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324 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision of physical therapists. Other occupations in the healthcare field that work under the supervision of professionals include dental as sistants, medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, and pharmacy technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on a career as a physical therapist assistant and a list of schools offering accredited programs can be obtained from: The American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org Personal Care and Service Occupations Animal Care and Service Workers (0**NET 39-2011.00, 39-2021.00) Significant Points • • Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but aspects of the work can be unpleasant and physically and emotionally demanding. Most animal care and service workers are trained on the job, but advancement depends on experience, formal training, and continuing education. Nature of the Work Many people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, taking care of them is hard work. Animal care and service workers— which include animal caretakers and animal trainers—train, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals, and clean, disinfect, and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide com panionship, and observe behavioral changes that could indicate ill ness or injury. Boarding kennels, animal shelters, veterinary hospitals and clinics, stables, laboratories, aquariums, and zoologi cal parks all house animals and employ animal care and service workers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting. Kennel attendants usually care for small companion animals like dogs and cats while their owners are working or traveling out of town. Beginning attendants perform basic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs, filling food and water dishes, and exercising animals. Experienced attendants may provide basic animal healthcare, as well as bathe animals, trim nails, and attend to other grooming needs. Attendants who work in kennels also may sell pet food and supplies, assist in obedience training, help with breeding, or prepare animals for shipping. Animal caretakers who specialize in grooming, or maintaining a pet’s—usually a dog’s or cat’s—appearance are called groomers. Some groomers work in kennels, veterinary clinics, animal shel ters, or pet-supply stores. Others operate their own grooming busi ness. Groomers answer telephones, schedule appointments, discuss with clients their pets’ grooming needs, and collect information on the pet’s disposition and its veterinarian. Groomers often are the first to notice a medical problem, such as an ear or skin infection, that requires veterinary care. Grooming the pet involves several steps: An initial brush-out is followed by a first clipping of hair or fur using electric clippers, combs, and grooming shears; the groomer then cuts the nails, cleans the ears, bathes, and blow-dries the animal, and ends with a final clipping and styling. Animal caretakers in animal shelters perform a variety of duties and work with a wide variety of animals. In addition to attending to Digitizedthe for basic FRASER needs of the animals, caretakers also must keep records of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the animals received and discharged and any tests or treatments done. Some vaccinate newly admitted animals under the direction of a veterinarian or veterinary technician, and euthanize (painlessly put to death) seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Ani mal caretakers in animal shelters also interact with the public, an swering telephone inquiries, screening applicants for animal adoption, or educating visitors on neutering and other animal health issues. Caretakers in stables are called grooms. They saddle and un saddle horses, give them rubdowns, and walk them to cool-off af ter a ride. They also feed, groom, and exercise the horses; clean out stalls and replenish bedding; polish saddles; clean and organize the tack (harness, saddle, and bridle) room; and store supplies and feed. Experienced grooms may help train horses. In zoos, animal care and service workers, called keepers, pre pare the diets and clean the enclosures of animals, and sometimes assist in raising them when they are very young. They watch for any signs of illness or injury, monitor eating patterns or any changes in behavior, and record their observations. Keepers also may an swer questions and ensure that the visiting public behaves respon sibly toward the exhibited animals. Depending on the zoo, keepers may be assigned to work with a broad group of animals such as mammals, birds, or reptiles, or they may work with a limited collec tion of animals such as primates, large cats, or small mammals. Animal trainers train animals for riding, security, performance, obedience, or assisting persons with disabilities. Animal trainers do this by accustoming the animal to human voice and contact, and conditioning the animal to respond to commands. Trainers use sev eral techniques to help them train animals. One technique, known as a bridge, is a stimulus that a trainer uses to communicate the precise moment an animal does something correctly. When the ** ' ' -S**"" It | „ ^ HSijBiHsis I ■■AT Animals have to befed every day, so animal care and service workers often work weekend and holiday shifts. Service Occupations 325 animal responds correctly, the trainer gives positive reinforcement in a variety of ways: food, toys, play, rubdowns, or speaking the word “good.” Animal training takes place in small steps, and often takes months and even years of repetition. During the conditioning process, trainers provide animals mental stimulation, physical ex ercise, and husbandry care. In addition to their hands-on work with the animals, trainers often oversee other aspects of the animal’s care, such as diet preparation. Trainers often work in competitions or shows, such as the circus or marine parks. Trainers who work in shows also may participate in educational programs for visitors and guests. Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, as well as physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dan gerous. Most animal care and service workers have to clean animal cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. Their work often involves kneeling, crawling, repeated bending, and lifting heavy supplies like bales of hay or bags of feed. Animal caretakers must take precautions when treating ani mals with germicides or insecticides. The work setting can be noisy. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to competitions. Animal care and service workers who witness abused animals or who assist in the euthanizing of unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional stress. Those working for private humane societies and municipal animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regarding animal care. Animal care and service workers may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Hours are irregular: Animals have to be fed every day, so caretakers often work weekend and holiday shifts. In some ani mal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shelters, an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts. The majority of full-time animal care and service workers work about 40 hours a week. Employment Animal care and service workers held a total of 145,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly 90 percent of this number worked as nonfarm animal caretakers; the remainder worked as animal trainers. Nonfarm ani mal caretakers worked primarily in boarding kennels, animal shel ters, stables, grooming shops, animal hospitals, and veterinary offices. A significant number also worked for animal humane soci eties, racing stables, dog and horse racetrack operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amusement and recreations services. In 2000, more than 1 out of every 4 nonfarm animal caretakers was self-employed. Employment of animal trainers was concentrated in animal ser vices that specialize in training horses, pets, and other animal spe cialties; and in commercial sports, training racehorses and dogs. About 4 in 10 animal trainers were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most animal care and service workers are trained on the job. Employers generally prefer to hire people with some experience with animals. Some training programs are available for specific types of animal caretakers, such as groomers, but formal training is usually not necessary for entry-level positions. Animal trainers often need to possess a high school diploma or GED equivalent. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis However, some animal training jobs may require a bachelor’s degree and additional skills. For example, a marine mammal trainer usually needs a bachelor’s degree in biology, marine biology, animal sci ence, psychology, zoology, or related field, plus strong swimming skills and SCUBA certification. All animal trainers need patience, sensitivity, and experience with problem-solving and obedience. Certification is not mandatory for animal trainers, but several orga nizations offer training programs and certification for prospective animal trainers. Most pet groomers learn their trade by completing an informal apprenticeship, usually lasting 6 to 10 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced groomer. Prospective groomers may also attend one of the 50 State-licensed grooming schools throughout the country, with programs varying in length from 4 to 18 weeks. The National Dog Groomers Association of America certifies groomers who pass a written examination consisting of 400 questions, with a separate part testing practical skills. Beginning groomers often start by tak ing on one duty, such as bathing and drying the pet. They eventu ally assume responsibility for the entire grooming process, from the initial brush-out to the final clipping. Groomers who work in large retail establishments or kennels may, with experience, move into supervisory or managerial positions. Experienced groomers often choose to open their own shops. Beginning animal caretakers in kennels learn on the job, and usually start by cleaning cages and feeding and watering animals. Kennel caretakers may be promoted to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and manager, and those with enough capital and experi ence may open up their own kennels. The American Boarding Ken nels Association (ABKA) offers a 3-stage, home-study program for individuals interested in pet care. The first two study programs address basic and advanced principles of animal care, while the third program focuses on in-depth animal care and good business procedures. Those who complete the third program and pass oral and written examinations administered by the ABKA become Cer tified Kennel Operators (CKO). Some zoological parks may require their caretakers to have a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. Most require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer or paid keeper in a zoo. Zookeepers may advance to senior keeper, assis tant head keeper, head keeper, and assistant curator, but few open ings occur, especially for the higher-level positions. Animal caretakers in animal shelters are not required to have any specialized training, but training programs and workshops are increasingly available through the Humane Society of the United States, the American Humane Association, and the National Ani mal Control Association. Workshop topics include cruelty investi gations, appropriate methods of euthanasia for shelter animals, and techniques for preventing problems with wildlife. With experience and additional training, caretakers in animal shelters may become adoption coordinators, animal control officers, emergency rescue drivers, assistant shelter managers, or shelter directors. Job Outlook Employment of animal care and service workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. The pet population—which drives employment of animal caretakers in ken nels, grooming shops, animal shelters, and veterinary clinics and hospitals—is expected to remain stable or slightly increase. Pets remain popular and pet owners—including a large number of baby boomers whose disposable income is expected to increase as they age—may increasingly take advantage of grooming services, daily and overnight boarding services, training services, and veterinary services, spurring employment growth for animal caretakers, vet erinary assistants, and animal trainers. 326 Occupational Outlook Handbook Demand for animal care and service workers in animal shelters is expected to remain steady. Communities are increasingly recogniz ing the connection between animal abuse and abuse toward humans, and should continue to commit funds to animal shelters, many of which are working hand-in-hand with social service agencies and law enforcement teams. Employment growth of personal and group animal trainers will stem from an increased number of animal own ers seeking training services for their pets, including behavior modi fication and feline behavior training. The outlook for caretakers in zoos, however, is not favorable due to slow growth in zoo capacity and keen competition for the few positions. Despite growth in demand for animal care and service workers, the overwhelming majority of jobs will result from the need to re place workers leaving the field. Many animal caretaker jobs that require little or no training have work schedules that tend to be flexible; therefore, they are attractive to people seeking their first job and for students and others looking for temporary or part-time work. Because many workers leave the occupation, the overall avail ability of jobs should be very good. Earnings Median hourly earnings of nonfarm animal caretakers were $7.67 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.48 and $9.59. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $5.78, and the top 10 per cent earned more than $12.70. Median hourly earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of nonfarm animal caretakers in 2000 were as follows: Local government.................................................................................. Commercial sports................................................................................. Animal services, except veterinary.................................................... Retail stores, not elsewhere classified.............................................. Membership organizations, not elsewhere classified.................... Veterinary services................................................................................. Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers (0*NET 39-5011.00, 39-5012.00, 39-5092.00, 39-5093.00, 39-5094.00) • • • Significant Points Job opportunities for cosmetologists should be favorable due to growing demand for cosmetology services. Barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers must be licensed. Very high proportions of personal appearance workers are self-employed; many also work flexible schedules. Nature of the Work Barbers and cosmetologists, also called hairdressers and hairstyl ists, help people look neat and well-groomed. Other personal ap pearance workers, such as manicurists andpedicurists, shampooers, and skin care specialists provide specialized services that help cli ents look and feel their best. Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Also, they fit hair pieces, offer scalp treatments and facial massages, and shave male customers. In many States, barbers are licensed to color, bleach, or $ 11.80 7-78 7 32 MISSUS- 7 •18 7l®2 Median hourly earnings of animal trainers were $10.54 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.59 and $16.19. The low est 10 percent earned less than $6.25, and the top 10 percent earned more than $20.85. Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include farmers, ranch ers, and agricultural managers; agricultural workers; veterinarians; veterinary technologists, technicians, and assistants, and biological medical scientists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on jobs in animal caretaking and control, and the animal shelter and control personnel training program, write to: >- The Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L St. NW., Washington, DC 20037-1598. Internet: http://www.hsus.org For career information and information on training, certifica tion, and earnings of animal control officers at Federal, State, and local levels, contact: > National Animal Control Association, RO. Box 480851, Kansas City, MO 64148-0851. Internet: http://www.nacanet.org To obtain a listing of State-licensed grooming schools, send a stamped, self-addressed, business size envelope to: ► National Dog Groomers Association of America, P.O. Box 101, Clark, PA 16113. Internet: http://www.nauticom.net/www/ndga For information on State-licensed grooming schools and careers in pet grooming, contact: >- The Madson Group, Inc., Dept. Petgroomer.com, 13775 A Mono Way, Suite #224, Sonora, CA 95370. Internet: http://www.petgroomer.com https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Manicurists and pedicurists are the fastest growing cosmetology occupations. Service Occupations 327 highlight hair and offer permanent wave services. A growing num ber of barbers are trained to provide skin care and nail treatments. Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists provide beauty services, such as shampooing, cutting, coloring, and styling hair. They may advise clients on how to care for their hair, straighten or permanent wave hair, or lighten or darken hair color. Additionally, cosmetologists may train to give manicures, pedicures, and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces. A growing number of workers offer specialized services. The largest and fastest growing of these are manicurists and pedicur ists, called nail technicians in some States. They work exclusively on nails and provide manicures, pedicures, coloring, and nail ex tensions to clients. Another group of specialists is skin care spe cialists, or estheticians, who cleanse and beautify the skin by giving facials, full-body treatments, head and neck massages, and remov ing hair through waxing. Electrologists use an electrolysis machine to remove hair. Finally, shampooers specialize in shampooing and conditioning clients’ hair in some larger salons. In addition to their work with clients, personal appearance work ers are expected to maintain clean work areas and sanitize all work implements. They may make appointments and keep records of hair color and permanent wave formulas used by their regular cli ents. A growing number actively sell hair products and other cos metic supplies. