repair fractured teeth. They also perform corrective surgery on gums and supporting bones to treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and make models and measurements for dentures to replace missing teeth. They provide instruction on diet, brushing, flossing, the use of fluorides, and other aspects of dental care. They also administer anesthetics and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. Dentists use a variety of equipment, including x-ray machines; drills; and instruments such as mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, bmshes, and scalpels. They wear masks, gloves, and safety glasses to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administra tive tasks, including bookkeeping and buying equipment and supplies. They may employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and receptionists. (These occupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most dentists are general practitioners, handling a variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in any of nine specialty areas. Orthodontists, the largest group of specialists, straighten teeth by applying pressure to the teeth with braces or retainers. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, operates on the mouth and jaws. The remainder may specialize as pediatric dentists (focusing on dentistry for children); periodontists (treating gums and bone supporting the teeth); prosthodontists (replacing missing teeth with permanent fixtures, such as crowns and bridges, or with removable fixtures such as dentures); endodontists (performing root canal therapy); public health dentists (promoting good dental health and preventing dental diseases within the community); oral pathologists (studying oral diseases); or oral and maxillofacial radiologists (diagnosing diseases in the head and neck through the use of imaging technologies). Working Conditions Most dentists work 4 or 5 days a week. Some work evenings and weekends to meet their patients’ needs. Most full-time dentists work between 35 and 40 hours a week, but others work more. Initially, dentists may work more hours as they establish their practice. Expe rienced dentists often work fewer hours. Many continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Dentists (0*NET 29-1021.00, 29-1022.00,29-1023.00, 29-1024.00, 29-1029.99) Significant Points • Most dentists are solo practitioners. • Dentists usually complete at least 8 years of education beyond high school. • Employment is projected to grow about as fast as aver age, and most job openings will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists expected to retire. • Job prospects should be good. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dentists use a variety of instruments such as mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, brushes, and scalpels. Professional and Related Occupations Most dentists are solo practitioners, meaning that they own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. Some dentists have partners, and a few work for other dentists as associate dentists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be licensed. To qualify for a license in most States, candidates must graduate from 1 of the 56 dental schools accredited by the American Dental Association’s (ADA’s) Commission on Dental Accreditation in 2004, and then must pass written and practical examinations. Can didates may fulfill the written part of the State licensing requirements by passing the National Board Dental Examinations. Individual States or regional testing agencies administer the written or practi cal examinations. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 years of college-level predental education, regardless of the major chosen. However, most dental students have at least a bachelor’s degree. Predental education emphasizes coursework in science, and many applicants to dental school major in a science such as biology or chemistry, while other applicants major in another subject and take many science courses as well. A few applicants are accepted to dental school after 2 or 3 years of college and complete their bachelor’s degree while attend ing dental school. All dental schools require applicants to take the Dental Admis sions Test (DAT). When selecting students, schools consider scores earned on the DAT, applicants’ grade point averages, and information gathered through recommendations and interviews. Competition for admission to dental school is keen. Dental school usually lasts 4 academic years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences, includ ing anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Begin ning courses in clinical sciences, including laboratory techniques, also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, students treat patients, usually in dental clinics, under the supervision of licensed dentists. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS). The rest award an equivalent degree. Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD). Some dental school graduates work for established dentists as associates for 1 to 2 years to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school graduates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new one immediately after graduation. In 2004, 17 States licensed or certified dentists who intended to practice in a specialty area. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of postgraduate education and, in some cases, the completion of a special State examination. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. Dentists who want to teach or conduct research usually spend an additional 2 to 5 years in advanced dental training, in programs operated by dental schools or hospitals. According to the ADA, each year about 12 percent of new graduates enroll in postgraduate training programs to prepare for a dental specialty. Dentistry requires diagnostic ability and manual skills. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment regarding space and shape, a high degree of manual dexterity, and scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and good communica tion skills are helpful for success in private practice. High school and college students who want to become dentists should take courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, and mathematics. Employment Dentists held about 150,000 jobs in 2004. Employment was distrib uted among general practitioners and specialists as follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 283 Dentists, general............................................................................ 128,000 Orthodontists................................................................................. 10,000 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons................................................... 6,000 Prosthodontists.............................................................................. 1,000 Dentists, all other specialists......................................................... 5,000 About one third of dentists were self-employed and not incorporated. Almost all dentists work in private practice. According to ADA, 78 percent of dentists in private practice are sole proprietors, and 14 percent belong to a partnership. A few salaried dentists work in hospitals and offices of physicians. Job Outlook Employment of dentists is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. Although employment growth will provide some job opportunities, most jobs will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists expected to retire. Job prospects should be good as new dentists take over es tablished practices or start their own. Demand for dental care should grow substantially through 2014. As members of the baby-boom generation advance into middle age, a large number will need complicated dental work, such as bridges. In addition, elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than were their predecessors, so they will require much more care than in the past. The younger generation will continue to need preventive checkups despite treatments such as fluoridation of the water supply, which decreases the incidence of tooth decay. However, employment of dentists is not expected to grow as rapidly as the demand for dental services. As their practices expand, dentists are likely to hire more dental hygienists and dental assistants to handle routine services. Dentists will increasingly provide care and instruction aimed at preventing the loss of teeth, rather than simply providing treatments such as fillings. Improvements in dental technology also will allow dentists to offer more effective and less painful treatment to their patients. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried dentists were $129,920 in May 2004. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, loca tion, hours worked, and specialty. Self-employed dentists in private practice tend to earn more than do salaried dentists, and a relatively large proportion of dentists is selfemployed. Like other business owners, these dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases and abnormalities. Chiropractors, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, psychologists, and veterinarians do related work. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career, a list of accredited dental schools, and a list of State boards of dental examiners, contact: >- American Dental Association, Commission on Dental Accreditation, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on admission to dental schools, contact: >- American Dental Education Association, 1400 K St., NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.adea.org Persons interested in practicing dentistry should obtain the re quirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State in which they plan to work. To obtain information on scholarships, grants, and loans, in cluding Federal financial aid, prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply. 284 Occupational Outlook Handbook Dietitians and Nutritionists (0*NET 29-1031.00) Significant Points • Most jobs are in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and offices of physicians or other health practitioners. • Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems management, or a related area. • Faster than average employment growth is expected; however, growth may be constrained if employers substitute other workers for dietitians and if limitations are placed on insurance reimbursement for dietetic services. • Those who have specialized training in renal or dia betic diets or have a master’s degree should experience good employment opportunities. Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists plan food and nutrition programs and supervise the preparation and serving of meals. They help to prevent and treat illnesses by promoting healthy eating habits and recom mending dietary modifications, such as the use of less salt for those with high blood pressure or the reduction of fat and sugar intake for those who are overweight. Dietitians manage food service systems for institutions such as hospitals and schools, promote sound eating habits through educa tion, and conduct research. Major areas of practice include clinical, community, management, and consultant dietetics. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services for patients in institutions such as hospitals and nursing care facilities. They as sess patients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nutrition programs, and evaluate and report the results. They also confer with doctors and other health care professionals to coordinate medical and nutritional needs. Some clinical dietitians specialize in the management of overweight patients or in the care of critically ill or renal (kidney) and diabetic patients. In addition, clinical dietitians in nursing care facilities, small hospitals, or correctional facilities may manage the food service department. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutritional practices designed to prevent disease and promote health. Working in places such as public health clinics, home health agencies, and health maintenance organizations, community dietitians evaluate individual needs, develop nutritional care plans, and instruct individuals and their families. Dietitians working in home health agencies provide instruction on grocery shopping and food preparation to the elderly, individuals with special needs, and children. Increased public interest in nutrition has led to job opportunities in food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing. In these areas, dietitians analyze foods, prepare literature for distribution, or report on issues such as the nutritional content of recipes, dietary fiber, or vitamin supplements. Management dietitians oversee large-scale meal planning and preparation in health care facilities, company cafeterias, prisons, and schools. They hire, train, and direct other dietitians and food service workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and sup plies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Consultant dietitians work under contract with health care facilities or in own private practice. They perform nutrition screenings for Digitized fortheir FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dietitians and nutritionists work with clients to plan food and nutrition programs to reach the client’s health goals. their clients and offer advice on diet-related concerns such as weight loss and cholesterol reduction. Some work for wellness programs, sports teams, supermarkets, and other nutrition-related businesses. They may consult with food service managers, providing expertise in sanitation, safety procedures, menu development, budgeting, and planning. Working Conditions Most full-time dietitians and nutritionists work a regular 40-hour week, although some work weekends. About 1 in 4 worked part time in 2004. Dietitians and nutritionists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. However, some dietitians work in warm, congested kitchens. Many dietitians and nutritionists are on their feet for much of the workday. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school students interested in becoming a dietitian or nutrition ist should take courses in biology, chemistry, mathematics, health, and communications. Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service sys tems management, or a related area. College students in these majors take courses in foods, nutrition, institution management, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and physiology. Other sug gested courses include business, mathematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. Of the 46 States and jurisdictions with laws governing dietet ics, 31 require licensure, 14 require certification, and 1 requires registration. Requirements vary by State. As a result, interested can didates should determine the requirements of the State in which they want to work before sitting for any exam. Although not required, the Commission on Dietetic Registration of the American Dietetic Association (ADA) awards the Registered Dietitian credential to those who pass an exam after completing their academic coursework and supervised experience. As of 2004, there were about 227 bachelor’s and master’s degree programs approved by the ADA’s Commission on Accreditation for Dietetics Education (CADE). Professional and Related Occupations Supervised practice experience can be acquired in two ways. The first requires the completion of a CADE-accredited program. As of2004, there were more than 50 accredited programs, which combined academic and supervised practice experience and generally lasted 4 to 5 years. The second option requires the completion of 900 hours of supervised practice experience in any of the 265 CADE-accredited internships. These internships may be full-time programs lasting 6 to 12 months or part-time programs lasting 2 years. To maintain a registered dietitian status, at least 75 credit hours in approved continuing education classes are required every 5 years. Students interested in research, advanced clinical positions, or public health may need an advanced degree. Experienced dietitians may advance to management positions, such as assistant director, associate director, or director of a dietetic department, or may become self-employed. Some dietitians spe cialize in areas such as renal, diabetic, cardiovascular, or pediatric dietetics. Others may leave the occupation to become sales repre sentatives for equipment, pharmaceutical, or food manufacturers. 285 also may be curbed by limitations on insurance reimbursement for dietetic services. Earnings Median annual earnings of dietitians and nutritionists were $43,630 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,940 and $53,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,760. In May 2004, median annual earnings in general medical and surgical hospitals, the indus try employing the largest number of dietitians and nutritionists, were $44,050. According to the American Dietetic Association, median annual ized wages for registered dietitians in 2005 varied by practice area as follows: $53,800 in consultation and business; $60,000 in food and nutrition management; $60,200 in education and research; $48,800 in clinical nutrition/ambulatory care; $50,000 in clinical nutrition/ long-term care; $44,800 in community nutrition; and $45,000 in clinical nutrition/acute care. Salaries also vary by years in practice, education level, geographic region, and size of the community. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 50,000 jobs in 2004. More than half of all jobs were in hospitals, nursing care facilities, outpatient care centers, or offices of physicians and other health practitioners. State and local government agencies provided about 1 job in 5—mostly in correctional facilities, health departments, and other public-health-related areas. Some dietitians and nutri tionists were employed in special food services, an industry made up of firms providing food services on contract to facilities such as colleges and universities, airlines, correctional facilities, and com pany cafeterias. Other jobs were in public and private educational services, community care facilities for the elderly (which includes assisted-living facilities), individual and family services, home health care services, and the Federal Government—mostly in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Some dietitians were self-employed, working as consultants to facilities such as hospitals and nursing care facilities or providing dietary counseling to individuals. Related Occupations Job Outlook • Employment is projected to increase much faster than the average, as rapid growth in the number of middleaged and elderly individuals increases the demand for therapeutic services. • Beginning in 2007, a master’s degree or higher in oc cupational therapy will be the minimum educational requirement. • Occupational therapists are increasingly taking on supervisory roles, allowing assistants and aides to work more closely with clients under the guidance of a thera pist, in an effort to reduce the cost of therapy. • More than a quarter of occupational therapists work part time. Employment of dietitians is expected to grow faster than the av erage for all occupations through 2014 as a result of increasing emphasis on disease prevention through improved dietary habits. A growing and aging population will boost the demand for meals and nutritional counseling in hospitals, residential care facilities, schools, prisons, community health programs, and home health care agencies. Public interest in nutrition and increased emphasis on health education and prudent lifestyles also will spur demand, especially in management. In addition to employment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. The number of dietitian positions in nursing care facilities and in State government hospitals is expected to decline, as these es tablishments continue to contract with outside agencies for food services. However, employment is expected to grow rapidly in contract providers of food services, in outpatient care centers, and in offices of physicians and other health practitioners. With increased public awareness of obesity and diabetes, Medicare coverage may be expanded to include medical nutrition therapy for renal and diabetic patients. As a result, dietitians that have specialized training in renal or diabetic diets or have a master’s degree should experience good employment opportunities. Employment growth for dietitians and nutritionists may be con strained if some employers substitute other workers, such as health Digitized educators, for FRASERfood service managers, and dietetic technicians. Growth https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Workers in other occupations who may apply the principles of dietetics include food service managers, health educators, dietetic technicians, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other information about dietetics, contact: >- The American Dietetic Association, 120 South Riverside Plaza, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Internet: http://www.eatright.org Occupational Therapists (0*NET 29-1122.00) Significant Points Nature of the Work Occupational therapists (OTs) help people improve their ability to perform tasks in their daily living and working environments. They work with individuals who have conditions that are mentally, physically, developmentally, or emotionally disabling. They also help them to develop, recover, or maintain daily living and work skills. Occupational therapists help clients not only to improve their basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, but also to compensate for permanent loss of function. Their goal is to help clients have independent, productive, and satisfying lives. 286 Occupational Outlook Handbook Occupational therapists assist clients in performing activities of all types, ranging from using a computer to caring for daily needs such as dressing, cooking, and eating. Physical exercises may be used to increase strength and dexterity, while other activities may be chosen to improve visual acuity and the ability to discern patterns. For example, a client with short-term memory loss might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall, and a person with coordination problems might be assigned exercises to improve hand-eye coordination. Occupational therapists also use computer programs to help clients improve decisionmaking, abstract-reason ing, problem-solving, and perceptual skills, as well as memory, sequencing, and coordination—all of which are important for independent living. Therapists instruct those with permanent disabilities, such as spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, or muscular dystrophy, in the use of adaptive equipment, including wheelchairs, orthotics, and aids for eating and dressing. They also design or make special equipment needed at home or at work. Therapists develop computer-aided adaptive equipment and teach clients with severe limitations how to use that equipment in order to communicate better and control various aspects of their environment. Some occupational therapists treat individuals whose ability to function in a work environment has been impaired. These prac titioners arrange employment, evaluate the work environment, plan work activities, and assess the client’s progress. Therapists also may collaborate with the client and the employer to modify the work environment so that the work can be successfully completed. Occupational therapists may work exclusively with individuals in a particular age group or with particular disabilities. In schools, for example, they evaluate children’s abilities, recommend and provide therapy, modify classroom equipment, and help children participate as fully as possible in school programs and activities. A therapist may work with children individually, lead small groups in the classroom, consult with a teacher, or serve on a curriculum or other administrative committee. Early intervention therapy services are provided to infants and toddlers who have, or at the risking of having, developmental delays. Specific therapies may include facilitating the use of the hands, promoting skills for listening and following directions, fostering social play skills, or teaching dress ing and grooming skills. Occupational therapy also is beneficial to the elderly population. Therapists help the elderly lead more productive, ac tive, and independent lives through a variety of methods, including the use of adaptive equipment. Therapists with specialized train ing in driver rehabilitation assess an individual’s ability to drive using both clinical and on-the-road tests. The evaluations allow the therapist to make recommendations for adaptive equipment, training to prolong driving independence, and alternative transporta tion options. Occupational therapists also work with the client to asses the home for hazards and to identify environmental factors that contribute to falls. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat individuals who are mentally ill, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed. To treat these problems, therapists choose activities that help people learn to engage in and cope with daily life. Activities include time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and the use of public transportation. Occupational therapists also may work with individuals who are dealing with alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, or stress-related disorders. Assessing and recording a client’s activities and progress is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Accurate records are essential for evaluating clients, for billing, and for reporting to physicians and other health care providers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■Msmi Occupational therapists help people improve their ability to perform tasks in their daily living and working environments. Working Conditions Occupational therapists in hospitals and other health care and com munity settings usually work a 40-hour week. Those in schools may participate in meetings and other activities during and after the school day. In 2004, more than a quarter of occupational therapists worked part time. In large rehabilitation centers, therapists may work in spacious rooms equipped with machines, tools, and other devices generating noise. The work can be tiring, because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Those providing home health care services may spend time driving from appointment to appointment. Therapists also face hazards such as back strain from lifting and moving clients and equipment. Therapists increasingly are taking on supervisory roles. Because of rising health care costs, third-party payers are beginning to en courage occupational therapist assistants and aides to take more hands-on responsibility. By having assistants and aides work more closely with clients under the guidance of a therapist, the cost of therapy should decline. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Currently, a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy is the mini mum requirement for entry into the field. Beginning in 2007, how ever, a master’s degree or higher will be the minimum educational requirement. As a result, students in bachelor’s-level programs must complete their coursework and fieldwork before 2007. All States, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the District of Columbia regulate the prac tice of occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must graduate from an accredited educational program and pass a national certification examination. Those who pass the exam are awarded the title “Occupational Therapist Registered (OTR).” Some States have additional requirements for therapists who work in schools or early intervention programs. These requirements may include education-related classes, an education practice certificate, or early intervention certification requirements. In 2005, 122 master’s degree programs offered entry-level edu cation, 65 programs offered a combined bachelor’s and master’s degree, and 5 offered an entry-level doctoral degree. Most schools have full-time programs, although a growing number are offering weekend or part-time programs as well. Bachelor’s degree programs in occupational therapy are no longer offered because of the require ment for a master’s degree or higher beginning in 2007. In addition, post baccalaureate certificate programs for students with a degree other than occupational therapy are no longer offered. Professional and Related Occupations Occupational therapy coursework includes the physical, bio logical, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. The completion of 6 months of supervised fieldwork also is required. Persons considering this profession should take high school courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, art, and the social sciences. College admissions offices also look favorably at paid or volunteer experience in the health care field. Relevant undergradu ate majors include biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, liberal arts, and anatomy. Occupational therapists need patience and strong interpersonal skills to inspire trust and respect in their clients. Patience is neces sary because many clients may not show rapid improvement. Inge nuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Those working in home health care services must be able to adapt to a variety of settings. 287 $67,010. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,430, and the highest lOpercent earned more than $81,600. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapists in May 2004 were: Home health care services............................................................ $58,720 Offices of other health practitioners............................................. 56,620 Nursing care facilities................................................................... 56,570 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ 55,710 Elementary and secondary schools.............................................. 48,580 Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help in dividuals perform daily living skills and achieve maximum independence. Other workers performing similar duties include audiologists, chiropractors, physical therapists, recreational thera pists, rehabilitation counselors, respiratory therapists, and speechlanguage pathologists. Employment Occupational therapists held about 92,000 jobs in 2004. About 1 in 10 occupational therapists held more than one job. The largest number of jobs were in hospitals. Other major employers were of fices of other health practitioners (including offices of occupational therapists), public and private educational services, and nursing care facilities. Some occupational therapists were employed by home health care services, outpatient care centers, offices of physicians, individual and family services, community care facilities for the elderly, and government agencies. A small number of occupational therapists were self-employed in private practice. These practitioners saw clients referred by physi cians or other health professionals or provided contract or consulting services to nursing care facilities, schools, adult day care programs, and home health care agencies. Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. The impact of proposed Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for oc cupational therapists in the short run. However, over the long run, the demand for occupational therapists should continue to rise as a result of growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function who require therapy services. The baby-boom generation’s movement into middle age, a period when the incidence of heart attack and stroke increases, will spur demand for therapeutic services. Growth in the population 75 years and older—an age group that suffers from high incidences of disabling conditions—also will increase demand for therapeutic services. Driver rehabilitation and fall-prevention training for the elderly are emerging practice areas for occupational therapy. In addition, medical advances now en able more patients with critical problems to survive—patients who ultimately may need extensive therapy. Hospitals will continue to employ a large number of occupational therapists to provide therapy services to acutely ill inpatients. Hos pitals also will need occupational therapists to staff their outpatient rehabilitation programs. Employment growth in schools will result from the expansion of the school-age population, the extension of services for disabled students, and an increasing prevalence of sensory disorders in children. Therapists will be needed to help children with disabilities prepare to enter special education programs. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational therapists were $54,660 in FRASER May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,690 and Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, contact: >■ American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org For information regarding the requirements to practice as an oc cupational therapist in schools, contact the appropriate occupational therapy regulatory agency for your State. Optometrists (0*NET 29-1041.00) Significant Points • Admission to optometry school is competitive. • To be licensed, optometrists must earn a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass a written National Board exam and a clinical examination. Employment is expected to grow faster than average in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. • Nature of the Work Optometrists, also known as doctors of optometry, or ODs, provide most primary vision care. They examine people’s eyes to diagnose vision problems and eye diseases, and they test patients’ visual acu ity, depth and color perception, and ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. Optometrists prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses and provide vision therapy and low-vision rehabilitation. Optometrists analyze test results and develop a treatment plan. They administer drugs to patients to aid in the diagnosis of vision problems and prescribe drugs to treat some eye diseases. Optometrists often provide preoperative and postoperative care to cataract patients, as well as to patients who have had laser vision correction or other eye surgery. They also diagnose conditions caused by systemic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure, referring patients to other health practitioners as needed. Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who perform eye surgery, as well as diagnose and treat eye diseases and injuries. Like optometrists, they also examine eyes and prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and, in some States, may fit contact lenses according to 288 Occupational Outlook Handbook The Doctor ofOptometry degree requires the completion ofa 4-year program at an accredited optometry school. prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (See the sections on physicians and surgeons', and opticians, dispensing, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most optometrists are in general practice. Some specialize in work with the elderly, children, or partially sighted persons who need specialized visual devices. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ eyes from on-the-job strain or injury. Some specialize in contact lenses, sports vision, or vision therapy. A few teach optometry, perform research, or consult. Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping paper and electronic records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate fran chise optical stores also may have some of these duties. Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. Most full-time optometrists work about 40 hours a week. Many work weekends and evenings to suit the needs of patients. Emergency calls, once uncommon, have increased with the passage of therapeutic-drug laws expanding optometrists’ ability to prescribe medications. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometry school and must pass both a written National Board examination and a National, regional, or State clinical board examination. The written and clinical examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry usually are taken during the student’s academic career. Many States also require ap plicants to pass an examination on relevant State laws. Licenses are renewed every 1 to 3 years and, in all States, continuing education credits are needed for renewal. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires the completion of a 4-ycar program at an accredited optometry school, preceded by at least 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university. Most optometry students hold a bachelor’s or higher degree. In 2004,17 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry offered programs accredited by the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Association. Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. A few schools also require or recommend courses in psychology, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis history, sociology, speech, or business. Because a strong background in science is important, many applicants to optometry school major in a science such as biology or chemistry, while other applicants major in another subject and take many science courses offer ing laboratory experience. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test, which measures academic ability and scientific comprehension. Admission to optometry school is competitive. As a result, most applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year, allowing them an opportunity to take the test again and raise their score. A few applicants are accepted to optometry school after 3 years of college and complete their bachelor’s degree while attending optometry school. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences, as well as clinical training in the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. Courses in pharmacology, optics, vision science, biochemistry, and systemic disease are included. Business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success. The work of optometrists requires attention to detail and manual dexterity. Optometrists wishing to teach or conduct research may study for a master’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health informa tion and communication, or health education. One-year postgraduate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to obtain advanced clinical competence. Specialty areas for residency pro grams include family practice optometry, pediatric optometry, geriatric optometry, vision therapy and rehabilitation, low-vision rehabilitation, cornea and contact lenses, refractive and ocular surgery, primary eye care optometry, and ocular disease. Employment Optometrists held about 34,000 jobs in 2004. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optometrists because some optometrists hold two or more jobs. For example, an optometrist may have a private practice but also work in another practice, in a clinic, or in a vision care center. According to the American Opto metric Association, about three-fourths of practicing optometrists are in private practice. Although many practice alone, optometrists increasingly are in a partnership or group practice. Salaried jobs for optometrists were primarily in offices of optometrists; offices of physicians, including ophthalmologists; and health and personal care stores, including optical goods stores. A few salaried jobs for optometrists were in hospitals, the Federal government, or outpatient care centers including health maintenance organizations. Almost one third of optometrists were self-employed and not incorporated. Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through 2014, in response to the vision care needs of a growing and aging population. As baby boomers age, they will be more likely to visit optometrists and ophthalmologists because of the onset of vision problems in middle age, including those resulting from the extensive use of computers. The demand for optometric services also will increase because of growth in the oldest age group, with its increased likelihood of cataracts, glaucoma, diabetes, and hypertension. Greater recognition of the importance of vision care, along with rising personal incomes and growth in employee vision care plans, also will spur job growth. Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly were it not for anticipated productivity gains that will allow each optometrist to see more patients. These expected gains stem from greater use of optometric assistants and other support personnel, who will re duce the amount of time optometrists need with each patient. Also, Professional and Related Occupations laser surgery that can correct some vision problems is available, and although optometrists still will be needed to provide preopera tive and postoperative care for laser surgery patients, patients who successfully undergo this surgery may not require optometrists to prescribe glasses or contacts for several years. In addition to growth, the need to replace optometrists who retire or leave the occupation for another reason will create employment opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists were $88,410 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $63,840 and $118,320. Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists in May 2004 were $87,430 in offices of optometrists. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than do optometrists who set up their own practices. In the long run, however, those in private practice usually earn more. According to the American Optometric Association, median net annual income for all optometrists, including the self-employed, was $114,000 in 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $84,000 and $166,000. Related Occupations Other workers who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiropractors, dentists, physicians and surgeons, psychologists, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career and a list of accredited optometric institutions of education, contact: >■ Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 510, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http:// www.opted.org Additional career information is available from: >- American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141. Internet: http://www.aoanet.org The board of optometry in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact the admissions officers of individual op tometry schools. Pharmacists _______ (0*NET 29-1051.00) Significant Points • Very good employment opportunities are expected for pharmacists. • Earnings are high, but some pharmacists work long hours, nights, weekends, and holidays. • Pharmacists are becoming more involved in making decisions regarding drug therapy and in counseling patients. A license is required; the prospective pharmacist must graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy and pass a State examination. • Nature of the Work Pharmacists distribute drugs prescribed by physicians and other health practitioners and provide information to patients about medications and their use. They advise physicians and other health https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 289 practitioners on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medications. Pharmacists also monitor the health and progress of patients in response to drug therapy to ensure the safe and ef fective use of medication. Pharmacists must understand the use, clinical effects, and composition of drugs, including their chemi cal, biological, and physical properties. Compounding—the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is a small part of a pharmacist’s practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. Most pharmacists work in a community setting, such as a retail drugstore, or in a health care facility, such as a hospital, nursing home, mental health institution, or neighborhood health clinic. Pharmacists in community and retail pharmacies counsel patients and answer questions about prescription drugs, including ques tions regarding possible side effects or interactions among various drugs. They provide information about over-the-counter drugs and make recommendations after talking with the patient. They also may give advice about the patient’s diet, exercise, or stress management or about durable medical equipment and home health care supplies. In addition, they also may complete third-party insurance forms and other paperwork. Those who own or manage community pharma cies may sell non-health-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Some community pharmacists provide specialized services to help patients manage conditions such as diabetes, asthma, smoking cessation, or high blood pressure. Some community pharmacists also are trained to administer vaccinations. Pharmacists in health care facilities dispense medications and ad vise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs. They may make sterile solutions to be administered intravenously. They also assess, plan, and monitor drug programs or regimens. Pharmacists counsel hospitalized patients on the use of drugs and on their use at home when the patients are discharged. Pharmacists also may evaluate drug-use patterns and outcomes for patients in hospitals or managed care organizations. Pharmacists who work in home health care monitor drug therapy and prepare infusions—solutions that are injected into patients—and other medications for use in the home. Some pharmacists specialize in specific drug therapy areas, such as intravenous nutrition support, oncology (cancer), nuclear pharmacy (used for chemotherapy), geriatric pharmacy, and psychopharmaco therapy (the treatment of mental disorders by means of drugs). Most pharmacists keep confidential computerized records of patients’ drug therapies to prevent harmful drug interactions. Phar macists are responsible for the accuracy of every prescription that is filled, but they often rely upon pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides to assist them in the dispensing process. Thus, the pharma cist may delegate prescription-filling and administrative tasks and supervise their completion. Pharmacists also frequently oversee pharmacy students serving as interns in preparation for graduation and licensure. Increasingly, pharmacists are pursuing nontraditional pharmacy work. Some are involved in research for pharmaceutical manu facturers, developing new drugs and therapies and testing their ef fects on people. Others work in marketing or sales, providing expertise to clients on a drug’s use, effectiveness, and possible side effects. Some pharmacists work for health insurance companies, developing pharmacy benefit packages and carrying out cost-benefit analyses on certain drugs. Other pharmacists work for the govern ment, public health care services, the armed services, and pharmacy associations. Finally, some pharmacists are employed full time or part time as college faculty, teaching classes and performing research in a wide range of areas. 290 Occupational Outlook Handbook Pharmacists are becoming more involved in making decisions regarding drug therapy and in counseling patients. Working Conditions Pharmacists work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists spend most of their workday on their feet. When working with sterile or dangerous pharmaceutical prod ucts, pharmacists wear gloves and masks and work with other special protective equipment. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open for extended hours or around the clock, so pharmacists may work nights, weekends, and holidays. Consultant pharmacists may travel to nursing homes or other facilities to monitor patients’ drug therapy. About 21 percent of pharmacists worked part time in 2004. Most full-time salaried pharmacists worked approximately 40 hours a week. Some, including many self-employed pharmacists, worked more than 50 hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and all U.S. territories. To obtain a license, the pro spective pharmacist must graduate from a college of pharmacy that is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) and pass an examination. All States require the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX), which tests pharmacy skills and knowledge, and 43 states and the District of Columbia require the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE), which tests pharmacy law. Both exams are administered by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy. Pharmacists in the eight states that do not require the MJPE must pass a state-specific exam that is similar to the MJPE. In addition to the NAPLEX and MPJE, some States require additional exams unique to their State. All States except California currently grant a license without extensive reexamination to qualified pharmacists who already are licensed by another State. In Florida, reexami nation is not required if a pharmacist has passed the NAPLEX and MPJE within 12 years of his or her application for a license transfer. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. Most States require continuing education for license renewal. Persons interested in a career as a pharmacist should check with individual State boards of pharmacy for details on examination requirements, license renewal requirements, and license transfer procedures. In 2004,89 colleges of pharmacy were accredited to confer degrees by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education. Pharmacy https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis programs grant the degree of Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), which requires at least 6 years of postsecondary study and the passing of a State board of pharmacy’s licensure examination. Courses offered at colleges of pharmacy are designed to teach students about all aspects of drug therapy. In addition, schools teach students how to communicate with patients and other health care providers about drug information and patient care. Students also learn professional ethics, how to develop and manage medication distribution systems, and concepts of public health. In addition to receiving classroom instruction, students in Pharm.D. programs spend about one-forth of their time learning in a variety of pharmacy practice settings under the supervision of licensed pharmacists. The Pharm.D. degree has replaced the Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) degree, which is no longer being awarded. The Pharm.D. is a 4-year program that requires at least 2 years of college study prior to admittance, although most applicants have completed 3 years. Entry requirements usually include courses in mathematics and natural sciences, such as chemis try, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the humanities and social sciences. Approximately two-thirds of all colleges require applicants to take the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT). In 2003, the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) launched the Pharmacy College Application Service, known as PharmCAS, for students who are interested in applying to schools and colleges of pharmacy. This centralized service al lows applicants to use a single Web-based application and one set of transcripts to apply to multiple schools of pharmacy. A total of 43 schools participated in 2003. In the 2003-04 academic year, 67 colleges of pharmacy awarded the master-of-science degree or the Ph.D. degree. Both degrees are awarded after the completion of a Pharm.D. degree and are designed for those who want more laboratory and research experience. Many master’s and Ph.D. degree holders do research for a drug company or teach at a university. Other options for pharmacy graduates who are interested in further training include 1 -year or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. Pharmacy residencies are postgraduate training programs in pharmacy practice and usually require the completion of a research study. There currently are more than 700 residency training programs nationwide. Pharmacy fellowships are highly individualized programs that are designed to prepare participants to work in a specialized area of pharmacy, such clinical practice or research laboratories. Some pharmacists who run their own pharmacy obtain a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Others may obtain a degree in public administration or public health. Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharmaceuti cal chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), toxicology and pharmacy administration. Prospective pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, good communication skills, and a desire to help others. They also must be conscientious and pay close attention to detail, because the decisions they make affect human lives. In community pharmacies, pharmacists usually begin at the staff level. In independent pharmacies, after they gain experience and secure the necessary capital, some become owners or part owners of pharmacies. Pharmacists in chain drugstores may be promoted to pharmacy supervisor or manager at the store level, then to manager at the district or regional level, and later to an executive position within the chain’s headquarters. Hospital pharmacists may advance to supervisory or adminis trative positions. Pharmacists in the pharmaceutical industry may Professional and Related Occupations advance in marketing, sales, research, quality control, production, packaging, or other areas. Employment Pharmacists held about 230,000 jobs in 2004. About 61 percent work in community pharmacies that are either independently owned or part of a drugstore chain, grocery store, department store, or mass merchandiser. Most community pharmacists are salaried employees, but some are self-employed owners. About 24 percent of salaried pharmacists work in hospitals. Others work in clinics, mail-order pharmacies, pharmaceutical wholesalers, home health care agencies, or the Federal Government. Job Outlook Very good employment opportunities are expected for pharmacists over the 2004-14 period because the number of job openings cre ated by employment growth and the need to replace pharmacists who leave the occupation or retire are expected to exceed the number of degrees granted in pharmacy. Enrollments in pharmacy programs are rising as more students are attracted by high salaries and good job prospects. Despite this increase in enrollments, job openings should still be more numerous than those seeking employment. Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, because of the increasing demand for pharmaceuticals, particularly from the growing elderly population. The increasing numbers of middleaged and elderly people—who use more prescription drugs than younger people—will continue to spur demand for pharmacists in all employment settings. Other factors likely to increase the demand for pharmacists include scientific advances that will make more drug products available, new developments in genome research and medication distribution systems, increasingly sophisticated consumers seeking more information about drugs, and coverage of prescription drugs by a greater number of health insurance plans and Medicare. Community pharmacies are taking steps to manage an increasing volume of prescriptions. Automation of drug dispensing and greater employment of pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides will help these establishments to dispense more prescriptions. With its emphasis on cost control, managed care encour ages the use of lower cost prescription drug distributors, such as mail-order firms and online pharmacies, for purchases of certain medications. Prescriptions ordered through the mail and via the Internet are filled in a central location and shipped to the patient at a lower cost. Mail-order and online pharmacies typically use automated technology to dispense medication and employ fewer pharmacists. If the utilization of mail-order pharmacies increases rapidly, job growth among pharmacists could be limited. Employment of pharmacists will not grow as fast in hospitals as in other industries, because hospitals are reducing inpatient stays, downsizing, and consolidating departments. The number of outpa tient surgeries is increasing, so more patients are being discharged and purchasing their medications through retail, supermarket, or mail-order pharmacies, rather than through hospitals. An aging population means that more pharmacy services will be required in nursing homes, assisted-living facilities, and home care settings. The most rapid job growth among pharmacists is expected in these 3 settings. New opportunities are emerging for pharmacists in managed care organizations where they analyze trends and patterns in medication use, and in pharmacoeconomics—the cost and benefit analysis of dif ferent drug therapies. Opportunities also are emerging for pharmacists https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 291 trained in research and disease management—the development of new methods for curing and controlling diseases. Pharmacists also are finding jobs in research and development and in sales and market ing for pharmaceutical manufacturing firms. New breakthroughs in biotechnology will increase the potential for drugs to treat diseases and expand the opportunities for pharmacists to conduct research and sell medications. In addition, pharmacists are finding employ ment opportunities in pharmacy informatics, which uses information technology to improve patient care. Job opportunities for pharmacists in patient care will arise as cost-conscious insurers and health systems continue to em phasize the role of pharmacists in primary and preventive health care. Health insurance companies realize that the expense of using medication to treat diseases and various health conditions often is considerably less than the costs for patients whose conditions go untreated. Pharmacists also can reduce the expenses resulting from unexpected complications due to allergic reactions or interactions among medications. Earnings Median annual wage and salary earnings of pharmacists in May 2004 were $84,900. The middle 50 percent earned between $75,720 and $94,850 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $61,200, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $109,850 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacists in May 2004 were: Department stores......................................................................... $86,720 Grocery stores............................................................................... 85,680 Health and personal care stores.................................................... 85,380 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ 84,560 Other general merchandise stores................................................ 84,170 Related Occupations Pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides also work in pharmacies. Persons in other professions who may work with pharmaceutical compounds include biological scientists, medical scientists, and chemists and materials scientists. Increasingly, pharmacists are involved in patient care and therapy, work that they have in common with physicians and surgeons. Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and pro fessional requirements, programs offered by colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid, contact: >■ American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aacp.org General information on careers in pharmacy is available from: >- American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272WisconsinAve., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org >- National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 413 N. Lee St., P.O. Box 1417-D49, Alexandria, VA 22313-1480. Internet: http://www.nacds.org >• Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy, 100 North Pitt St., Suite 400, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.amcp.org ► American Pharmacists Association, 2215 Constitution Ave. N.W., Washington, DC 20037-2985. Internet: http://www.aphanet.org Information on the North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX) and the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE) is available from: >• National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 1600 Feehanville Dr., Mount Prospect, IL 60056. Internet: http://www.nabp.net State licensure requirements are available from each State’s board of pharmacy. Information on specific college entrance require ments, curriculums, and financial aid is available from any college of pharmacy. 292 Occupational Outlook Handbook Physical Therapists (0*NET 29-1123.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to increase much faster than the average, as growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited functioning spurs demand for therapy services. • Job opportunities should be particularly good in acute hospital, rehabilitation, and orthopedic settings. • After graduating from an accredited physical therapist educational program, therapists must pass a licensure exam before they can practice. • Nearly 6 out of 10 physical therapists work in hospitals or in offices of physical therapists. Nature of the Work Physical therapists provide services that help restore function, improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physi cal disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or disease. They restore, maintain, and promote overall fitness and health. Their patients include accident victims and individuals with disabling conditions such as low-back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Therapists examine patients’ medical histories and then test and measure the patients’ strength, range of motion, balance and coordination, posture, muscle performance, respiration, and motor function. They also determine patients’ ability to be independent and reintegrate into the community or workplace after injury or illness. Next, physical therapists develop plans describing a treat ment strategy, its purpose, and its anticipated outcome. Physical therapist assistants, under the direction and supervision of a physical therapist, may be involved in implementing treatment plans with patients. Physical therapist aides perform routine support tasks, as directed by the therapist. (Physical therapist assistants and aides are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have been immobilized and lack flexibility, strength, or endurance. Physical therapists encourage patients to use their own muscles to increase their flexibility and range of motion before finally advancing to other exercises that improve strength, balance, coordination, and endurance. The goal is to improve how an individual functions at work and at home. Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot packs or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain and reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue massage to relieve pain. Therapists also teach patients to use assistive and adaptive de vices, such as crutches, prostheses, and wheelchairs. They also may show patients exercises to do at home to expedite their recovery. As treatment continues, physical therapists document the patient’s progress, conduct periodic examinations, and modify treatments when necessary. Besides tracking the patient’s progress, such docu mentation identifies areas requiring more or less attention. Physical therapists often consult and practice with a variety of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists, nurses, educators, social workers, occupational therapists, speech-language pathologists, and audiologists. Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments; others specialize in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics, orthopedics, sports medicine, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physical therapy. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis :: Physical therapists use traction or deep-tissue massage to relieve pain. Working Conditions Physical therapists practice in hospitals, clinics, and private offices that have specially equipped facilities, or they treat patients in hospital rooms, homes, or schools. In 2004, most full-time physical therapists worked a 40-hour week; some worked evenings and weekends to fit their patients’ schedules. About 1 in 4 physical therapists worked part time. The job can be physically demanding because therapists often have to stoop, kneel, crouch, lift, and stand for long periods. In addition, physical therapists move heavy equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require physical therapists to pass a licensure exam be fore they can practice, after graduating from an accredited physical therapist educational program. According to the American Physical Therapy Association, there were 205 accredited physical therapist programs in 2004. Of the accredited pro grams, 94 offered master’s degrees, and 111 offered doctoral degrees. All physical therapist programs seeking accreditation are required to offer degrees at the master’s degree level and above, in accordance with the Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy Education. Physical therapist programs start with basic science courses such as biology, chemistry, and physics and then introduce specialized courses, including biomechanics, neuroanatomy, human growth and development, manifestations of disease, examination techniques, and therapeutic procedures. Besides getting classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical experience. Among the courses that are useful when one applies to a physical therapist educational program are anatomy, biology, chemistry, social sci ence, mathematics, and physics. Before granting admission, many professional education programs require experience as a volunteer in a physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. For high school students, volunteering with the school athletic trainer is a good way to gain experience. Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal skills in order to be able to educate patients about their physical therapy Professional and Related Occupations treatments. Physical therapists also should be compassionate and possess a desire to help patients. Similar traits are needed to interact with the patient’s family. Physical therapists are expected to continue their professional development by participating in continuing education courses and workshops. In fact, a number of States require continuing education Related Occupations as a condition of maintaining licensure. Sources of Additional Information Employment Physical therapists held about 155,000 jobs in 2004. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing physical therapists, because some physical therapists hold two or more jobs. For ex ample, some may work in a private practice, but also work part time in another health care facility. Nearly 6 out of 10 physical therapists worked in hospitals or in offices of physical therapists. Other jobs were in home health care services, nursing care facilities, outpatient care centers, and offices of physicians. Some physical therapists were self-employed in private practices, seeing individual patients and contracting to provide services in hos pitals, rehabilitation centers, nursing care facilities, home health care agencies, adult day care programs, and schools. Physical therapists also teach in academic institutions and conduct research. Physical therapists rehabilitate persons with physical disabilities. Others who work in the rehabilitation field include audiologists, chiro practors, occupational therapists, recreational therapists, rehabilitation counselors, respiratory therapists, and speech-language pathologists. Additional career information and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: >• American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alex andria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org Physician Assistants (Q*NET 29-1071.00) Significant Points • Physician assistant programs usually last at least 2 years; admission requirements vary by program, but many require at least 2 years of college and some health care experience. • Job Outlook Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. The impact of proposed Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the short-term job outlook for physical therapists. However, over the long run, the demand for physical therapists should continue to rise as growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function spurs demand for therapy services. Job opportunities should be particularly good in acute hospital, rehabilitation, and orthopedic settings, because the elderly receive the most treatment in these settings. The growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating condi tions that require therapeutic services. Also, the baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. Further, young people will need physical therapy as technological advances save the lives of a larger proportion of newborns with severe birth defects. Future medical developments also should permit a higher per centage of trauma victims to survive, creating additional demand for rehabilitative care. In addition, growth may result from advances in medical technology that could permit the treatment of more disabling conditions. Widespread interest in health promotion also should increase demand for physical therapy services. A growing number of em ployers are using physical therapists to evaluate worksites, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits to employees in the hope of reducing injuries in the workplace. Earnings Median annual earnings of physical therapists were $60,180 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,330 and $71,760. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $42,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,580. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapists in May 2004 were: Home health care services................... Nursing care facilities.......................... Offices of physicians............................ General medical and surgical hospitals. of other health practitioners.... Digitized forOffices FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $64,650 61,720 61,270 60,350 60,130 293 All States require physician assistants to complete an accredited education program and to pass a national exam in order to obtain a license. • Physician assistants rank among the fastest growing occu pations, as physicians and health care institutions increas ingly utilize physician assistants in order to contain costs. • Job opportunities should be good, particularly in rural and inner city clinics. Nature of the Work Physician assistants (PAs) practice medicine under the supervision of physicians and surgeons. They should not be confused with medical assistants, who perform routine clinical and clerical tasks. (Medical assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) PAs are formal ly trained to provide diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive health care services, as delegated by a physician. Working as members of the health care team, they take medical histories, examine and treat patients, order and interpret laboratory tests and x rays, and make diagnoses. They also treat minor injuries, by suturing, splinting, and casting. PAs record progress notes, instruct and counsel patients, and order or carry out therapy. In 48 States and the District of Columbia, physician assistants may prescribe medications. PAs also may have managerial duties. Some order medical supplies or equipment and supervise technicians and assistants. Physician assistants work under the supervision of aphy sician. How ever, PAs may be the principal care providers in rural or inner city clinics, where a physician is present for only 1 or 2 days each week. In such cases, the PA confers with the supervising physician and other medical professionals as needed and as required by law. PAs also may make house calls or go to hospitals and nursing care facilities to check on patients, after which they report back to the physician. The duties of physician assistants are determined by the supervis ing physician and by State law. Aspiring PAs should investigate the laws and regulations in the States in which they wish to practice. Many PAs work in primary care specialties, such as general internal medicine, pediatrics, and family medicine. Other specialty areas include general and thoracic surgery, emergency medicine, orthopedics, and geriatrics. PAs specializing in surgery provide preoperative and postoperative care and may work as first or second assistants during major surgery. 294 Occupational Outlook Handbook IS Slllliit Physician assistants may be the principal care providers in rural or inner city clinics, where a physician is present for only 1 or 2 days each week. Working Conditions Although PAs usually work in a comfortable, well-lighted environ ment, those in surgery often stand for long periods, and others do considerable walking. Schedules vary according to the practice setting, and often depend on the hours of the supervising physician. The workweek of hospital-based PAs may include weekends, nights, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. These workers also may be on call. PAs in clinics usually work a 40-hour week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require that PAs complete an accredited, formal education program and pass a National exam to obtain a license. PA programs usually last at least 2 years and are full time. Most programs are in schools of allied health, academic health centers, medical schools, or 4-year colleges; a few are in community colleges, the military, or hospitals. Many accredited PA programs have clinical teaching affiliations with medical schools. In 2005, more than 135 education programs for physician assis tants were accredited or provisionally accredited by the American Academy of Physician Assistants. More than 90 of these programs offered the option of a master’s degree, and the rest offered either a bachelor’s degree or an associate degree. Most applicants to PA educational programs already have a bachelor’s degree. Admission requirements vary, but many programs require 2 years of college and some work experience in the health care field. Students should take courses in biology, English, chemistry, mathematics, psychology, and the social sciences. Many PAs have prior experience as registered nurses, while others come from varied backgrounds, including military corpsman/medics and allied health occupations such as respiratory therapists, physical therapists, and emergency medical technicians and paramedics. PA education includes classroom instruction in biochemistry, pathology, human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical pharmacology, clinical medicine, geriatric and home health care, disease prevention, and medical ethics. Students obtain supervised https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis clinical training in several areas, including family medicine, internal medicine, surgery, prenatal care and gynecology, geriatrics, emer gency medicine, psychiatry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, PA students serve one or more of these “rotations” under the supervision of a physician who is seeking to hire a PA. The rotations often lead to permanent employment. All States and the District of Columbia have legislation governing the qualifications or practice of physician assistants. All jurisdictions require physician assistants to pass the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, administered by the National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants (NCCPA) and open only to graduates of accredited PA education programs. Only those successfully completing the examination may use the credential Physician Assistant-Certified.” In order to remain certified, PAs must complete 100 hours of continuing medical education every 2 years. Every 6 years, they must pass a recertification examination or complete an alternative program combining learning experiences and a take-home examination. Some PAs pursue additional education in a specialty such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. PA postgraduate educational programs are available in areas such as internal medicine, rural primary care, emergency medicine, surgery, pediatrics, neona tology, and occupational medicine. Candidates must be graduates of an accredited program and be certified by the NCCPA. Physician assistants need leadership skills, self-confidence, and emotional stability. They must be willing to continue studying throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. As they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience, PAs can advance to added responsibilities and higher earnings. However, by the very nature of the profession, clinically practicing PAs always are supervised by physicians. Employment Physician assistants held about 62,000jobs in 2004. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing PAs because some hold two or more jobs. For example, some PAs work with a supervis ing physician, but also work in another practice, clinic, or hospital. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, about 15 percent of actively practicing PAs worked in more than one clini cal job concurrently in 2004. More than halfofjobs for PAs were in the offices of physicians. About a quarter were in hospitals, public or private. The rest were mostly in outpatient care centers, including health maintenance organizations; the Federal Government; and public or private colleges, universities, and professional schools. A few were self-employed. Job Outlook Employment of PAs is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, ranking among the fastest growing occupations, due to anticipated expansion of the health care industry and an emphasis on cost containment, resulting in increasing utilization of PAs by physicians and health care institutions. Physicians and institutions are expected to employ more PAs to provide primary care and to assist with medical and surgical pro cedures because PAs are cost-effective and productive members of the health care team. Physician assistants can relieve physicians of routine duties and procedures. Telemedicine—using technology to facilitate interactive consultations between physicians and physician assistants—also will expand the use of physician assistants. Job opportunities for PAs should be good, particularly in rural and inner city clinics, because those settings have difficulty attracting physicians. Besides the traditional office-based setting, PAs should find a growing number of jobs in institutional settings such Professional and Related Occupations as hospitals, academic medical centers, public clinics, and prisons. Additional PAs may be needed to augment medical staffing in inpatient teaching hospital settings as the number of hours physician residents are permitted to work is reduced, encouraging hospitals to use PAs to supply some physician resident services. Opportunities will be best in States that allow PAs a wider scope of practice. Earnings Median annual earnings of physician assistants were $69,410 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $57,110 and $83,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,320, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $94,880. Median annual earnings of physician assistants in 2004 were $70,310 in general medical and surgical hospitals and $69,210 in offices of physicians. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, median income for physician assistants in full-time clinical prac tice in 2004 was $74,264; median income for first-year gradu ates was $64,536. Income varies by specialty, practice setting, geographical location, and years of experience. Employers often pay for their employees’ liability insurance, registration fees with the Drug Enforcement Administration, State licensing fees, and credentialing fees. Related Occupations Other health care workers who provide direct patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include audiologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, registered nurses, and speech-language pathologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a physician assistant, including a list of accredited programs, contact; > American Academy of Physician Assistants Information Center, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1552. Internet: http://www.aapa.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, contact: >- National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 12000 Findley Rd., Suite 200, Duluth, GA 30097. Internet: http://www.nccpa.net Physicians and Surgeons (0*NET 29-1061.00, 29-1062.00, 29-1063.00, 29-1064.00, 29-1065.00, 29-1066.00, 29-1067.00, 29-1069.99) Significant Points • Many physicians and surgeons work long, irregular hours; over one-third of full-time physicians worked 60 or more hours a week in 2004. • Formal education and training requirements are among the most demanding of any occupation, but earnings are among the highest. • Job opportunities should be very good, particularly in rural and low-income areas. • New physicians are much less likely to enter solo practice and more likely to work as salaried employees of group medical practices, clinics, hospitals, or health networks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 295 Nature of the Work Physicians and surgeons serve a fundamental role in our society and have an effect upon all our lives. They diagnose illnesses and prescribe and administer treatment for people suffering from injury or disease. Physicians examine patients, obtain medical histories, and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive health care. There are two types of physicians: M.D.—Doctor of Medi cine—and D.O.—Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. M.D.s also are known as allopathic physicians. While both M.D.s and D.O.s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.s place special emphasis on the body’s musculoskeletal system, preventive medicine, and holistic patient care. D.O.s are more likely than M.D.s to be primary care specialists although they can be found in all specialties. About half of D.O.s practice general or family medicine, general internal medicine, or general pediatrics. Physicians work in one or more of several specialties, including, but not limited to, anesthesiology, family and general medicine, gen eral internal medicine, general pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery. Anesthesiologists. Anesthesiologists focus on the care of surgi cal patients and pain relief. Like other physicians, they evaluate and treat patients and direct the efforts of those on their staffs. An esthesiologists confer with other physicians and surgeons about appropriate treatments and procedures before, during, and after operations. These critical care specialists are responsible for mainte nance of the patient’s vital life functions—heart rate, body tempera ture, blood pressure, breathing—through continual monitoring and assessment during surgery. They often work outside of the operating room, providing pain relief in the intensive care unit, during labor and delivery, and for those who suffer from chronic pain. Family and general practitioners. Family and general practi tioners are often the first point of contact for people seeking health care, acting as the traditional family doctor. They assess and treat a wide range of conditions, ailments, and injuries, from sinus and respiratory infections to broken bones and scrapes. Family and general practitioners typically have a patient base of regular, long term visitors. Patients with more serious conditions are referred to specialists or other health care facilities for more intensive care. General internists. General internists diagnose and provide nonsurgical treatment for diseases and injuries of internal organ systems. They provide care mainly for adults who have a wide range of problems associated with the internal organs, such as the stomach, kidneys, liver, and digestive tract. Internists use a variety of diagnostic techniques to treat patients through medication or hospitalization. Like general practitioners, general internists are com monly looked upon as primary care specialists. They have patients referred to them by other specialists, in turn referring patients to those and yet other specialists when more complex care is required. General pediatricians. Providing care from birth to early adult hood, pediatricians are concerned with the health of infants, children, and teenagers. They specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of ailments specific to young people and track their patients’ growth to adulthood. Like most physicians, pediatricians work with different health care workers, such as nurses and other physicians, to assess and treat children with various ailments, such as muscular dystrophy. Most of the work of pediatricians, however, involves treating day-to-day illnesses that are common to children—minor injuries, infectious diseases, and immunizations—much as a general practitioner treats adults. Some pediatricians specialize in serious medical conditions and pediatric surgery, treating autoimmune disorders or serious chronic ailments. Obstetricians and gynecologists. Obstetricians and gyne cologists (ob/gyns) are specialists whose focus is women’s health. 296 Occupational Outlook Handbook They are responsible for general medical care for women, but also provide care related to pregnancy and the reproductive system. Like general practitioners, ob/gyns are concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of general health problems, but they focus on ailments specific to the female anatomy, such as breast and cervical cancer, urinary tract and pelvic disorders, and hormonal disorders. Ob/gyns also specialize in childbirth, treating and coun seling women throughout their pregnancy, from giving prenatal diagnoses to delivery and postpartum care. Ob/gyns track the health of, and treat, both mother and fetus as the pregnancy progresses. Psychiatrists. Psychiatrists are the primary caregivers in the area of mental health. They assess and treat mental illnesses through a combination of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, hospitalization, and medication. Psychotherapy involves regular discussions with patients about their problems; the psychiatrist helps them find solutions through changes in their behavioral patterns, the ex ploration of their past experiences, and group and family therapy sessions. Psychoanalysis involves long-term psychotherapy and counseling for patients. In many cases, medications are admin istered to correct chemical imbalances that may be causing emo tional problems. Psychiatrists may also administer electroconvulsive therapy to those of their patients who do not respond to, or who cannot take, medications. Surgeons. Surgeons are physicians who specialize in the treat ment of injury, disease, and deformity through operations. Using a variety of instruments, and with patients under general or local anesthesia, a surgeon corrects physical deformities, repairs bone and tissue after injuries, or performs preventive surgeries on patients with debilitating diseases or disorders. Although a large number perform general surgery, many surgeons choose to specialize in a specific area. One of the most prevalent specialties is orthopedic surgery; the treatment of the musculoskeletal system. Others include neurological surgery (treatment of the brain and nervous system), cardiovascular surgery, otolaryngology (treatment of the ear, nose, and throat), and plastic or reconstructive surgery. Like primary care ^ - * Increasingly, physicians are practicing in groups or health care organizations that provide backup coverage and allow for more time off. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and other specialist physicians, surgeons also examine patients, perform and interpret diagnostic tests, and counsel patients on preventive health care. A number of other medical specialists, including allergists, cardi ologists, dermatologists, emergency physicians, gastroenterologists, ophthalmologists, pathologists, and radiologists, also work in clinics, hospitals, and private offices. Working Conditions Many physicians—primarily general and family practitioners, general internists, pediatricians, ob/gyns, and psychiatrists—work in small private offices or clinics, often assisted by a small staff of nurses and other administrative personnel. Increasingly, physicians are practicing in groups or health care organizations that provide backup coverage and allow for more time off. These physicians often work as part of a team coordinating care for a population of patients; they are less independent than solo practitioners of the past. Surgeons and anesthesiologists typically work in well-lighted, sterile environments while performing surgery and often stand for long periods. Most work in hospitals or in surgical outpatient centers. Many physicians and surgeons work long, irregular hours. Over one-third of full-time physicians and surgeons worked 60 hours or more a week in 2004. Only 8 percent of all physicians and surgeons worked part-time, compared with 16 percent for all occupations. Physicians and surgeons must travel frequently be tween office and hospital to care for their patients. Those who are on call deal with many patients’ concerns over the phone and may make emergency visits to hospitals or nursing homes. Training and Other Qualifications Formal education and training requirements for physicians are among the most demanding of any occupation—4 years of un dergraduate school, 4 years of medical school, and 3 to 8 years of internship and residency, depending on the specialty selected. A few medical schools offer combined undergraduate and medical school programs that last 6 rather than the customary 8 years. Premedical students must complete undergraduate work in physics, biology, mathematics, English, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students also take courses in the humanities and the social sciences. Some students volunteer at local hospitals or clinics to gain practical experience in the health professions. The minimum educational requirement for entry into a medical school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. There are 146 medical schools in the United States—126 teach allopathic medicine and award a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree; 20 teach osteopathic medicine and award the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree. Acceptance to medical school is highly competitive. Ap plicants must submit transcripts, scores from the Medical College Admission Test, and letters of recommendation. Schools also con sider an applicant’s character, personality, leadership qualities, and participation in extracurricular activities. Most schools require an interview with members of the admissions committee. Students spend most of the first 2 years of medical school in laboratories and classrooms, taking courses such as anatomy, bio chemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose illnesses. During their last 2 years, students work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hospitals and clinics, learning acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care. Through rotations in internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gyne cology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. Professional and Related Occupations Following medical school, almost all M.D.s enter a residency graduate medical education in a specialty that takes the form of paid on-the-job training, usually in a hospital. Most D.O.s serve a 12-month rotating internship after graduation and before entering a residency, which may last 2 to 6 years. All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories license physicians. To be licensed, physicians must graduate from an accredited medical school, pass a licensing examination, and complete 1 to 7 years of graduate medical education. Although physicians licensed in one State usually can get a license to prac tice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Graduates of foreign medical schools generally can qualify for licensure after passing an examination and completing a U.S. residency. M.D.s and D.O.s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 7 years in residency training, depending on the specialty. A final examination immediately after residency or after 1 or 2 years of practice also is necessary for certification by a member board of the American Board of Medical Specialists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). The ABMS repre sents 24 specialty boards, ranging from allergy and immunology to urology. The AOA has approved 18 specialty boards, ranging from anesthesiology to surgery. For certification in a subspecialty, physi cians usually need another 1 to 2 years of residency. A physician’s training is costly. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, in 2004 more than 80 percent of medical school graduates were in debt for educational expenses. People who wish to become physicians must have a desire to serve patients, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pres sures and long hours of medical education and practice. Physicians also must have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make decisions in emergencies. Prospective physicians must be willing to study throughout their career in order to keep up with medical advances. Employment Physicians and surgeons held about 567,000 jobs in 2004; approxi mately 1 out of 7 was self-employed and not incorporated. About 60 percent of salaried physicians and surgeons were in office of physicians, and 16 percent were employed by private hospitals. Others practiced in Federal, State, and local governments, including hospitals, colleges, universities, and professional schools; private colleges, universities, and professional schools; and outpatient care centers. According to the American Medical Association (AM A), in 2003 about 2 out 5 physicians in patient care were in primary care, but not in a subspecialty of primary care (table 1). Table 1. Percent distribution of physicians by specialty, 2003 Percent Total......................................................... Primary care ........................................... Family medicine and general practice. Internal medicine................................ Obstetrics & gynecology................... Pediatrics............................................ Specialties............................................... Anesthesiology................................... Psychiatry........................................... Surgical specialties, selected............ All other specialties............................ A growing number of physicians are partners or salaried employees of group practices. Organized as clinics or as associations of physi cians, medical groups can afford expensive medical equipment and realize other business advantages. According to the AMA, the New England and Middle Atlantic States have the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South Central and Mountain States have the lowest. D.O.s are more likely than M.D.s to practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D.s tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and education centers. Job Outlook Employment of physicians and surgeons is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 due to continued expansion of health care industries. The grow ing and aging population will drive overall growth in the demand for physician services, as consumers continue to demand high levels of care using the latest technologies, diagnostic tests, and therapies. In addition to employment growth, job openings will result from the need to replace physicians and surgeons who retire over the 2004-14 period. Demand for physicians’ services is highly sensitive to changes in consumer preferences, health care reimbursement policies, and legislation. For example, if changes to health coverage result in consumers facing higher out-of-pocket costs, they may demand fewer physician services. Demand for physi cian services may also be tempered by patients relying more on other health care providers—such as physician assistants, nurse practitioners, optometrists, and nurse anesthetists—for some health care services. In addition, new technologies will increase physician productivity. Telemedicine will allow physicians to treat patients or consult with other providers remotely. Increasing use of electronic medical records, test and prescription orders, billing, and scheduling will also improve physician productivity. Opportunities for individuals interested in becoming physi cians and surgeons are expected to be very good. Reports of shortages in some specialties or geographic areas should at tract new entrants, encouraging schools to expand programs and hospitals to expand available residency slots. However, because physician training is so lengthy, employment change happens gradually. In the short term, to meet increased de mand, experienced physicians may work longer hours, delay retirement, or take measures to increase productivity, such as using more support staff to provide services. Opportunities should be particularly good in rural and low-income areas, be cause some physicians find these areas unattractive due to less control over work hours, isolation from medical colleagues, or other reasons. Unlike their predecessors, newly trained physicians face radically different choices of where and how to practice. New physicians are much less likely to enter solo practice and more likely to take salaried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, . 100.0 . 40.8 . 12.8 . . . 15.1 5.3 7.6 and health networks. .. .. .. .. .. 59.2 5.4 5.4 14.6 33.9 Earnings of physicians and surgeons arc among the highest of any occupation. According to the Medical Group Management Association’s Physician Compensation and Production Survey, me dian total compensation for physicians in 2004 varied by specialty, as shown in table 2. Total compensation for physicians reflects the amount reported as direct compensation for tax purposes, plus all voluntary salary reductions. Salary, bonus and/or incentive SOURCE: American Medical Association, Physician Characteristics and Distribution in the US, 2005. ______________ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 297 Earnings 298 Occupational Outlook Handbook payments, research stipends, honoraria, and distribution of profits were included in total compensation. Table 2. Median total compensation of physicians by specialty, 2004 Less than two years in specialty Over one year in specialty Anesthesiology................................................ $259,948 Surgery: General............................................ 228,839 Obstetrics/gynecology: General.................... 203,270 Psychiatry: General........................................ 173,922 Internal medicine: General............................. 141,912 Pediatrics: General......................................... 132,953 Family practice (without obstetrics).............. 137,119 $321,686 282,504 247,348 180,000 166,420 161,331 156,011 Podiatrists (0*NET 29-1081.00) Significant Points • Despite increasing demand for podiatric care, job open ings for podiatrists are expected to be limited because the occupation is small and most podiatrists remain in it until they retire. • Opportunities for newly trained podiatrists will be better in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks than in traditional, solo practices. • Podiatrists need a State license that requires the completion of at least 90 hours of undergraduate study; a 4-year post-graduate program at a college of podiatric medicine; and, in most States, a postdoctoral residency program lasting at least 2 years. • Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. SOURCE: Medical Group Management Association, Physician Compensation and Production Report, 2005. Self-employed physicians—those who own or are part owners of their medical practice—generally have higher median incomes than salaried physicians. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, geographic region, hours worked, and skill, personality, and professional reputation. Self-employed physi cians and surgeons must provide for their own health insurance and retirement. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other health care practitioners who need similar skills and who exercise critical judgment include chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physician assistants, podiatrists, registered nurses, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of medical schools and residency programs, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: ► Association ofAmerican Medical Colleges, Section for Student Services, 2450 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20037-1126. Internet: http://www.aamc.oig >- American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 5550 Friendship Blvd., Suite 310, Chevy Chase, MD 20815-7231. Internet: http://www.aacom.org For general information on physicians, contact: >■ American Medical Association, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610. Internet: http://www.ama-assn.org >- American Osteopathic Association, Division of Communications, 142East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.osteopathic.org For information about various medical specialties, contact: >- American Board of Medical Specialties, 1007 Church St., Suite 404, Evanston, IL 60201-5913. Internet: http://www.abms.org ► American Society of Anesthesiologists, 520 N. Northwest Hwy., Park Ridge, IL 60068-2573. Internet: http://www.asahq.org >- American Academy of Family Physicians, Resident Student Activities Department, 11400 Tomahawk Creek Pkwy., Leawood, KS 66211-2672. Internet: http://fmignet.aafp.org >■ American College of Physicians, 190 North Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Internet: http://www.acponline.org ► American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 40912th St. SW., P.O. Box 96920, Washington, DC 20090-6920. Internet: http://www.acog.org >• American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point Blvd., Elk Grove Village, IL 60007-1098. Internet: http://www.aap.org ► American Psychiatric Association, 1000 Wilson Blvd., Suite 1825, Arlington, VA 22209-3901. Internet: http://www.psych.org >- American College of Surgeons, Division of Education, 633 North Saint Clair St., Chicago, IL 60611-3211. Internet: http://www.facs.org Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of medicine. Information on licensing is available from State boards of examiners. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Americans spend a great deal of time on their feet. As the Na tion becomes more active across all age groups, the need for foot care will become increasingly important to maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The human foot is a complex structure. It contains 26 bones— plus muscles, nerves, ligaments, and blood vessels—and is designed for balance and mobility. The 52 bones in the feet make up about one-fourth of all the bones in the human body. Podiatrists, also known as doctors ofpodiatric medicine (DPMs), diagnose and treat disorders, diseases, and injuries of the foot and lower leg. Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle and foot injuries, defor mities, and infections; and foot complaints associated with diseases such as diabetes. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs, order physical therapy, set fractures, and per form surgery. They also fit corrective inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts and strappings to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podiatrists may use a force plate or scanner to help design the orthotics: patients walk across a plate connected to a computer that “reads” their feet, picking up pressure points and weight distribution. From the computer readout, podiatrists order the correct design or recommend another kind of treatment. To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists also order x rays and laboratory tests. The foot may be the first area to show signs of serious conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. For example, patients with diabetes are prone to foot ulcers and infections due to poor circulation. Podiatrists consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners when they detect symptoms of these disorders. Most podiatrists have a solo practice, although more are forming group practices with other podiatrists or health practitioners. Some specialize in surgery, orthopedics, primary care, or public health. Besides these board-certified specialties, podiatrists may practice other specialties, such as sports medicine, pediatrics, der matology, radiology, geriatrics, or diabetic foot care. Podiatrists who are in private practice are responsible for run ning a small business. They may hire employees, order supplies, and keep records, among other tasks. In addition, some educate the community on the benefits of foot care through speaking engagements and advertising. Professional and Related Occupations witts i|||§l in wtitkites, W9BK&11I mm 299 the colleges require 8 semester hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics, as well as 6 hours of English. The science courses should be those designed for premedi cal students. Potential podiatric medical students also are evaluated on the basis of extracurricular and community activities, personal interviews, and letters of recommendation. About 95 percent of podiatric students have at least a bachelor’s degree. In 2005, there were seven colleges of podiatric medicine accred ited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education. Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. During the first 2 years, students receive classroom instruction in basic sciences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology. Third- and fourth-year students have clinical rotations in private practices, hospitals, and clinics. During these rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physical examina tions, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and perform therapeutic procedures. Graduates receive the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM). Most graduates complete a hospital-based residency program after receiving a DPM. Residency programs last from 2 to 4 years. Residents receive advanced training in podiatric medicine and surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, pathology, radiology, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies lasting more than 1 year provide more extensive training in specialty areas. There are a number of certifying boards for the podiatric special ties of orthopedics, primary medicine, and surgery. Certification means that the DPM meets higher standards than those required for licensure. Each board requires advanced training, the completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing podiatrist. Most managed-care organizations prefer board-certified podiatrists. People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, interpersonal skills, and good business Podiatrists diagnose and treat disorders of the feet and ankles. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work in their own offices. They also may spend time visiting patients in nursing homes or performing surgery at hospitals or ambulatory surgical centers, but usually have fewer afterhours emergencies than other doctors have. Those with private practices set their own hours, but may work evenings and weekends to accommodate their patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each State defines its own licensing requirements, although many States grant reciprocity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Applicants for licensure must be graduates of an accredited college of podiatric medicine and must pass written and oral examinations. Some States permit applicants to substitute the examination of the National Board of Podiatric Medical Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Most States also require the completion of a postdoctoral residency program of at least 2 years and continuing education for license renewal. Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine include the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergraduate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Admission Test (some colleges also may accept the Dental Admission Test or the Graduate Record Exam). All of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sense. Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of podiatric medicine, department chiefs in hospitals, or general health administrators. Employment Podiatrists held about 10,000jobs in 2004. About 23 percent of po diatrists are self-employed. Most podiatrists were solo practitioners, although more are entering group practices with other podiatrists or other health practitioners. Solo practitioners primarily were unincorporated self-employed workers, although some also were incorporated wage and salary workers in offices of other health practitioners. Other podiatrists are employed in hospitals and by the Federal Government. Job Outlook Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014. More people will turn to podiatrists for foot care because of the rising number of injuries sustained by a more active and increasingly older population. Additional job openings will result from podiatrists who retire from the occupation, particularly members of the baby-boom generation. However, relatively few job openings from this source are expected because the occupation is small and most podiatrists remain in it until they retire. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as well as diagnostic x rays and leg braces. Details of such coverage vary among plans. However, routine foot care, including the removal of corns and calluses, 300 Occupational Outlook Handbook ordinarily is not covered unless the patient has a systemic condition that has resulted in severe circulatory problems or areas of desen sitization in the legs or feet. Like dental services, podiatric care is often discretionary and, therefore, more dependent on disposable income than some other medical services. Employment of podiatrists would grow even faster were it not for continued emphasis on controlling the costs of specialty health care. Insurers will balance the cost of sending patients to podiatrists against the cost and availability of substitute practitioners, such as physicians and physical therapists. Opportunities will be better for board-certified podiatrists, because many managed-care organiza tions require board certification. Opportunities for newly trained podiatrists will be better in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks than in traditional solo practices. Establishing a practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding colleges of podiatric medicine, where podiatrists are concentrated. Earnings Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. Median annual earnings of salaried podiatrists were $94,400 in 2004. Additionally, a survey by Podiatry Management Magazine reported median net income of $ 113,000 in 2004. Podiatrists in partnerships tended to earn higher net incomes than those in solo practice. Self-employed podiatrists must provide for their own health insurance and retirement. Related Occupations Other workers who apply medical knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat lower body muscle and bone disorders and injuries include athletic trainers, chiropractors, massage therapists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and physicians and surgeons. Workers who specialize in developing orthopedic shoe inserts, braces, and prosthetic limbs are orthotists and prosthetists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in podiatric medicine, contact: >- American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621. Internet: http://www.apma.org Information on the colleges of podiatric medicine and their entrance requirements, curricula, and student financial aid is avail able from: >- American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 15850 Crabbs Branch Way, Suite 320, Rockville, MD 20855-2622. Internet: http://www.aacpm.org Radiation Therapists (0*NET 29-1124.00) Significant Points • Good job opportunities are expected; applicants who are certified and who possess a bachelor’s or an associ ate degree or a certificate in radiation therapy should have the best prospects. • Employment is projected to grow faster than average. • Radiation therapists need good communication skills because their work involves a great deal of patient interaction. Nature of the Work Radiation therapy is the use of radiation to treat cancer in the hu man body. As part of a medical radiation oncology team, radiation therapists use machines—called linear accelerators—to administer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis radiation treatment to patients. Linear accelerators, used in a pro cedure called external beam therapy, project high-energy x-rays at targeted cancer cells. As the x-rays collide with human tissue, they produce highly energized ions that can shrink and eliminate cancerous tumors. Radiation therapy sometimes is used as the sole treatment for cancer, but usually is used in conjunction with chemotherapy or surgery. The first step in the radiation treatment process is called simulation. During simulation, a radiation therapist uses an x-ray imaging machine to pinpoint the location of the tumor. The thera pist also may use a computerized tomography or CT scan to help determine how best to direct the radiation to minimize damage to healthy tissue. The therapist then positions the patient and adjusts the linear accelerator so that, during treatment, radiation exposure is concentrated on the tumor cells. The radiation therapist then de velops a treatment plan in conjunction with a radiation oncologist (a physician who specializes in therapeutic radiology), and a dosimetrist (a technician who calculates the dose of radiation that will be used for treatment). The therapist later explains the treatment plan to the patient and answers any questions that the patient may have. After simulation, the radiation therapist positions the patient and adjusts the linear accelerator to mirror the conditions that were established in simulation. Then the therapist leaves the room to administer the radiation treatment. From a separate room that is protected from the x-ray radiation, the therapist operates the linear accelerator and monitors the patient’s condition through a TV moni tor and an intercom system. Treatment can take anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes and is usually administered once a day, 5 days a week, for a period of 2 to 9 weeks. During the treatment phase, the radiation therapist monitors the patient’s physical condition to determine if any adverse side effects are taking place. In addition, the therapist must be aware of the patient’s emotional condition. Because many patients are under stress, and are emotionally fragile, it is important for the therapist to maintain a positive attitude and provide emotional support. Ra diation therapists also must keep detailed records of their patients’ treatments. These records include information such as the dose of radiation used for each treatment, the total amount of radiation used to date, the area treated, and the patient’s reactions. Radiation oncologists and dosimetrists review these records to ensure that the treatment plan is working, to monitor the amount of radiation exposure that the patient has received, and to keep unwanted side effects to a minimum. Radiation therapists also assist medical radiation physicists, who keep the linear accelerator working. Because radiation therapists often work alone during the treatment phase, they need to be able to check the linear accelerator for problems and make any adjust ments that are needed. Therapists also may assist dosimetrists, who calculate the amount of radiation for each treatment. Therapists may perform the routine aspects of this process, called dosimetry, which involves complex mathematical computations. Working Conditions Radiation therapists work in hospitals or in cancer treatment centers. These places are clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. Ther apists do a considerable amount of lifting and must be able to help disabled patients get on and off treatment tables. Therapists also work on their feet most of the time. Therapists generally work 40 hours a week, and, unlike other health care occupations, they normally work only during the day. However, because radiation therapy emergencies do occur, some therapists are required to be on call and may have to work outside of their normal hours. Because they work around radioactive materials, radiation therapists take great care to ensure that they are not exposed to Professional and Related Occupations .... 