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers who operate their own salons have managerial duties that include hiring, supervising, and firing workers, as well as keeping business and inventory records, ordering supplies, and arranging for advertising. Working Conditions Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important because these workers are on their feet for most of their shift. Because prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemicals may cause irri tation, special care is taken to use protective clothing, such as plas tic gloves or aprons. Most full-time barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal ap pearance workers put in a 40-hour week, but longer hours are com mon in this occupation, especially among self-employed workers. Work schedules may include evenings and weekends, when beauty salons and barbershops are busiest. Barbers and cosmetologists generally are busiest on weekends and during lunch and evening hours, therefore they arrange to take breaks during less popular times. Nearly half of all cosmetologists work part time or have variable schedules, double the rate for barbers and for all other workers in the economy. Employment Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers held about 790,000 jobs in 2000. Nine out of 10 jobs were for barbers, hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists. Of the remaining jobs, manicurists and pedicurists held about 40,000; skin care specialists about 21,000; and shampooers about 20,000. Most of these workers are employed in beauty salons or barber shops, but they are also found in department stores, nursing and other residential care homes, and drug and cosmetics stores. Nearly every town has a barbershop or beauty salon, but employment in this occupation is concentrated in the most populous cities and States. Approximately half of barbers, cosmetologists, and other per sonal appearance workers are self-employed. Many own their own salon, but a growing number lease booth space or a chair from the salon’s owner. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers to be licensed by the State in which they work. Qualifications for a license, however, vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a State-licensed barber or cosmetology school and be at least 16 years old. A few States require applicants to pass a physical examination. Some States require graduation from high school while others require as little as an eighth grade education. In a few States, completion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Applicants for a li cense usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetology services. Some States have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers and cosmetologists to apply for and obtain a license in a different State without additional formal training. Other States do not recognize training or licenses obtained in another State; conse quently, persons who wish to work in a particular State should re view the laws of that State before entering a training program. Public and private vocational schools offer daytime or evening classes in barbering and cosmetology. Full-time programs in barbering and cosmetology usually last 9 to 24 months, but training for manicurists and pedicurists, skin care specialists, and electrologists requires significantly less time. An apprenticeship program can last from 1 to 3 years. Shampooers generally do not need formal training or a license. Formal training programs in clude classroom study, demonstrations, and practical work. Stu dents study the basic services—haircutting, shaving, facial massaging, and hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school “clinics.” Most schools also teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styling. Students attend lectures on the use and care of instruments, sanitation and hygiene, chemis try, anatomy, physiology, and recognition of simple skin ailments. Instruction also is provided in communication, sales, and general business practices. There are advanced courses for experienced barbers and cosmetologists in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. After graduating from a training program, students can take the State licensing examination. The examination consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of styling skills based on established performance criteria. A few States include an oral ex amination in which the applicant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practical test. In many States, cosmetology training may be credited towards a barbering license, and vice versa. A few States combine the two licenses into one hair styling license. Many States require separate licensing examina tions for manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. For many barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appear ance workers, formal training and a license are only the first steps in a career that requires years of continuing education. Because hairstyles change, new products are developed, and services ex pand to meet clients’ needs, personal appearance workers must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. They attend training at salons, cosmetology schools, or product shows. Through workshops and demonstrations of the latest techniques, industry representatives introduce cosmetologists to a wide range of prod ucts and services. As retail sales become an increasingly important part of salons’ revenue, the ability to be an effective salesperson becomes vital for salon workers. Successful personal appearance workers should have an under standing of fashion, art, and technical design. They should enjoy working with the public and be willing and able to follow clients’ instructions. Communication, image, and attitude play an impor tant role in career success. Some cosmetology schools consider 328 Occupational Outlook Handbook “people skills” to be such an integral part of the job that they re quire coursework in this area. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons. During their first months on the job, new workers are given rela tively simple tasks or are assigned the simpler hairstyling patterns. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradually per mitted to perform more complicated tasks such as giving shaves, coloring hair, or applying a permanent. As they continue to work in the field, more training is usually required to leam the techniques used in each salon and to build on the basics learned in cosmetol ogy school. Advancement usually takes the form of higher earnings as bar bers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clien tele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Others teach in barber or cosmetology schools, or provide training through vocational schools. Other options include advancing to sales representatives, image or fashion consultants, or examiners for State licensing boards. Job Outlook Overall employment of barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers is projected to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through 2010, because of increasing popu lation, incomes, and demand for cosmetology services. Job opportunities should be favorable, especially because numerous job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other rea sons. Competition is expected for jobs and clients at higher paying salons, as applicants vie with a large pool of licensed and experi enced cosmetologists for these positions. The number of self-em ployed, booth-renting cosmetologists should continue to grow. Opportunities will be better for those licensed to provide a broad range of services. Employment trends are expected to vary among the different spe cialties within this grouping. For example, employment of barbers is expected to decline, due to a large number of retirements and the relatively small number of cosmetology school graduates opting to obtain barbering licenses. Employment of hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists should grow about as fast as average, because of continuing demand for coloring services and other hair treatments, such as perms and waves, by teens and aging baby boomers. Rapid growth in the number of nail salons and full-service, day spas will generate numerous job openings for other personal ap pearance workers. Nail salons specialize in providing manicures and pedicures. Day spas typically provide a full range of services, including beauty wraps, manicures and pedicures, facials, and mas sages. Employment of manicurists and pedicurists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations, while skin care specialists and shampooers should expect average employment growth. Earnings Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers receive income from a variety of sources. They may receive com missions based on the price of the service or a salary based on num ber of hours worked. All receive tips and many receive commissions on the products they sell. In addition, some salons pay bonuses to employees who bring in new business. Median annual earnings in 2000 for salaried hairdressers, hair stylists, and cosmetologists, including tips and commission, were $17,660. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,000 and $23,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,280, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,220. Median annual earn ings were $17,620 in beauty shops and $ 17,570 in department stores. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual earnings in 2000 for salaried barbers, including tips, were $ 17,740. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 13,580 and $24,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33,040. Median annual earnings were $ 18,330 in beauty shops and $ 16,900 in barber shops. Among others in this group, median annual earnings, including tips, were $20,080 for skin care specialists; $15,440 for manicur ists and pedicurists; and $13,690 for shampooers. A number of factors determine total income for barbers, cosme tologists, and other personal appearance workers, including the size and location of the salon, the number of hours worked, clients’ tip ping habits, and competition from other barber shops and salons. A cosmetologist’s or barber’s initiative and ability to attract and hold regular clients also are key factors in determining their earn ings. Earnings for entry-level workers are usually low; however, for those who stay in the profession, earnings can be considerably higher. Although some salons offer paid vacations and medical ben efits, many self-employed and part-time workers in this occupation do not enjoy such common benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who provide a personal service to clients and usu ally must be professionally licensed or certified include massage therapists and fitness trainers and aerobics instructors. Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements for cosmetologists can be obtained from: ► National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 901 North Stuart St., Suite 900, Arlington, VA 22203-1816. Internet: http://www.naccas.org Information about a career in cosmetology is available from: > National Cosmetology Association, 401 N. Michigan Ave., 22nd floor, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.salonprofessionals.org For details on State licensing requirements and approved barber or cosmetology schools, contact the State boards of barber or cos metology examiners in your State capital. Childcare Workers (0**NET 39-9011.00) Significant Points • • • About 2 out of 5 childcare workers are self-employed; most of these are family childcare providers. A high school diploma and little or no experience are adequate for many jobs, but training requirements vary from a high school diploma to a college degree. High turnover should create good job opportunities. Nature of the Work Childcare workers nurture and teach children of all ages in childcare centers, nursery schools, preschools, public schools, private house holds, family childcare homes, and before- and after-school pro grams. These workers play an important role in a child’s development by caring for the child when parents are at work or away for other reasons. Some parents enroll their children in nurs ery schools or childcare centers primarily to provide them with the opportunity to interact with other children. In addition to attend ing to children’s basic needs, these workers organize activities that stimulate the children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and so cial growth. They help children explore their interests, develop their talents and independence, build self-esteem, and learn how to behave with others. Private household workers who are employed on an hourly ba sis usually are called baby-sitters. These childcare workers bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play; wash their clothes; and clean their rooms. They also may put them to sleep and waken them, read to them, involve them in educational games, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Nannies generally take care of children from birth to age 10 or 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs. They also may perform the duties of a general housekeeper, including general cleaning and laundry duties. Childcare workers spend most of their day working with chil dren. However, they do maintain contact with parents or guardians through informal meetings or scheduled conferences to discuss each child’s progress and needs. Many childcare workers keep records of each child’s progress and suggest ways that parents can increase their child’s learning and development at home. Some preschools, childcare centers, and before- and after-school programs actively recruit parent volunteers to work with the children and participate in administrative decisions and program planning. Most childcare workers perform a combination of basic care and teaching duties. Through many basic care activities, childcare work ers provide opportunities for children to leam. For example, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoelace teaches the child while also providing for that child’s basic care needs. Childcare programs help children leam about tmst and gain a sense of security. Young children leam mainly through play. Recognizing the im portance of play, childcare workers build their program around it. They capitalize on children’s play to further language development (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills (working to gether to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and introduce scien tific and mathematical concepts (balancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). Thus, a less structured approach is used to teach preschool children, in cluding small group lessons, one-on-one instmction, and learning through creative activities, such as art, dance, and music. Interaction with peers is an important part of a child’s early de velopment. Preschool children are given an opportunity to engage in conversation and discussions, and leam to play and work coop eratively with their classmates. Childcare workers play a vital role in preparing children to build the skills they will need in school. (Statements on teacher assistants as well as teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school appear else where in the Handbook.) Childcare workers in preschools greet young children as they arrive, help them remove outer garments, and select an activity of interest. When caring for infants, they feed and change them. To ensure a well-balanced program, childcare workers prepare daily and long-term schedules of activities. Each day’s activities balance individual and group play and quiet and active time. Children are given some freedom to participate in activities in which they are interested. Workers in before- and after-school programs may help students with their homework or engage them in other extracurricular ac tivities. These activities may include field trips, learning about computers, painting, photography, and participating in sports. Some childcare workers may be responsible for taking children to school in the morning and picking them up from school in the afternoon. Concern over school-age children being home alone before and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 329 SHI Most childcare workers perform a variety ofbasic care and teaching duties. after school has spurred many parents to seek alternative ways for their children to constructively spend their time. The purpose of before- and after-school programs is to watch over school-age chil dren during the gap between school hours and their parents’ work hours. These programs also may operate during the summer and on weekends. Before- and after-school programs may be operated by public school systems, local community centers, or other private organizations. Helping to keep young children healthy is an important part of the job. Childcare workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They ensure that children have proper rest periods. They identify children who may not feel well or who show signs of emotional or developmental problems and discuss these matters with their supervisor and the child’s parents. In some cases, childcare workers help parents iden tify programs that will provide basic health services. Early identification of children with special needs, such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabilities, is im portant to improve their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with these preschool children to provide the individual attention they need. (Special education teachers are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Preschool or childcare facilities include private homes, schools, re ligious institutions, workplaces in which employers provide care for employees’ children, and private buildings. Individuals who provide care in their own homes generally are called family childcare providers. Nannies and babysitters usually work in the pleasant and com fortable homes or apartments of their employers. Most are day workers who live in their own homes and travel to work. Some live in the home of their employer, generally with their own room and bath. They often become part of their employer’s family, and may derive satisfaction from caring for them. Watching children grow, leam, and gain new skills can be very rewarding. While working with children, childcare workers often improve the child’s communication, learning, and other personal skills. The work is never routine; new activities and challenges mark each day. However, childcare can be physically and emotion ally taxing, as workers constantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child’s interests and problems. To ensure that children receive proper supervision, State or local regulations may require certain ratios of workers to children. The 330 