301 covers radiation protection and quality assurance, clinical concepts in radiation oncology, treatment planning, treatment delivery, and patient care and education. Candidates also must demonstrate competency in several clinical practices, which include patient care activities; simulation procedures; dosimetry calculations; fabrication of beam modification devices; low-volume, high-risk procedures; and radiation treatment procedures. AART certification is valid for 1 year, after which therapists must renew their certification. Requirements for renewal include abiding by the ARRT ethical standards, paying the annual dues, and satisfying the continuing education requirements. Continuing education requirements must be met every 2 years and include either the completion of 24 credits of radiation therapy-related courses or the successful attainment of ARRT certification in a discipline other than radiation therapy. Renewed certification, however, may not be required by all States or employers that require initial certification. Individuals interested in becoming radiation therapists should be psychologically capable of working with cancer patients. They should be caring and empathetic because they work with patients who are ill and under stress. Individuals also need good com munication skills because their work involves a great deal of patient interaction. They should be able to keep accurate, detailed records. They also should be physically fit because they work on their feet for long periods and lift and move disabled patients. Experienced radiation therapists may advance to manage ra diation therapy programs in treatment centers or other health care facilities. Managers generally continue to treat patients while taking on management responsibilities. Other advancement opportunities include teaching, technical sales, and research. With additional training and certification, therapists also can become dosimetrists, who use complex mathematical formulas to calculate proper radia tion doses. Employment Radiation therapists use machines called linear accelerators to administer radiation treatment to patients. Radiation therapists held about 15,000 jobs in 2004. About 84 per cent worked in the health care industry, primarily in hospitals and in physicians’ offices. Another 13 percent worked for State and local governments. dangerous levels of radiation. Following standard safety procedures can prevent overexposure. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally require applicants to complete an associate or a bachelor’s degree program in radiation therapy. Individuals also may become qualified by completing an associate or a bachelor’s degree program in radiography, which is the study of radiological imaging, and then completing a 12-month certificate program in radiation therapy. Radiation therapy programs have core courses on radiation therapy procedures and the scientific theories behind these procedures. In addition, such programs often include courses on human anatomy, human physiology, physics, algebra, precal culus, writing, public speaking, computer science, and research methodology. Some States require that radiation therapists be licensed by a State accrediting board. Some States, as well as many employers, also require that radiation therapists be certified by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT). In order to become ARRT-certified, an applicant needs to complete an accredited ra diation therapy program, adhere to ARRT ethical standards, and pass the ARRT certification examination. In 2005 there were 94 accredited radiation therapy programs. While enrolled in an ac credited radiation therapy program, students who wish to become ARRT-certified must take classes that are related to the subject mat terFRASER of the certification examination. The certification examination Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Good job opportunities are expected. Applicants who are certified and who possess a bachelor’s or an associate degree or a certificate in radiation therapy should have the best prospects. Employment of radiation therapists is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations during the 2004-14 period. As the U.S. population grows and ages, demand will increase for radiation treatment. As radiation technology advances, radiation treatment will be prescribed for an increasing proportion of cancer patients. In addition to new jobs created over the projection period, a number ofjob openings will result as experienced radiation therapists retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings The median annual earnings of radiation therapists in May 2004 were $57,700. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,380 and $69,650. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,340. Some employers also reimburse their employees for the cost of continuing education. Related Occupations Radiation therapists use advanced machinery to administer medical treatment to patients. Other occupations that perform similar duties include radiation technologists and technicians, diagnostic medi cal sonographers, nuclear medicine technicians, dental hygienists, 302 Occupational Outlook Handbook respiratory therapists, physical therapy assistants and aides, registered nurses, and physicians and surgeons. Besides radiation therapists, occupations that build relationships with patients and provide them with emotional support include nurs ing, psychiatric, and home health aides; counselors; psychologists; social workers; and social and human service assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists and on accredited radiation therapy programs may be obtained from: ► American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, Minnesota 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org/web Information on careers in radiation therapy may be obtained from: > American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave.,SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. Internet: http://www.asrt.org Recreational Therapists (0*NET 29-1125.00) Significant Points • Overall employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations, but employment of therapists who work in community care facilities for the elderly and in residen tial mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities should grow faster than the average. • Opportunities should be best for persons with a bach elor’s degree in therapeutic recreation, or in recreation with a concentration in therapeutic recreation. • Recreational therapists should be comfortable working with persons who are ill or who have disabilities. Nature of the Work Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recreation specialists, provide treatment services and recreation activities to individuals with disabilities or illnesses. Using a variety of tech niques, including arts and crafts, animals, sports, games, dance and movement, drama, music, and community outings, therapists treat and maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of their clients. Therapists help individuals reduce depression, stress, and anxiety; recover basic motor functioning and reasoning abilities; build confidence; and socialize effectively so that they can enjoy greater independence, as well as reduce or eliminate the effects of their illness or disability. In addition, therapists help integrate people with disabilities into the community by teaching them how to use community resources and recreational activities. Recreational therapists should not be confused with recreation workers, who organize recreational activities primar ily for enjoyment. (Recreation workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In acute health care settings, such as hospitals and rehabilitation centers, recreational therapists treat and rehabilitate individuals with specific health conditions, usually in conjunction or collaboration with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physi cal and occupational therapists. In long-term and residential care facilities, recreational therapists use leisure activities—especially structured group programs—to improve and maintain their clients’ general health and well-being. They also may provide interventions https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to prevent the client from suffering further medical problems and complications related to illnesses and disabilities. Recreational therapists assess clients on the basis of information the therapists learn from standardized assessments, observations, medical records, the medical staff, the clients’ families, and the clients themselves. They then develop and carry out therapeutic interventions consistent with the clients’ needs and interests. For example, clients who are isolated from others or who have limited social skills may be encouraged to play games with others, and right-handed persons with right-side paralysis may be instructed in how to adapt to using their unaffected left side to throw a ball or swing a racket. Recreational therapists may instruct patients in relaxation techniques to reduce stress and tension, stretching and limbering exercises, proper body mechanics for participation in rec reational activities, pacing and energy conservation techniques, and individual as well as team activities. In addition, therapists observe and document a patient’s participation, reactions, and progress. Community-based recreational therapists may work in park and recreation departments, special-education programs for school districts, or programs for older adults and people with disabilities. Included in the last group are programs and facilities such as assisted-living, adult day care, and substance abuse reha bilitation centers. In these programs, therapists use interventions to develop specific skills, while providing opportunities for exercise, mental stimulation, creativity, and fun. Although most therapists are employed in other areas, those who work in schools help coun selors, teachers, and parents address the special needs of students, including easing disabled students’ transition into adult life. Working Conditions Recreational therapists provide services in special activity rooms, but also plan activities and prepare documentation in offices. When working with clients during community integration programs, they may travel locally to instruct the clients regarding the accessibility of public transportation and other public areas, such as parks, play grounds, swimming pools, restaurants, and theaters. Therapists often lift and carry equipment, as well as lead recre ational activities. Recreational therapists generally work a 40-hour week that may include some evenings, weekends, and holidays. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation, or in recreation with a concentration in therapeutic recreation, is the usual requirement for Using a variety of techniques, including games, recreational therapists treat clients and maintain their well-being. Professional and Related Occupations entry-level positions. Persons may qualify for paraprofessional posi tions with an associate degree in therapeutic recreation or a health care related field. An associate degree in recreational therapy; train ing in art, drama, or music therapy; or qualifying work experience may be sufficient for activity director positions in nursing homes. Approximately 150 programs prepare students to become rec reational therapists. Most offer bachelor’s degrees, although some also offer associate, master’s, or doctoral degrees. Programs include courses in assessment, treatment and program planning, intervention design, and evaluation. Students also study human anatomy, physi ology, abnormal psychology, medical and psychiatric terminology, characteristics of illnesses and disabilities, professional ethics, and the use of assistive devices and technology. Although certification is usually voluntary, most employers prefer to hire candidates who are certified therapeutic recreation specialists. The National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification is the certificatory agency. To become certified, spe cialists must have a bachelor’s degree, pass a written certification examination, and complete an internship of at least 480 hours. Additional requirements apply in order to maintain certification and to recertify. Some States require licensure or certification to practice recreational therapy. Recreational therapists should be comfortable working with persons who are ill or who have disabilities. Therapists must be patient, tactful, and persuasive when working with people who have a variety of special needs. Ingenuity, a sense of humor, and imagi nation are needed to adapt activities to individual needs, and good physical coordination is necessary to demonstrate or participate in recreational activities. Therapists may advance to supervisory or administrative positions. Some teach, conduct research, or consult for health or social services agencies. Employment Recreational therapists held about 24,000jobs in 2004. About 6 out of 10 were in nursing care facilities and hospitals. Others worked in State and local government agencies and in community care fa cilities for the elderly, including assisted-living facilities. The rest worked primarily in residential mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities; individual and family services; Federal Government agencies; educational services; and outpatient care centers. Only a small number of therapists were self-employed, generally contracting with long-term care facilities or community agencies to develop and oversee programs. Job Outlook Overall employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. In nursing care facilities—the largest industry em ploying recreational therapists—employment will grow slightly faster than the occupation as a whole as the number of older adults continues to grow. Employment is expected to decline, however, in hospitals as services shift to outpatient settings and employers emphasize cost containment. Fast employment growth is expected in the residential and outpatient settings that serve disabled persons, the elderly, or those diagnosed with mental retardation, mental illness, or substance abuse problems. Among these settings are community care facilities for the elderly (in cluding assisted-living facilities); residential mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities; and facilities that provide individual and family services (such as day care centers for disabled persons and the elderly). Opportunities should be best for persons with a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation or in recreation with an option in therapeutic recreation. Opportunities https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 303 also should be good for therapists who hold specialized certi fications, for example, in, aquatic therapy, meditation, or crisis intervention. Health care facilities will support a growing number of jobs in adult day care and outpatient programs offering short-term mental health and alcohol or drug abuse services. Rehabilitation, home health care, and transitional programs will provide additional jobs. The rapidly growing number of older adults is expected to spur job growth for recreational therapy professionals and paraprofessionals in assisted-living facilities, adult day care programs, and other social assistance agencies. Continued growth also is expected in community residential care facilities, as well as in day care programs for individuals with disabilities. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreational therapists were $32,900 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,520 and $42,130. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,130, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $51,800. In May 2004, median annual earnings for recreational therapists were $28,130 in nursing care facilities. Related Occupations Recreational therapists primarily design activities to help people with disabilities lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are occupational therapists, physical therapists, recreation workers, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on how to order materials describing careers and academic programs in recreational therapy, contact: >- American Therapeutic Recreation Association, 1414 Prince St., Suite 204, Alexandria, VA 22314-2853. Internet: http://www.atra-tr.org >- National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd„ Ashbum, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org/content/default.aspx?documentid=530 Information on certification may be obtained from: >- National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 7 Elmwood Dr., New City, NY 10956. Internet: http://www.nctrc.org Registered Nurses (0*NET 29-1111.00) Significant Points • Registered nurses constitute the largest health care occupation, with 2.4 million jobs. • About 3 out of 5 jobs are in hospitals. • The three major educational paths to registered nursing are a bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from an approved nursing program. • Registered nurses are projected to create the second largest number of new jobs among all occupations; job opportunities in most specialties and employment settings are expected to be excellent, with some em ployers reporting difficulty in attracting and retaining enough RNs. Nature of the Work Registered nurses (RNs), regardless of specialty or work setting, perform basic duties that include treating patients, educating patients 304 Occupational Outlook Handbook and the public about various medical conditions, and providing advice and emotional support to patients’ family members. RNs record patients’ medical histories and symptoms, help to perform diagnostic tests and analyze results, operate medical machinery, administer treatment and medications, and help with patient fol low-up and rehabilitation. RNs teach patients and their families how to manage their illness or injury, including post-treatment home care needs, diet and exer cise programs, and self-administration of medication and physical therapy. Some RNs also are trained to provide grief counseling to family members of critically ill patients. RNs work to promote general health by educating the public on various warning signs and symptoms of disease and where to go for help. RNs also might run general health screening or immunization clinics, blood drives, and public seminars on various conditions. RNs can specialize in one or more patient care specialties. The most common specialties can be divided into roughly four catego ries—by work setting or type of treatment; disease, ailment, or condition; organ or body system type; or population. RNs may combine specialties from more than one area—for example, pediatric oncology or cardiac emergency—depending on personal interest and employer needs. RNs may specialize by work setting or by type of care provided. For example, ambulatory care nurses treat patients with a variety of illnesses and injuries on an outpatient basis, either in physi cians' offices or in clinics. Some ambulatory care nurses are involved in telehealth, providing care and advice through electronic commu nications media such as videoconferencing or the Internet. Critical care nurses work in critical or intensive care hospital units and pro vide care to patients with cardiovascular, respiratory, or pulmonary failure. Emergency, or trauma, nurses work in hospital emergency departments and treat patients with life-threatening conditions caused by accidents, heart attacks, and strokes. Some emergency nurses are flight nurses, who provide medical care to patients who must be flown by helicopter to the nearest medical facility. Holistic nurses provide care such as acupuncture, massage and aroma therapy, and biofeedback, which are meant to treat patients’ mental and spiritual health in addition to their physical health. Home health care nurses provide at-home care for patients who are recovering from surgery, accidents, and childbirth. Hospice and palliative care nurses provide care for, and help ease the pain of, terminally ill patients outside of hospitals. Infusion nurses administer medications, fluids, and blood to patients through injections into patients’ veins. Long- term care nurses provide medical services on a recurring basis to patients with chronic physical or mental disorders. Medical-surgical nurses provide basic medical care to a variety of patients in all health settings. Occupational health nurses provide treatment for job-re lated injuries and illnesses and help employers to detect workplace hazards and implement health and safety standards. Perianesthesia nurses provide preoperative and postoperative care to patients undergoing anesthesia during surgery. Perioperative nurses assist surgeons by selecting and handling instruments, controlling bleeding, and suturing incisions. Some of these nurses also can specialize in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Psychiatric nurses treat patients with personality and mood disorders. Radiologic nurses provide care to patients undergoing diagnostic radiation procedures such as ultra sounds and magnetic resonance imaging. Rehabilitation nurses care for patients with temporary and permanent disabilities. Transplant nurses care for both transplant recipients and living donors and moni tor signs of organ rejection. RNs specializing in a particular disease, ailment, or condition are employed in virtually all work settings, including physicians’ offices, outpatient treatment facilities, home health care agencies, and hospitals. For instance, addictions nurses treat patients seeking https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis help with alcohol, drug, and tobacco addictions. Developmental disabilities nurses provide care for patients with physical, mental, or behavioral disabilities; care may include help with feeding, con trolling bodily functions, and sitting or standing independently. Di abetes management nurses help diabetics to manage their disease by teaching them proper nutrition and showing them how to test blood sugar levels and administer insulin injections. Genetics nurses provide early detection screenings and treatment of patients with genetic disorders, including cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. HIV/AIDS nurses care for patients diagnosed with HIV and AIDS. Oncology nurses care for patients with various types of cancer and may administer radiation and chemotherapies. Finally, wound, ostomy, and continence nurses treat patients with wounds caused by traumatic injury, ulcers, or arterial disease; provide post operative care for patients with openings that allow for alternative methods of bodily waste elimination; and treat patients with urinary and fecal incontinence. RNs specializing in treatment of a particular organ or body system usually are employed in specialty physicians’ offices or outpatient care facilities, although some are employed in hospital specialty or critical care units. For example, cardiac and vascular nurses treat patients with coronary heart disease and those who have had heart surgery, providing services such as postoperative rehabilitation. Der matology nurses treat patients with disorders of the skin, such as skin cancer and psoriasis. Gastroenterology nurses treat patients with di gestive and intestinal disorders, including ulcers, acid reflux disease, and abdominal bleeding. Some nurses in this field also specialize in endoscopic procedures, which look inside the gastrointestinal tract using a tube equipped with a light and a camera that can capture im ages of diseased tissue. Gynecology nurses provide care to women with disorders of the reproductive system, including endometriosis, cancer, and sexually transmitted diseases. Nephrology nurses care for patients with kidney disease caused by diabetes, hypertension, or substance abuse. Neuroscience nurses care for patients with dysfunctions of the nervous system, including brain and spinal cord injuries and seizures. Ophthalmic nurses provide care to patients with disorders of the eyes, including blindness and glaucoma, and to patients undergoing eye surgery. Orthopedic nurses care for pa tients with muscular and skeletal problems, including arthritis, bone fractures, and muscular dystrophy. Otorhinolaryngology nurses care for patients with ear, nose, and throat disorders, such as cleft palates, allergies, and sinus disorders. Respiratory nurses provide care to patients with respiratory disorders such as asthma, tuberculosis, and cystic fibrosis. Urology nurses care for patients with disorders of the kidneys, urinary tract, and male reproductive organs, including infections, kidney and bladder stones, and cancers. Finally, RNs may specialize by providing preventive and acute care in all health care settings to various segments of the popula tion, including newborns (neonatology), children and adolescents (pediatrics), adults, and the elderly (gerontology or geriatrics). RNs also may provide basic health care to patients outside of health care settings in such venues as including correctional facilities, schools, summer camps, and the military. Some RNs travel around the United States and abroad providing care to patients in areas with shortages of medical professionals. Most RNs work as staff nurses, providing critical health care services along with physicians, surgeons, and other health care practitioners. However, some RNs choose to become advanced practice nurses, who often are considered primary health care practitioners and work independently or in collaboration with physicians. For example, clinical nurse specialists provide direct patient care and expert consultations in one of many of the nursing specialties listed above. Nurse anesthetists administer anesthesia, monitor patient’s vital signs during surgery, and provide post-an Professional and Related Occupations esthesia care. Nurse midwives provide primary care to women, including gynecological exams, family planning advice, prenatal care, assistance in labor and delivery, and neonatal care. Nurse practitioners provide basic preventive health care to patients, and increasingly serve as primary and specialty care providers in mainly medically underserved areas. The most common areas of specialty for nurse practitioners are family practice, adult practice, women’s health, pediatrics, acute care, and gerontology; however, there are many other specialties. In most States, advanced practice nurses can prescribe medications. Some nurses have jobs that require little or no direct pa tient contact. Most of these positions still require an active RN license. Case managers ensure that all of the medical needs of patients with severe injuries and illnesses are met, including the type, location, and duration of treatment. Forensics nurses combine nursing with law enforcement by treating and investigating victims of sexual assault, child abuse, or accidental death. Infection control nurses identify, track, and control infectious outbreaks in health care facilities; develop methods of outbreak prevention and bio logical terrorism responses; and staff immunization clinics. Legal nurse consultants assist lawyers in medical cases by interviewing patients and witnesses, organizing medical records, determining damages and costs, locating evidence, and educating lawyers about medical issues. Nurse administrators supervise nursing staff, es tablish work schedules and budgets, and maintain medical supply inventories. Nurse educators teach student nurses and also provide continuing education for RNs. Nurse informaticists collect, store, and analyze nursing data in order to improve efficiency, reduce risk, and improve patient care. RNs also may work as health care con sultants, public policy advisors, pharmaceutical and medical supply researchers and salespersons, and medical writers and editors. Working Conditions Most RNs work in well-lighted, comfortable health care facilities. Home health and public health nurses travel to patients’ homes, schools, community centers, and other sites. RNs may spend considerable time walking and standing. Patients in hospitals and nursing care facilities require 24-hour care; consequently, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. RNs also may be on call—available to work on short notice. Nurses who work in office settings are more likely to work regular business hours. About 23 percent of RNs worked part time in 2004, and 7 percent held more than one job. Working as a school nurse is one of many specialties practiced by registered nurses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 305 Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospitals, nursing care facilities, and clinics, where nurses may care for individuals with infectious diseases. RNs must observe rigid, standardized guide lines to guard against disease and other dangers, such as those posed by radiation, accidental needle sticks, chemicals used to sterilize instruments, and anesthetics. In addition, they are vulnerable to back injury when moving patients, shocks from electrical equip ment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. RNs who work with critically ill patients also may suffer emotional strain from observing patient suffering and from close personal contact with patients’ families. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In all States and the District of Columbia, students must graduate from an approved nursing program and pass a national licensing examination, known as the NCLEX-RN, in order to obtain a nursing license. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or by the endorsement of a license issued by another State. Currently 18 States participate in the Nurse Licensure Com pact Agreement, which allows nurses to practice in member States without recertifying. All States require periodic renewal of licenses, which may involve continuing education. There are three major educational paths to registered nursing: A bachelor’s of science degree in nursing (BSN), an associate degree in nursing (ADN), and a diploma. BSN programs, offered by colleges and universities, take about 4 years to complete. In 2004,674 nurs ing programs offered degrees at the bachelor’s level. ADN programs, offered by community and junior colleges, take about 2 to 3 years to complete. About 846 RN programs in 2004 granted associate degrees. Diploma programs, administered in hospitals, last about 3 years. Only 69 programs offered diplomas in 2004. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three types of educational programs qualify for entry-level positions as staff nurses. Many RNs with an ADN or diploma later enter bachelor’s pro grams to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice. Often, they can find a staff nurse position and then take advantage of tuition reimbursement benefits to work toward a BSN by completing an RNto-BSN program. In 2004, there were 600 RN-to-BSN programs in the United States. Accelerated master’s degree programs in nursing also are available. These programs combine 1 year of an accelerated BSN program with 2 years of graduate study. In 2004, there were 137 RN-to-MSN programs. Accelerated BSN programs also are available for individuals who have a bachelor’s or higher degree in another field and who are interested in moving into nursing. In 2004, more than 165 of these programs were available. Accelerated BSN programs last 12 to 18 months and provide the fastest route to a BSN for individuals who already hold a degree. Individuals considering nursing should carefully weigh the ad vantages and disadvantages of enrolling in a BSN program, because, if they do, their advancement opportunities usually are broader. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Abachelor’s degree often is necessary for admin istrative positions and is a prerequisite for admission to graduate nursing programs in research, consulting, and teaching, and all four advanced practice nursing specialties—clinical nurse specialists, nurse anesthetists, nurse midwives, and nurse practitioners. Indi viduals who complete a bachelor’s receive more training in areas such as communication, leadership, and critical thinking, all of which are becoming more important as nursing care becomes more complex. Additionally, bachelor’s degree programs offer more clinical experience in nonhospital settings. In 2004, 417 nursing schools offered master’s degrees, 93 offered doctoral degrees, and 46 offered accelerated BSN-to-doctoral programs. 306 Occupational Outlook Handbook All four advanced practice nursing specialties require at least a master’s degree. Most programs last about 2 years and require a BSN degree and some programs require at least 1 to 2 years of clinical expe rience as an RN for admission. In 2004, there were 329 master’s and post-master’s programs offered for nurse practitioners, 218 master’s and post-master’s programs for clinical nurse specialists, 92 programs for nurse anesthetists, and 45 programs for nurse midwives. Upon completion of a program, most advanced practice nurses become na tionally certified in their area of specialty. In some States, certification in a specialty is required in order to practice that specialty. All nursing education programs include classroom instruction and supervised clinical experience in hospitals and other health care facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, mi crobiology, chemistry, nutrition, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Coursework also includes the liberal arts for ADN and BSN students. Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital depart ments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A growing number of programs include clinical experience in nursing care facilities, public health departments, home health agencies, and ambulatory clinics. Nurses should be caring, sympathetic, responsible, and detail oriented. They must be able to direct or supervise others, cor rectly assess patients’ conditions, and determine when consultation is required. They need emotional stability to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. Some RNs start their careers as licensed practical nurses or nursing aides, and then go back to school to receive their RN degree. Most RNs begin as staff nurses, and with experience and good performance often are promoted to more responsible positions. In management, nurses can advance to assistant head nurse or head nurse and, from there, to assistant director, director, and vice president. Increasingly, management-level nursing positions require a graduate or an ad vanced degree in nursing or health services administration. They also require leadership, negotiation skills, and good judgment. Some nurses move into the business side of health care. Their nursing expertise and experience on a health care team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home-based, and chronic care. Employers—including hospitals, insurance companies, phar maceutical manufacturers, and managed care organizations, among others—need RNs for health planning and development, marketing, consulting, policy development, and quality assurance. Other nurses work as college and university faculty or conduct research. Foreign-educated nurses wishing to work in the United States must obtain a work visa. Applicants are required to undergo a review of their education and licensing credentials and pass a nurs ing certification and English proficiency exam, both conducted by the Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools. (The commission is an immigration-neutral, nonprofit organization that is recognized internationally as an authority on credentials evaluation in the health care field.) Applicants from Australia, Canada (except Quebec), Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom are exempt from the language proficiency exam. In addition to these national requirements, most States have their own requirements. Employment As the largest health care occupation, registered nurses held about 2.4 million jobs in 2004. About 3 out of 5 jobs were in hospitals, in inpatient and outpatient departments. Others worked in offices of physicians, nursing care facilities, home health care services, employment services, government agencies, and outpatient care centers. The remainder worked mostly in social assistance agen cies and educational services, public and private. About 1 in 4 RNs worked part time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities for RNs in all specialties are expected to be excellent. Employment of registered nurses is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, and, because the occupation is very large, many new jobs will result. In fact, registered nurses are projected to create the second largest num ber of new jobs among all occupations. Thousands of job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the occupation, especially as the median age of the registered nurse population continues to rise. Much faster-than-average growth will be driven by technological advances in patient care, which permit a greater number of medical problems to be treated, and by an increasing emphasis on preven tive care. In addition, the number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need nursing care, is projected to grow rapidly. Employers in some parts of the country and in certain employ ment settings are reporting difficulty in attracting and retaining an adequate number of RNs, primarily because of an aging RN work force and a lack of younger workers to fill positions. Enrollments in nursing programs at all levels have increased more rapidly in the past couple of years as students seek jobs with stable employment. How ever, many qualified applicants are being turned away because of a shortage of nursing faculty to teach classes. The need for nursing faculty will only increase as a large number of instructors nears retirement. Many employers also are relying on foreign-educated nurses to fill open positions. Even though employment opportunities for all nursing special ties are expected to be excellent, they can vary by employment setting. For example, employment is expected to grow more slowly in hospitals—which comprise health care’s largest industry—than in most other health care industries. While the intensity of nursing care is likely to increase, requiring more nurses per patient, the number of inpatients (those who remain in the hospital for more than 24 hours) is not likely to grow by much. Patients are being discharged earlier, and more procedures are being done on an outpatient basis, both inside and outside hospitals. Rapid growth is expected in hospital outpatient facilities, such as those providing same-day surgery, rehabilitation, and chemotherapy. Despite the slower employment growth in hospitals, job op portunities should still be excellent because of the relatively high turnover of hospital nurses. RNs working in hospitals frequently work overtime and night and weekend shifts and also treat seriously ill and injured patients, all of which can contribute to stress and burnout. Hospital departments in which these working conditions occur most frequently—critical care units, emergency departments, and operating rooms—generally will have more job openings than other departments. To attract and retain qualified nurses, hospitals may offer signing bonuses, family-friendly work schedules, or subsidized training. A growing number of hospitals also are experimenting with online bidding to fill open shifts, in which nurses can volunteer to fill open shifts at premium wages. This can decrease the amount of mandatory overtime that nurses are required to work. More and more sophisticated procedures, once performed only in hospitals, are being performed in physicians’ offices and in out patient care centers, such as freestanding ambulatory surgical and emergency centers. Accordingly, employment is expected to grow much faster than average in these places as health care in general expands. However, RNs may face greater competition for these positions because they generally offer regular working hours and more comfortable working environments. Employment in nursing care facilities is expected to grow faster than average because of increases in the number of elderly, many Professional and Related Occupations of whom require long-term care. In addition, the financial pres sure on hospitals to discharge patients as soon as possible should produce more admissions to nursing care facilities. Job growth also is expected in units that provide specialized long-term rehabilita tion for stroke and head injury patients, as well as units that treat Alzheimer’s victims. Employment in home health care is expected to increase rapidly in response to the growing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and techno logical advances that make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. The type of care demanded will require nurses who are able to perform complex procedures. Generally, RNs with at least a bachelor’s degree will have bet ter job prospects than those without a bachelor’s. In addition, all four advanced practice specialties—clinical nurse specialists, nurse practitioners, midwives, and anesthetists—will be in high demand, particularly in medically underserved areas such as inner cities and rural areas. Relative to physicians, these RNs increasingly serve as lower-cost primary care providers. 307 For information on obtaining U.S. certification and work visas for foreign-educated nurses, contact: >- Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools, 3600 Market St., Suite 400, Philadelphia, PA 19104. Internet: http://www.cgfns.org For a list of accredited clinical nurse specialist programs, contact: > National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists, 2090 Linglestown Rd., Suite 107, Harrisburg, PA 17110. Internet: http://www.nacns.org/student/ For information on nurse anesthetists, including a list of accred ited programs, contact: > American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, 222 Prospect Ave., Park Ridge, IL 60068. For information on nurse midwives, including a list of accredited programs, contact: >■ American College of Nurse-Midwives, 8403 Colesville Rd., Suite 1550, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://www.midwife.org For information on nurse practitioners, including a list of ac credited programs, contact: > American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, P.O.Box 12846, Austin, TX 78711. Internet: http://www.aanp.org Earnings Median annual earnings of registered nurses were $52,330 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,370 and $63,360. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,760. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of registered nurses in May 2004 were as follows: Employment services.................................................................... $63,170 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 53,450 Home health care services............................................................ 48,990 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 48,250 Nursing care facilities................................................................... 48,220 Many employers offer flexible work schedules, child care, edu cational benefits, and bonuses. Related Occupations Workers in other health care occupations with responsibilities and duties related to those of registered nurses are cardiovascular technologists and technicians; diagnostic medical sonographers; dietitians and nutritionists; emergency medical technicians and paramedics; licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses; massage therapists; medical and health services managers; nurs ing, psychiatric, and home health aides; occupational therapists; physical therapists; physician assistants; physicians and surgeons; radiologic technologists and technicians; respiratory therapists; and surgical technologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a registered nurse and nursing educa tion, contact: >- National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http:// www.nln.org For information on nursing career options, financial aid, and list ings of BSN, graduate, and accelerated nursing programs, contact: > American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle NW„ Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.aacn.nche.edu For additional information on registered nurses, including credentialing, contact: >• American Nurses Association, 8515 Georgia Ave., Suite 400, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Internet: http://nursingworld.org For information on the NCLEX-RN exam and a list of individual States’ boards of nursing, contact: >• National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Respiratory Therapists (0*NET 29-1126.00, 29-2054.00) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities will be very good, especially for therapists with cardiopulmonary care skills or experi ence working with infants. All States (except Alaska and Hawaii), the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico require respiratory thera pists to obtain a license. Hospitals will continue to employ the vast majority of respiratory therapists, but a growing number of thera pists will work in other settings. Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists and respiratory therapy technicians—also known as respiratory care practitioners—evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing or other cardiopulmonary disorders. Practic ing under the direction of a physician, respiratory therapists assume primary responsibility for all respiratory care therapeutic treatments and diagnostic procedures, including the supervision of respiratory therapy technicians. Respiratory therapy technicians follow specific, well-defined respiratory care procedures under the direction of respiratory therapists and physicians. In clinical practice, many of the daily duties of therapists and technicians overlap; furthermore, the two have the same education and training requirements. However, therapists generally have greater responsibility than technicians. For example, respiratory therapists will consult with physicians and other health care staff to help develop and modify individual patient care plans. Respiratory therapists also are more likely to provide complex therapy requiring considerable independent judgment, such as caring for patients on life support in intensive-care units of hospitals. In this Handbook statement, the term respiratory therapists includes both respiratory therapists and respiratory therapy technicians. Respiratory therapists evaluate and treat all types of patients, ranging from premature infants whose lungs are not fully developed to elderly people whose lungs are diseased. Respiratory therapists provide temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphy sema, as well as emergency care to patients who are victims of a heart attack, stroke, drowning, or shock. 308 Occupational Outlook Handbook To evaluate patients, respiratory therapists interview them, perform limited physical examinations, and conduct diagnostic tests. For example, respiratory therapists test patients’ breathing capacity and determine the concentration of oxygen and other gases in patients’ blood. They also measure patients’ pH, which indicates the acidity or alkalinity of the blood. To evaluate a patient’s lung capacity, respiratory therapists have the patient breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of oxygen during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, respiratory therapists can provide information that helps determine whether the patient has any lung deficiencies. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels, therapists draw an arterial blood sample, place it in a blood gas analyzer, and relay the results to a physician, who then may make treatment decisions. To treat patients, respiratory therapists use oxygen or oxygen mixtures, chest physiotherapy, and aerosol medications. When a patient has difficulty getting enough oxygen into his or her blood, therapists increase the patient’s concentration of oxygen by placing an oxygen mask or nasal cannula on the patient and set the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by a physician. Therapists also connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ventilators that deliver pressurized oxygen into the lungs. The therapists insert a tube into the patient’s trachea, or windpipe; connect the tube to the ventilator; and set the rate, volume, and oxygen concentration of the oxygen mixture entering the patient’s lungs. Therapists perform regular assessments of patients and equipment. If the patient appears to be having difficulty breathing or if the oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH level of the blood is abnormal, therapists change the ventilator setting according to the doctor’s orders or check the equipment for mechanical problems. In home care, therapists teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life-support systems. In addition, therapists visit patients several times a month to inspect and clean equipment and to ensure its proper use. Therapists also make emergency visits if equipment problems arise. Respiratory therapists perform chest physiotherapy on patients to remove mucus from their lungs and make it easier for them to breathe. For example, during surgery, anesthesia depresses respi ration, so chest physiotherapy may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to normal and to prevent congestion. Chest physiotherapy also helps patients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, that cause mucus to collect in the lungs. Therapists j|5pW! Respiratory therapists conduct diagnostic tests on patients with breathing and cardiopulmonary disorders. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis place patients in positions that help drain mucus, and then vibrate the patients’ rib cages and instruct the patients to cough. Respiratory therapists also administer aerosols—liquid medica tions suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled—and teach patients how to inhale the aerosol properly to ensure its effectiveness. In some hospitals, therapists perform tasks that fall outside their traditional role. Therapists’ tasks are expanding into areas such as pulmonary rehabilitation, smoking cessation counseling, disease prevention, case management, and polysomnography—the diagnosis of breathing disorders during sleep, such as apnea. Respiratory therapists also increasingly treat critical care patients, either as part of surface and air transport teams or as part of rapid-response teams in hospitals. Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists may work evenings, nights, or weekends. They spend long periods standing and walking between patients’ rooms. In an emergency, therapists work under a great deal of stress. Respiratory therapists employed in home health care must travel frequently to the homes of patients. Respiratory therapists are trained to work with hazardous gases stored under pressure. Adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equipment minimize the risk of injury. As in many other health occupations, respiratory therapists run the risk of catching an infectious disease, but carefully following proper procedures minimizes this risk. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is necessary for entry into this field. Training is of fered at the postsecondary level by colleges and universities, medical schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. An associate’s degree is required for entry into the field. Most programs award associate’s or bachelor’s degrees and prepare graduates for jobs as advanced respiratory therapists. A limited number of associate’s degree programs lead to jobs as entry-level respira tory therapists. According to the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP), 51 entry-level and 329 advanced respiratory therapy programs were accredited in the United States, including Puerto Rico, in 2005. Among the areas of study in respiratory therapy are human anatomy and physiology, pathophysiology, chemistry, physics, micro biology, pharmacology, and mathematics. Other courses deal with therapeutic and diagnostic procedures and tests, equipment, patient assessment, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the application of clini cal practice guidelines, patient care outside of hospitals, cardiac and pulmonary rehabilitation, respiratory health promotion and disease prevention, and medical recordkeeping and reimbursement. The National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC) offers cer tification and registration to graduates of programs accredited by CAAHEP or the Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care (CoARC). Two credentials are awarded to respiratory therapists who satisfy the requirements: Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) and Certified Respiratory Therapist (CRT). Graduates from accredited entry-level or advanced-level programs in respiratory therapy may take the CRT examination. CRTs who were graduated from advanced-level programs and who meet additional experience requirements can take two separate examinations leading to the award of the RRT credential. All States (except Alaska and Hawaii), the District of Colum bia, and Puerto Rico require respiratory therapists to obtain a license. Passing the CRT exam qualifies respiratory therapists for Professional and Related Occupations State licenses. Also, most employers require respiratory therapists to maintain a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) certification. Su pervisory positions and intensive-care specialties usually require the RRT or at least RRT eligibility. Therapists should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psycholog ical needs. Respiratory care practitioners must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating advanced equipment requires proficiency with computers. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care should take courses in health, biology, mathematics, chemistry, and physics. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem solv ing and an understanding of chemical and physical principles. For example, respiratory care workers must be able to compute dosages of medication and calculate gas concentrations. Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from general care to the care of critically ill patients who have significant problems in other organ systems, such as the heart or kidneys. Respiratory therapists, especially those with bachelor’s or master’s degrees, also may advance to supervisory or managerial positions in a respiratory therapy department. Respiratory thera pists in home health care and equipment rental firms may become branch managers. Some respiratory therapists advance by moving into teaching positions. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 118,000 jobs in 2004. More than 4 out of 5 jobs were in hospital departments of respiratory care, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians or other health practitioners, consumergoods rental firms that supply respiratory equipment for home use, nursing care facilities, and home health care services. Holding a second job is relatively common for respiratory therapists. About 13 percent held another job, compared with 5 percent of workers in all occupations. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be very good, especially for respiratory therapists with cardiopulmonary care skills or experi ence working with infants. Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, because of substantial growth in the numbers of the middle-aged and elderly population—a development that will heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease—and because of the expanding role of respiratory therapists in the early detection of pulmonary disorders, case management, disease prevention, and emergency care. Older Americans suffer most from respiratory ailments and cardiopulmonary diseases such as pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease. As their numbers increase, the need for respiratory therapists will increase as well. In addition, advances in inhalable medications and in the treatment of lung transplant patients, heart attack and accident victims, and premature infants (many of whom are dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will increase the demand for the services of respiratory care practitioners. Although hospitals will continue to employ the vast majority of therapists, a growing number can expect to work outside of hospitals in home health care services, offices of physicians or other health practitioners, or consumer-goods rental firms. Earnings Median annual earnings of respiratory therapists were $43,140 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,650 and The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,220, and the Digitized$50,860. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 309 highest 10 percent earned more than $57,580. In general medical and surgical hospitals, median annual earnings of respiratory therapists were $43,140 in May 2004. Median annual earnings of respiratory therapy technicians were $36,740 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,490 and $43,830. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,280. Median annual earnings of respiratory therapy technicians em ployed in general medical and surgical hospitals were $36,990 in May 2004. Related Occupations Under the supervision of a physician, respiratory therapists admin ister respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to im prove their physical condition include registered nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, and radiation therapists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: V American Association for Respiratory Care, 9425 N. MacArthurBlvd., Suite 100, Irving, TX 75063-4706. Internet: http://www.aarc.org For a list of accredited educational programs for respiratory care practitioners, contact either of the following organizations: >■ Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Pro grams, 35 East Wacker Dr., Suite 1970., Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.caahep.org Information on gaining credentials in respiratory care and a list of State licensing agencies can be obtained from: >- National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 8310 Nieman Rd., Lenexa, KS 66214-1579. Internet: http://www.nbrc.org Speech-Language Pathologists (0*NET 29-1127.00) Significant Points • • • • About half work in educational services, and most oth ers were employed by health care and social assistance facilities. A master’s degree in speech-language pathology is the standard credential required for licensing in most States. Employment is expected to grow because the expand ing population in older age groups is prone to medical conditions that result in speech, language, and swal lowing problems. Excellent job opportunities are expected. Nature of the Work Speech-language pathologists, sometimes called speech therapists, assess, diagnose, treat, and help to prevent speech, language, cogni tive-communication, voice, swallowing, fluency, and other related disorders. Speech-language pathologists work with people who cannot produce speech sounds, or cannot produce them clearly; those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering; people with voice disorders, such as inappropriate pitch or harsh voice; those with problems understanding and producing language; those who wish to improve their communication skills by modifying an ac 310 Occupational Outlook Handbook cent; and those with cognitive communication impairments, such as attention, memory, and problem solving disorders. They also work with people who have swallowing difficulties. Speech, language, and swallowing difficulties can result from a variety of causes including stroke, brain injury or deterioration, developmental delays or disorders, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, hearing loss, or emotional problems. Problems can be congenital, developmental, or acquired. Speech-language pathologists use qualitative and quan titative assessment methods, including standardized tests, as well as special instruments, to analyze and diagnose the nature and extent of speech, language, and swallowing impairments. Speech-language pathologists develop an individualized plan of care, tailored to each patient’s needs. For individuals with little or no speech capability, speech-language pathologists may select augmentative or alterna tive communication methods, including automated devices and sign language, and teach their use. They teach these individuals how to make sounds, improve their voices, or increase their oral or written language skills to communicate more effectively. They also teach individuals how to strengthen muscles or use compensatory strategies to swallow without choking or inhaling food or liquid. Speechlanguage pathologists help patients develop, or recover, reliable communication and swallowing skills so patients can fulfill their educational, vocational, and social roles. Speech-language pathologists keep records on the initial evalu ation, progress, and discharge of clients. This helps pinpoint prob lems, tracks client progress, and justifies the cost of treatment when applying for reimbursement. They counsel individuals and their families concerning communication disorders and how to cope with the stress and misunderstanding that often accompany them. They also work with family members to recognize and change behavior patterns that impede communication and treatment and show them communication-enhancing techniques to use at home. Most speech-language pathologists provide direct clinical services to individuals with communication or swallowing disorders. In medical facilities, they may perform their job in conjunction with physicians, 1*1 m About halfofspeech-language pathologists work in schools, helping students with communication-related disorders. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis social workers, psychologists, and other therapists. Speech-language pathologists in schools collaborate with teachers, special educators, interpreters, other school personnel, and parents to develop and implement individual or group programs, provide counseling, and support classroom activities. Some speech-language pathologists conduct research on how people communicate. Others design and develop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating speech problems. Working Conditions Speech-language pathologists usually work at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. In medical settings, they may work at the patient’s bedside and assist in positioning the patient. In school settings they may work with students in an office or classroom. Some deliver services in the client’s home. While the job is not physically demanding, it requires attention to detail and intense concentration. The emotional needs of clients and their families may be demanding. Most full-time speech-language pathologists work 40 hours per week; about 1 in 5 work part time. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In 2005, 47 States required speech-language pathologists to be licensed if they worked in a health care setting, and all States required a master’s degree or equivalent. A passing score on the national examination on speech-language pathology, offered through the Praxis Series of the Educational Testing Service, is needed as well. Other requirements typically are 300 to 375 hours of super vised clinical experience and 9 months of postgraduate professional clinical experience. Forty-one States have continuing education requirements for licensure renewal. Medicaid, Medicare, and pri vate health insurers generally require a practitioner to be licensed to qualify for reimbursement. Only 11 States require this same license to practice in the public schools. The other States issue a teaching license or certificate that typically requires a master’s degree from an approved college or university. Some States will grant a temporary teaching license or certificate to bachelor’s degree applicants, but a master’s degree must be earned in 3 to 5 years. A few States grant a full teacher’s certificate or license to bachelor’s degree applicants. In 2004,239 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in speech-language pathology that are accredited by the Council on Academic Accreditation in Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology. While graduation from an accredited program is not always required to become a speech-language pathologist, it may be helpful in obtaining a license or may be required to obtain a license in some States. Courses cover the anatomy, physiology, and the development of the areas of the body involved in speech, language, and swallowing; the nature of disorders; acoustics; and psychological aspects of communication. Graduate students also learn to evaluate and treat speech, language, and swallowing disorders and receive supervised clinical training in communication disorders. Speech-language pathologists can acquire the Certificate of Clinical Competence in Speech-Language Pathology (CCC-SLP) offered by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. To earn a CCC, a person must have a graduate degree and 400 hours of supervised clinical experience, complete a 36-week postgradu ate clinical fellowship, and pass the Praxis Series examination in speech-language pathology administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). Speech-language pathologists should be able to effectively com municate diagnostic test results, diagnoses, and proposed treatment in a manner easily understood by their patients and their families. They must Professional and Related Occupations be able to approach problems objectively and be supportive. Because a patient’s progress may be slow, patience, compassion, and good listening skills are necessary. As speech-language pathologists gain clinical experience and engage in continuing professional education, many develop exper tise with certain populations, such as preschoolers and adolescents, or disorders, such as aphasia and learning disabilities. Some may obtain board recognition in a specialty area, such as child language, fluency, or feeding and swallowing. Experienced clinicians may become mentors or supervisors of other therapists or be promoted to administrative positions. Employment Speech-language pathologists held about 96,000jobs in 2004. About half were employed in educational services, primarily in preschools and elementary and secondary schools. Others were employed in hospitals; offices of other health practitioners, including speechlanguage pathologists; nursing care facilities; home health care services; individual and family services; outpatient care centers; and child day care centers. A few speech-language pathologists are self-employed in private practice. They contract to provide services in schools, offices of physicians, hospitals, or nursing care facilities, or work as consultants to industry. Job Outlook Employment of speech-language pathologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2014. As the members of the baby boom generation continue to age, the possibility of neurological disorders and associated speech, lan guage, and swallowing impairments increases. Medical advances are also improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma and stroke victims, who then need assessment and possible treatment. An increased emphasis also has been placed on early identification of speech and language problems in young children. The combination of growth in the occupation and an expected increase in retirements over the coming years should create excellent job opportunities for speech-language pathologists. Opportunities should be particularly favorable for those with the ability to speak a second language, such as Spanish. In health care facilities, restrictions on reimbursement for therapy services may limit the growth of speech-language patholo gists in the near term. However, over the long run, the demand for therapists should continue to rise as growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function spurs demand for therapy services. Employment in educational services will increase along with growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments, including enrollment of special education students. Federal law guarantees special education and related services to all eligible children with disabilities. Greater awareness of the importance of early identi fication and diagnosis of speech and language disorders will also increase employment. The number of speech-language pathologists in private practice will rise due to the increasing use of contract services by hospitals, schools, and nursing care facilities. 311 Offices of other health practitioners............................................. $57,240 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ 55,900 Elementary and secondary schools.............................................. 48,320 According to a 2003 survey by the American Speech-LanguageHcaring Association, the median annual salary for full-time certified speech-language pathologists who worked on a calendar-year basis, generally 11 or 12 months annually, was $48,000. Certified speechlanguage pathologists who worked 25 or fewer hours per week had a median hourly salary of $40.00. Starting salaries for certified speech-language pathologists with one to three years of experience were $42,000 for those who worked on a calendar-year. According to a 2004 survey by the American Speech-Language-Hearing As sociation, the median annual salary for speech-language pathologists in schools was $50,000 for those employed on an academic year basis (usually 9 or 10 months). Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists specialize in the prevention, diagno sis, and treatment of speech and language problems. Workers in related occupations include audiologists, occupational therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, psychologists, and recreational therapists. Speech-language pathologists in school systems often work closely with special education teachers in assisting students with disabilities. Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure requirements. State departments of education can supply informa tion on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. For information on careers in speech-language pathology, a description of the CCC-SLP credential, and a listing of accredited graduate programs in speech-language pathology, contact; >■ American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.asha.org Veterinarians (Q*NET 29-1131.00) Significant Points • Veterinarians should have an affinity for animals and the ability to get along with their owners. • Graduation from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and a State license are required. • Competition for admission to veterinary school is keen; however, graduates should have very good job opportunities. About 1 out of 5 veterinarians was self-employed; selfemployed veterinarians usually have to work hard and long to build a sufficient client base. • Nature of the Work Earnings Median annual earnings of speech-language pathologists were $52,410 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,090 and $65,750. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,420. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers pathologists in May 2004 were: Digitized of forspeech-language FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterinarians play a major role in the healthcare of pets, livestock, and zoo, sporting, and laboratory animals. Some veterinar ians use their skills to protect humans against diseases carried by animals and conduct clinical research on human and animal health problems. Others work in basic research, broadening the scope of fundamental theoretical knowledge, and in applied research, devel oping new ways to use knowledge. 312 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most veterinarians perform clinical work in private practices. More than 50 percent of these veterinarians predomi nately, or exclusively treat small animals. Small-animal practitio ners usually care for companion animals, such as dogs and cats, but also treat birds, reptiles, rabbits, and other animals that can be kept as pets. About one-fourth of all veterinarians work in mixed animal practices, where they see pigs, goats, sheep, and some non domestic animals in addition to companion animals. Veterinarians in clinical practice diagnose animal health problems; vaccinate against diseases, such as distemper and rabies; medicate animals suffering from infections or illnesses; treat and dress wounds; set fractures; perform surgery; and advise owners about animal feed ing, behavior, and breeding. A small number of private-practice veterinarians work exclusively with large animals, mostly horses or cows; some also care for various kinds of food animals. These veterinarians usually drive to farms or ranches to provide veterinary services for herds or individual animals. Much of this work involves preventive care to maintain the health of the animals. These veterinarians test for and vaccinate against diseases and consult with farm or ranch owners and managers regarding animal production, feeding, and housing issues. They also treat and dress wounds, set fractures, and perform surgery, includ ing cesarean sections on birthing animals. Veterinarians euthanize animals when necessary. Other veterinarians care for zoo, aquarium, or laboratory animals. Veterinarians who treat animals use medical equipment such as stethoscopes, surgical instruments, and diagnostic equipment, includ ing radiographic and ultrasound equipment. Veterinarians working in research use a full range of sophisticated laboratory equipment. Veterinarians can contribute to human as well as animal health. A number of veterinarians work with physicians and scientists as they research ways to prevent and treat various human health problems. For example, veterinarians contributed greatly in con quering malaria and yellow fever, solved the mystery of botulism, produced an anticoagulant used to treat some people with heart disease, and defined and developed surgical techniques for hu mans, such as hip and knee joint replacements and limb and organ transplants. Today, some determine the effects of drug therapies, antibiotics, or new surgical techniques by testing them on animals. Some veterinarians are involved in food safety at various levels. Veterinarians who are livestock inspectors check animals for transmissible diseases, advise owners on the treatment of their animals and may quarantine animals. Veterinarians who are meat, poultry, or egg product inspectors examine slaughtering and process ing plants, check live animals and carcasses for disease, and enforce government regulations regarding food purity and sanitation. Working Conditions Veterinarians often work long hours. Those in group practices may take turns being on call for evening, night, or weekend work; solo practitioners may work extended and weekend hours, responding to emergencies or squeezing in unexpected appointments. The work setting often can be noisy. Veterinarians in large-animal practice spend time driving between their office and farms or ranches. They work outdoors in all kinds of weather and may have to treat animals or perform surgery under un sanitary conditions. When working with animals that are frightened or in pain, veterinarians risk being bitten, kicked, or scratched. Veterinarians working in nonclinical areas, such as public health and research, have working conditions similar to those of other professionals in those lines of work. In these cases, veterinarians enjoy clean, well-lit offices or laboratories and spend much of their time dealing with people rather than animals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement 1 H Employment opportunities for veterinarians are expected to be very good, but competition to veterinary school is keen. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Prospective veterinarians must graduate with a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from a 4-year program at an accredited college of veterinary medicine and must obtain a license to practice. There are 28 colleges in 26 States that meet accredita tion standards set by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). The prerequisites for admission vary. Many of these colleges do not require a bachelor’s degree for entrance, but all require a significant number of credit hours—ranging from 45 to 90 semester hours—at the undergradu ate level. However, most of the students admitted have completed an undergraduate program. Applicants without a bachelor’s degree face a difficult task gaining admittance. Preveterinary courses emphasize the sciences. Veterinary medical colleges typically require classes in organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, biochemistry, general biology, animal biology, animal nutrition, genetics, vertebrate embryology, cellular biology, microbiology, zoology, and systemic physiology. Some programs require calculus; some require only statistics, college algebra and trigonometry, or precalculus. Most veterinary medical colleges also require core courses, including some in English or literature, the social sciences, and the humanities. Increasingly, courses in prac tice management and career development are becoming a standard part of the curriculum, to provide a foundation of general business knowledge for new graduates. In addition to satisfying preveterinary course requirements, appli cants must submit test scores from the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), the Veterinary College Admission Test (VCAT), or the Medi cal College Admission Test (MCAT), depending on the preference of the college to which they are applying. Currently, 22 schools require the GRE, 4 require the VCAT, and 2 accept the MCAT. In admittance decisions, some veterinary medical colleges place heavy consideration on a candidate’s veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience, such as work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusiness, research, or some area of health science, is particularly advantageous. Less formal experience, such as working with animals on a farm or ranch or at a stable or animal shelter, also is helpful. Students must demonstrate ambition and an eagerness to work with animals. There is keen competition for admission to veterinary school. The number of accredited veterinary colleges has remained largely the same since 1983, whereas the number of applicants has risen significantly. Only about 1 in 3 applicants was accepted in 2004. AVMA-recognized veterinary specialties—such as pathology, internal medicine, dentistry, nutrition, ophthalmology, surgery, ra diology, preventive medicine, and laboratory animal medicine—are usually in the form of a 2-year internship. Interns receive a small sal ary but usually find that their internship experience leads to a higher beginning salary, relative to those of other starting veterinarians. Vet erinarians who seek board certification in a specialty also must complete a 3- to 4-year residency program that provides intensive training in specialties such as internal medicine, oncology, radiol ogy, surgery, dermatology, anesthesiology, neurology, cardiology, ophthalmology, and exotic small-animal medicine. All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinarians be licensed before they can practice. The only exemptions are for veterinarians working for some Federal agencies and some State governments. Licensing is controlled by the States and is not strict ly uniform, although all States require the successful completion of the D. V.M. degree—or equivalent education—and a passing grade on a national board examination. The Educational Commission for Foreign Veterinary Graduates (ECFVG) grants certification to individuals trained outside the United States who demonstrate that they meet specified requirements for the English language and for clinical proficiency. ECFVG certification fulfills the educational requirement for licensure in all States. Applicants for licensure satisfy the examination requirement by passing the North American Veterinary Licensing Exam (NAVLE), an 8-hour computer-based examination consisting of 360 multiple-choice questions covering all aspects of veterinary medicine. Administered by the National Board of Veterinary Medical Examiners (NB VME), the NAVLE includes visual materials designed to test diagnostic skills and constituting 10 percent of the total examination. The majority of States also require candidates to pass a State ju risprudence examination covering State laws and regulations. Some States do additional testing on clinical competency as well. There are few reciprocal agreements between States, making it difficult for a veterinarian to practice in a different State without first taking that State’s examination. Nearly all States have continuing education requirements for licensed veterinarians. Requirements differ by State and may involve attending a class or otherwise demonstrating knowledge of recent medical and veterinary advances. Most veterinarians begin as employees in established practices. Despite the substantial financial investment in equip ment, office space, and staff, many veterinarians with experience set up their own practice or purchase an established one. Newly trained veterinarians can become U.S. Government meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, animal welfare and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 313 safety workers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commis sioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service or various branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. A State license may be required. Prospective veterinarians must have good manual dexterity. They should have an affinity for animals and the ability to get along with their owners, especially pet owners, who tend to form a strong bond with their pet. Veterinarians who intend to go into private practice should possess excellent communication and business skills, because they will need to manage their practice and employees successfully and promote, market, and sell their services. Employment Veterinarians held about 61,000 jobs in 2004. About 1 out of 5 veterinarians was self-employed in a solo or group practice. Most others were salaried employees of another veterinary practice. The Federal Government employed about 1,200 civilian veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Health and Human Services, and, increasingly, Homeland Security. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local governments, colleges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laboratories, animal food com panies, and pharmaceutical companies. A few veterinarians work for zoos, but most veterinarians caring for zoo animals are private practitioners who contract with the zoos to provide services, usually on a part-time basis. In addition, many veterinarians hold veterinary faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on teachers—post secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of veterinarians is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2004-14 projection period. De spite this average growth, very good job opportunities are expected because the 28 schools of veterinary medicine, even at full capacity, result in a limited number of graduates each year. However, as men tioned earlier, there is keen competition for admission to veterinary school. As pets are increasingly viewed as a member of the family, pet owners will be more willing to spend on advanced veterinary medical care, creating further demand for veterinarians. Most veterinarians practice in animal hospitals or clinics and care primarily for companion animals. Recent trends indicate particularly strong interest in cats as pets. Faster growth of the cat population is expected to increase the demand for feline medicine and veterinary services, while demand for veterinary care for dogs should continue to grow at a more modest pace. Pet owners are becoming more aware of the availability of advanced care and are more willing to pay for intensive veterinary care than in the past because many pet owners are more affluent and because they consider their pet part of the family. More pet owners even purchase pet insurance, increasing the likelihood that a consid erable amount of money will be spent on veterinary care for their pets. More pet owners also will take advantage of nontraditional veterinary services, such as preventive dental care. New graduates continue to be attracted to companion-animal medicine because they prefer to deal with pets and to live and work near heavily populated areas. This situation will not necessarily limit the ability of veterinarians to find employment or to set up and maintain a practice in a particular area. Rather, beginning veterinar ians may take positions requiring evening or weekend work to ac commodate the extended hours of operation that many practices are offering. Some veterinarians take salaried positions in retail stores offering veterinary services. Self-employed veterinarians usually have to work hard and long to build a sufficient client base. The number of jobs for large-animal veterinarians is likely to grow more slowly than that for veterinarians in private practice 314 Occupational Outlook Handbook who care for companion animals. Nevertheless, job prospects may be better for veterinarians who specialize in farm animals than for companion-animal practitioners because of low earnings in the former specialty and because many veterinarians do not want to work in rural or isolated areas. Continued support for public health and food safety, national disease control programs, and biomedical research on human health problems will contribute to the demand for veterinarians, although positions in these areas of interest are few in number. Homeland security also may provide opportunities for veterinarians involved in efforts to minimize animal diseases and prevent them from entering the country. Veterinarians with training in food safety, animal health and welfare, and public health and epidemiology should have the best opportunities for a career in the Federal Government. Earnings Median annual earnings of veterinarians were $66,590 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $51,420 and $88,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $39,020, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $118,430. According to a survey by the American Veterinary Medical As sociation, average starting salaries of veterinary medical college graduates in 2004 varied by type of practice as follows: Small animals, predominantly...................................................... $50,878 Small animals, exclusively............................................................ 50,703 Large animals, exclusively............................................................ 50,403 Private clinical practice................................................................. 49,635 Large animals, predominantly...................................................... 48,529 Mixed animals............................................................................... 47,704 Equine (horses)............................................................................. 38,628 The average annual salary for veterinarians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $78,769 in 2005. Related Occupations Veterinarians prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals. Those who do similar work for humans include chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, and podiatrists. Veterinarians have extensive training in physical and life sciences, and some do scientific and medical research, similar to the work of biological scientists and medical scientists. Animal care and service workers and veterinary technologists and technicians work extensively with animals. Like veterinarians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with animals. However, the level of training required for these occupations is substantially less than that needed by veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in veterinary medicine, a list of U.S. schools and colleges of veterinary medicine, and accreditation policies, send a letter-size, self-addressed, stamped envelope to: > American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. Internet: http://www.avma.org For information on veterinary education, write to: >- Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. N.W., Suite 710, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aavmc.org For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply. Information on obtaining a veterinary position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Manage ment through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Inter net at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. Health Technologists and Technicians Athletic Trainers (0*NET 29-9091.00) Significant Points • Job prospects should be good in the health care indus try; however, competition is expected for positions with sports teams. • Long hours, sometimes including nights and weekends, are common. About one-third of athletic trainers work in health care. • • About 7 out of 10 athletic trainers have a master’s or higher degree. Nature of the Work Athletic trainers help prevent and treat injuries for people of all ages. Their clients include everyone from professional athletes to indus trial workers. Recognized by the American Medical Association as allied health professionals, athletic trainers specialize in the prevention, assess ment, treatment, and rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries. Athletic trainers are often one of the first heath care providers on the scene when https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis injuries occur, and therefore must be able to recognize, evaluate, and assess injuries and provide immediate care when needed. They also are heavily involved in the rehabilitation and reconditioning of injuries. Athletic trainers often help prevent injuries by advising on the proper use of equipment and applying protective or injury-preventive devices such as tape, bandages, and braces. Injury prevention also often includes educating people on what they should do to avoid putting themselves at risk for injuries. Athletic trainers should not be confused with fitness trainers or personal trainers, who are not health care workers, but rather train people to become physically fit. (Fitness workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Athletic trainers work under the supervision of a licensed physi cian, and in cooperation with other health care providers. The level of medical supervision varies, depending upon the setting. Some athletic trainers meet with the team physician or consulting physician once or twice a week; others interact with a physician every day. The extent of the supervision ranges from discussing specific injuries and treatment options with a physician to performing evaluations and treatments as directed by a physician. Athletic trainers also may have administrative responsibilities. These may include regular meetings with an athletic director or other administrative officer to deal with budgets, purchas ing, policy implementation, and other business-related issues. Professional and Related Occupations 315 There is some stress involved with being an athletic trainer, as there is with most health-related occupations. Athletic trainers are responsible for their clients’ health, and sometimes have to make quick decisions that could affect the health or career of their clients. Athletics trainers also can be affected by the pressure to win that is typical of competitive sports teams. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement ‘IjjiWhUllHM : Athletic trainers are heavily involved in the rehabilitation and reconditioning of injuries. Working Conditions The work of athletic trainers requires frequent interaction with others. This includes consulting with physicians as well as frequent contact with athletes and patients to discuss and administer treat ments, rehabilitation programs, injury-preventive practices, and other health-related issues. Many athletic trainers work indoors most of the time; others, especially those in some sports-related jobs, spend much of their time working outdoors. The job also might require standing for long periods, working with medical equipment or machinery, and being able to walk, run, kneel, crouch, stoop, or crawl. Some travel may be required. Schedules vary by work setting. Athletic trainers in nonsports settings generally have an established schedule with nights and weekends off; the number of hours differs by employer, but usually are about 40 to 50 hours per week. Trainers working in hospitals and clinics spend part of their time working at other locations on an outreach basis. Most commonly, those outreach programs include secondary schools, colleges, and commercial business locations. Athletic trainers in sports settings, however, deal with schedules that are longer and more variable. These trainers must be present for team practices and games, which often are on evenings and weekends, and their schedules can change on short notice when games and practices have to be rescheduled. As a result, athletic trainers in sports settings regularly may have to work 6 or 7 days per week, including late hours. In high schools, athletic trainers who also teach may work at least 60 to 70 hours a week. In NCAA Division I colleges and uni versities, athletic trainers generally work with one team; when that team’s sport is in season, working at least 50 to 60 hours a week is common. Athletic trainers in smaller colleges and universities often work with several teams and have teaching responsibilities. During the off-season, a 40-hour to 50-hour work week may be normal in most settings. Athletic trainers for professional sports teams generally work the most hours per week. During training camps, practices, and competitions, they may be required to work up to 12 FRASER hours a day. Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university is required for almost all jobs as an athletic trainer. In 2004, there were more than 300 accredited programs nationwide. Students in these programs are educated both in the classroom and in clinical settings. Formal education includes many science and health-related courses, such as human anatomy, physiology, nutrition, and biomechanics. A bachelor’s degree with a major in athletic training from an ac credited program is part of the requirement for becoming certified by the Board of Certification (BOC). In addition, a successful candidate for board certification must pass an examination that includes written questions and practical applications. To retain certification, credential holders must continue taking medical-related courses and adhere to standards of practice. In the 43 States with athletic trainer licensure or registration or both in 2004, BOC certification was required. According to the National Athletic Trainers Association, 70 per cent of athletic trainers have a master’s or doctoral degree. Athletic trainers may need a master’s or higher degree to be eligible for some positions, especially those in colleges and universities, and to increase their advancement opportunities. Because some positions in high schools involve teaching along with athletic trainer respon sibilities, a teaching certificate or license could be required. There are a number ways in which athletic trainers can advance or move into related positions. Assistant athletic trainers may become head athletic trainers and, eventually, athletic directors. Athletic trainers might also enter a physician group practice and assume a management role. Some athletic trainers move into sales and mar keting positions, using their athletic trainer expertise to sell medical and athletic equipment. Because all athletic trainers deal directly with a variety of people, they need good social and communication skills. They should be able to manage difficult situations and the stress associated with them—for example, when disagreements arise with coaches, clients, or parents regarding suggested treatment. Athletic trainers also should be organized, be able to manage time wisely, be inquisitive, and have a strong desire to help people. Employment Athletic trainers held about 15,000jobs in 2004 and are found in every part of the country. Most athletic trainer jobs are related to sports, although many also work in nonsports settings. About one-third of athletic trainers worked in health care, including jobs in hospitals, of fices of physicians, and offices of other health practitioners. Another one-third were found in public and private educational services, pri marily in colleges, universities, and high schools. About 20 percent worked in fitness and recreational sports centers. Job Outlook Employment of athletic trainers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Job growth will be concentrated in health care industry settings, such as ambulatory heath care services and hospitals. Growth in sports-related positions will be somewhat slower, as most professional sports clubs and colleges, universities, and professional schools already have complete athletic training staffs. Job prospects should be good for people looking for a position in the health care industry. Athletic trainers looking for a position with a sports team, however, may face competition. 316 Occupational Outlook Handbook The demand for health care should grow dramatically as the result of advances in technology, increasing emphasis on pre ventive care, and an increasing number of older people who are more likely to need medical care. Athletic trainers will benefit from this expansion, because they provide a cost-effective way to increase the number of health professionals in an office or other setting. Also, employers increasingly emphasize sports medicine, in which an immediate responder, such as an athletic trainer, is on site to help prevent injuries and provide immediate treatment for any injuries that do occur. Athletic trainers’ increased licensure requirements and regulation has led to a greater acceptance of their role as qualified health care providers. As a result, thirdparty reimbursement is expected to continue to grow for athletic training services. As athletic trainers continue to expand their services, more employers are expected to use these workers to real ize the cost savings that can be achieved by providing health care in-house. Settings outside the sports world, especially those that focus on health care, are expected to experience fast employment growth among athletic trainers over the next decade. Continuing efforts to have an athletic trainer in every high school reflect concern for student-athletes’ health as well as efforts to provide more funding for schools, and may lead to growth in the number of athletic trainers employed in high schools. Turnover among athletic trainers is limited. When dealing with sports teams, there is a tendency to want to continue to work with the same coaches, administrators, and players when a good work ing relationship already exists. Because of relatively low worker turnover, the settings with the best job prospects will be the ones that are expected to grow most quickly, primarily positions in heath care settings. There will also be opportunities in elementary and secondary schools as more positions are created. Some of these positions also will require teaching responsibilities. There will be more competition for positions within colleges, universities, and professional schools as well as professional sports clubs. The occupation is expected to continue to change over the next decade including more administrative responsibilities, adapting to new technology, and working with larger populations, and job seekers must be able to adapt to these changes. Earnings Most athletic trainers work in full-time positions, and typically receive benefits. The salary of an athletic trainer depends on expe rience and job responsibilities, and varies by job setting. Median annual earnings of athletic trainers were $33,940 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,140 and $42,380. The low est 10 percent earned less than $20,770, while the top 10 percent earned more than $53,760. Also, many employers pay for some of the continuing education required of ATCs, although the amount covered varies from employer to employer. Related Occupations The American Medical Association recognizes athletic trainers as allied health professionals. They work under the direction of physi cians and provide immediate care for injuries. Also, they provide education and advice on the prevention of injuries and work closely with injured patients to rehabilitate and recondition injuries, often through therapy. Other occupations that may require similar respon sibilities include emergency medical technicians and paramedics, physical therapists, physician assistants, registered nurses, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, recreational therapists, oc cupational therapists, and respiratory therapists. There also are opportunities for athletic trainers to join the military, although they would not be classified as an athletic trainer. Enlisted soldiers and officers who are athletic trainers are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis usually placed in another program in which their skills are useful, such as health educator or training specialist. (For information on military careers, see the Handbook statement on job opportunities in the armed forces.) Sources of Additional Information For further information on careers in athletic training, contact: ► National Athletic Trainers’ Association, 2952 Stemmons Freeway, Dallas, TX 75247. Internet: http://www.nata.org For further information on certification, contact: >• Board of Certification, Inc., 4223 South 143rd Circle, Omaha, NE 68137. Internet: http://www.bocatc.org Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians (Q*NET 29-2031.00) Significant Points • About 3 out of 4 jobs were in hospitals. • The vast majority of cardiovascular technologists and technicians complete a 2-year junior or community col lege program. • Employment will grow much faster than the average, but the number of job openings created will be low because the occupation is small. • Employment of most specialties will grow, but fewer EKG technicians will be needed. Nature of the Work Cardiovascular technologists and technicians assist physicians in di agnosing and treating cardiac (heart) and peripheral vascular (blood vessel) ailments. Cardiovascular technologists may specialize in any of three areas of practice: invasive cardiology, echocardiography, and vascular technology. Cardiovascular technicians who specialize in electrocardiograms (EKGs), stress testing, and Ftolter monitors are known as cardiographic technicians, or EKG technicians. Cardiovascular technologists specializing in invasive procedures are called cardiology technologists. They assist physicians with car diac catheterization procedures in which a small tube, or catheter, is threaded through a patient’s artery from a spot on the patient’s groin to the heart. The procedure can determine whether a blockage exists in the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle. The procedure also can help to diagnose other problems. Part of the procedure may involve balloon angioplasty, which can be used to treat blockages of blood vessels or heart valves without the need for heart surgery. Car diology technologists assist physicians as they insert a catheter with a balloon on the end to the point of the obstruction. Technologists prepare patients for cardiac catheterization and balloon angioplasty by first positioning them on an examining table and then shaving, cleaning, and administering anesthesia to the top of their leg near the groin. During the procedures, they monitor pa tients’ blood pressure and heart rate with EKG equipment and notify the physician if something appears to be wrong. Technologists also may prepare and monitor patients during open-heart surgery and during the insertion of pacemakers and stents that open up blockages in arteries to the heart and major blood vessels. Cardiovascular technologists who specialize in echocardiography or vascular technology often ran noninvasive tests using ultrasound instrumentation, such as Doppler ultrasound. Tests are called “noninvasive” if they do not require the insertion of probes or other instruments into the patient’s body. The ultrasound instrumentation transmits high-frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body and then processes reflected echoes of the sound waves to form an image. Technologists view the ultrasound image on a screen and may record the image on videotape or photograph it for interpretation and diagnosis by a physician. As the instrument scans the image, technologists check the image on the screen for subtle differences between healthy and diseased areas, decide which im ages to include in the report to the physician, and judge whether the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes. They also explain the procedure to patients, record any additional medical history the patient relates, select appropriate equipment settings, and change the patient’s position as necessary. (See the statement on diagnostic medical sonographers elsewhere in the Handbook to learn more about other sonographers.) Those who assist physicians in the diagnosis of disorders affect ing the circulation are known as vascular technologists or vascular sonographers. They perform a medical history, evaluate pulses and assess blood flow in arteries and veins by listening to the vascular flow sounds for abnormalities. Then they perform a noninvasive procedure using ultrasound instrumentation to record vascular information such as vascular blood flow, blood pressure, changes in limb volume, oxygen saturation, cerebral circulation, peripheral circulation, and abdominal circulation. Many of these tests are performed during or immediately after surgery. Technologists who use ultrasound to examine the heart cham bers, valves, and vessels are referred to as cardiac sonographers, or echocardiographers. They use ultrasound instrumentation to create images called echocardiograms. An echocardiogram may be performed while the patient is either resting or physically active. Technologists may administer medication to physically active patients to assess their heart function. Cardiac sonographers also may assist physicians who perform transesophageal echocar diography, which involves placing a tube in the patient’s esophagus to obtain ultrasound images. Cardiovascular technicians who obtain EKGs are known as electrocardiograph (or EKG) technicians. To take a basic EKG, which traces electrical impulses transmitted by the heart, technicians attach electrodes to the patient’s chest, arms, and legs, and then manipulate switches on an EKG machine to obtain a reading. An EKG is printed out for interpretation by the physician. This test is done before most kinds of surgery or as part of a routine physical examination, especially on persons who have reached middle age or who have a history of cardiovascular problems. EKG technicians with advanced training perform Holter monitor and stress testing. For Holter monitoring, technicians place electrodes on the patient’s chest and attach a portable EKG monitor to the patient’s belt. Following 24 or more hours of normal activity by the patient, the technician removes a tape from the monitor and places it in a scanner. After checking the quality of the recorded impulses on an electronic screen, the tech nician usually prints the information from the tape for analysis by a physician. Physicians use the output from the scanner to diagnose heart ailments, such as heart rhythm abnormalities or problems with pacemakers. For a treadmill stress test, EKG technicians document the patient’s medical history, explain the procedure, connect the patient to an EKG monitor, and obtain a baseline reading and resting blood pressure. Next, they monitor the heart’s performance while the pa tient is walking on a treadmill, gradually increasing the treadmill’s speed to observe the effect of increased exertion. Like vascular technologists and cardiac sonographers, cardiographic technicians who perform EKG, Holter monitor, and stress tests are known as Digitized “noninvasive” for FRASER technicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 317 Cardiovascular technologists use ultrasound technology to produce images for diagnosis. Some cardiovascular technologists and technicians schedule appointments, type doctors’ interpretations, maintain patient files, and care for equipment. Working Conditions Technologists and technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week that may include weekends. Those in catheterization laboratories tend to work longer hours and may work evenings. They also may be on call during the night and on weekends. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians spend a lot of time walking and standing. Heavy lifting may be involved to move equipment or transfer patients. These workers wear heavy protec tive aprons while conducting some procedures. Those who work in catheterization laboratories may face stressful working conditions because they are in close contact with patients with serious heart ailments. For example, some patients may encounter complications that have life-or-death implications. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a few cardiovascular technologists, vascular technolo gists, and cardiac sonographers are currently trained on the job, most receive training in 2- to 4-year programs. The majority of technologists complete a 2-year junior or community college program, but 4-year programs are increasingly available. The first year is dedicated to core courses and is followed by a year of spe cialized instruction in cither invasive, noninvasive cardiovascular, or noninvasive vascular technology. Those who are qualified in an allied health profession need to complete only the year of special ized instruction. Graduates of the 33 programs accredited by the Joint Review Committee on Education in Cardiovascular Technology are eli gible to obtain professional certification in cardiac catheterization, echocardiography, vascular ultrasound, and cardiographic tech niques from Cardiovascular Credentialing International. Cardiac sonographers and vascular technologists also may obtain cer tification from the American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers. Most EKG technicians are trained on the job by an EKG super visor or a cardiologist. On-the-job training usually lasts about 8 to 16 weeks. Most employers prefer to train people already in the health care field—nursing aides, for example. Some EKG techni cians are students enrolled in 2-year programs to become technolo gists, working part time to gain experience and make contact with 318 Occupational Outlook Handbook employers. One-year certification programs exist for basic EKGs, Holter monitoring, and stress testing. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, and be able to follow detailed instructions. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at ease is an asset. Employment For information on echocardiography, contact: >- American Society of Echocardiography, 1500 Sunday Dr., Suite 102, Raleigh, NC 27607. Internet: http://www.asecho.org For information regarding registration and certification, contact: >- Cardiovascular Credentialing International, 1500 Sunday Dr., Suite 102, Raleigh, NC 27607. Internet: http://www.cci-online.org ► American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 51 Monroe St, Plaza East One, Rockville, MD 20850-2400. Internet: http://www.ardms.org Cardiovascular technologists and technicians held about 45,000 jobs in 2004. About 3 out 4 jobs were in hospitals (private and government), primarily in cardiology departments. The remaining jobs were mostly in offices of physicians, including cardiologists or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (0*NET 29-2011.00, 29-2012.00) Job Outlook Employment of cardiovascular technologists and technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Growth will occur as the population ages, because older people have a higher incidence of heart problems and use more diagnostic imaging. Employment of vascular technologists and echocardiographers will grow as advances in vascular technol ogy and sonography reduce the need for more costly and invasive procedures. However, fewer EKG technicians will be needed, as hospitals train nursing aides and others to perform basic EKG procedures. Individuals trained in Holter monitoring and stress testing are expected to have more favorable job prospects than are those who can perform only a basic EKG. Some job openings for cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians will arise from replacement needs as individuals transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. However, job growth and replacement needs will produce relatively few job openings because the occupation is small. Earnings Median annual earnings of cardiovascular technologists and techni cians were $38,690 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,890 and $50,130. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59,000. Median annual earnings of cardiovascular technologists and technicians in May 2004 were $36,890 in offices of physicians and $38,150 in general medical and surgical hospitals. Related Occupations Cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment that helps physicians and other health practitioners to diagnose and treat patients. So do diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation therapists, radiologic technologists and technicians, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career in cardiovascular technology, contact: >- Alliance of Cardiovascular Professionals, Thalia Landing Offices, Bldg. 2, 4356 Bonney Rd., Suite 103, Virginia Beach, VA 23452-1200. Internet: http ://www.acp-online.org For a list of accredited programs in cardiovascular technology, contact: >• Committee on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs, 39 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.caahep.org >- Joint Review Committee on Education in Cardiovascular Technology, 1248 Harwood Rd., Bedford, TX 76021. For information on vascular technology, contact: ► Society for Vascular Ultrasound, 4601 Presidents Dr., Suite 260, Lanham, MD 20706-4381. Internet: http://www.svunet.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • Faster than average employment growth is expected as the volume of laboratory tests continues to increase with both population growth and the development of new types of tests. • Clinical laboratory technologists usually have a bach elor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clinical laboratory technicians generally need either an associate degree or a certificate. • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. Nature of the Work Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diagno sis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory technologists, also referred to as clinical laboratory scientists or medical technologists, and clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medical technicians or medical laboratory technicians, perform most of these tests. Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, and other microorgan isms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for trans fusions; and test for drug levels in the blood to show how a patient is responding to treatment. Technologists also prepare specimens for examination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells in blood and body fluids. They use automated equipment and computerized instmments capable of performing a number of tests simultaneously, as well as microscopes, cell counters, and other sophisticated labo ratory equipment. Then they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. With increasing automation and the use of computer technology, the work of technologists and technicians has become less hands-on and more analytical. The complexity of tests performed, the level ofjudgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Clinical laboratory technologists perform complex chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacterio logical tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood and other body fluids. They make cultures of body fluid and tissue samples, to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other microorganisms. Clinical laboratory technologists analyze samples for chemical content or a chemical reaction and determine concentra tions of compounds such as blood glucose and cholesterol levels. They also type and cross match blood samples for transfusions. Clinical laboratory technologists evaluate test results, develop and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs, to ensure the accuracy of tests. Some technologists supervise clinical laboratory technicians. Professional and Related Occupations Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, whereas those in large laboratories generally specialize. Technologists who prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hormonal con tents of body fluids are called clinical chemistry technologists. Those who examine and identify bacteria and other microorganisms are microbiology technologists. Blood bank technologists, or immunohematology technologists, collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions. Immunology technologists examine elements of the human immune system and its response to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists prepare slides of body cells and examine these cells microscopically for abnormalities that may signal the begin ning of a cancerous growth. Molecular biology technologists perform complex protein and nucleic acid testing on cell samples. Clinical laboratory technicians perform less complex tests and laboratory procedures than technologists perform. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate automated analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests in accordance with detailed instructions. Like technologists, they may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Histotechnicians cut and stain tissue specimens for microscopic examination by pathologists, and phlebotomists collect blood samples. They usu ally work under the supervision of medical and clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers. Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions of clinical laboratory technolo gists and technicians vary with the size and type of employment setting. In large hospitals or in independent laboratories that operate continuously, personnel usually work the day, evening, or night shift and may work weekends and holidays. Laboratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts, rather than on a regular shift. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are on call several nights a week or on weekends, in case of an emergency. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of infection control and sterilization Clinical laboratory technicians may prepare specimens, operate automated analyzers, or perform manual tests in accordance with detailed instructions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 319 are followed, few hazards exist. Protective masks, gloves, and goggles are often necessary to ensure the safety of laboratory personnel. Laboratories usually are well lighted and clean; however, specimens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory sometimes produce fumes. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for an entry-level position as a clinical labo ratory technologist is a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; although it is possible to qualify through a combination of education, on-the-job, and special ized training. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology programs. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, mathemat ics, and statistics, as well as specialized courses devoted to knowl edge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many programs also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act requires technologists who perform highly complex tests to have at least an associate degree. Medical and clinical laboratory technicians generally have either an associate degree from a community or junior college or a certificate from a hospital, a vocational or technical school, or one of the U.S. Armed Forces. A few technicians learn their skills on the job. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sci ences (NAACLS) fully accredits 469 programs for medical and clinical laboratory technologists, medical and clinical laboratory technicians, histotechnologists and histotechnicians, cytogenetic technologists, and diagnostic molecular scientists. NAACLS also approves 57 programs in phlebotomy and clinical assisting. Other nationally recognized accrediting agencies that accredit spe cific areas for clinical laboratory workers include the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools. Some States require laboratory personnel to be licensed or registered. Information on licensure is available from State depart ments of health or boards of occupational licensing. Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization, such as a professional society or certifying agency, grants recognition to an individual whose professional competence meets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health care industry, certification is a prerequisite for most jobs and often is necessary for advancement. Agencies certifying medical and clinical laboratory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology, the American Medical Technologists, the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, and the Board of Registry of the American Association of Bioanalysts. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organizational sponsors. Clinical laboratory personnel need good analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Close attention to detail is essential, because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be crucial for patient care. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. With the widespread use of automated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. In addition, technologists in particular are expected to be good at problem solving. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in labo ratory work or may become chief medical or clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers 320 Occupational Outlook Handbook of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies seek experienced technologists to work in product de velopment, marketing, and sales. A graduate degree in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemistry, manage ment, or education usually speeds advancement. A doctorate is needed to become a laboratory director; however, Federal regula tion allows directors of moderately complex laboratories to have either a master’s degree or a bachelor’s degree, combined with the appropriate amount of training and experience. Technicians can become technologists through additional education and experience. Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... $32,410 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 31,830 Offices of physicians.......... .......................................................... 29,620 Medical and diagnostic laboratories............................................. 29,220 Other ambulatory health care services.......................................... 28,130 According to the American Society for Clinical Pathology, median hourly wages of staff clinical laboratory technologists and technicians in 2003 varied by specialty and laboratory type as follows: Hospital Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 302,000 jobs in 2004. More than half of jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians and in medical and di agnostic laboratories. A small proportion was in educational services and in all other ambulatory health care services. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent, because the number of job openings is expected to continue to exceed the number of job seekers. Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, as the volume of laboratory tests continues to increase with both population growth and the development of new types of tests. Technological advances will continue to have two opposing effects on employment. On the one hand, new, increasingly powerful diagnostic tests will encourage additional testing and spur employment. On the other hand, research and development efforts targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures may enhance the ability of nonlaboratory personnel—physicians and patients in particular—to perform tests now conducted in laboratories. Although hospitals are expected to continue to be the major employer of clinical laboratory workers, employment is expected to grow faster in medical and diagnostic laborato ries, offices of physicians, and all other ambulatory health care services. Although significant, job growth will not be the only source of opportunities. As in most occupations, many openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for some other reason. Earnings Cytotechnoligist......................... .... $24.70 Histotechnologist....................... .... 19.88 Medical technologist.................. .... 20.40 Histotechnician.......................... .... 16.97 Medical laboratory technician.... .... 16.12 Phlebotomist.............................. .... 11.13 Private Physician office clinic laboratory $24.07 19.22 19.00 16.13 15.00 10.57 $25.66 20.50 18.00 20.00 14.75 10.50 Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances, using a variety of tests. Similar or re lated procedures are performed by chemists and materials scientists, science technicians, and veterinary technologists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited and approved educational programs for clini cal laboratory personnel, contact: ► National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 8410 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 670, Chicago, IL 60631. Internet: http://www.naacls.org Information on certification is available from: ► American Association of Bioanalysts, Board of Registry, 906 Olive St., Suite 1200, St. Louis, MO 63101-1434. Internet: http://www.aab.org >- American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. >- American Society for Clinical Pathology, 2100 West Harrison St., Chicago, IL 60612. Internet: http://www.ascp.org >- National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, P.O. Box 15945, Lenexa, KS 66285. Internet: http://www.nca-info.org Additional career information is available from: ► American Association of Blood Banks, 8101 Glenbrook Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-2749. Internet: http://w ww.aabb.org >- American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science, 6701 Democracy Blvd., Suite 300, Bethesda, MD 20817. Internet: http://www.ascls.org ► American Society for Cytopathology, 400 West 9th St., Suite 201, Wilmington, DE 19801. Internet: http://www.cytopathology.org >- Clinical Laboratory Management Association, 989 Old Eagle School Rd., Suite 815, Wayne, PA 19087. Internet: http://www.clma.org Median annual earnings of medical and clinical laboratory technolo gists were $45,730 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,740 and $54,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,120. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technologists in May 2004 were as follows: (0*NET 29-2021.00) General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... $46,020 Medical and diagnostic laboratories............................................. 45,840 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 41,070 • Most dental hygiene programs grant an associate de gree; others offer a certificate, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s degree. • Dental hygienists rank among the fastest growing occupations. • Job prospects are expected to remain excellent. • More than half work part time, and flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Median annual earnings of medical and clinical laboratory technicians were $30,840 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,890 and $37,770. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,680. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technicians in May 2004 were as follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dental Hygienists Significant Points Professional and Related Occupations Nature of the Work Dental hygienists remove soft and hard deposits from teeth, teach pa tients how to practice good oral hygiene, and provide other preventive dental care. Hygienists examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the presence of diseases or abnormalities. They remove calculus, stains, and plaque from teeth; perform root planing as a periodontal therapy; take and develop dental x rays; and apply cavity-preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants. In some States, hygienists administer anesthetics; place and carve filling materials, temporary fillings, and periodontal dressings; remove sutures; and smooth and polish metal restorations. Although hygienists may not diagnose diseases, they can prepare clinical and laboratory diagnostic tests for the dentist to interpret. Hygienists sometimes work chairside with the dentist during treatment. Dental hygienists also help patients develop and maintain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relationship between diet and oral health or inform patients how to select toothbrushes and show them how to brush and floss their teeth. Dental hygienists use hand and rotary instruments and ultrasonics to clean and polish teeth, x-ray machines to take dental pictures, syringes with needles to administer local anesthetics, and models of teeth to explain oral hygiene. Working Conditions Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full-time, part time, evening, and weekend schedules are widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hy gienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. Dental hygienists work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict adherence to proper radiological procedures, and the use of appropriate protective devices when administering anesthetic gas. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgical masks, and gloves to protect themselves and patients from infectious diseases. 321 must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and clinical examination. The American Dental Association’s Joint Commission on National Dental Examina tions administers the written examination, which is accepted by all States and the District of Columbia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical examination. In addition, most States require an examination on the legal aspects of dental hygiene practice. Alabama allows candidates to take its examinations if they have been trained through a State-regulated on-the-job program in a dentist’s office. In 2004, the Commission on Dental Accreditation accredited 266 programs in dental hygiene. Most dental hygiene programs grant an associate degree, although some also offer a certificate, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s degree. A minimum of an associate degree or certificate in dental hygiene is generally required for practice in a private dental office. A bachelor’s or master’s degree usually is required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs. A high school diploma and college entrance test scores are usu ally required for admission to a dental hygiene program. Also, some dental hygiene programs prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college. Requirements vary from one school to another. Schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. Dental hygienists should work well with others and must have good manual dexterity, because they use dental instruments within a patient’s mouth, with little room for error. High school students interested in becoming a dental hygienist should take courses in biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they practice. To qualify for licensure in nearly all States, a candidate Dental hygienists held about 158,000jobs in 2004. Because multiple job holding is common in this field, the number of jobs exceeds the number of hygienists. More than half of all dental hygienists worked part time—less than 35 hours a week. Almost all jobs for dental hygienists were in offices of dentists. A very small number worked for employment services or in offices of physicians. Job Outlook C ■ Wm V«* :WT/ Dental hygienists remove calculus, stains, and plaque from teeth. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, ranking among the fastest growing occupations, in response to increasing demand for dental care and the greater utilization of hygienists to perform services previously performed by dentists. Job prospects are expected to remain excellent. Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth will stimu late demand for dental hygienists. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ dental hygienists, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to employ one or even two hygienists. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hygienists to perform preventive dental care, such as cleaning, so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental hygienists were $28.05 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $22.72 and $33.82 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18.05, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $40.70 an hour. 322 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings vary by geographic location, employment setting, and years of experience. Dental hygienists may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be con tingent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association (ADA), almost all full-time dental hygienists employed by private practitioners received paid vacation. The ADA also found that 9 out of 10 full-time and part-time dental hygienists received dental coverage. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agencies usually have substantial benefits. Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners in an office setting include dental assistants, medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, physician assistants, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene, including educational requirements, contact: >- Division of Education, American Dental Hygienists Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.adha.org For information about accredited programs and educational requirements, contact: >- Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (0*NET 29-2032.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities should be favorable, as sonography becomes an increasingly attractive alternative to radio logic procedures. • About 6 out of 10 sonographers were employed by hospitals, and most of the rest worked in offices of physicians or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. • Sonographers may train in hospitals, vocational-tech nical institutions, colleges and universities, and the Armed Forces. Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in di agnosing ailments. Besides the familiar xray, another common diagnostic imaging method is magnetic resonance imaging, which uses giant magnets that create radio waves, rather than radiation, to form an image. Not all imaging technologies use ionizing radiation or radio waves, however. Sonography, or ultrasonography, is the use of sound waves to generate an image for the assessment and diagnosis of various medical conditions. Sonography usually is associated with obstetrics and the use of ultrasound imaging during pregnancy, but this technology has many other applications in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Diagnostic medical sonographers, also known as ultrasonographers, use special equipment to direct nonionizing, high frequency sound into areas of the patient’s body. Sonographers operate Digitized for waves FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the equipment, which collects reflected echoes and forms an image that may be videotaped, transmitted, or photographed for interpreta tion and diagnosis by a physician. Sonographers begin by explaining the procedure to the patient and recording any medical history that may be relevant to the condi tion being viewed. They then select appropriate equipment settings and direct the patient to move into positions that will provide the best view. To perform the exam, sonographers use a transducer, which transmits sound waves in a cone- or rectangle-shaped beam. Although techniques vary with the area being examined, sonogra phers usually spread a special gel on the skin to aid the transmission of sound waves. Viewing the screen during the scan, sonographers look for subtle visual cues that contrast healthy areas with unhealthy ones. They decide whether the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes and select which ones to show to the physician. Sonographers take measurements, calculate values, and analyze the results in prelimi nary reports for the physicians. Diagnostic medical sonographers may specialize in obstetric and gynecologic sonography (the female reproductive system), abdominal sonography (the liver, kidneys, gallbladder, spleen, and pancreas), neurosonography (the brain), or breast sonography. In addition, sonographers may specialize in vascular technology or echocardiography. (Vascular technologists and echocardiographers are covered in the Handbook statement on cardiovascular technolo gists and technicians.) Obstetric and gynecologic sonographers specialize in the study of the female reproductive system. Included in the discipline is one of the more well-known uses of sonography: examining the fetus of a pregnant woman to track the baby’s growth and health. Abdominal sonographers inspect a patient’s abdominal cavity to help diagnose and treat conditions primarily involving the gallblad der, bile ducts, kidneys, liver, pancreas, and spleen. Abdominal sonographers also are able to scan parts of the chest, although studies of the heart using sonography usually are done by echocar diographers. Neurosonographers focus on the nervous system, including the brain. In neonatal care, neurosonographers study and diagnose neu rological and nervous system disorders in premature infants. They also may scan blood vessels to check for abnormalities indicating a stroke in infants diagnosed with sickle-cell anemia. Like other sonographers, neurosonographers operate transducers to perform the sonogram, but use frequencies and beam shapes different from those used by obstetric and abdominal sonographers. Breast sonographers use sonography to study the disease in breasts. Sonography aids mammography in the detection of breast cancer. Breast sonography can also track tumors, blood supply conditions, and assist in the accurate biopsy of breast tissue. Breast sonographers use high-frequency transducers, made exclusively to study breast tissue. In addition to working directly with patients, diagnostic medi cal sonographers keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate equip ment purchases, or manage a sonography or diagnostic imaging department. Working Conditions Most full-time sonographers work about 40 hours a week. Hospitalbased sonographers may have evening and weekend hours and times when they are on call and must be ready to report to work on short notice. Sonographers typically work in healthcare facilities that are clean and well lighted. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment. A growing number of Professional and Related Occupations 323 tion, sonographers specializing in one particular discipline often seek competency in others; for example, obstetric sonographers might seek training in abdominal sonography to broaden their op portunities. Although no State requires licensure in diagnostic medical sonography, organizations such as the American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography (ARDMS) certify the compe tency of sonographers through registration. Because registration provides an independent, objective measure of an individual’s professional standing, many employers prefer to hire registered sonographers. Registration with ARDMS requires passing a gener al physical principles and instrumentation examination, in addition to passing an exam in a specialty such as obstetric and gynecologic sonography, abdominal sonography, or neurosonography. To keep their registration current, sonographers must complete continuing education to stay abreast of technological advances related to the occupation. Sonographers need good communication and interpersonal skills because they must be able to explain technical procedures and results to their patients, some of whom may be nervous about the exam or the problems it may reveal. Sonographers also should have a background in mathematics and science. Employment Diagnostic medical sonographers held about 42,000 jobs in 2004. About 6 out of 10 sonographer jobs were in hospitals—public and private. Most of the rest were in offices of physicians or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers Job Outlook Using ultrasound equipment, a diagnostic medical sonographer creates an image of a patient’s throat. sonographers work as contract employees and may perform tests at a number of different hospitals. Sonographers are on their feet for long periods and may have to lift or turn disabled patients. They work at diagnostic imaging machines, but also may perform some procedures at patients’ bedsides. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several avenues for entry into the field of diagnostic medi cal sonography. Sonographers may train in hospitals, vocationaltechnical institutions, colleges and universities, and the Armed Forces. Some training programs prefer applicants with a background in science or experience in other healthcare professions, but also will consider high school graduates with courses in mathematics and science, as well as applicants with liberal arts backgrounds. Colleges and universities offer formal training in both 2- and 4-year programs, culminating in an associate or a bachelor’s degree. Twoyear programs are most prevalent. Course work includes classes in anatomy, physiology, instrumentation, basic physics, patient care, and medical ethics. The Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Programs accredits most formal training programs—132 programs in 2005. Some healthcare workers, such as obstetric nurses and radiologic technologists, increase their marketability by seeking training in fields such as sonography. This usually requires completion of an additional 1-year program that may result in a certificate. In addi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of diagnostic medical sonographers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014 as the population grows and ages, increasing the demand for diagnostic imaging and therapeutic technology. In addition to job openings from growth, some job openings will arise from the need to replace sonographers who leave the occupation permanently. Opportunities should be favorable because sonography is becom ing an increasingly attractive alternative to radiologic procedures, as patients seek safer treatment methods. Unlike most diagnostic imaging methods, sonography does not involve radiation, so harmful side effects and complications from repeated use are rarer for both the patient and the sonographer. Sonographic technology is expected to evolve rapidly and to spawn many new sonography procedures, such as 3D- and 4D-sonography for use in obstetric and ophthalmologic diagnosis. However, high costs may limit the rate at which some promising new technologies are adopted. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of diagnostic medical sonographers. However, employment is expected to grow more rapidly in offices of physicians and in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. Healthcare facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2014 because of the strong shift toward outpatient care, encour aged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Earnings Median annual earnings of diagnostic medical sonographers were $52,490 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,720 and $61,360 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,800, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,230. Me dian annual earnings of diagnostic medical sonographers in May 2004 were $53,790 in offices of physicians and $51,860 in general medical and surgical hospitals. 324 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Diagnostic medical sonographers operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, nuclear medicine technologists, radiologic technologists and technicians, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a diagnostic medical sonographer, contact: > Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 2745 Dallas Pkwy., Suite 350, Plano, TX 75093-8730. Internet: http://www.sdms.org For information on becoming a registered diagnostic medical sonographer, contact: > American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 51 Monroe St., Plaza East 1, Rockville, MD 20850-2400. Internet: http://www.ardms.org For a current list of accredited education programs in diagnostic medical sonography, contact: > Joint Review Committee on Education in Diagnostic Medical So nography, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2998. Internet: http ://w ww.j rcdms.org >- Commission on Accreditation for Allied Health Education Pro grams, 35 East Wacker Dr., Suitel970, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.caahep.org Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics (0*NET 29-2041.00) Significant Points • Because emergency services function 24 hours a day, emergency medical technicians and paramedics have irregular working hours. • Emergency medical technicians and paramedics need formal training and certification, but requirements vary by State. • Employment is projected to grow much faster than average as paid emergency medical technician posi tions replace unpaid volunteers. • Competition will be greater for jobs in local fire, police, and rescue squad departments than in private ambulance services; opportunities will be best for those who have advanced certification. Nature of the Work People’s lives often depend on the quick reaction and competent care of emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics—EMTs with additional advanced training to perform more difficult prehospi tal medical procedures. Incidents as varied as automobile accidents, heart attacks, drownings, childbirth, and gunshot wounds all require immediate medical attention. EMTs and paramedics provide this vital attention as they care for and transport the sick or injured to a medical facility. In an emergency, EMTs and paramedics typically are dis patched to the scene by a 911 operator, and often work with police and fire department personnel. (Police and detectives and firefight ing occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Once they arrive, they determine the nature and extent of the patient’s condition while trying to ascertain whether the patient has pre https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis existing medical problems. Following strict rules and guidelines, they give appropriate emergency care and, when necessary, trans port the patient. Some paramedics are trained to treat patients with minor injuries on the scene of an accident or at their home without transporting them to a medical facility. Emergency treatment for more complicated problems is carried out under the direction of medical doctors by radio preceding or during transport. EMTs and paramedics may use special equipment, such as backboards, to immobilize patients before placing them on stretchers and securing them in the ambulance for transport to a medical facility. Usually, one EMT or paramedic drives while the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives additional care as needed. Some EMTs work as part of the flight crew of helicopters that transport critically ill or injured patients to hos pital trauma centers. At the medical facility, EMTs and paramedics help transfer patients to the emergency department, report their observations and actions to emergency room staff, and may provide additional emergency treatment. After each run, EMTs and paramedics replace used supplies and check equipment. If a transported patient had a contagious disease, EMTs and paramedics decon taminate the interior of the ambulance and report cases to the proper authorities. Beyond these general duties, the specific responsibilities of EMTs and paramedics depend on their level of qualification and training. To determine this, the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) registers emergency medical service (EMS) providers at four levels: First Responder, EMT-Basic, EMTIntermediate, and EMT-Paramedic. Some States, however, do their own certification and use numeric ratings from 1 to 4 to distinguish levels of proficiency. The lowest-level workers—First Responders—are trained to provide basic emergency medical care because they tend to be the first persons to arrive at the scene of an incident. Many firefight ers, police officers, and other emergency workers have this level of training. The EMT-Basic, also known as EMT-1, represents the first component of the emergency medical technician system. An EMT-1 is trained to care for patients at the scene of an accident and while transporting patients by ambulance to the hospital under medical direction. The EMT-1 has the emergency skills to assess a patient’s condition and manage respiratory, cardiac, and trauma emergencies. The EMT-Intermediate (EMT-2 and EMT-3) has more advanced training that allows the administration of intravenous fluids, the use of manual defibrillators to give lifesaving shocks to a stopped heart, and the application of advanced airway techniques and equipment to assist patients experiencing respiratory emergencies. EMTParamedics (EMT-4) provide the most extensive prehospital care. In addition to carrying out the procedures already described, para medics may administer drugs orally and intravenously, interpret electrocardiograms (EKGs), perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other complex equipment. Working Conditions EMTs and paramedics work both indoors and outdoors, in all types of weather. They are required to do considerable kneeling, bend ing, and heavy lifting. These workers risk noise-induced hearing loss from sirens and back injuries from lifting patients. In addition, EMTs and paramedics may be exposed to diseases such as hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as violence from drug overdose victims or mentally unstable patients. The work is not only physically strenuous, but can be stressful, sometimes involving life-or-death situations and suffering patients. Nonetheless, many people find Professional and Related Occupations Emergency medical technicians provide medical care to patients at the scene of an emergency. the work exciting and challenging and enjoy the opportunity to help others. EMTs and paramedics employed by fire departments work about 50 hours a week. Those employed by hospitals frequently work between 45 and 60 hours a week, and those in private ambulance services, between 45 and 50 hours. Some of these workers, espe cially those in police and fire departments, are on call for extended periods. Because emergency services function 24 hours a day, EMTs and paramedics have irregular working hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training and certification is needed to become an EMT or paramedic. A high school diploma is typically required to enter a formal training program. Some programs offer an associate degree along with the formal EMT training. All 50 States have a certification procedure. In most States and the District of Columbia, registration with the NREMT is required at some or all levels of certification. Other States administer their own certification ex amination or provide the option of taking the NREMT examination. To maintain certification, EMTs and paramedics must reregister, usually every 2 years. In order to reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT or paramedic and meet a continuing education requirement. Training is offered at progressive levels: EMT-Basic, also known as EMT-1; EMT-Intermediate, or EMT-2 and EMT-3; and EMT- https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 325 Paramedic, or EMT-4. EMT-Basic coursework typically empha sizes emergency skills, such as managing respiratory, trauma, and cardiac emergencies, and patient assessment. Formal courses are often combined with time in an emergency room or ambulance. The program also provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleed ing, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn how to use and maintain common emer gency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxy gen delivery systems, and stretchers. Graduates of approved EMT basic training programs who pass a written and practical examination administered by the State certifying agency or the NREMT earn the title “Registered EMT-Basic.” The course also is a prerequisite for EMT-Intermediate and EMT-Paramedic training. EMT-Intermediate training requirements vary from State to State. Applicants can opt to receive training in EMT-Shock Trauma, wherein the caregiver learns to start intravenous fluids and give certain medications, or in EMT-Cardiac, which includes learning heart rhythms and administering advanced medications. Training commonly includes 35 to 55 hours of additional instruction beyond EMT-Basic coursework, and covers patient assessment as well as the use of advanced airway devices and intravenous fluids. Prerequisites for taking the EMT-Intermediate examination include registration as an EMT-Basic, required classroom work, and a specified amount of clinical experience. The most advanced level of training for this occupation is EMTParamedic. At this level, the caregiver receives additional training in body function and learns more advanced skills. The Technol ogy program usually lasts up to 2 years and results in an associate degree in applied science. Such education prepares the graduate to take the NREMT examination and become certified as an EMTParamedic. Extensive related coursework and clinical and field experience is required. Because of the longer training requirement, almost all EMT-Paramedics are in paid positions, rather than being volunteers. Refresher courses and continuing education are available for EMTs and paramedics at all levels. EMTs and paramedics should be emotionally stable, have good dexterity, agility, and physical coordination, and be able to lift and carry heavy loads. They also need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Advancement beyond the EMT-Paramedic level usually means leaving fieldwork. An EMT-Paramedic can become a supervisor, operations manager, administrative director, or executive director of emergency services. Some EMTs and paramedics become instruc tors, dispatchers, or physician assistants, while others move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equipment. A number of people become EMTs and paramedics to assess their interest in health care, and then decide to return to school and become registered nurses, physicians, or other health workers. Employment EMTs and paramedics held about 192,000jobs in 2004. Most career EMTs and paramedics work in metropolitan areas. Volunteer EMTs and paramedics are more common in small cities, towns, and rural areas. These individuals volunteer for fire departments, emergency medical services (EMS), or hospitals, and may respond to only a few calls for service per month or may answer the majority of calls, especially in smaller communities. EMTs and paramedics work closely with firefighters, who often are certified as EMTs as well and act as first responders. A large number of EMTs or paramedics belong to a union. Full-time and part-time paid EMTs and paramedics were employed in a number of industries. About 4 out of 10 worked as employees of private ambulance services. About 3 out of 10 worked in local government for fire departments, public ambulance 326 Occupational Outlook Handbook services, and EMS. Another 2 out of 10 were found in hospitals, working full time within the medical facility or responding to calls in ambulances or helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. The remainder worked in various industries providing emergency services. Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses (0*NET 29-2061.00) Job Outlook Employment of emergency medical technicians and paramedics is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, as full-time paid EMTs and paramedics replace unpaid volunteers. As population and urbanization increase, and as a large segment of the population—aging baby boomers—becomes more likely to have medical emergencies, demand will increase for EMTs and paramedics. There will still be demand for part-time, volun teer EMTs and paramedics in rural areas and smaller metropolitan areas. In addition to jobs arising from growth, openings will occur because of replacement needs; turnover is relatively high in this occupation because of the limited potential for advancement and the modest pay and benefits in private-sector jobs. Job opportunities should be best in private ambulance services. Competition will be greater for jobs in local government, including fire, police, and independent third-service rescue squad departments, in which salaries and benefits tend to be slightly better. EMTs and paramedics who have advanced certifications, such as EMT-Intermediate and EMT-Paramedic, should enjoy the most favorable job prospects as clients and patients demand higher levels of care before arriving at the hospital. Earnings Earnings of EMTs and paramedics depend on the employment setting and geographic location as well as the individual’s training and experience. Median annual earnings of EMTs and paramed ics were $25,310 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,970 and $33,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,090, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,240. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of EMTs and paramedics in May 2004 were: Local government......................................................................... $27,710 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 26,590 Other ambulatory health care services.......................................... 23,130 Those in emergency medical services who are part of fire or police departments receive the same benefits as firefighters or po lice officers. For example, many are covered by pension plans that provide retirement at half pay after 20 or 25 years of service or if the worker is disabled in the line of duty. Significant Points • Training lasting about 1 year is available in about 1,200 State-approved programs, mostly in vocational or technical schools. • Applicants for jobs in hospitals may face competition as the number of hospital jobs for licensed practical nurses declines; however, rapid employment growth is projected in other health care industries, with the best job opportunities occurring in nursing care facilities and in home health care services. • Replacement needs will be a major source of job open ings, as many workers leave the occupation permanently. Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPNs), or licensed vocational nurses (LVNs), care for the sick, injured, convalescent, and disabled under the direction of physicians and registered nurses. (The work of physi cians and surgeons and of registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most LPNs provide basic bedside care, taking vital signs such as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also prepare and give injections and enemas, monitor cath eters, apply dressings, treat bedsores, and give alcohol rubs and massages. LPNs monitor their patients and report adverse reactions to medications or treatments. They collect samples for testing, perform routine laboratory tests, feed patients, and record food and fluid intake and output. To help keep patients comfortable, LPNs assist with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene. In States where the law allows, they may administer prescribed medicines or start intravenous fluids. Some LPNs help to deliver, care for, and feed infants. Experienced LPNs may supervise nursing assistants and aides. In addition to providing routine bedside care, LPNs in nurs ing care facilities help to evaluate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise the care provided by nursing aides. In Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-headed reactions to life-or-death situations are air traffic controllers, fire fighting occupations, physician assistants, police and detectives, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information General information about emergency medical technicians and paramedics is available from: > National Association ofEmergency Medical Technicians, P.O.Box 1400, Clinton, MS 39060-1400. Internet: http://www.naemt.org ► National Registry ofEmergency Medical Technicians, Rocco V. Morando Bldg., 6610 Busch Blvd., P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. Internet: http://www.nremt.org >- National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, EMS Division, 400 7th St. SW., NTS-14, Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://nhtsa.gov/ portal/site/nhtsa/menuitem.2a0771e91315babbbf30811060008a0c/ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Licensed practical nurses often stand for long periods and help patients move into bed, stand, or walk. Professional and Related Occupations doctors’ offices and clinics, they also may make appointments, keep records, and perform other clerical duties. LPNs who work in private homes may prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks. Working Conditions Most licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nursing care facilities work a 40-hour week, but because patients need roundthe-clock care, some work nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. LPNs may face hazards from caustic chemicals, radiation, and in fectious diseases such as hepatitis. They are subject to back injuries when moving patients and shock from electrical equipment. They often must deal with the stress of heavy workloads. In addition, the patients they care for may be confused, irrational, agitated, or uncooperative. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require LPNs to pass a li censing examination, known as the NCLEX-PN, after completing a State-approved practical nursing program. A high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required for entry, although some programs accept candidates without a diploma, and some are designed as part of a high school curriculum. In 2004, approximately 1,200 State-approved programs provided training in practical nursing. Most training programs are available from technical and vocational schools, or from community and ju nior colleges. Other programs are available through high schools, hospitals, and colleges and universities. Most practical nursing programs last about 1 year and include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice (patient care). Classroom study covers basic nursing concepts and patient care-related subjects, including anatomy, physiology, medicalsurgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, the administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice usually is in a hospital, but sometimes includes other settings. In some employment settings, such as nursing homes, LPNs can advance to become charge nurses who oversee the work of other LPNs and of nursing aides. Some LPNs also choose to become registered nurses through numerous LPN-to-RN training programs. LPNs should have a caring, sympathetic nature. They should be emotionally stable because working with the sick and injured can be stressful. They also should have keen observational, deci sion-making, and communication skills. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Employment 327 jor source of job openings, as many workers leave the occupation permanently. Applicants for jobs in hospitals may face competition as the number of hospital jobs for LPNs declines; however, rapid employment growth is projected in other health care industries, with the best job opportunities occurring in nursing care facilities and in home health care services. Employment of LPNs in hospitals is expected to continue to decline. Sophisticated procedures once performed only in hospitals are being performed in physicians’ offices and in outpatient care centers such as ambulatory surgical and emergency medical centers, largely because of advances in technology. Consequently, employ ment of LPNs in most health care industries outside the traditional hospital setting is projected to grow faster than average. Employment of LPNs is expected to grow much faster than average in home health care services. Home health care agencies also will offer the most new jobs for LPNs because of an increas ing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances that make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. Employment of LPNs in nursing care facilities is expected to grow about as fast as average because of the growing number of aged and disabled persons in need of long-term care. In addition, LPNs in nursing care facilities will be needed to care for the increasing number of patients who have been discharged from the hospital but who have not recovered enough to return home. However, changes in consumer preferences towards less restrictive and more cost-effective care from assisted living facilities and home health care agencies will limit employment growth. Earnings Median annual earnings of licensed practical nurses were $33,970 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,830 and $40,670. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,480, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,270. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of licensed practical nurses in May 2004 were: Employment services........................... Nursing care facilities.......................... Home health care services................... General medical and surgical hospitals. Offices of physicians............................ $41,550 35,460 35,180 32,570 30,400 Related Occupations LPNs work closely with people while helping them. So do emer gency medical technicians and paramedics; medical assistants; nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; registered nurses; social and human service assistants; and surgical technologists. Sources of Additional Information Licensed practical nurses held about 726,000 jobs in 2004. About 27 percent of LPNs worked in hospitals, 25 percent in nursing care facilities, and another 12 percent in offices of physicians. Others worked for home health care services; employment services; community care facilities for the elderly; public and private edu cational services; outpatient care centers; and Federal, State, and local government agencies. About 1 in 5 worked part time. For information about practical nursing, contact any of the following Job Outlook from: > National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 111 East Wacker Dr., Suite 2900, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ncsbn.org A list of State-approved LPN programs is available from indi vidual State boards of nursing. Employment of LPNs is expected to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through 2014 in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population and the general growth of health care services. Replacement needs will be a ma https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis organizations: > National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., P.O. Box 25647, Alexandria, VA22313. Internet: http:// www.napnes.org > National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http:// www.nln.org >• National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 605 Poole Dr., Gamer, NC 27529. Internet: http://www.nflpn.org Information on the NCLEX-PN licensing exam is available 328 Occupational Outlook Handbook w irU! Medical Records and Health Information Technicians (0*NET 29-2071.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than average. • Job prospects should be very good; technicians with a strong background in medical coding will be in particu larly high demand. • Entrants usually have an associate degree; courses include anatomy, physiology, medical terminology, statistics, and computer science. • This is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no direct contact with patients. Nature of the Work Every time a patient receives health care, a record is maintained of the observations, medical or surgical interventions, and treat ment outcomes. This record includes information that the patient provides concerning his or her symptoms and medical history, the results of examinations, reports of x rays and laboratory tests, diag noses, and treatment plans. Medical records and health information technicians organize and evaluate these records for completeness and accuracy. Technicians assemble patients’ health information. They make sure that patients’ initial medical charts are complete, that all forms are completed and properly identified and signed, and that all neces sary information is in the computer. They regularly communicate with physicians and other health care professionals to clarify diag noses or to obtain additional information. Some medical records and health information technicians specialize in coding patients’ medical information for insurance purposes. Technicians who specialize in coding are called health information coders, medical record coders, coder/abstractors, or coding specialists. These technicians assign a code to each diag nosis and procedure. They consult classification manuals and also rely on their knowledge of disease processes. Technicians then use computer software to assign the patient to one of several hundred “diagnosis-related groups,” or DRGs. The DRG determines the amount for which the hospital will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other insurance programs using the DRG system. In addition to the DRG system, coders use other coding systems, such as those geared toward ambulatory settings or long-term care. Some technicians also use computer programs to tabulate and analyze data to improve patient care, control costs, provide documentation for use in legal actions, respond to surveys, or use in research studies. For example, cancer (or tumor) regis trars maintain facility, regional, and national databases of cancer patients. Registrars review patient records and pathology reports, assign codes for the diagnosis and treatment of different cancers and selected benign tumors. Registrars conduct annual followups on all patients in the registry to track their treatment, survival, and recovery. Physicians and public health organizations then use this information to calculate survivor rates and success rates of various types of treatment, locate geographic areas with high incidences of certain cancers, and identify potential participants for clinical drug trials. Cancer registry data also is used by public health officials to target areas for the allocation of resources to provide intervention and screening. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis . • "W Medical records and health information technicians ensure that patient records are complete and accurate. Medical records and health information technicians’ duties vary with the size of the facility where they work. In large to medium-sized facilities, technicians might specialize in one aspect of health information or might supervise health information clerks and transcriptionists while a medical records and health informa tion administrator manages the department. (See the statement on medical and health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In small facilities, a credentialed medical records and health in formation technician sometimes manages the department. Working Conditions Medical records and health information technicians usually work a 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals—where health information departments often are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week—technicians may work day, evening, and night shifts. Medical records and health information technicians work in pleas ant and comfortable offices. This is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no direct contact with patients. Because accuracy is essential in their jobs, technicians must pay close attention to detail. Technicians who work at computer monitors for prolonged periods must guard against eyestrain and muscle pain. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical records and health information technicians entering the field usually have an associate degree from a community or junior Professional and Related Occupations college. In addition to general education, coursework includes medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, legal aspects of health information, coding and abstraction of data, statistics, da tabase management, quality improvement methods, and computer science. Applicants can improve their chances of admission into a program by taking biology, chemistry, health, and computer science courses in high school. Hospitals sometimes advance promising health information clerks to jobs as medical records and health information technicians, although this practice may be less common in the future. Advance ment usually requires 2 to 4 years of job experience and completion of a hospital’s in-house training program. Most employers prefer to hire Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT), who must pass a written examination offered by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA). To take the examination, a person must graduate from a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Manage ment Education (CAHUM). Technicians trained in non-CAHIIMaccredited programs or trained on the job are not eligible to take the examination. In 2005, CAHIIM accredited 184 programs for health information technicians. Experienced medical records and health information techni cians usually advance in one of two ways—by specializing or managing. Many senior technicians specialize in coding, par ticularly Medicare coding, or in cancer registry. Most coding and registry skills are learned on the job. Some schools offer certifi cates in coding as part of the associate degree program for health information technicians, although there are no formal degree programs in coding. For cancer registry, there were 11 formal 2-year certificate programs in 2005 approved by the National Can cer Registrars Association (NCRA). Some schools and employers offer intensive 1- to 2-week training programs in either coding or cancer registry. Once coders and registrars gain some on-the-job experience, many choose to become certified. Certifications in coding are available either from AHIMA or from the American Academy of Professional Coders. Certification in cancer registry is available from the NCRA. In large medical records and health information departments, ex perienced technicians may advance to section supervisor, overseeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or discharge sections, for example. Senior technicians with RHIT credentials may become director or assistant director of a medical records and health informa tion department in a small facility. However, in larger institutions, the director usually is an administrator with a bachelor’s degree in medical records and health information administration. Employment Medical records and health information technicians held about 159,000 jobs in 2004. About 2 out of 5 jobs were in hospitals. The rest were mostly in offices of physicians, nursing care facilities, outpatient care centers, and home health care services. Insurance firms that deal in health matters employ a small number of health information technicians to tabulate and analyze health information. Public health departments also hire technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Job Outlook Job prospects should be very good. Employment of medical records and health information technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014 be cause of rapid growth in the number of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that will be increasingly scrutinized by health https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 329 insurance companies, regulators, courts, and consumers. Also, technicians will be needed to enter patient information into com puter databases to comply with Federal legislation mandating the use of electronic patient records. Although employment growth in hospitals will not keep pace with growth in other health care industries, many new jobs will, nevertheless, be created. The majority of new jobs is expected in offices of physicians as a result of increasing demand for detailed records, especially in large group practices. Rapid growth also is expected in home health care services, outpatient care centers, and nursing and residential care facilities. Additional job open ings will result from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the occupation permanently. Technicians with a strong background in medical coding will be in particularly high demand. Changing government regula tions and the growth of managed care have increased the amount of paperwork involved in filing insurance claims. Additionally, health care facilities are having difficulty attracting qualified workers, primarily because of the lack of both formal training programs and sufficient resources to provide on-the-job training for coders. Job opportunities may be especially good for coders employed through temporary help agencies or by professional services firms. Some cancer registrars may have difficulty finding open positions in their geographic area because of a limited number ol registrars employed by health care facilities and low job turnover. However, when a position does become vacant, qualified cancer registrars have excellent prospects because of the limited number of trained registrars available for employment. Earnings Median annual earnings of medical records and health information technicians were $25,590 in 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,650 and $32,990. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,760. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical records and health information techni cians in 2004 were as follows: General medical and surgical hospitals........................................ $26,640 Nursing care facilities................................................................... 26,330 Outpatient care centers.................................................................. 23,870 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 22,130 Related Occupations Medical records and health information technicians need a strong clinical background to analyze the contents of medical records. Other workers who need knowledge of medical termi nology, anatomy, and physiology but have little or no direct contact with patients include medical secretaries and medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in medical records and health information technology, including a list of programs accredited by CAHIIM, is available from: > American Health Information Management Association, 233 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 2150, Chicago, IL 60601-5800. Internet: http://www.ahima.org Information on training and certification for medical coders is available from: > American Academy of Professional Coders, P.O. Box 45855, Salt Lake City, UT 84145-0855. Information on a career as a cancer registrar is available from: >- National Cancer Registrars Association, 1340 Braddock PL, #203, Al exandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ncra-usa.org 330 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nuclear Medicine Technologists (0*NET 29-2033.00) Significant Points • About 7 out of 10 work in hospitals. • Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. • Faster than average growth will arise from an increase in the number of middle-aged and elderly persons, who are the primary users of diagnostic procedures. • The number of job openings each year will be relative ly low because the occupation is small; technologists who also are trained in other diagnostic methods, such as radiologic technology or diagnostic medical sonog raphy, will have the best prospects. A nuclear medicine technologist prepares a patient prior to a scan. Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in diagnos ing ailments, the most familiar being the x ray. Another increasingly common diagnostic imaging method, called magnetic resonance imag ing (MRI), uses giant magnets and radio waves, rather than radiation, to create an image. In nuclear medicine, radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit radiation spontaneously—are used to diagnose and treat disease. Radionuclides are purified and compounded to form radiopharmaceuticals. Nuclear medicine technologists administer ra diopharmaceuticals to patients and then monitor the characteristics and functions of tissues or organs in which the drugs localize. Abnormal areas show higher-than-expected or lower-than-expected concentrations of radioactivity. Nuclear medicine differs from other diagnostic imaging technologies because it determines the presence of disease on the basis of biological changes rather than changes in organ structure. Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in a patient’s body to create diagnostic images. After explaining test procedures to patients, technologists prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and administer it by mouth, injection, inhalation, or other means. They position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or “scanner,” which creates images of the distribution of a radiopharmaceutical as it localizes in, and emits signals from, the patient’s body. The images are produced on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret. When preparing radiopharmaceuticals, technologists adhere to safety standards that keep the radiation dose to workers and patients as low as possible. Technologists keep patient records and record the amount and type of radionuclides that they receive, use, and discard. Radiologic technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and cardiovascular technologists and technicians also operate diagnostic imaging equipment, but their equipment creates images by means of a different technology. (See the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nuclear medicine technologists also perform radioimmunoassay studies that assess the behavior of a radioactive substance inside the body. For example, technologists may add radioactive substances to blood or serum to determine levels of hormones or of therapeutic drugs in the body. Most nuclear medicine studies, such as cardiac function studies, are processed with the aid of a computer. Working Conditions Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week, perhaps including evening or weekend hours, in departments that https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis operate on an extended schedule. Opportunities for part-time and shift work also are available. In addition, technologists in hospitals may have on-call duty on a rotational basis. Physical stamina is important because technologists are on their feet much of the day and may lift or turn disabled patients. Although the potential for radiation exposure exists in this field, it is kept to a minimum by the use of shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices and by adherence to strict radiation safety guidelines. The amount of radiation in a nuclear medicine procedure is comparable to that received during a diagnostic x-ray procedure. Technologists also wear badges that measure radiation levels. Because of safety programs, badge measurements rarely exceed established safety levels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers and an increasing number of States require cer tification or licensure. Aspiring nuclear medicine technologists should check the requirements of the State in which they plan to work. Certification is available from the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists and from the Nuclear Medicine Tech nology Certification Board. Some workers receive certification from both agencies. Nuclear medicine technologists must meet the minimum Federal standards on the administration of radioac tive drugs and the operation of radiation detection equipment. Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. Generally, certificate programs are offered in hospitals, associate degree programs in community colleges, and bachelor’s degree programs in 4-year colleges and universities. Courses cover the physical sciences, biological effects of radiation exposure, ra diation protection and procedures, the use of radiopharmaceuticals, imaging techniques, and computer applications. One-year certificate programs are for health professionals who already posses an associate degree—especially radiologic tech nologists and diagnostic medical sonographers—but who wish to specialize in nuclear medicine. The programs also attract medical technologists, registered nurses, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. Others interested in nuclear medicine technology have three options: a 2-year certificate program, a 2-year associate degree program, or a 4-year bachelor’s degree program. The Joint Review Committee on Education Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology accredits most formal training programs in Professional and Related Occupations nuclear medicine technology. In 2005, there were 100 accredited programs in the continental United States and Puerto Rico. Nuclear medicine technologists should be sensitive to patients’ physi cal and psychological needs. They must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating compli cated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Technologists may advance to supervisor, then to chief tech nologist, and, finally, to department administrator or director. Some technologists specialize in a clinical area such as nuclear cardiol ogy or computer analysis or leave patient care to take positions in research laboratories. Some become instructors in, or directors of, nuclear medicine technology programs, a step that usually requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in the subject. Others leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives for medical equipment and radiopharmaceutical manufacturing firms or as radia tion safety officers in regulatory agencies or hospitals. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 18,000 jobs in 2004. About 7 out of 10 were in hospitals—private and government. Most of the rest were in offices of physicians or in medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers. 331 patients. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, radiation therapists, radiologic technologists and technicians, and respiratory therapists perform similar functions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine technolo gist is available from: > Society of Nuclear Medicine Technologists, 1850 Samuel Morse Dr., Reston, VA 20190-5316. Internet: http://www.snm.org For career information, send a stamped, self-addressed, businesssize envelope with your request to: >- American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave.S.E., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. Internet: http://www.asrt.org For a list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technol ogy, write to: >- Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology, 1716 Black Point Rd., P.O. Box 1149, Poison, MT 59860 1149. Internet: http://www.jrcnmt.org Information on certification is available from: >• American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org > Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, 2970 Clairmont Rd., Suite 935, Atlanta, GA 30329-4421. Internet: http://www.nmtcb.org Job Outlook Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. Growth will arise from technological advancement, the development of new nuclear medicine treatments, and an increase in the number of middle-aged and older persons, who are the primary users of diagnostic procedures, including nuclear medicine tests. However, the number of openings each year will be relatively low because the occupation is small. Technologists who also are trained in other diagnostic methods, such as radiologic technology or diagnostic medical sonography, will have the best prospects. Technological innovations may increase the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. One example is the use of radiopharmaceuticals in combination with monoclonal antibodies to detect cancer at far earlier stages than is customary today and without resorting to surgery. Another is the use of radionuclides to examine the heart’s ability to pump blood. New nuclear medical imaging technologies, including positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), are expected to be used increas ingly and to contribute further to employment growth. The wider use of nuclear medical imaging to observe metabolic and biochemical changes during neurology, cardiology, and oncology procedures also will spur demand for nuclear medicine technologists. Nonetheless, cost considerations will affect the speed with which new applications of nuclear medicine grow. Some promising nuclear medicine procedures, such as positron emission tomography, are extremely costly, and hospitals contemplating these procedures will have to consider equipment costs, reimbursement policies, and the number of potential users. Earnings Median annual earnings of nuclear medicine technologists were $56,450 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,720 and $67,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,800, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,300. Median annual earnings of nuclear medicine technologists in May 2004 were $54,920 in general medical and surgical hospitals. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational Health and Safety Specialists and Technicians (0*NET 29-9011.00, 29-9012.00) Significant Points • About 2 out of 5 specialists worked in Federal, State, and local government agencies that enforce rules on safety, health, and the environment. • Many employers, including the Federal Government, require a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field for some specialist positions. • Projected average employment growth reflects a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. Nature of the Work Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians, also known as safety and health practitioners or occupational health and safety in spectors, help prevent harm to workers, property, the environment, and the general public. They promote occupational health and safety within organizations in many ways, such as by advising management on how to increase worker productivity through raising morale and reducing absenteeism, turnover, and equipment downtime while securing savings on insurance premiums, workers’ compensation benefits, and litigation expenses. (Industrial engineers, including health and safety, have similar goals. See the section on engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Occupational health and safety specialists analyze work environ ments and design programs to control, eliminate, and prevent disease or injury caused by chemical, physical, radiological, and biological agents or ergonomic factors that involve the impact of equipment de sign on a worker’s comfort or fatigue. They may conduct inspections and inform the management of a business which areas may not be in compliance with State and Federal laws or employer policies, in order to gain their support for addressing these areas. They advise manage ment on the cost and effectiveness of safety and health programs. 332 Occupational Outlook Handbook Occupational health and safety technicians collect data on work envi ronments for analysis by occupational health and safety specialists. Usu ally working under the supervision of specialists, they help implement and evaluate programs designed to limit risks to workers. The specific responsibilities of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians vary by industry, workplace, and types of hazards affecting employees. In most settings, they initially fo cus on identifying hazardous conditions and practices. Sometimes they develop methods to predict hazards from experience, historical data, workplace analysis, and other information sources. Then they identify potential hazards in systems, equipment, products, facilities, or processes planned for use in the future. For example, they might uncover patterns in injury data that implicate a specific cause such as system failure, human error, incomplete or faulty decision mak ing, or a weakness in existing policies or practices. After reviewing the causes or effects of hazards, they evaluate the probability and severity of accidents or exposures to hazardous materials that may result. Then they identify where controls need to be implemented to reduce or eliminate hazards and advise if a new program or practice is required. As necessary, they conduct training sessions for man agement, supervisors, and workers on health and safety practices and regulations to promote an understanding of a new or existing process. After implementation, they may monitor and evaluate the program’s progress, making additional suggestions when needed. To ensure the machinery and equipment meet appropriate safety regulations, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians may examine and test machinery and equipment, such as lifting de vices, machine guards, or scaffolding. They may check that personal protective equipment, such as masks, respirators, protective eyewear, or hardhats, is being used in workplaces according to regulations. They also check that hazardous materials are stored correctly. They test and identify work areas for potential accident and health hazards, such as toxic vapors, mold, mildew, and explosive gas-air mixtures, and help implement appropriate control measures, such as adjustments to ven tilation systems. Their survey of the workplace might involve talking with workers and observing their work, as well as inspecting elements in their work environment, such as lighting, tools, and equipment. To measure and control hazardous substances, such as the noise or radiation levels, occupational health and safety specialists and techni cians prepare and calibrate scientific equipment. They must properly collect and handle samples of dust, gases, vapors, and other potentially toxic materials to ensure personal safety and accurate test results. If an injury or illness occurs, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians help investigate unsafe working condi tions, study possible causes, and recommend remedial action. Some occupational health and safety specialists and technicians assist with the rehabilitation of workers after accidents and injuries, and make sure they return to work successfully. Frequent communication with management may be necessary to report on the status of occupational health and safety programs. Consultation with engineers or physicians also may be required. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians prepare reports including accident reports, Occupational Safety and Health Administration record-keeping forms, observations, analysis of contaminants, and recommendations for control and correction of hazards. They may prepare documents to be used in legal proceed ings and give testimony in court proceedings. Those who develop expertise in certain areas may develop occupational health and safety systems, including policies, procedures, and manuals. Specialists and technicians that concentrate in particular areas in clude environmental protection officers, ergonomists, health physicists, industrial hygienists, and mine examiners. Environmental protection officers evaluate and coordinate programs that impact the environment, such as the storage and handling of hazardous waste or monitoring the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians must properly collect and handle samples ofdust, gases, vapors, and other potentially toxic materials to ensure accurate test results. cleanup of contaminated soil or water. Ergonomists help ensure that the work environment allows employees to maximize their comfort, safety, and productivity. Health physicists help protect people and the environ ment from hazardous radiation exposure by monitoring the manufacture, handling, and disposal of radioactive material. Industrial hygienists examine the workplace for health hazards, such as worker exposure to lead, asbestos, pesticides, or communicable diseases. Mine examiners are technicians who inspect mines for proper air flow and health hazards such as the buildup of methane or other noxious gases. Working Conditions Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work with many different people in a variety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork, and some travel frequently. Many occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work long and often irregular hours. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians may be exposed to many of the same physically strenuous conditions and hazards as industrial employees, and the work may be performed in unpleasant, stressful, and dangerous working conditions. They may find themselves in an adversaria] role if the management of an organization disagrees with the recommendations for ensuring a safe working environment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All occupational health and safety specialists and technicians are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through Professional and Related Occupations some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. Awards and degrees in programs related to occupational safety and health include 1-year certificates, associate degrees, bachelor’s degrees, and graduate degrees. The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) accredits health physics, industrial hygiene, and safety pro grams, in addition to engineering programs. Many employers, including the Federal Government, require a bachelor’s degree in occupational health, safety, or a related field, such as engineering, biology, or chem istry, for some specialist positions. Many industrial hygiene programs result in a master’s degree. Experience as an occupational health and safety professional is also a prerequisite for many positions. Advance ment to senior specialist positions is likely to require an advanced degree and substantial experience in several areas of practice. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should be responsible and like detailed work. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians should be able to communicate well. Recommended high school courses include English, math ematics, chemistry, biology, and physics. Certification is available through the Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) and the American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH). The BCSP offers the Certified Safety Professional (CSP) cre dential, while the ABIH offers the Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) and Certified Associate Industrial Hygienist (CAIH) credentials. Also, the Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technologists, a joint effort between the BCSP and ABIH, awards the Occupational Health and Safety Technologist (OHST) and Construc tion Health and Safety Technician (CHST) credentials. Requirements for the OHST and CHST credentials are less stringent than those for the CSP, CIH, or CAIH credentials. Once education and experience requirements have been met, certification may be obtained through an examination. Continuing education is required for recertification. Al though voluntary, many employers encourage certification. Federal Government occupational health and safety specialists and technicians whose job performance is satisfactory advance through their career ladder to a specified full-performance level. For positions above this level, usually supervisory positions, advancement is com petitive and based on agency needs and individual merit. Advance ment opportunities in State and local governments and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. Research or related teaching positions at the college level require advanced education. 333 for architectural, engineering, and related services; research and development in the physical, engineering, and life sciences; and electric power generation, transmission, and distribution. Within the Federal Government, most jobs are as Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) inspectors, who enforce U.S. Department of Labor regulations that ensure adequate safety principles, practices, and techniques are applied in workplaces. Em ployers may be fined for violation of OSHA standards. Within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, occupational health and safety specialists working for the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provide private com panies with an avenue to evaluate the health and safety of their employees without the risk of being fined. Most large government agencies also employ occupational health and safety specialists and technicians who work to protect agency employees. Most private companies either employ their own occupational health and safety personnel or contract with occupational health and safety professionals to ensure the safety of their workers and compliance with Federal, State, and local government agencies that enforce rules on safety, health, and the environment. Job Outlook Employment of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014, reflecting a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. Since the September 11,2001 attacks, emergency preparedness has become a greater focus for the public and private sectors, and for occupational health and safety specialists and technicians. Additional job openings will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other reasons. In private industry, employment growth will reflect industry growth and the continuing self-enforce ment of government and company regulations and policies. Employment of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians in the private sector is somewhat affected by general economic fluctuations. Federal, State, and local governments, which employ about 2 out of 5 of all specialists and technicians, provide considerable job security; workers are less likely to be affected by changes in the economy. Earnings Employment Occupational health and safety specialists held about 40,000 jobs in 2004. While the majority ofjobs were spread throughout the private sec tor, about 2 out of 5 specialists worked for government agencies. Local governments employed 19 percent, State governments employed 18 percent, and the Federal Government employed 4 percent. Other oc cupational health and safety specialists were employed in manufacturing firms; private general medical and surgical hospitals; management, scientific, and technical consulting services; management of companies and enterprises; support activities for mining; research and develop ment in the physical, engineering, and fife sciences; private colleges, universities, and professional schools; and electric power generation, transmission, and distribution. Some were self-employed. Occupational health and safety technicians held about 12,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly 3 out of 10 technicians worked in govern ment agencies. Local governments employed 13 percent, State governments employed 7 percent, and the Federal Government employed 9 percent. Other occupational health and safety tech nicians were employed in manufacturing firms; private general medical and surgical hospitals; private colleges, universities, and professional schools; employment services; management, scientific, and technical consulting services; testing laboratories https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual earnings of occupational health and safety special ists were $51,570 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,580 and $65,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,590, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $79,530. Median annual earnings of occupational health and safety special ists in May 2004 were $48,710 in local government and $44,400 in State government. Median annual earnings of occupational health and safety techni cians were $42,130 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $29,900 and $56,640. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,460. Most occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work in large private firms or for Federal, State, and local govern ments, most of which generally offer more generous benefits than smaller firms. Related Occupations Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians help to ensure that laws and regulations are obeyed. Others who enforce laws and regulations include agricultural inspectors, construction and building inspectors, correctional officers, financial examiners, fire inspectors, police and detectives, and transportation inspectors. 334 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in Federal, State, and local governments and in private industry is available from State employment service offices. For information on a career as an industrial hygienist, including a list of colleges and universities offering industrial hygiene and related degrees, contact: > American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2700 Prosperity Ave., Suite 250, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.aiha.org For information on the Certified Industrial Hygienist or Certified Associate Industrial Hygienist credential, contact: >- American Board of Industrial Hygiene, 6015 West St. Joseph Hwy., Suite 102, Lansing, MI 48917. Internet: http://www.abih.org For more information on professions in safety, a comprehensive list of colleges and universities offering safety and related degrees, and applications for scholarships, contact: > American Society of Safety Engineers, 1800 E Oakton St., Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.asse.org For more information on professions in safety, a list of programs in safety and related academic fields, and the Certified Safety Profes sional credential, contact: >■ Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org For information on the Occupational Health and Safety Technologist and Construction Health and Safety Technician credentials, contact: >- Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technolo gists, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://ww w.cchest.org For information on a career as a health physicist, contact: >■ Health Physics Society, 1313 Dolley Madison B1 vd., Suite 402, McLean, VA 22101. Internet: http ://www.hps.org For additional career information, contact: >■ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Hubert H. Humphrey Bldg., 200 Independence Ave. SW., Room 715H, Washington, DC 20201. Internet: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh >- U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administra tion, Office of Communication, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http://www.osha.gov Information on obtaining positions as occupational health and safety specialists and technicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government’s official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result. work of optometrists is described in a statement elsewhere in the Handbook. See the statement on physicians and surgeons for in formation about ophthalmologists.) Dispensing opticians examine written prescriptions to determine the specifications of lenses. They recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer’s occupation, habits, and facial features. Dispensing opticians measure clients’ eyes, including the distance between the centers of the pupils and the distance between the ocular surface and the lens. For customers without prescriptions, dispensing opticians may use a focimeter to record eyeglass measurements in order to du plicate the eyeglasses. They also may obtain a customer’s previous record to re-make eyeglasses or contact lenses, or they may verify a prescription with the examining optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthalmic laboratory technicians information needed to grind and insert lenses into a frame. The work order includes prescriptions for lenses and information on their size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians grind and insert lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verify that the lenses have been ground to specifications. Then they may reshape or bend the frame, by hand or using pliers, so that the eyeglasses fit the customer properly and comfortably. Some also fix, adjust, and refit broken frames. They in struct clients about adapting to, wearing, or caring for eyeglasses. Some dispensing opticians, after additional education and train ing, specialize in fitting contacts, artificial eyes, or cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure the shape and size of the eye, select the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders specifying the prescription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires considerable skill, care, and patience. Dispensing op ticians observe customers’ eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with specialized instruments and microscopes. During several follow-up visits, opticians teach proper insertion, removal, and care of contact lenses. Opticians do all this to ensure that the fit is correct. Dispensing opticians keep records on customers’ prescriptions, work orders, and payments; track inventory and sales; and perform other administrative duties. Opticians, Dispensing (0*NET 29-2081.00) Significant Points • Most dispensing opticians receive training on the job or through apprenticeships lasting 2 or more years; how ever, some employers seek graduates of postsecondary training programs in opticianry. • About 20 States require a license. • Projected average employment growth reflects the steady demand for corrective lenses and eyeglass frames that are in fashion. Nature of Work Dispensing opticians fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, following prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Mw rr:Xj 5v -x Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and communicate well. Professional and Related Occupations Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in attractive, well-lighted, and well-ventilated surroundings. They may work in medical offices or small stores where customers are served one at a time. Some work in large stores where several dispensing opticians serve a number of customers at once. Opticians spend a fair amount of time on their feet. If they prepare lenses, they need to take precautions against the hazards associated with glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery. Most dispensing opticians work about 40 hours a week, although a few work longer hours. Those in retail stores may work evenings and weekends. Some work part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually hire individuals with no background as an opti cian or as an ophthalmic laboratory technician. (See the statement on ophthalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) The employers then provide the required training. Most dispensing opticians receive training on the job or through apprenticeships last ing 2 or more years. Some employers, however, seek people with postsecondary training in the field. Knowledge of physics, basic anatomy, algebra, and trigonometry as well as experience with computers are particularly valuable, because training usually includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other ma chinery and tools. Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and communicate well. Manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential. Large employers usually offer structured apprenticeship programs; small employers provide more informal, on-the-job training. About 20 States require dispensing opticians to be licensed. States may require individuals to pass one of more of the following for licensure: a State practical examination, a State written examination, and certification examinations offered by the American Board of Opticianry (ABO) and the National Contact Lens Examiners (NCLE). To qualify for the examinations, States often require applicants to complete postsecond ary training or work from 2 to 4 years as apprentices. Continuing education is commonly required for licensure renewal. Information about specific licensing requirements is available from the State board of occupational licensing. Apprenticeships or formal training programs are offered in other States as well. Apprentices receive technical training and learn office manage ment and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced optician, optometrist, or ophthalmologist, apprentices work directly with patients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. Formal training in the field is offered in community colleges and a few colleges and universities. In 2004, the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation accredited 24 programs that awarded 2year associate degrees. There also are shorter programs of 1 year or less. Some States that offer a license to dispensing opticians allow graduates to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others require a few months to a year of experience. Dispensing opticians may apply to the ABO and the NCLE for certification of their skills. All applicants age 18 or older with a high school diploma or equivalent are eligible for the exam; however, some States licensing boards have additional eligibility requirements. Certification must be renewed every 3 years through continuing education. Those licensed in States where licensure renewal requirements include continuing education credits may use proof of their renewed State license to meet the recertification requirements of the ABO. Likewise, the NCLE will accept proof of renewal from any State that has contact lens requirements. Many experienced dispensing opticians open their own optical stores. Others become managers of optical stores or sales representa tives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 335 Employment Dispensing opticians held about 66,000 jobs in 2004. Nearly onethird worked in health and personal care stores, including optical goods stores. Many of these stores offer one-stop shopping. Cus tomers may have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. About 30 percent of dispensing opti cians worked in offices of other health practitioners, including offices of optometrists. Over 10 percent worked in offices of physicians, including ophthalmologists who sell glasses directly to patients. Some work in optical departments of department stores or other general merchandise stores, such as warehouse clubs and superstores. Nearly 6 percent are self-employed and run their own unincorporated businesses. Job Outlook Employment of dispensing opticians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014 as demand grows for corrective lenses. The number of middle-aged and elderly persons is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many individuals use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons generally require more vision care than others. Fashion also influences demand. Frames come in a growing variety of styles and colors—encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Increasing awareness of laser surgery that corrects some vision problems will have an impact on demand for eyewear. Although the surgery remains relatively more expensive than eyewear, patients who successfully undergo this surgery may not require glasses or contact lenses for several years. The need to replace those who leave the occupation will result in additional job openings. Nevertheless, the number of job open ings will be limited because the occupation is small. Dispensing opticians are vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, because eyewear purchases often can be deferred for a time. Earnings Median annual earnings of dispensing opticians were $27,950 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,360 and $35,940. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,340. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of dispensing opticians in May 2004 were: Health and personal care stores.................................................... $30,890 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 30,560 Offices of other health practitioners............................................. 26,970 Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include jewelers and precious stone and metal workers, locksmiths and safe repairers, orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instru ment and equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about opticians and a list of home-study programs, seminars, and review materials, contact: > National Academy of Opticianry, 8401 Corporate Dr., Suite 605, Landover, MD 20785. Telephone (tollfree): 800-229-4828. Internet: http://www.nao.org For a list of accredited programs in opticianry, contact: ► Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 8665 Sudley Rd., #341, Manas sas, VA 20110. To learn about voluntary certification for opticians who fit eyeglass es, as well as a list of State licensing boards for opticians, contact: >- American Board of Opticianry, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org 336 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information on voluntary certification for dispensing opticians who fit contact lenses, contact: > National Contact Lens Examiners, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Spring field, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo-ncle.org/ Pharmacy Technicians (0*NET 29-2052.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be good for full-time and part-time work, especially for those with certifica tion or previous work experience. • Many technicians work evenings, weekends, and holi days. • About 7 out of 10 of jobs were in retail pharmacies, grocery stores, department stores, or mass retailers. Pharmacy technicians help licensed pharmacists provide medication and other health care products to patients. Nature of the Work Pharmacy technicians help licensed pharmacists provide medication and other health care products to patients. Technicians usually perform routine tasks to help prepare prescribed medication for patients, such as counting tablets and labeling bottles. Technicians refer any questions regarding prescriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the statement on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pharmacy aides work closely with pharmacy technicians. They often are clerks or cashiers who primarily answer telephones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. (See the state ment on pharmacy aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pharmacy tech nicians usually perform more complex tasks than do pharmacy aides, although in some States their duties and job titles may overlap. Pharmacy technicians who work in retail or mail-order pharma cies have varying responsibilities, depending on State rules and regulations. Technicians receive written prescriptions or requests for prescription refills from patients. They also may receive prescrip tions sent electronically from the doctor’s office. They must verify that the information on the prescription is complete and accurate. To prepare the prescription, technicians must retrieve, count, pour, weigh, measure, and sometimes mix the medication. Then, they pre pare the prescription labels, select the type of prescription container, and affix the prescription and auxiliary labels to the container. Once the prescription is filled, technicians price and file the prescription, which must be checked by a pharmacist before it is given to the patient. Technicians may establish and maintain patient profiles, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. In hospitals, nursing homes, and assisted-living facilities, techni cians have added responsibilities, including reading patients’ charts and preparing and delivering the medicine to patients. Still, the phar macist must check the order before it is delivered to the patient. The technician then copies the information about the prescribed medica tion onto the patient’s profile. Technicians also may assemble a 24hour supply of medicine for every patient. They package and label each dose separately. The packages are then placed in the medicine cabinets of patients until the supervising pharmacist checks them for accuracy. The packages are then given to the patients. Working Conditions Pharmacy technicians work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technicians work the same hours that pharmacists work. These may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays, particularly in facilities, such as hospitals and retail pharmacies, that are open 24 hours a day. As their seniority increases, technicians often acquire increased control over the hours they work. There are many oppor tunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most pharmacy technicians receive informal on-the-job training, employers favor those who have completed formal train ing and certification. However, there are currently few State and no Federal requirements for formal training or certification of pharmacy technicians. Employers who have insufficient resources to give on-thejob training often seek formally educated pharmacy technicians. For mal education programs and certification emphasize the technician’s interest in and dedication to the work. In addition to the military, some hospitals, proprietary schools, vocational or technical colleges, and community colleges offer formal education programs. Formal pharmacy technician education programs require class room and laboratory work in a variety of areas, including medical and pharmaceutical terminology, pharmaceutical calculations, phar macy recordkeeping, pharmaceutical techniques, and pharmacy law and ethics. Technicians also are required to learn medication names, actions, uses, and doses. Many training programs include internships, in which students gain hands-on experience in actual pharmacies. Students receive a diploma, a certificate, or an associate’s degree, depending on the program. Prospective pharmacy technicians with experience working as an aide in a community pharmacy or volunteering in a hospital may have an advantage. Employers also prefer applicants with strong customer service and communication skills, as well as those with experience managing inventories, counting tablets, measuring dosages, and using computers. Technicians entering the field need strong mathematics, spelling, and reading skills. A background in chemistry, English, and health education also may be beneficial. Some technicians are hired without formal training, but under the condition that they obtain certification within a specified period to retain their employment. The Pharmacy Technician Certification Board administers the National Pharmacy Technician Certification Examination. This exam is voluntary in most States and displays the competency of the individual to act as a pharmacy technician. However, more States and employers are requiring certification as reliance on pharmacy techni cians grows. Eligible candidates must have a high school diploma or Professional and Related Occupations GED and no felony convictions, and those who pass the exam earn the title of Certified Pharmacy Technician (CPhT). The exam is offered several times per year at various locations nationally. Employers—of ten pharmacists—know that individuals who pass the exam have a standardized body of knowledge and skills. Many employers also will reimburse the costs of the exam as an incentive for certification. Certified technicians must be recertified every 2 years. Tech nicians must complete 20 contact hours of pharmacy-related topics within the 2-year certification period to become eligible for recertification. Contact hours are awarded for on-the-job training, attending lectures, and college coursework. At least 1 contact hour must be in pharmacy law. Contact hours can be earned from several different sources, including pharmacy associations, pharmacy col leges, and pharmacy technician training programs. Up to 10 contact hours can be earned when the technician is employed under the direct supervision and instruction of a pharmacist. Successful pharmacy technicians are alert, observant, organized, dedicated, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take directions. They must be precise; details are sometimes a matter of life and death. Although a pharmacist must check and approve all their work, they should be able to work independently without constant instruction from the pharmacist. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy technicians cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Strong interpersonal and communication skills are needed because pharmacy technicians interact daily with patients, coworkers, and health care professionals. Teamwork is very important because technicians often are required to work with pharmacists, aides, and other technicians. 337 as pharmacists have become more involved in patient care, resulting in more technicians per pharmacist. Changes in these laws could directly affect employment. Earnings Median hourly earnings of wage and salary pharmacy technicians in May 2004 were $11.37. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.40 and $13.85. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.96, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.61. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacy technicians in May 2004 were: General medical and surgical hospitals.......................................... $12.93 Grocery stores................................................................................. ' 1 -77 Other general merchandise stores.................................................. 1111 Department stores........................................................................... 10.56 Health and personal care stores....................................................... 10.51 Certified technicians may earn more. Shift differentials for working evenings or weekends also can increase earnings. Some technicians belong to unions representing hospital or grocery store workers. Related Occupations This occupation is most closely related to pharmacists and phar macy aides. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical transcriptionists, medical records and health information technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, and surgical technologists. Employment Pharmacy technicians held about 258,000jobs in 2004. About 7 out of 10 jobs were in retail pharmacies, either independently owned or part of a drugstore chain, grocery store, department store, or mass retailer. About 2 out of 10 jobs were in hospitals and a small proportion was in mail-order and Internet pharmacies, clinics, phar maceutical wholesalers, and the Federal Government. Job Outlook Good job opportunities are expected for full-time and part-time work, especially for technicians with formal training or previous experience. Job openings for pharmacy technicians will result from the expansion of retail pharmacies and other employment settings and from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Employment of pharmacy technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014 because as the population grows and ages, demand for pharmaceuticals will increase dramatically. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people—who use more prescription drugs than younger people—will spur demand for technicians in all practice settings. With advances in science, more medications are becoming available to treat a greater number of conditions. In addition, cost-conscious insurers, pharmacies, and health systems will continue to expand the role of technicians. As a result, pharmacy technicians will assume responsibility for some of the more routine tasks previously performed by pharmacists. Pharmacy technicians also will need to learn and master new pharmacy tech nology as it emerges. For example, robotic machines are being increasingly used to dispense medicine into containers; technicians must oversee the machines, stock the bins, and label the containers. Thus, while automation is increasingly incorporated into the job, it will not necessarily reduce the need for technicians. Almost all States have legislated the maximum number of techni cians who can safely work under a pharmacist at one time. In some technicians have assumed more medication-dispensing duties Digitized States, for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Pharmacy Technician designation, contact: >• Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW„ Washington DC 20037-2985. Internet: http://www.ptcb.org For a list of accredited pharmacy technician training programs, contact: > American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org For pharmacy technician career information, contact: >■ National Pharmacy Technician Association, P.O. Box 683148, Houston, TX 77268. Internet: http://www.pharmacytechnician.org Radiologic Technologists and Technicians (0*NET 29-2034.01, 29-2034.02) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be favorable; some employers report difficulty hiring sufficient numbers of radiologic technologists and technicians. • Formal training programs in radiography range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an as sociate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. • Although hospitals will remain the primary employer, a greater number of new jobs will be found in physi cians’ offices and diagnostic imaging centers. Nature of the Work Radiologic technologists and technicians take x rays and administer non radioactive materials into patients’ bloodstreams for diagnostic purposes. 338 Occupational Outlook Handbook Some specialize in diagnostic imaging technologies, such as computer ized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In addition to radiologic technologists and technicians, others who conduct diagnostic imaging procedures include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and nuclear medicine technologists. (Each is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Radiologic technologists and technicians, also referred to as ra diographers, produce x-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, removing articles such as jewelry, through which x rays cannot pass, and po sitioning patients so that the parts of the body can be appropriately radiographed. To prevent unnecessary exposure to radiation, these workers surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the x-ray beam. Radiographers position radiographic equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, they may measure the thickness of the section to be radiographed and set controls on the x-ray machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. They place the x-ray film under the part of the patient’s body to be examined and make the exposure. They then remove the film and develop it. Experienced radiographers may perform more complex imaging procedures. For fluoroscopies, radiographers prepare a solution of contrast medium for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist (a physician who interprets radiographs) to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiographers, called CT technologists, operate CT scan ners to produce cross-sectional images of patients. Radiographers who operate machines that use strong magnets and radio waves, rather than radiation, to create an image are called MRI technologists. Radiologic technologists and technicians must follow physicians’ orders precisely and conform to regulations concerning the use of radiation to protect themselves, their patients, and their coworkers from unnecessary exposure. In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, radio logic technologists and technicians keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate purchases of equipment, or manage a radiology department. Working Conditions Most full-time radiologic technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week. They may, however, have evening, weekend, or on-call hours. Opportunities for part-time and shift work also are available. Radiologic technologists use advanced imaging technology to create diagnostic images for interpretation by a physician. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Physical stamina is important, because technologists and technicians are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients. Technologists and technicians work at diagnostic machines, but also may perform some procedures at patients’ bedsides. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment. Although radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they are minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other shield ing devices, as well as by instruments monitoring exposure to radiation. Technologists and technicians wear badges measuring radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumulative lifetime dose. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this profession is offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, and the U.S. Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists and technicians, prefer to hire those with formal training. Formal training programs in radiography range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, an associate degree, or a bachelor’s degree. Two-year associate degree programs are most prevalent. Some 1-year certificate programs are available for experienced radiographers or individuals from other health occupations, such as medical technologists and registered nurses, who want to change fields or specialize in CT or MRI. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology accredits most formal training programs for the field. The committee accredited 606 radiography programs in 2005. Radiography programs require, at a minimum, a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy and physiology, patient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protection, principles of imaging, medical terminology, positioning of patients, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. Federal legislation protects the public from the hazards of un necessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by ensuring that operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. Under this legislation, the Federal Government sets voluntary standards that the States may use for accrediting training programs and certifying individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. In 2005, 38 States certified radiologic technologists and technicians. Certification, which is voluntary, is offered by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists. To be eligible for certification, technologists generally must graduate from an accred ited program and pass an examination. Many employers prefer to hire certified radiographers. To be recertified, radiographers must complete 24 hours of continuing education every two years. Radiologic technologists and technicians should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. They must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addi tion, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scanning, angiography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Experienced technologists also may be promoted to supervisor, chief radiologic technologist, and, ultimately, department administrator or director. Depending on the institution, courses or a master’s degree in business or health admin istration may be necessary for the director’s position. Some tech nologists progress by leaving the occupation to become instructors or directors in radiologic technology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. Professional and Related Occupations Employment Radiologic technologists and technicians held about 182,000 jobs in 2004. More than half of all jobs were in hospitals. Most of the rest were in offices of physicians; medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers; and outpatient care centers. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be favorable. Some employers report difficulty hiring sufficient numbers of radiologic technologists and technicians. Imbalances between the demand for, and supply of, radiologic technologists and technicians should spur efforts to attract and retain qualified workers, such as improved compensa tion and working conditions. Radiologic technologists who also are experienced in more complex diagnostic imaging procedures, such as CT and MRI, will have better employment opportunities, brought about as employers seek to control costs by using multiskilled employees. Employment of radiologic technologists and technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, as the population grows and ages, increasing the demand for diagnostic imaging. Although healthcare providers are enthusi astic about the clinical benefits of new technologies, the extent to which they are adopted depends largely on cost and reimbursement considerations. For example, digital imaging technology can im prove the quality of the images and the efficiency of the procedure, but remains expensive. Some promising new technologies may not come into widespread use because they are too expensive and thirdparty payers may not be willing to pay for their use. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic technologists and technicians. However, a greater number of new jobs will be found in offices of physicians and diagnostic imaging centers. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow rapidly through 2014, due to the strong shift toward outpatient care, encour aged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace technologists and technicians who leave the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings of radiologic technologists and technicians were $43,350 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,170 and $52,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,020, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $60,210. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of radiologic technologists and technicians in May 2004 were: Medical and diagnostic laboratories............................................. $46,620 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 43,960 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 40,290 339 For the current list of accredited education programs in radiog raphy, write to: >- Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 2850, Chicago, IL 60606-3182. Internet: http://www.jrcert.org For information on certification, contact: ► American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org Surgical Technologists (0*NET 29-2055.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. • Job opportunities are expected to be good. • Training programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. • Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer, although much faster employment growth is expected in offices of physicians and in outpatient care centers, including ambulatory surgical centers. Nature of the Work Surgical technologists, also called scrubs and surgical or operating room technicians, assist in surgical operations under the supervision of surgeons, registered nurses, or other surgical personnel. Surgical tech nologists are members of operating room teams, which most commonly include surgeons, anesthesiologists, and circulating nurses. Before an operation, surgical technologists help prepare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equipment, sterile drapes, and sterile solutions. They assemble both sterile and nonsterile equipment, as well as adjust and check it to ensure it is working properly. Technologists also get patients ready for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting incision sites. They transport patients to the operating room, help position them on the operating table, and cover them with sterile surgical “drapes.” Technologists also observe patients’ vital signs, check charts, and assist the surgical team with putting on sterile gowns and gloves. During surgery, technologists pass instruments and other ster ile supplies to surgeons and surgeon assistants. They may hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count sponges, needles, supplies, and instruments. Surgical technologists help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis and help apply dressings. Some operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines, and help operate diagnostic equipment. After an operation, surgical technologists may help transfer patients to the recovery room and clean and restock the operating room. Related Occupations Radiologic technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation therapists, and respira tory therapists. Working Conditions Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environments. They must stand for long periods and remain alert during operations. At times they may be exposed to communicable diseases and unpleasant sights, odors, and materials. Most surgical technologists work a regular 40-hour week, al though they may be on call or work nights, weekends, and holidays on a rotating basis. Sources of Additional Information For career information, send a stamped, self-addressed business-size envelope with your request to: > American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. S.E., Digitized Albuquerque, for FRASER NM 87123-3917. Internet: http://www.asrt.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Surgical technologists receive their training in formal programs offered by community and junior colleges, vocational schools, universities, 340 Occupational Outlook Handbook the surgery. With additional training, some technologists advance to first assistants, who help with retracting, sponging, suturing, cau terizing bleeders, and closing and treating wounds. Some surgical technologists manage central supply departments in hospitals, or take positions with insurance companies, sterile supply services, and operating equipment firms. Employment Surgical technologists held about 84,000 jobs in 2004. About 7 out of 10 jobs for surgical technologists were in hospitals, mainly in operating and delivery rooms. Other jobs were in offices of physi cians or dentists who perform outpatient surgery and in outpatient care centers, including ambulatory surgical centers. A few, known as private scrubs, are employed directly by surgeons who have special surgical teams, like those for liver transplants. _____ Before an operation, surgical technologists help prepare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equipment, sterile drapes, and sterile solutions. hospitals, and the military. In 2005, the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) recognized more than 400 accredited programs. Programs last from 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. High school graduation normally is required for admission. Recommended high school courses include health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Programs provide classroom education and supervised clini cal experience. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, pharmacology, professional ethics, and medical terminology. Other studies cover the care and safety of patients during surgery, sterile techniques, and surgical procedures. Students also learn to sterilize instruments; prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Most employers prefer to hire certified technologists. Technologists may obtain voluntary professional certification from the Liaison Coun cil on Certification for the Surgical Technologist by graduating from a CAAHEP-accredited program and passing a national certification examination. They may then use the Certified Surgical Technologist (CST) designation. Continuing education or reexamination is required to maintain certification, which must be renewed every 4 years. Certification also may be obtained from the National Center for Competency Testing. To qualify to take the exam, candidates fol low one of three paths: complete an accredited training program; undergo a 2-year hospital on-the-job training program; or acquire seven years of experience working in the field. After passing the exam, individuals may use the designation Tech in Surgery-Certified, TS-C (NCCT). This certification may be renewed every 5 years through either continuing education or reexamination. Surgical technologists need manual dexterity to handle instru ments quickly. They also must be conscientious, orderly, and emotionally stable to handle the demands of the operating room environment. Technologists must respond quickly and must be familiar with operating procedures in order to have instruments ready for surgeons without having to be told. They are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Technologists advance by specializing in a particular area of surgery, such as neurosurgery or open heart surgery. They also may work as circulating technologists. A circulating technologist is the “unsterile” member of the surgical team who prepares patients; helps with anesthesia; obtains and opens packages for the “sterile” persons to remove the sterile contents during the procedure; interviews the patient before surgery; keeps a written account of the surgical pro cedure; and answers the surgeon’s questions about the patient during https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 as the volume of surgery increases. Job opportunities are expected to be good. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise as the population grows and ages. The number of older people, including the baby boom generation, who generally require more surgical procedures, will account for a larger portion of the general population. Technological advances, such as fiber optics and laser technology, will permit an increasing number of new surgical pro cedures to be performed and also will allow surgical technologists to assist with a greater number of procedures. Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer of surgical technologists, although much faster employment growth is expected in offices of physicians and in outpatient care centers, including ambulatory surgical centers. Earnings Median annual earnings of surgical technologists were $34,010 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,560 and $40,750. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,940, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,990. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of surgical technolo gists in May 2004 were: Offices of dentists......................................................................... $37,510 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 36,570 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 33,130 Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of training after high school include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, and medical assistants. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on a career as a surgical technologist and a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs, contact: ► Association of Surgical Technologists, 6 West Dry Creek Circle, Littleton, CO 80120. Internet: http://www.ast.org For information on becoming a Certified Surgical Technologist, contact: ► Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist, 6 West Dry Creek Circle, Suite 100, Littleton, CO 80120. Internet: http ://w ww.lcc-st.org For information on becoming a Tech in Surgery-Certified, contact: >- National Center for Competency Testing, 7007 College BIvd„ Suite 250, Overland Park, KS 66211. Professional and Related Occupations Veterinary Technologists and Technicians 341 Siiilil (0*NET 29-2056.00) Significant Points • Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but aspects of the work can be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. • • Entrants generally complete a 2-year or 4-year veteri nary technology program and must pass a State exami nation. Employment is expected to grow much faster than • average. Keen competition is expected for jobs in zoos. Veterinary technologists and technicians often assist veterinarians by taking x rays. Nature of the Work Owners of pets and other animals today expect state-of-the-art vet erinary care. To provide this service, veterinarians use the skills of veterinary technologists and technicians, who perform many of the same duties for a veterinarian that a nurse would for a physician, including routine laboratory and clinical procedures. Although specific job duties vary by employer, there often is little difference between the tasks carried out by technicians and by technologists, despite some differences in formal education and training. As a result, most workers in this occupation are called technicians. Veterinary technologists and technicians typically conduct clini cal work in a private practice under the supervision of a veterinar ian—often performing various medical tests along with treating and diagnosing medical conditions and diseases in animals. For example, they may perform laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood counts, assist with dental prophylaxis, prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, or assist veterinarians in a variety of tests and analyses in which they often utilize various items of medical equip ment, such as test tubes and diagnostic equipment. While most of these duties are performed in a laboratory setting, many are not. For example, some veterinary technicians obtain and record patients’ case histories, expose and develop x rays, and provide special ized nursing care. In addition, experienced veterinary technicians may discuss a pet’s condition with its owners and train new clinic personnel. Veterinary technologists and technicians assisting smallanimal practitioners usually care for companion animals, such as cats and dogs, but can perform a variety of duties with mice, rats, sheep, pigs, cattle, monkeys, birds, fish, and frogs. Very few veterinary technologists work in mixed animal practices where they care for both small companion animals and larger, nondomestic animals. Besides working in private clinics and animal hospitals, veteri nary technologists and technicians may work in research facilities, where they may administer medications orally or topically, prepare samples for laboratory examinations, and record information on an animal’s genealogy, diet, weight, medications, food intake, and clinical signs of pain and distress. Some may be required to sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment and provide routine postoperative care. At research facilities, veterinary technologists typically work under the guidance of veterinarians, physicians, and other laboratory technicians. Some veterinary technologists vaccinate newly admit ted animals and occasionally are required to euthanize seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. While the goal of most veterinary technologists and technicians is to promote animal health, some contribute to human health as Veterinary technologists occasionally assist veterinarians as Digitizedwell. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis they work with other scientists in medical-related fields such as gene therapy and cloning. Some find opportunities in biomedical research, wildlife medicine, the military, livestock management, or pharmaceutical sales. Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. At times, veterinary technicians must clean cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. These work ers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. The work setting can be noisy. Veterinary technologists and technicians who witness abused animals or who euthanize unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional stress. Those working for humane societies and animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regard ing animal care. In some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shelters, a veterinary technician is on duty 24 hours a day, which means that some may work night shifts. Most full-time vet erinary technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week, although some work 50 or more hours a week. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are primarily two levels of education and training for entry to this occupation: a 2-year program for veterinary technicians and a 4-year program for veterinary technologists. Most entry-level veterinary technicians have a 2-year degree, usually an associate’s degree, from an accredited community college program in veterinary technology in which courses are taught in clinical and laboratory settings using live animals. About 15 colleges offer veterinary technology programs that are longer and that culminate in a 4-year bachelor’s degree in veterinary technology. These 4-year colleges, in addition to some vocational schools, also offer 2-year programs in laboratory animal science. Approximately 5 schools offer dis tance learning. In 2004, 116 veterinary technology programs in 43 States were accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Graduation from an AVMA-accredited veterinary technol ogy program allows students to take the credentialing exam in any 342 Occupational Outlook Handbook State in the country. Each State regulates veterinary technicians and technologists differently; however, all States require them to pass a credentialing exam following coursework. Passing the State exam assures the public that the technician or technologist has sufficient knowledge to work in a veterinary clinic or hospital. Candidates are tested for competency through an examination that includes oral, written, and practical portions and that is regulated by the State Board of Veterinary Examiners or the appropriate State agency. Depending on the State, candidates may become registered, licensed, or certified. Most States, however, use the National Veterinary Technician (NVT) exam. Pros pects usually can have their passing scores transferred from one State to another, so long as both States utilize the same exam. Employers recommend American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) certification for those seeking employ ment in a research facility. AALAS offers certification for three levels of technician competence, with a focus on three principal areas—animal husbandry, facility management, and animal health and welfare. Those who wish to become certified must satisfy a com bination of education and experience requirements prior to taking an exam. Work experience must be directly related to the maintenance, health, and well-being of laboratory animals and must be gained in a laboratory animal facility as defined by AALAS. Candidates who meet the necessary criteria can begin pursuing the desired certifica tion on the basis of their qualifications. The lowest level of certifica tion is Assistant Laboratory Animal Technician (ALAT), the second level is Laboratory Animal Technician (LAT), and the highest level of certification is Laboratory Animal Technologist (LATG). The examination consists of multiple-choice questions and is longer and more difficult for higher levels of certification, ranging from 2 hours for the ALAT to 3 hours for the LATG. Persons interested in careers as veterinary technologists and technicians should take as many high school science, biology, and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate’s or bachelor’s degree program, should em phasize practical skills in a clinical or laboratory setting. Because veterinary technologists and technicians often deal with pet owners, communication skills are very important. In addition, technologists and technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork with veterinarians is common. Organizational ability and the ability to pay attention to detail also are important. Technologists and technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a veterinarian. Entry-level workers whose training or educational background encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including diagnostic and medical equipment, usually require a shorter period of on-the-job training. As they gain experience, technologists and technicians take on more responsibil ity and carry out more assignments under only general veterinary supervision. Some eventually may become supervisors. the year 2014. Job openings also will stem from the need to replace veterinary technologists and technicians who leave the occupation over the 2004-14 period. Keen competition is expected for veteri nary technologist and technician jobs in zoos, due to expected slow growth in zoo capacity, low turnover among workers, the limited number of positions, and the fact that the occupation attracts many candidates. Pet owners are becoming more affluent and more willing to pay for advanced care because many of them consider their pet to be part of the family. This growing affluence and view of pets will spur employment growth for veterinary technologists and technicians. The number of dogs used as companion pets, which also drives employment growth, is expected to increase more slowly during the projection period than in the previous decade. However, the rapidly growing number of cats utilized as companion pets is expected to boost the demand for feline medicine and services, offsetting any reduced demand for vet erinary care for dogs. The availability of advanced veterinary services, such as preventive dental care and surgical procedures, may provide opportunities for workers specializing in those areas. Biomedical facilities, diagnostic laboratories, wildlife facilities, humane societies, animal control facilities, drug or food manufacturing companies, and food safety inspection fa cilities will provide additional jobs for veterinary technologists and technicians. Furthermore, demand for these workers will stem from the desire to replace veterinary assistants with more highly skilled technicians and technologists in animal clinics and hospitals, shelters, kennels, and humane societies. Employment of veterinary technicians and technologists is relatively stable during periods of economic recession. Layoffs are less likely to occur among veterinary technologists and technicians than in some other occupations because animals will continue to require medical care. Earnings Median hourly earnings of veterinary technologists and technicians were $11.99 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.88 and $14.56. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $8.51, and the top 10 percent earned more than $17.12. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include animal care and service workers, veterinary assistants, and laboratory animal caretakers. Like veterinary technologists and technicians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with animals. However, the level of training required for these occupations is less than that needed by veterinary technologists and technicians. Veterinarians, who need much more formal education, also work extensively with animals, preventing, diagnosing, and treating their diseases, disorders, and injuries. Employment Veterinary technologists and technicians held about 60,000 jobs in 2004. Most worked in veterinary services. The remainder worked in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming salons, zoos, and local, State, and Federal agencies. Job Outlook Employment of veterinary technologists and technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information on certification as a laboratory animal technician or technologist, contact: > American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 9190 Crestwyn Hills Dr., Memphis, TN 38125. Internet: http://www.aalas.org For information on careers in veterinary medicine and a listing of AVMA-accredited veterinary technology programs, contact: >• American Veterinary Medical Assocation, 1931 N. MeachamRd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. Internet: http://www.avma.org Service Occupations Healthcare Support Occupations Dental Assistants (0*NET 31-9091.00) Significant Points • Job prospects should be excellent. • Dentists are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. • Most assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting pro grams; most programs take 1 year or less to complete. Nature of the Work Dental assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and laboratory duties. They work chairside as dentists examine and treat patients. They make patients as comfortable as possible in the dental chair, prepare them for treatment, and obtain their dental records. Assistants hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. Assistants also sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment, prepare trays of instruments for dental procedures, and instruct patients on postoperative and general oral health care. Some dental assistants prepare materials for impressions and restorations, take dental x rays, and process x-ray film as directed by a dentist. They also may remove sutures, apply topical anesthetics About 2 out of5 dental assistants work part time, sometimes in more than one dental office. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to gums or cavity-preventive agents to teeth, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. Those with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Dental assistants with office duties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform different clinical tasks. (See the state ment on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area usually is near the dental chair so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication and hand them to the dentist when needed. Dental assistants must wear gloves, masks, eyewear, and protective clothing to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Assistants also follow safety procedures to minimize the risks associated with the use of x-ray machines. About half of dental assistants have a 35- to 40-hour workweek, which may include work on Saturdays or evenings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs offered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, technical institutes, or the Armed Forces. Assistants must be a second pair of hands for a dentist; there fore, dentists look for people who are reliable, work well with others, and have good manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices. The Commission on Dental Accreditation within the American Dental Association (ADA) approved 265 dental-assisting training programs in 2005. Programs include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental-assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental offices. Most programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior colleges lead to an associate degree. All programs require a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require science or computer-related courses for admission. A number of private vocational schools offer 4-month to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but the Commission on Dental Accreditation does not accredit these programs. Most States regulate the duties that dental assistants are allowed to perform through licensure or registration. Licensure or registra tion may require passing a written or practical examination. States offering licensure or registration have a variety of schools offering courses—approximately 10 to 12 months in length—that meet their State’s requirements. Other States require dental assistants to complete State-approved education courses of 4 to 12 hours in length. Some States offer registration of other dental assisting credentials with little or no education required. Some States require continuing education to maintain licensure or registration. A few States allow dental assistants to perform any function delegated to them by the dentist. 343 344 Occupational Outlook Handbook Individual States have adopted different standards for dental assistants who perform certain advanced duties, such as radio logical procedures. Completion of the Radiation Health and Safety examination offered by the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) meets those standards in more than 30 States. Some States require completion of a State-approved course in radiology as well. Certification is available through DANB and is recognized or required in more than 30 States. Other organizations offer registration, most often at the State level. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifications and professional competence and may be an asset when one is seeking employ ment. candidates may qualify to take the DANB certification examination by graduating from an ADA-accredited dental assisting education program or by having 2 years of full-time, or 4 years of part-time, experience as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have current certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. For annual recertification, individuals must earn continuing education credits. Without further education, advancement opportunities are limit ed. Some dental assistants become office managers, dental-assisting instructors, or dental product sales representatives. Others go back to school to become dental hygienists. For many, this entry-level occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a steppingstone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs. Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners include medical as sistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, pharmacy technicians, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities and accredited dental as sistant programs is available from: >- Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 East Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, 1L 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on becoming a Certified Dental Assistant and a list of State boards of dentistry, contact: >- Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 676 North Saint Clair St., Suite 1880, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.danb.org For more information on a career as a dental assistant and general information about continuing education, contact: >- American Dental Assistants Association, 35 EastWackerDr., Suite 1730, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.dentalassistant.org For more information about continuing education courses, contact: > National Association of Dental Assistants, 900 South Washington St., Suite G-13, Falls Church, VA 22046. Massage Therapists (0*NET 31 -9011.00) Employment Dental assistants held about 267,000 jobs in 2004. Almost all jobs for dental assistants were in offices of dentists. A small number of jobs were in the Federal, State, and local governments or in offices of physicians. About 2 out of 5 dental assistants worked part time, sometimes in more than one dental office. Significant Points • Employment is expected to grow faster than average over the 2004-2014 period as more people learn about the benefits of massage therapy. • Many States require formal training and a national certification in order to practice massage therapy. • This occupation contains a large number of part-time and self-employed workers. Job Outlook Job prospects for dental assistants should be excellent. Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014. In fact, dental assistants is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations over the 2004-14 projection period. In addition to job openings due to employment growth, numer ous job openings will arise out of the need to replace assistants who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave for other reasons. Many opportunities are for entry-level positions offering on-the-job training. Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth by middleaged and older people will fuel demand for dental services. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ assistants, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one or even two assistants. In addition, as den tists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so that they may devote their own time to more complex procedures. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental assistants were $13.62 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.06 and $16.65 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.11, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.97 an hour. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be contin gent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association (ADA), almost all full-time dental assistants employed by private practitioners received paid vacation time. The ADA also found that 9 out of 10 full-time and part-time dental assistants received dental coverage. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Many physicians have been recommending massage therapy for years. Nearly 2,400 years. The medical benefits of “friction” were first documented in Western culture by the Greek physician Hip pocrates around 400 BC. Today, massage therapy is being used as a means of treating painful ailments, decompressing tired and overworked muscles, reducing stress, rehabilitating sports injuries, and promoting general health. This is accomplished by manipulat ing a client’s soft tissues in order to improve the body’s circulation and remove waste products from the muscles. While massage therapy is done for medical benefit, a massage can be given to simply relax or rejuvenate the person being massaged. It is important to note that this type of massage is not intended for a medical purpose, and provides medical value only through general stress reduction and increased energy levels. Massage therapy, on the other hand, is practiced by thoroughly trained individuals who pro vide specialized care with their client’s medical health in mind. Massage therapists can specialize in over 80 different types of massage, called modalities. Swedish massage, deep tissue mas sage, reflexology, acupressure, sports massage, and neuromuscular massage are just a few of the many approaches to massage therapy. Most massage therapists specialize in several modalities, which require different techniques. Some use exaggerated strokes ranging the length of a body part, while others use quick, percussion-like strokes with a cupped or closed hand. A massage can be as long as two hours or as short as five or ten minutes. Usually, the type of Service Occupations massage therapists give depends on the client’s needs and the client’s physical condition. For example, they use special techniques for elderly clients that they would not use for athletes, and they would use approaches for clients with injuries that would not be appropriate for clients seeking relaxation. There are also some forms of mas sage that are given solely to one type of client, for example prenatal massage and infant massage. Massage therapists work by appointment. Before beginning a massage therapy session, therapists conduct an informal interview with the client to find out about the person’s medical history and desired results from the massage. This gives therapists a chance to discuss which techniques could be beneficial to the client and which could be harmful. Because massage therapists tend to specialize in only a few areas of massage, customers will often be referred or seek a therapist with a certain type of massage in mind. Based on the person’s goals, ailments, medical history, and stress- or pain-related problem areas, a massage therapist will conclude whether a mas sage would be harmful, and if not, move forward with the session while concentrating on any areas of particular discomfort to the client. While giving the massage, therapists alter their approach or concentrate on a particular area as necessary. Many modalities of massage therapy use massage oils, lotions, or creams to massage and rub the client’s muscles. Most massage therapists, particularly those who are self-employed, supply their own table or chair, sheets, pillows, and body lotions or oils. Most modalities of massage require clients to be covered in a sheet or blanket, and require clients to be undressed or to wear loose-fit ting clothing. The therapist only exposes the body part on which he or she is currently massaging. Some types of massage are done without oils or lotions and are performed with the client fully-clothed. Massage can be a delicate issue for some clients, and those clients may indicate that they are comfortable with contact only in speci fied areas. For this reason—and also for general purpose business risks—about half of all massage therapists have liability insurance, either through a professional association membership or through other insurance carriers. Seated massage is just one type of therapy used by massage Digitizedtherapists. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 345 Massage therapists must develop a rapport with their clients if repeat customers are to be secured. Because those who seek a therapist tend to make regular visits, developing a loyal clientele is an important part of becoming successful. Working Conditions Massage therapists work in an array of settings both private and public: private offices, studios, hospitals, nursing homes, fitness centers, sports medicine facilities, airports, and shopping malls, for example. Some massage therapists also travel to clients’ homes or offices to provide a massage. It is not uncommon for full-time mas sage therapists to divide their time among several different settings, depending on the clients and locations scheduled. Most massage therapists give massages in dimly lit settings. Using candles and/or incense is not uncommon. Ambient or other calm, soothing music is often played. The dim lighting, smells, and background noise are meant to put clients at ease. On the other hand, when visiting a client’s office, a massage therapist may not have those amenities. The working conditions depend heavily on a therapist’s location and what the client wants. Because massage is physically demanding, massage therapists can succumb to injury if the proper technique is not used. Re petitive motion problems and fatigue from standing for extended periods of time are most common. This risk can be limited by use of good technique, proper spacing between sessions, exercise, and in many cases by the therapists themselves receiving a massage on a regular basis. Because of the physical nature of the work and time needed in between sessions, massage therapists typically give massages less than 40 hours per week. Therapists who give massages anywhere from 15 to 30 hours per week usually consider themselves to be full-time workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training standards and requirements for massage therapists vary greatly by State and locality. In 2004, 33 States and the District of Columbia had passed laws regulating massage therapy in some way. Most of the boards governing massage therapy in these States require practicing massage therapists to complete a formal education program and pass the national certification examination or a State exam. Some State regulations require that therapists keep up on their knowledge and technique through continuing education. It is best to check information on licensing, certification, and accreditation on a State-by-State basis. There are roughly 1,300 massage therapy postsecondary schools, college programs, and training programs throughout the coun try. Massage therapy programs generally cover subjects such as anatomy; physiology, the study of organs and tissues; kinesiology, the study of motion and body mechanics; business; ethics; as well as hands-on practice of massage techniques. Most formal training programs require an application and some require an in-person in terview. Training programs may concentrate on certain modalities of massage. Several programs also provide alumni services such as post-graduate job placement and continuing educational services. Both full- and part-time programs are available. These programs vary in accreditation. Massage therapy training programs are generally accredited by a State board or other accredit ing agency. Of the many massage therapy programs in the country, about 300 are accredited by a State board or department of educa tion-certified accrediting agency. In States that regulate massage therapy, graduation from an approved school or training program is usually required in order to practice massage therapy. After completion of a training program, many massage therapists opt to take the national certification examination for therapeutic 346 Occupational Outlook Handbook massage and bodywork. This exam is administered by the National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork (NCBTMB), which has eligibility requirements of its own. Sev eral States require that a massage therapist pass this test in order to practice massage therapy. In States that require massage therapy program accreditation, an exam candidate must graduate from a State-licensed training institute with at least 500 hours of training or submit a portfolio of training experience for NCBTMB review; in locations that do not require accredited training programs, this is unnecessary. After the applicant is approved for testing, the applicant may schedule a test time at a local testing center. Tests are available six or seven days a week, depending on the test site, and are entirely computer based with multiple choice questions. The exam covers six areas of content: general knowledge of the body systems; detailed knowledge of anatomy, physiology and kinesiology; pathology; therapeutic massage assessment; therapeutic massage application; and professional standards, ethics, business and legal practices. When a therapist passes the national certification exam for thera peutic massage and bodywork, he or she can use the recognized national credential: Nationally Certified in Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork (NCTMB). The credential must be renewed every four years. In order to remain certified, a therapist must perform at least 200 hours of therapeutic massage during the four year period, and complete a minimum of 48 credit hours of continuing education. In 2005, the NCBTMB introduced a new national certification test and corresponding professional credential. These are the national certification exam for therapeutic massage and the Nationally Cer tified in Therapeutic Massage (NCTM) credential. The new test covers the same topics as the traditional national certification exam, but covers fewer modalities of massage therapy. Recognition of this new national certification varies by State. Many of the national, State, and local requirements coincide. States that require the national credential also require accredited training programs to comply with NCBTMB standards of training. Professional associations require that a professional member gradu ate from a training program that meets NCBTMB standards, have a State license, and/or have a national certification from the NCBTMB. Actual requirements differ on a State-by-State basis. Because of the nature of massage therapy, opportunities for ad vancement are limited. However, with increased experience and an expanding client base, there are opportunities for therapists to increase client fees, and therefore income. Both strong communication skills and a friendly, empathetic personality are extremely helpful qualities for fostering a trusting relationship with clients and in turn, expanding one’s client base. In addition, those who are well organized and have an entrepreneurial spirit may even go into business for themselves. Self-employed massage therapists with a large client base have the highest earnings. Employment Massage therapists held about 97,000jobs in 2004. About two-thirds were self-employed. Of those self-employed, most owned their own business, and the rest worked as independent contractors. Others found employment in salons and spas; the offices of physicians and chiropractors; fitness and recreational sports centers; and hotels. About three-quarters of all massage therapists worked part-time or had variable schedules, although as mentioned earlier many massage therapists who work 15 to 30 hours per week consider themselves to be full-time workers. Job Outlook Employment for massage therapists is expected to increase faster than average over the period from 2004 to 2014 as more people learn about the benefits of massage therapy. In States that regulate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis massage therapy, therapists who complete formal training programs and pass the national certification exam are likely to have very good job opportunities. Because referrals are a very important source of work for massage therapists, networking will increase the number of job opportunities. Joining a State or local chapter of a profes sional association can also help build strong contacts and further increase the likelihood of steady work. Massage is an increasingly popular technique for relaxation and reduction of stress. As workplaces try to distinguish themselves as employee-friendly, providing professional in-office, seated massages for employees is becoming a popular on-the-job benefit. Increased interest in alternative medicine and holistic healing will mean increased opportunities for those skilled in massage therapy. Healthcare providers and medical insurance companies are beginning to recognize massage therapy as a legitimate treatment and preventa tive measure for several types of injuries and illnesses. The health care industry is using massage therapy more often as a supplement to conventional medical techniques for ailments such as muscle problems, some sicknesses and diseases, and stress-related health problems. Massage therapy’s growing acceptance as a medical tool, particularly by the medical provider and insurance industries, will greatly increase employment opportunities. Older citizens who are in nursing homes or assisted living homes are also finding benefits from massage, such as increased energy levels and reduced health problems. Demand for massage therapy should grow among older age groups because they increasingly enjoy longer, more active lives and persons age 55 and older are projected to be the most rapidly growing segment of the U.S. population over the next decade. However, demand for massage therapy is presently greatest among young adults, and they are likely to continue to enjoy the benefits of massage therapy as they age. Earnings Median hourly earnings of massage therapists, including gratuities earned, were $15.36 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.78 and $23.82. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.16, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.21. Gen erally, massage therapists earn 15 to 20 percent of their income as gratuities. For those who work in a hospital or other clinical setting, however, tipping is not common. Related Occupations Other workers in the healthcare industry who provide therapy to clients include physical therapists, physical therapists’ assistants and aides, chiropractors, and workers in other occupations that use touch to aid healing or relieve stress. Sources of Additional Information General information on becoming a massage therapist is available from State regulatory boards. For more information on becoming a massage therapist, contact: ► Associated Bodywork & Massage Professionals, 1271 Sugarbush Dr., Evergreen, CO 80439. >■ American Massage Therapy Association, 500 Davis St., Suite 900, Evanston, IL 60201. Internet: http://www.amtamassage.org For a directory of schools providing accredited massage therapy training programs, contact: ► Commission on Massage Therapy Accreditation, 1007 Church St., Suite 302, Evanston, IL 60201. Internet: http://www.comta.org ► Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges ofTechnology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org Information on national testing and national certification is available from: >■ National Certification Board for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork, 1901 S. Meyers Rd., Suite 240, OakbrookTerrace, IL 60181. Service Occupations 347 mm Medical Assistants (0*NET 31-9092.00) Significant Points • • About 6 out of 10 medical assistants work in offices of physicians. Some medical assistants are trained on the job, but many complete 1- or 2-year programs in vocationaltechnical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, and community and junior colleges. • Medical assistants is projected to be one of the fastest growing occupations over the 2004-14 period. • Job prospects should be best for medical assistants with formal training or experience, particularly those with certification. Nature of the Work Medical assistants perform administrative and clinical tasks to keep the offices of physicians, podiatrists, chiropractors, and other health practitioners mnning smoothly. They should not be confused with physician assistants, who examine, diagnose, and treat patients under the direct supervision of a physician. (Physician assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, de pending on the location and size of the practice and the practitioner’s specialty. In small practices, medical assistants usually are general ists, handling both administrative and clinical duties and reporting directly to an office manager, physician, or other health practitioner. Those in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area, under the supervision of department administrators. Medical assistants perform many administrative duties, including answering telephones, greeting patients, updating and filing patients’ medical records, filling out insurance forms, handling correspon dence, scheduling appointments, arranging for hospital admission and laboratory services, and handling billing and bookkeeping. Clinical duties vary according to State law and include taking medical histories and recording vital signs, explaining treatment procedures to patients, preparing patients for examination, and assisting the physician during the examination. Medical assistants collect and prepare laboratory specimens or perform basic laboratory tests on the premises, dispose of contaminated supplies, and sterilize medical instruments. They instruct patients about medications and special diets, prepare and administer medications as directed by a physician, authorize drug refills as directed, telephone prescriptions to a pharmacy, draw blood, prepare patients for x rays, take electro cardiograms, remove sutures, and change dressings. Medical assistants also may arrange examining room instruments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Ophthalmic medical assistants and podiatric medical assistants are examples of specialized assistants who have additional duties. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide eye care. They conduct diagnostic tests, measure and record vision, and test eye muscle function. They also show patients how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses, and they apply eye dressings. Under the direction of the physician, ophthalmic medical assistants may administer eye medications. They also maintain optical and surgical instruments and may assist the ophthalmologist in surgery. Podiatric medical assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. Digitizedxfor FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Clinical duties ofmedical assistants vary according to State law and include taking medical histories and recording vital signs. Working Conditions Medical assistants work in well-lighted, clean environments. They constantly interact with other people and may have to handle several responsibilities at once. Most full-time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. Many work part time, evenings, or weekends. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer graduates of formal programs in medical assist ing. Such programs are offered in vocational-technical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, and community and junior colleges. Postsecondary programs usually last either 1 year, resulting in a certifi cate or diploma, or 2 years, resulting in an associate degree. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology, as well as typing, transcription, recordkeeping, accounting, and insurance processing. Students learn laboratory techniques, clinical and diagnostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles, the administration of medications, and first aid. They study office practices, patient relations, medical law, and ethics. Accredited programs include an internship that provides practical experi ence in physicians’ offices, hospitals, or other health care facilities. Both the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES) accredit programs in medical assisting. In 2005, there were over 500 medical assisting programs accredited by CAAHEP and about 170 accredited by ABHES. The Committee on Accreditation for Ophthalmic Medical Personnel approved 17 programs in ophthalmic medical assisting and 2 programs in ophthalmic clinical assisting. 348 Occupational Outlook Handbook Formal training in medical assisting, while generally preferred, is not always required. Some medical assistants are trained on the job, although this practice is less common than in the past. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. Recommended high school courses include mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, computers, and office skills. Volunteer experience in the health care field also is helpful. Although medical assistants are not licensed, some States require them to take a test or a course before they can perform certain tasks, such as taking x rays or giving injections. Employers prefer to hire experienced workers or certified ap plicants who have passed a national examination, indicating that the medical assistant meets certain standards of competence. The American Association of Medical Assistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants awards the Podiatric Medical Assistant, Certified credential; and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology awards credentials at three levels: Certified Ophthalmic Assistant; Certified Ophthalmic Techni cian; and Certified Ophthalmic Medical Technologist. Medical assistants deal with the public; therefore, they must be neat and well groomed and have a courteous, pleasant manner. Medical assistants must be able to put patients at ease and explain physicians’ instructions. They must respect the confidential nature of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical assistants may be able to advance to office manager. They may qualify for a variety of administrative support occupations or may teach medical assisting. With additional education, some enter other health occupations, such as nursing and medical technology. Employment Medical assistants held about 387,000 jobs in 2004. About 6 out of 10 worked in offices of physicians; about 14 percent worked in public and private hospitals, including inpatient and outpatient facilities; and 11 per cent worked in offices of other health practitioners, such as chiropractors, optometrists, and podiatrists. The rest worked mostly in outpatient care centers, public and private educational services, other ambulatory health care services, State and local government agencies, employment services, medical and diagnostic laboratories, and nursing care facilities. Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014 as the health care industry expands because of technological advances in medicine and the growth and aging of the population. Increasing utilization of medical assistants in the rapidly growing health care industry will further stimulate job growth. In fact, medical assistants is projected to be one of the fastest growing occupations over the 2004—14 period. Employment growth will be driven by the increase in the number of group practices, clinics, and other health care facilities that need a high proportion of support personnel, particularly the flexible medical assistant who can handle both administrative and clinical duties. Medical assistants work primarily in outpatient settings, a rapidly growing sector of the health care industry. In view of the preference of many health care employers for trained personnel, job prospects should be best for medical assistants with for mal training or experience, particularly for those with certification. between $20,650 and $28,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 18,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,650. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical assistants in May 2004 were: Colleges, universities, and professional schools.......................... $27,490 Outpatient care centers.................................................................. 25,360 General medical and surgical hospitals......................................... 25,160 Offices of physicians..................................................................... 24,930 Offices of other health practitioners.............................................. 21,930 Related Occupations Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assis tants, medical records and health information technicians, medical secretaries, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities and the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: >- American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.aama-ntl.org Information about career opportunities and the Registered Medical Assistant certification exam is available from: >- American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068-5765. Information about career opportunities, training programs, and certification for ophthalmic medical personnel is available from: ► Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2998. Internet: http://www.jcahpo.org/newsite/index.htm Information about certification for podiatric assistants is available from: ► American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2124 South Austin Blvd., Cicero, IL 60804. Internet: http://www.aspma.org For a list of educational programs in medical assisting accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs, contact: >- Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs, 1361 Park St., Clearwater, FL 33756. Internet: http://www.caahep.org A list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medical assisting is available from: ► Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, 7777 Leesburg Pike, Suite 314 N, Falls Church, VA 22043. Internet: http://www.abhes.org Medical Transcriptionists (Q*NET 31-9094.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities will be good. • Employers prefer medical transcriptionists who have completed a postsecondary training program at a voca tional school or community college. • Many medical transcriptionists telecommute from home-based offices as employees or subcontractors for hospitals and transcription services or as self-employed, independent contractors. • About 4 out of 10 worked in hospitals and another 3 out of 10 worked in offices of physicians. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary, depending on their experi ence, skill level, and location. Median annual earnings of medical assistants were $24,610 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations Nature of the Work Medical transcriptionists listen to dictated recordings made by physicians and other health care professionals and transcribe them into medical reports, correspondence, and other administrative material. They generally listen to recordings on a headset, using a foot pedal to pause the recording when necessary, and key the text into a personal computer or word processor, editing as necessary for grammar and clarity. The documents they produce include discharge summaries, history and physical examination reports, operative reports, consultation reports, autopsy reports, diagnos tic imaging studies, progress notes, and referral letters. Medical transcriptionists return transcribed documents to the physicians or other health care professionals who dictated them for review and signature, or correction. These documents eventually become part of patients’ permanent files. To understand and accurately transcribe dictated reports into a format that is clear and comprehensible for the reader, medical transcriptionists must understand medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, diagnostic procedures, pharmacology, and treat ment assessments. They also must be able to translate medical jargon and abbreviations into their expanded forms. To help iden tify terms appropriately, transcriptionists refer to standard medical reference materials—both printed and electronic; some of these are available over the Internet. Medical transcriptionists must comply with specific standards that apply to the style of medical records, in addition to the legal and ethical requirements involved with keeping patient information confidential. Experienced transcriptionists spot mistakes or inconsistencies in a medical report and check to correct the information. Their ability to understand and correctly transcribe patient assessments and treat ments reduces the chance of patients receiving ineffective or even harmful treatments and ensures high-quality patient care. Currently, most health care providers transmit dictation to medi cal transcriptionists using either digital or analog dictating equip ment. The Internet has grown to be a popular mode for transmitting documentation. Many transcriptionists receive dictation over the In ternet and are able to quickly return transcribed documents to clients for approval. Another increasingly popular method utilizes speech recognition technology, which electronically translates sound into text and creates drafts of reports. Reports are then formatted; edited for mistakes in translation, punctuation, or grammar; and checked for consistency and any possible medical errors. Transcriptionists working in areas with standardized terminology, such as radiology or pathology, are more likely to encounter speech recognition technol- Many medical transcriptionists receive dictation over the Internet and are to quickly return transcribed documents to clients for approval. Digitized able for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 349 ogy. However, use of speech recognition technology will become more widespread as the technology becomes more sophisticated. Medical transcriptionists who work in physicians’ offices may have other office duties, such as receiving patients, scheduling ap pointments, answering the telephone, and handling incoming and outgoing mail. Medical secretaries, discussed in the statement on secretaries and administrative assistants elsewhere in the Hand book, also may transcribe as part of their jobs. Court reporters, also discussed elsewhere in the Handbook, have similar duties, but with a different focus. They take verbatim reports of speeches, conversations, legal proceedings, meetings, and other events when written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspondence, records, or legal proof. Working Conditions The majority of these workers are employed in comfortable set tings, such as hospitals, physicians’ offices, transcription service offices, clinics, laboratories, medical libraries, government medical facilities, or their own homes. Many medical transcrip tionists telecommute from home-based offices as employees or subcontractors for hospitals and transcription services or as self-employed, independent contractors. Work in this occupation presents hazards from sitting in the same position for long periods. Workers can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye problems due to strain and risk repetitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome. The constant pressure to be accurate and productive also can be stressful. Many medical transcriptionists work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed medical transcriptionists are more likely to work irregular hours—including part time, evenings, weekends, or on call at any time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer to hire transcriptionists who have completed postsecondary training in medical transcription, offered by many vocational schools, community colleges, and distance-learning programs. Completion of a 2-year associate degree or 1-year certificate program—including coursework in anatomy, medical terminology, legal issues relating to health care documentation, and English grammar and punctuation—is highly recommended, but not always required. Many of these programs include supervised on-the-job experience. Some transcriptionists, especially those al ready familiar with medical terminology from previous experience as a nurse or medical secretary, become proficient through refresher courses and training. The American Association for Medical Transcription (AAMT) awards the voluntary designation Certified Medical Transcriptionist (CMT), to those who earn a passing score on a certification examination. As in many other fields, certification is recognized as a sign of competence. Because medicine is constantly evolv ing, medical transcriptionists are encouraged to update their skills regularly. Every 3 years, CMTs must earn continuing education credits to be recertified. In addition to understanding medical terminology, transcription ists must have good English grammar and punctuation skills, as well as proficiency with personal computers and word processing software. Normal hearing acuity and good listening skills also are necessary. Employers require applicants to take pre-employment tests and usually prefer individuals with experience. With experience, medical transcriptionists can advance to super visory positions, home-based work, editing, consulting, or teaching. With additional education or training, some become medical records and health information technicians, medical coders, or medical records and health information administrators. 350 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Medical transcriptionists held about 105,000jobsin2004. About 4 out of 10 worked in hospitals and another 3 out of 10 worked in offices of physicians. Others worked for business support services; medical and diagnostic laboratories; outpatient care centers; and offices of physical, occupational and speech therapists, and audiologists. Job Outlook Job opportunities will be good. Employment of medical transcription ists is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. Demand for medical transcription services will be spurred by a growing and aging population. Older age groups receive proportionately greater numbers of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that require documentation. A high level of demand for transcription services also will be sustained by the continued need for electronic documentation that can easily be shared among providers, third-party payers, regulators, consumers, and health information sys tems. Growing numbers of medical transcriptionists will be needed to amend patients’ records, edit documents from speech recognition systems, and identify discrepancies in medical reports. Contracting out transcription work overseas and advancements in speech recognition technology are not expected to significantly reduce the need for well-trained medical transcriptionists. Out sourcing transcription work abroad—to countries such as India, Pakistan, Philippines, and the Caribbean—has grown more popular as transmitting confidential health information over the Internet has become more secure; however, the demand for overseas tran scription services is expected only to supplement the demand for well-trained domestic medical transcriptionists. In addition, re ports transcribed by overseas medical transcription services usually require editing for accuracy by domestic medical transcriptionists before they meet domestic quality standards. Speech-recognition technology allows physicians and other health professionals to dictate medical reports to a computer that immediately creates an electronic document. In spite of the advances in this technology, the software has been slow to grasp and analyze the human voice and the English language, and the medical vernacular with all its diversity. As a result, there will continue to be a need for skilled medical transcriptionists to identify and appropriately edit the inevitable errors created by speech recognition systems, and to create a final document. Hospitals will continue to employ a large percentage of medical transcriptionists, but job growth there will not be as fast as in other industries. An increasing demand for standardized records should result in rapid employment growth in physicians’ offices, especially in large group practices. Earnings Medical transcriptionists had median hourly earnings of $13.64 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.50 and $ 16.32. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.67, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.11. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical transcriptionists in May 2004 were: General medical and surgical hospitals........................................... $13.83 Offices of physicians....................................................................... 13.40 Business support services............................................................... 13.40 Compensation methods for medical transcriptionists vary. Some are paid based on the number of hours they work or on the number of lines they transcribe. Others receive a base pay per hour with incentives for extra production. Employees of transcription services and independent contractors almost always receive production-based https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pay. Independent contractors earn more than do transcriptionists who work for others, but independent contractors have higher expenses than their corporate counterparts, receive no benefits, and may face higher risk of termination than do employed transcriptionists. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are court reporters; human resources assis tants, except payroll and timekeeping; receptionists and information clerks; and secretaries and administrative assistants. Other workers who provide medical support include medical assistants and medical records and health information technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a medical transcriptionist, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: >- American Association for Medical Transcription, 100 Sycamore Ave., Modesto, CA 95354-0550. Internet: http://www.aamt.org State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for medical transcriptionists. Nursing, Psychiatric, and Home Health Aides (0*NET 31-1011.00, 31-1012.00, 31-1013.00) Significant Points • Home health aides is projected to be the fastest grow ing occupation through 2014. • Numerous job openings and excellent job opportunities are expected. • Most jobs are in nursing and residential care facilities, hospitals, and home health care services. • Modest entry requirements, low pay, high physical and emotional demands, and lack of advancement opportu nities characterize this occupation. Nature of the Work Nursing and psychiatric aides help care for physically or mentally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals confined to hospitals, nursing care facilities, and mental health settings. Home health aides have duties that are similar, but they work in patients’ homes or residential care facilities. Nursing aides—also known as nursing assistants, certified nursing assistants, geriatric aides, unlicensed assistive personnel, orderlies, or hospital attendants—perform routine tasks under the supervision of nursing and medical staff. They answer patients’ call lights; deliver messages; serve meals; make beds; and help patients to eat, dress, and bathe. Aides also may provide skin care to patients; take their temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and blood pressure; and help them to get into and out of bed and walk. They also may escort patients to operating and examining rooms, keep patients’ rooms neat, set up equipment, store and move supplies, and assist with some procedures. Aides observe patients’ physical, mental, and emotional conditions and report any change to the nursing or medical staff. Nursing aides employed in nursing care facilities often are the prin cipal caregivers, having far more contact with residents than do other members of the staff. Because some residents may stay in a nursing care facility for months or even years, aides develop ongoing relation ships with them and interact with them in a positive, caring way. Service Occupations Home health aides help elderly, convalescent, or disabled persons live in their own homes instead of in a health care facil ity. Under the direction of nursing or medical staff, they provide health-related services, such as administering oral medications. (Personal and home care aides, who provide mainly housekeep ing and routine personal care services, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Like nursing aides, home health aides may check patients’ pulse rate, temperature, and respiration rate; help with simple prescribed exercises; keep patients’ rooms neat; and help patients to move from bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Occasionally, they change nonsterile dressings, give massages and alcohol rubs, or assist with braces and artificial limbs. Experienced home health aides also may assist with medical equipment such as ventilators, which help patients breathe. Most home health aides work with elderly or disabled persons who need more extensive care than family or friends can provide. Some help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs. In home health agencies, a registered nurse, physical therapist, or social worker usually assigns specific duties to and supervises home health aides, who keep records of the services they perform and record each patient’s condition and progress. The aides report changes in a patient’s condition to the supervisor or case manager. Psychiatric aides, also known as mental health assistants or psy chiatric nursing assistants, care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychi atrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social workers, and therapists. 351 In addition to helping patients to dress, bathe, groom themselves, and eat, psychiatric aides socialize with them and lead them in educational and recreational activities. Psychiatric aides may play games such as cards with the patients, watch television with them, or participate in group activities, such as sports or field trips. They observe patients and report any physical or behavioral signs that might be important for the professional staff to know. They accompany patients to and from examinations and treatment. Because they have such close contact with patients, psychiatric aides can have a great deal of influence on their patients’ outlook and treatment. Working Conditions Most full-time aides work about 40 hours a week, but, because patients need care 24 hours a day, some aides work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Many work part time. In 2004,25 percent of aides worked part time compared with 16 percent of all workers. Aides spend many hours standing and walking, and they often face heavy workloads. Aides must guard against back injury because they may have to move patients into and out of bed or help them to stand or walk. Aides also may face hazards from minor infections and major diseases, such as hepatitis, but can avoid infections by following proper procedures. Aides often have unpleasant duties, such as emptying bedpans and changing soiled bed linens. The patients they care for may be disoriented, irritable, or uncooperative. Psychiatric aides must be prepared to care for patients whose illness may cause violent behavior. While their work can be emotionally demanding, many aides gain satisfaction from assisting those in need. Home health aides may go to the same patient’s home for months or even years. However, most aides work with a number of different patients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Home health aides often visit multiple patients on the same day. Home health aides generally work alone, with periodic visits from their supervisor. They receive detailed instructions explain ing when to visit patients and what services to perform. Aides are individually responsible for getting to patients’ homes, and they may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one patient to another. Because mechanical lifting devices available in institutional settings are seldom available in patients' homes, home health aides are particularly susceptible to injuries resulting from overexertion when they assist patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Taking a patient's pulse is one of the many routine medical tasks Digitized performed for FRASERby aides. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In many cases, a high school diploma or equivalent is necessary for a job as a nursing or psychiatric aide. However, a high school diploma generally is not required for jobs as home health aides. Hospitals may require previous experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Nurs ing care facilities often hire inexperienced workers, who must complete a minimum of 75 hours of mandatory training and pass a competency evaluation as part of a State-approved training program within 4 months of their employment. Aides who complete the program are known as certified nurse assistants (CNAs) and are placed on the State registry of nursing aides. Some States also require psychiatric aides to complete a formal training program. However, most psychiatric aides learn their skills on the job from experienced workers. Nursing and psychiatric aide training is offered in high schools, vocational-technical centers, some nursing care facilities, and some com munity colleges. Courses cover body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, communication skills, and resident rights. Personal care skills, such as how to help patients to bathe, eat, and groom themselves, also are taught. Some employers provide classroom instruction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on informal on-the-job instruc tion by a licensed nurse or an experienced aide. Such training may 352 Occupational Outlook Handbook last from several days to a few months. Aides also may attend lectures, workshops, and in-service training. The Federal Government has guidelines for home health aides whose employers receive reimbursement from Medicare. Federal law requires home health aides to pass a competency test covering a wide range of areas: communication; documentation of patient status and care provided; reading and recording of vital signs; basic infection-control procedures; basic bodily functions; maintenance of a healthy environment; emergency procedures; physical, emotional, and developmental characteristics of patients; personal hygiene and grooming; safe transfer techniques; normal range of motion and positioning; and basic nutrition. A home health aide may receive training before taking the com petency test. Federal law suggests at least 75 hours of classroom and practical training, supervised by a registered nurse. Training and testing programs may be offered by the employing agency but must meet the standards of the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services. State regulations for training programs vary. The National Association for Home Care offers national cer tification for home health aides. The certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry standards. Some States also require aides to be licensed. Aides must be in good health. A physical examination, including State-regulated tests such as those for tuberculosis, may be required. A criminal background check also is usually required for employment. Applicants should be tactful, patient, understanding, emotionally stable, and dependable and should have a desire to help people. They also should be able to work as part of a team, have good communication skills, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Home health aides should be honest and discreet, because they work in private homes. They also will need access to their own car or public transportation to reach patients’ homes. For some individuals, these occupations serve as entry-level jobs, as in the case of high school and college students who may work while also attending school. In addition, experience as an aide can help individuals decide whether to pursue a career in health care. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are limited. Aides generally need additional formal training or education in order to enter other health occupations. The most common health care occupations for former aides are licensed practical nurse, registered nurse, and medical assistant. Employment Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides held about 2.1 million jobs in 2004. Nursing aides held the most jobs—approximately 1.5 million. Home health aides held roughly 624,000jobs and psychiatric aides held about 59,000 jobs. Around 42 percent of nursing aides worked in nursing care facilities, and another 27 percent worked in hospitals. Most home health aides—about 34 percent—were employed by home health care services. Others were employed in nursing and residential care facilities and social assistance agencies. Around 54 percent of all psychiatric aides worked in hospitals, pri marily in psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals, although some also worked in the psychiatric units of general medical and surgical hospitals. Others were employed in State government agencies; residential mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities; outpatient care centers; and nursing care facilities. Job Outlook Numerous job openings for nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides will arise from a combination of fast employment growth and high replacement needs. High replacement needs in this large occupation reflect modest entry requirements, low pay, high physical and emotional demands, and lack of opportunities for advancement. For these same https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis reasons, many people are unwilling to perform the kind of work required by the occupation, limiting the number of entrants. Many aides also leave the occupation to attend training programs for other health care occupa tions. Therefore, persons who are interested in, and suited for, this work should have excellent job opportunities. Overall employment of nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014, although individual occupational growth rates will vary. Home health aides is expected to be the fastest growing occupation, as a result of both growing demand for home services from an aging popula tion and efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing care facilities as quickly as possible. Consumer preference for care in the home and improvements in medical technologies for in-home treatment also will contribute to much-faster-than-average employment growth for home health aides. Nursing aide employment will not grow as fast as home health aide employment, largely because nursing aides are concentrated in slower growing nursing care facilities and hospitals. Employment of nursing aides is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2014, in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population. Financial pressures on hospitals to discharge patients as soon as possible should boost admissions to nursing care facilities. As a result, job opportunities will be more numerous in nursing and residential care facilities than in hospitals. Modem medical technology also will drive demand for nursing aides because, as the technology saves and extends more lives, it increases the need for long-term care provided by aides. Employment of psychiatric aides—the smallest of the three oc cupations—is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Most psychiatric aides currently work in hospitals, but most job growth will be in residential mental health facilities and in home health care agencies. There is a long-term trend toward treat ing mental health patients outside of hospitals because it is more cost effective and allows patients to live more normal lives. Demand for psychiatric aides in residential facilities will rise in response to growth in the number of older persons—many of whom will require mental health services—but also as an increasing number of mentally disabled adults, who were formerly cared for by their elderly parents, seek care. Job growth also could be affected by changes in government funding of programs for the mentally ill. Earnings Median hourly earnings of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants were $10.09 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.59 and $12.09 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.31, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.02 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants in May 2004 were as follows: Employment services...................................................................... $ 11.29 Local government........................................................................... 11.10 General medical and surgical hospitals........................................... 10.44 Nursing care facilities......................................................................... 9.86 Community care facilities for the elderly.......................................... 9.56 Nursing and psychiatric aides in hospitals generally receive at least 1 week of paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work, and pension plans also are available to many hospital employees and to some nursing care facility employees. Median hourly earnings of home health aides were $8.81 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.52 and $10.38 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.52, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.32 an hour. Median hourly earnings Service Occupations in the industries employing the largest numbers of home health aides in May 2004 were as follows: Nursing care facilities....................................................................... $9.11 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities....................................................... 8-97 Home health care services................................................................ 8.57 Community care facilities for the elderly......................................... 8.57 Individual and family services.......................................................... 8.47 Home health aides receive slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Usually, they are paid only for the time worked in the home, not for travel time between jobs. Most employ ers hire only on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits. Median hourly earnings of psychiatric aides were $11.19 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.09 and $14.09 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.63, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.74 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of psychiatric aides in May 2004 were as follows: 353 Nature of the Work Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the direc tion of occupational therapists to provide rehabilitative services to persons with mental, physical, emotional, or developmental impairments. The ultimate goal is to improve clients’ quality of life and ability to perform daily activities. For example, oc cupational therapist assistants help injured workers re-enter the labor force by teaching them how to compensate for lost motor skills or help individuals with learning disabilities increase their independence. Occupational therapist assistants, commonly known as oc cupational therapy assistants, help clients with rehabilitative Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides help people who need routine care or treatment. So do child care workers, licensed practi cal and licensed vocational nurses, medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, personal and home care aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, and registered nurses. activities and exercises outlined in a treatment plan developed in collaboration with an occupational therapist. Activities range from teaching the proper method of moving from a bed into a wheelchair to the best way to stretch and limber the muscles of the hand. Assistants monitor an individual’s activities to make sure that they are performed correctly and to provide encour agement. They also record their client’s progress for the oc cupational therapist. If the treatment is not having the intended effect, or the client is not improving as expected, the therapist may alter the treatment program in hopes of obtaining better results. In addition, occupational therapist assistants document the billing of the client’s health insurance provider. Occupational therapist aides typically prepare materials and assemble equipment used during treatment. They are responsible for a range of clerical tasks, including scheduling appointments, answering the telephone, restocking or ordering depleted supplies, and filling out insurance forms or other paperwork. Aides are not licensed, so the law does not allow them to perform as wide a range of tasks as occupational therapist assistants. Sources of Additional Information Working Conditions General medical and surgical hospitals.......................................... $11.31 Psychiatric and substance abuse hospitals..................................... 11.06 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities..................................................... 9.37 Related Occupations Information about employment opportunities may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing care facilities, home health care agencies, psychiatric facilities, State boards of nursing, and local offices of the State employ ment service. Information on licensing requirements for nursing and home health aides, and lists of State-approved nursing aide programs are available from State departments of public health, departments of occupational licensing, boards of nursing, and home care associations. The hours and days that occupational therapist assistants and aides work vary with the facility and with whether they are lull- or part-time employees. Many outpatient therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours, to help coincide with patients personal schedules. Occupational therapist assistants and aides need to have a moder ate degree of strength, because of the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. For example, assistants and aides may need to lift patients. Constant kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods also are part of the job. Occupational Therapist Assistants and Aides______________ ________ (0*NET 31-2011.00, 31-2012.00) ______ Significant Points • Employment is projected to increase much faster than the average, reflecting growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function who require therapeutic services. • Occupational therapist assistants generally must complete an associate degree or a certificate program; in contrast, occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. • In an effort to control rising health care costs, thirdparty payers are expected to encourage occupational therapists to delegate more hands-on therapy work to lower-paid occupational therapist assistants and aides. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational therapist assistants and aides provide rehabilitative services to persons with mental, physical, emotional, or developmental impairments. 354 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An associate degree or a certificate from an accredited community college or technical school is generally required to qualify for occupational therapist assistant jobs. In contrast, occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their train ing on the job. There were 135 accredited occupational therapist assistant programs in 2005. The first year of study typically involves an introduction to health care, basic medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology. In the second year, courses are more rigorous and usually include occupational therapist courses in areas such as mental health, adult physical disabilities, gerontology, and pediatrics. Students also must complete 16 weeks of supervised fieldwork in a clinic or community setting. Applicants to occu pational therapist assistant programs can improve their chances of admission by taking high school courses in biology and health and by performing volunteer work in nursing care facilities, occupational or physical therapists’ offices, or other health care settings. Occupational therapist assistants are regulated in most States and must pass a national certification examination after they graduate. Those who pass the test are awarded the title “Certified Occupational Therapy Assistant.” Occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Qualified applicants must have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to help people in need. Applicants may increase their chances of getting a job by volunteering their services, thus displaying initiative and aptitude to the employer. Assistants and aides must be responsible, patient, and willing to take directions and work as part of a team. Furthermore, they should be caring and want to help people who are not able to help themselves. Employment Occupational therapist assistants and aides held about 27,000jobs in 2004. Occupational therapist assistants held about 21,000jobs, and occupational therapist aides held approximately 5,400. About 30 percent ofjobs for assistants and aides were in hospitals, 23 percent were in offices of occupational therapists, and 18 percent were in nursing care facilities. The rest were primarily in community care facilities for the elderly, home health care services, individual and family services, and State government agencies. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational therapist assistants were $38,430 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,970 and $44,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,700. Median annual earnings of occupational therapist assistants were $40,130 in offices of other health practitioners, which includes of fices of occupational therapists. Median annual earnings of occupational therapist aides were $23,150 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,080 and $31,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,560. Related Occupations Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision and direction of occupational therapists. Other workers in the health care field who work under similar super vision include dental assistants, medical assistants, pharmacy aides, pharmacy technicians, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an occupational therapist assistant or aide, and a list of accredited programs, contact: > American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org Pharmacy Aides (0*NET 31-9095.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be good for full-time and part-time work, especially for those with related work experience. • Many pharmacy aides work evenings, weekends, and holidays. • About 80 percent work in retail pharmacies, grocery stores, department stores, or mass retailers. Nature of the Work Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapist assistants and aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2014. The impact of proposed Federal legislation impos ing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for occupational therapist assistants and aides in the short run. Over the long run, however, demand for occupational therapist assistants and aides will continue to rise because of the increasing number of individuals with disabili ties or limited function. Job growth will result from an aging population, including the baby-boom generation, which will need more occupational therapy services. The increased prevalence of sensory disorders in children will increase the demand for oc cupational therapy services. Increasing demand also will result from advances in medicine that allow more people with critical problems to survive and then need rehabilitative therapy. In an effort to control rising health care costs, third-party payers are expected to encourage occupational therapists to delegate more hands-on therapy work to lower-paid occupational therapist as sistants and aides. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pharmacy aides help licensed pharmacists with administrative duties in running a pharmacy. Aides often are clerks or cashiers who primarily answer telephones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. They work closely with phar macy technicians. Pharmacy technicians usually perform more complex tasks than do aides, although in some States the duties and titles of the jobs overlap. (See the statement on pharmacy technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Aides refer any ques tions regarding prescriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the statement on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Aides have several important duties that help the pharmacy to function smoothly. They may establish and maintain patient profiles, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. Accurate recordkeeping is necessary to help avert dangerous drug interactions. In addition, because many people have medi cal insurance to help pay for prescriptions, it is essential that pharmacy aides correspond efficiently and correctly with the third-party insurance providers to obtain payment. Pharmacy Service Occupations ' V : 355 skills and good manual dexterity. Pharmacy aides should be neat in appearance and able to deal pleasantly and tactfully with customers. Some employers may prefer people with experience typing, handling money, or operating specialized equipment, including computers. Advancement usually is limited, although some aides may decide to become pharmacy technicians or to enroll in pharmacy school to become pharmacists. Employment Pharmacy aides held about 50,000 jobs in 2004. About 80 percent work in retail pharmacies either independently owned or part of a drug store chain, grocery store, department store, or mass retailer; the vast majority of these are in drug stores. About 10 percent work in hospitals, and the rest work in mail-order pharmacies, clinics, and pharmaceutical wholesalers. Pharmacy aides answer telephones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. aides also maintain inventory and inform the supervisor of stock needs so that the pharmacy does not run out of the vital medica tions that customers need. Some also clean pharmacy equipment, help with the maintenance of equipment and supplies, and manage the cash register. Working Conditions Pharmacy aides work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and wellventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Aides work the same hours that pharmacists work. These in clude evenings, nights, weekends, and some holidays, particularly in facilities, such as hospitals and retail pharmacies that are open 24 hours a day. There are many opportunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most pharmacy aides receive informal on-the-job training, but employers favor those with at least a high school diploma. Pro spective pharmacy aides with experience working as cashiers may have an advantage when applying for jobs. Employers also prefer applicants with strong customer service and communication skills, experience managing inventories, and experience using computers. Aides entering the field need strong spelling, reading, and mathematics skills. Successful pharmacy aides are organized, dedicated, friendly, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take direc tions. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy aides cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Strong interpersonal and communication skills are needed because pharmacy aides in teract daily with patients, coworkers, and health care professionals. Teamwork is very important because aides are often required to work with technicians and pharmacists. Pharmacy aides almost always are trained on the job. They may begin by observing a more experienced worker. After they become familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and pro cedures, they begin to work on their own. Once they become experienced, aides are not likely to receive additional training, except when new equipment is introduced or when policies or procedures change. To become a pharmacy aide, one should be able to perform repetitive work accurately. Aides need good basic mathematics https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities for full-time and part-time work are expected to be good, especially for aides with related work experience in pharmacies or as cashiers or stock clerks in other retail settings. Job openings will be created by employment growth and by the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of pharmacy aides is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2014 because of the increasing use of medication in treating patients. In addition, a greater number of middle-aged and elderly people—who use more prescrip tion drugs than younger people—will spur demand for aides in all practice settings. Cost-conscious insurers, pharmacies, and health systems will continue to employ aides. As a result, pharmacy aides will assume some responsibility for routine tasks previously performed by pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, thereby giving pharmacists more time to interact with patients and technicians more time to prepare medications. Employment of pharmacy aides will not grow as fast as employment of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, however, because of legal limitations regarding aides’ duties. Many smaller pharmacies that can afford only a small staff will favor pharmacy technicians because of their more extensive training and job skills. Earnings Median hourly wage and salary earnings of pharmacy aides were $8.86 in May 2004. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.39 and $10.96; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.34, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.79. In May 2004, median hourly earnings of pharmacy aides were $8.29 in health and personal care stores and $9.80 in grocery stores. Related Occupations The work of pharmacy aides is closely related to that of phar macy technicians, cashiers, and stock clerks and order fillers. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical transcriptionists, medical records and health informa tion technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, and surgical technolo gists. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact local employers or local offices of the State employment service.
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