Occupational Outlook Handbook ratio varies with the age of the children. Child development experts generally recommend that a single caregiver be responsible for no more than 3 or 4 infants (less than 1 year old), 5 or 6 toddlers (1 to 2 years old), or 10 preschool-age children (between 2 and 5 years old). In before- and after-school programs, workers may be re sponsible for many school-age children at one time. The working hours of childcare workers vary widely. Childcare centers usually are open year round, with long hours so that parents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Some centers employ full-time and part-time staff with staggered shifts to cover the entire day. Some workers are unable to take regular breaks during the day due to limited staffing. Public and many private preschool programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Family childcare providers have flexible hours and daily routines, but may work long or unusual hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Live-in nannies usually work longer hours than those who have their own homes. However, if they work evenings or weekends, they may get other time off. Turnover in this occupation is high. Many childcare workers leave the occupation temporarily to fulfill family responsibilities or to study, or for other reasons. Some workers leave permanently because they are interested in pursuing another occupation or be cause of dissatisfaction with long hours, low pay and benefits, and stressful conditions. Employment Childcare workers held about 1.2 million jobs in 2000. Many worked part time. About 2 out of 5 childcare workers are self-employed; most of these are family childcare providers. Twelve percent of all childcare workers are found in childcare centers and preschools, and about 3 percent work for religious in stitutions. The remainder work in other community organizations, State and local government, and private households. Some childcare programs are for-profit centers; some of these are affiliated with a local or national chain. Religious institutions, community agen cies, school systems, and State and local governments operate non profit programs. Only a very small percentage of private industry establishments operate onsite childcare centers for the children of their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training and qualifications required of childcare workers vary widely. Each State has its own licensing requirements that regulate caregiver training, ranging from a high school diploma, to commu nity college courses, to a college degree in child development or early-childhood education. Many States require continuing educa tion for workers in this field. However, State requirements often are minimal. Childcare workers generally can obtain employment with a high school diploma and little or no experience. Local gov ernments, private firms, and publicly funded programs may have more demanding training and education requirements. Some employers prefer to hire childcare workers with a nation ally recognized childcare development credential, secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early childhood education, or work experience in a childcare setting. Other em ployers require their own specialized training. An increasing num ber of employers require an associate degree in early childhood education. Schools for nannies teach early childhood education, nutrition, and childcare. Childcare workers must be enthusiastic and constantly alert, an ticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, and provide fair but firm discipline. They must communicate effec Digitizedtively for FRASER with the children and their parents, as well as other teachers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and childcare workers. Workers should be mature, patient, under standing, and articulate, and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling also are important. Those who work for themselves must have business sense and manage ment abilities. Opportunities for advancement are limited. However, as childcare workers gain experience, some may advance to supervi sory or administrative positions in large childcare centers or pre schools. Often, these positions require additional training, such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Other workers move on to work in resource and referral agencies, consulting with parents on available child services. A few workers become involved in policy or advo cacy work related to childcare and early childhood education. With a bachelor’s degree, workers may become preschool teachers or become certified to teach in public or private schools at the kinder garten, elementary, and secondary school levels. Some workers set up their own childcare businesses. Job Outlook High turnover should create good job opportunities for childcare workers. Many childcare workers leave the occupation each year to take other jobs, to meet family responsibilities, or for other rea sons. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Opportunities for nannies should be especially good, as many workers prefer not to work in other people’s homes. Employment of childcare workers is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment growth of childcare workers should be considerably slower than in the last two decades because demographic changes that fueled much of the past enrollment growth are projected to slow. Labor force participation of women of childbearing age will increase very little, and this group of women will decline as a per centage of the total labor force. However, the number of children under 5 years of age is expected to rise gradually over the projected 2000-10 period. The proportion of youngsters enrolled full- or part time in childcare and preschool programs is likely to continue to increase, spurring demand for additional childcare workers. Changes in perceptions of preprimary education may lead to in creased public and private spending on childcare. If more parents believe that some experience in center-based care and preschool is beneficial to children, enrollment will increase. Concern about the behavior of school-age children during nonschool hours should in crease demand for before- and after-school programs. The diffi culty of finding suitable nannies or private household workers also may force many families to seek out alternative childcare arrange ments in centers and family childcare programs. Government policy often favors increased funding of early childhood education pro grams, and that trend should continue. Government funding for before- and after-school programs also is expected to increase over the projection period. The growing availability of governmentfunded programs may induce some parents who otherwise would not enroll their children in center-based care and preschool to do so. Some States also are increasing subsidization of the childcare services industry in response to welfare reform legislation. This reform may cause some mothers to enter the workforce during the projection period as their welfare benefits are reduced or eliminated. Earnings Pay depends on the educational attainment of the worker and the type of establishment. Although the pay generally is very low, more education usually means higher earnings. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary childcare workers were $7.43 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.30 and $9.09. The lowest 10 Service Occupations 331 percent earned less than $5.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.71. Median hourly earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of childcare workers in 2000 were as follows: Residential care......................................................................... Elementary and secondary schools............................................. Civic and social associations...................................................... Child daycare services............................................................... Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services...................... $8.71 8.52 6.98 6.74 6.65 Earnings of self-employed childcare workers vary depending on the hours worked, the number and ages of the children, and the location. Benefits vary, but are minimal for most childcare workers. Many employers offer free or discounted childcare to employees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insurance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Live-in nannies get free room and board. Related Occupations Childcare work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, organiza tional, and administrative skills. Others who work with children and need these qualities and skills include teacher assistants; teach ers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and special education teachers. Sources of Additional Information For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Develop ment Associate credential, contact: >- Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009-3575. Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Certified Childcare Professional designation, contact: >- National Childcare Association, 1016 Rosser St., Conyers, GA 30012. Internet: http://www.nccanet.org For information about a career as a nanny, contact: >- International Nanny Association, 900 Haddon Ave., Suite 438, Collingswood, NJ 08108. Internet: http://www.nanny.org State Departments of Human Services or Social Services can supply State regulations and training requirements for childcare workers. Flight Attendants (O’NET 39-6031.00)* • • • Significant Points Job duties are learned through intensive formal training after workers are hired. The opportunity for travel attracts many to this career, but the job requires working nights, weekends, and holidays and frequently being away from home. Nature of the Work Major airlines are required by law to provide flight attendants for the safety of the traveling public. Although the primary job of the flight attendants is to ensure that safety regulations are followed, they also try to make flights comfortable and enjoyable for passengers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis . ‘Kwkxd Although the primaryjob offlight attendants is to ensure that safety regulations are followed, they also try to make flights comfortable and enjoyable for passengers. At least 1 hour before each flight, flight attendants are briefed by the captain, the pilot in command, on such things as emergency evacuation procedures, crew coordination, length of flight, expected weather conditions, and special passenger issues. Flight attendants make sure that first aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order and that the passenger cabin is in or der, with adequate supplies of food, beverages, and blankets. As passengers board the plane, flight attendants greet them, check their tickets, and tell them where to store coats and carry-on items. Before the plane takes off, flight attendants instruct all passen gers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that seat belts are fastened, seat backs are in upright positions, and all carryon items are properly stowed. In the air, helping passengers in the event of an emergency is the most important responsibility of a flight attendant. Safety-related actions may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encounters with strong turbulence to directing passengers who must evacuate a plane following an emer gency landing. Flight attendants also answer questions about the flight; distribute reading material, pillows, and blankets; and help small children, elderly or disabled persons, and any others needing assistance. They may administer first aid to passengers who be come ill. Flight attendants generally serve beverages and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals or snacks. Prior to landing, flight attendants take inventory of headsets, alcoholic beverages, and moneys collected. They also report any medical problems passengers may have had, and the condition of cabin equipment. In addition to performing flight duties, flight attendants sometimes make public relations appear ances for the airlines during “career days” at high schools and at fundraising campaigns, sales meetings, conventions, and other goodwill occasions. Lead, or first, flight attendants, sometimes known as pursers, oversee the work of the other attendants aboard the aircraft, while performing most of the same duties. Working Conditions Because airlines operate around-the-clock year-round, flight atten dants may work nights, holidays, and weekends. In most cases, agreements between the airline and the employees’ union deter mine the total monthly working time. Attendants usually fly 75 to 85 hours a month and, in addition, generally spend about 75 to 85 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing 332 Occupational Outlook Handbook reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes to ar rive. Because of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many flight attendants have 11 or more days off each month. They may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommoda tions and an allowance for meal expenses. The combination of free time and discount air fares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served, and turbulent flights can make serving drinks and meals difficult. Flight attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient, regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Occasionally, flight attendants must deal with disruptive passengers. Flight attendants are susceptible to injuries because of the job demands in a moving aircraft. Back injuries and mishaps opening overhead compartments are common. In addition, medical prob lems can occur from irregular sleeping and eating patterns, dealing with stressful passengers, working in a pressurized environment, and breathing recycled air. Employment Flight attendants held about 124,000 jobs in 2000. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of all flight attendants, most of whom live in their employer’s home base city. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that operated com pany aircraft for business purposes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Airlines prefer to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can interact comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Applicants usually must be at least 18 to 21 years old. Flight attendants must have excellent health and the ability to speak clearly. In addition, there generally are height requirements, and most air lines want candidates with weight proportionate to height. Prospective flight attendants usually must be willing to relocate, although many flight attendants are able to commute to and from their home base. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having several years of college or experience in dealing with the public are preferred. More and more flight attendants being hired are college graduates. Highly desirable areas of concentration in clude such people-oriented disciplines as psychology and educa tion. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak a foreign language fluently. Some of the major airlines prefer can didates who can speak two major foreign languages for their inter national flights. Once hired, candidates must undergo a period of formal train ing. The length of training, ranging from 4 to 7 weeks, depends on the size and type of carrier and takes place in the airline’s flight training center. Airlines that do not operate training centers gener ally send new employees to the center of another airline. Airlines may provide transportation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies. However, new trainees are not considered employees of the airline until they successfully com plete the training program. Some airlines may actually charge indi viduals for training. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, operating emergency systems and equip ment, administering first aid, and water survival tactics. In addi tion, trainees are taught how to deal with disruptive passengers and hijacking and terrorist situations. New hires learn flight regula tions and duties, company operations and policies, and receive in struction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations. Towards the end of their training, students go https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis on practice flights. Additionally, flight attendants must receive 12 to 14 hours of annual training in emergency procedures and passen ger relations. After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New flight attendants are placed on “reserve status” and are called on either to staff extra flights or to fill in for crewmembers who are sick or on vacation or rerouted. When not on duty, reserve flight attendants must be available to report for flights on short notice. They usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year but, in some cities, it may take 5 to 10 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Flight attendants who no longer are on reserve bid monthly for regular assignments. Be cause assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of assignments. Advance ment takes longer today than in the past because experienced flight attendants are remaining in this career longer than they used to. Some flight attendants become supervisors, or take on additional duties such as recruiting and instructing. Their experience also may qualify them for numerous airline-related jobs involving contact with the public, such as reservation ticket agents or public relations specialists. Job Outlook Opportunities should be favorable for persons seeking flight atten dant jobs because the number of applicants is expected to be roughly the same as the number ofjob openings. Those with at least 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public should have the best chance of being hired. The majority ofjob openings through the year 2010 should be due to the need to replace flight attendants who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force. Many flight attendants are attracted to the occupation by the glamour of the airline industry and the opportunity to travel, but some eventu ally leave in search of jobs that offer higher earnings and require fewer nights away from their families. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Growth in population and income is expected to boost the number of airline passengers. Airlines enlarge their capacity by increasing the num ber and size of planes in operation. Because FAA safety rules re quire one attendant for every 50 seats, more flight attendants will be needed. Employment of flight attendants is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when the demand for air travel declines, many flight attendants are put on part-time status or laid off. Until demand increases, few new flight attendants are hired. Earnings Median annual earnings of flight attendants were $38,820 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,200 and $56,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,090, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $83,630. According to data from the Association of Flight Attendants, beginning flight attendants had median earnings of about $14,847 a year in 2000. However, beginning pay scales for flight atten dants vary by carrier. New hires usually begin at the same pay scale regardless of experience, and all flight attendants receive the same future pay increases. Flight attendants receive extra compen sation for night and international flights and for increased hours. In addition, some airlines offer incentive pay for working holidays or taking positions that require additional responsibility or paper work. Most airlines guarantee a minimum of 65 to 75 flight hours per month, with the option to work additional hours. Flight atten dants also receive a “per diem” allowance for meal expenses while on duty away from home. In addition, flight attendants and their Service Occupations 333 immediate families are entitled to free fares on their own airline and reduced fares on most other airlines. Flight attendants are required to purchase uniforms and wear them while on duty. The airlines usually pay for uniform replace ment items, and may provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. The majority of flight attendants hold union membership, pri marily with the Association of Flight Attendants. Others may be members of the Transport Workers Union of America, the Interna tional Brotherhood of Teamsters, or other unions. Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional, while requiring the ability to be calm even under trying circumstances, include emergency medical technicians and paramedics and firefighting occupations. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities and qualifications required for work at a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the airline’s personnel office. Gaming Services Occupations (0**NET 39-1011.00, 39-1012.00, 39-3011.00, 39-3012.00, 39-3019.99, 39-3099.99) • • • Significant Points Usually there are no minimum educational requirements; each casino establishes its own requirements for education, training, and experience. Workers need a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a casino control board or commission; licensure requires proof of residency in the State in which gaming workers are employed. Job prospects are best for those with a degree or certification in gaming or a hospitality-related field, previous casino gaming training or experience, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. Nature of the Work Legalized gambling in the United States today includes casino gam ing, State lotteries, parimutuel wagering on contests such as horseracing, and charitable gaming. Gaming, the playing of games of chance, is a multibillion-dollar industry that is responsible for the creation of a number of unique service occupations. The majority of all gaming services workers are employed in casinos. Their duties and titles may vary from one establishment to another. Despite differences in job title and task, however, workers perform many of the same basic functions in all casinos. Some positions are associated with oversight and direction—supervision, surveillance, and investigation—while others involve working with the games or patrons themselves, performing such activities as tend ing slot machines, handling money, writing and mnning tickets, and dealing cards. Like nearly every business establishment, casinos have workers who direct and oversee day-to-day operations. Gaming supervi sors oversee the gaming operations and personnel in an assigned area. They circulate among the tables and observe the operations to for ensure that all of the stations and games are covered for each Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■J Most gaming services workers are employed in casinos. shift. It also is not uncommon for gaming supervisors to explain and interpret the operating rules of the house to the patrons who may have difficulty understanding the rules. Gaming supervisors also may plan and organize activities to create a friendly atmosphere for the guests staying in their hotels or casino hotels; and, periodi cally, they address and adjust service complaints. Some gaming occupations demand specially acquired skills— dealing blackjack, for example—that are unique to casino work. Others require skills common to most businesses, such as the abil ity to conduct financial transactions. In both capacities, the work ers in these jobs interact directly with patrons in attending to slot machines, making change, cashing or selling tokens and coins, writ ing and running for other games, and dealing cards at table games. Part of their responsibility is to make those interactions enjoyable. Slot key persons, also called slot attendants, slot technicians or slot key persons, coordinate and supervise the slot department and its workers. Their duties include verifying and handling payoff winnings to patrons, resetting slot machines after completing the payoff, and refilling machines with money. Slot key persons must be familiar with a variety of slot machines and be able to make minor repairs and adjustments to the machines as needed. If major repairs are required, slot key persons determine whether the slot machine should be removed from the floor. Working the floor as front-line personnel, they enforce safety rules and report hazards. Gaming and sportsbook writers and runners assist in the opera tions of games such as bingo and keno. They scan tickets pre sented by patrons and calculate and distribute winnings. Some writers and runners operate the equipment that randomly selects the numbers. Others may announce numbers selected, pick up tickets from patrons, collect bets, or receive, verify, and record patrons’ cash wagers. Gaming dealers operate table games such as craps, blackjack, and roulette. Standing or sitting behind the table, dealers provide dice, dispense cards to players, or run the equipment. Some dealers also monitor the patrons for infractions of casino rules. Gaming dealers must be skilled in customer service and in executing their game. Dealers determine winners, calculate and pay winning bets, and collect losing bets. Because of the fast-paced work environ ment, most gaming dealers are competent in at least two games— usually blackjack and craps. Working Conditions The atmosphere in casinos is generally fun-filled and often consid ered glamorous. However, casino work can also be physically de- 334 Occupational Outlook Handbook manding. Most occupations require that workers stand for long periods; some require the lifting of heavy items. The “glamorous” atmosphere exposes casino workers to certain hazards, such as ciga rette, cigar, and pipe smoke. Noise from slot machines, gaming tables, and talking workers and patrons may be distracting to some workers, although workers wear protective headgear in areas where loud machinery is used to count money. Most casinos are open 24 hours a day and offer three staggered shifts. Employment Gaming services’ occupations held 167,000 jobs in 2000. Employ ment by occupational specialty was distributed as follows: Gaming dealers.......................................... Gaming supervisors.................................... Slot key persons.......................................... Gaming and sports book writers and runners All other gaming service workers................ 88,000 31.000 14.000 12.000 21,000 The majority are found in the hotel and amusement and recre ation services industries. Gaming services workers are employed in land-based or riverboat casinos in 11 States—Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, and South Dakota. The largest number works in landbased casinos in Nevada, and the second-largest group works in similar establishments in New Jersey. Mississippi, which boasts the greatest number of riverboat casinos in operation, employs the most workers in that venue. In addition, there are 27 States with Indian casinos. Legal lotteries are held in 37 States and the District of Columbia, and parimutuel wagering is legal in 40 States. Forty-six States and the District of Columbia also allow charitable gaming. For most workers, gaming licensure requires proof of residency in the State in which gaming workers are employed. But some gaming services workers do not limit themselves to one State, or even one country. Some workers find jobs on the small number of casinos located on luxury cruise liners, traveling the world while living and working aboard. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Usually, there are no minimum educational requirements for entrylevel gaming workers, although most employers prefer a high school diploma or GED. However, entry-level gaming services workers are required to have a license issued by a regulatory agency, such as a casino control board or commission. Applicants for a license must provide photo identification, proof of residency in the State in which they anticipate working, and pay a fee. Age requirements vary by State. The licensing application process also includes a background investigation. In addition to a license, gaming services workers need superior customer service skills. Casino gaming workers provide entertain ment and hospitality to patrons, and the quality of their service con tributes to an establishment’s success or failure. Therefore, gaming workers need good communication skills, an outgoing personality, and the ability to maintain their composure even when dealing with angry or demanding patrons. Personal integrity also is important because workers handle large amounts of money. Each casino establishes its own requirements for education, train ing, and experience. Almost all casinos provide some in-house train ing in addition to requiring certification. The type and quantity of classes needed may vary. Many institutions of higher learning offer training classes toward certification in gaming, as well as offering an associate, bachelor’s, or master’s degree in a hospitality-related field such as hospitality Digitizedmanagement, for FRASER hospitality administration, or hotel management. One https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis example is the Atlantic Cape Community College’s Casino Career Institute in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Using a combination of a large mock casino and classroom instruction, the Institute offers train ing in games, supervisory programs, slot attendant and slot repair technician work, slot department management, and surveillance and security. Gaming services workers who manage money should have some experience handling cash or using calculators or adding machines. For such positions, most casinos administer a math test to assess an applicant’s level of competency. Most casino supervisory staff have an associate or bachelor’s degree. Supervisors who do not have a degree usually substitute hands-on experience for formal education. Regardless of their edu cational background, however, most supervisors gain experience in other gaming occupations before moving into supervisory positions because knowledge of games and casino operations is essential for these workers. Gaming supervisors must have leadership qualities and good communication skills to supervise employees effectively and to deal with patrons in a way that encourages return visits. Slot key persons do not need to meet formal educational require ments to enter the occupation, but completion of slot attendant or slot technician training is helpful. As with most other gaming work ers, slot key persons receive on-the-job training during the first sev eral weeks of employment. Most slot key positions are entry level, so a desire to learn is important. Slot key persons need good com munication skills and an ability to remain calm, even when dealing with angry or demanding patrons. Personal integrity also is impor tant because these workers handle large sums of money. Gaming and sportsbook writers and runners must have at least a high school diploma or GED. Most of these workers receive on-thejob training. Because gaming and sportsbook writers and runners work closely with patrons, they need excellent customer service skills. Nearly all gaming dealers are certified. Certification is avail able through 2- or 4-year programs in gaming or a hospitality-re lated field. Experienced dealers, who often are able to attract new or return business, have the best job prospects. Dealers with more experience are placed at the “high roller” tables. Advancement opportunities in casino gaming depend less on workers’ previous casino duties and titles than on their ability and eagerness to learn new jobs. For example, an entry-level gaming worker eventually might advance to become a dealer or card room manager or to assume some other supervisory position. Job Outlook Employment in gaming services occupations is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Asa di rect result of increasing demand for additional table games in gam ing establishments, the most rapid growth is expected among gaming dealers. Job prospects in gaming services occupations are best for those with a degree or certification in gaming or a hospitality-re lated field, previous casino gaming training or experience, and strong interpersonal and customer service skills. In addition to job open ings arising from employment growth, opportunities will result from the need to replace workers transferring to other occupations or leaving the labor force. Gaming has increased, reflecting growth in the population and in disposable income. More domestic and international competi tion for gaming patrons, and higher expectations among gaming patrons for customer service, should result in more jobs for gaming services workers. Job growth is expected in established gaming areas such as Las Vegas, Nevada, and Atlantic City, New Jersey, and in other States and areas that may legalize gaming in the com ing years, including the development of more gaming establish ments on Indian tribal lands. Service Occupations 335 Earnings Wage earnings for gaming services workers vary according to oc cupation, level of experience, training, location, and size of the gam ing establishment. The following tabulation shows the range of median earnings for various gaming services occupations in 2000: Gaming supervisors................................................................. $37,900 Slot key persons...................................................................... 21,620 Gaming and sports book writers and runners........................... 17,100 Gaming dealers....................................................................... 13,330 Related Occupations Many other occupations provide hospitality and customer service. Some examples of related occupations are security guards and gam ing surveillance officers, recreation and fitness workers, sales worker supervisors, cashiers, gaming change persons and booth cashiers, retail salespersons, gaming cage workers, and tellers. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in gaming, visit your public library and your State gaming regulatory agency or casino control commission. Information on careers in gaming also is available from: >- American Gaming Association, 555 13thSt.NW., Suite lOlOEast, Wash ington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.americangaming.org Personal and Home Care Aides (Q* *NET 39-9021.00) • • Significant Points Numerous job openings will result from very fast employment growth and high replacement needs. Education required for entry-level jobs is generally minimal, but earnings are low. Nature of the Work Personal and home care aides help elderly, disabled, and ill persons live in their own homes or in residential care facilities instead of in a health facility. Most work with elderly or disabled clients who need more extensive care than family or friends can provide. Some aides work with families in which a parent is incapacitated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-tenn needs. (For information on home health aides, see the statement on nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Personal and home care aides—also called homemakers, caregivers, companions, and personal attendants—provide house keeping and routine personal care services. They clean clients’ houses, do laundry, and change bed linens. Aides may plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and cook. Aides also may help clients move from bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Some accom pany clients outside the home, serving as a guide and companion. Personal and home care aides also provide instruction and psy chological support. They may advise families and patients on such things as nutrition, cleanliness, and household tasks. Aides also may assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child, or just listen to clients talk about their problems. In home care agencies, it usually is a registered nurse, a physical therapist, or a social worker who assigns specific duties and super vises personal and home care aides. Aides keep records of services performed and of clients’ condition and progress. They report https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■ ' Personal and home care aides provide housekeeping and routine personal care services. changes in the client’s condition to the supervisor or case manager. Aides work in cooperation with other healthcare professionals, in cluding registered nurses, therapists, and other medical staff. Working Conditions The personal and home care aide’s daily routine may vary. Aides may go to the same home every day for months or even years. How ever, most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Aides often visit four or five clients on the same day. Surroundings differ from case to case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, while others are untidy or depressing. Some clients are pleasant and cooperative; others are angry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult. Personal and home care aides generally work on their own, with periodic visits by their supervisor. They receive detailed instruc tions explaining when to visit clients and what services to perform. Many aides work part time, and weekend hours are common. Aides are individually responsible for getting to the client’s home. They may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one client to another. They are particularly susceptible to falls in side and outside clients’ homes and injuries resulting from all types of overexertion when assisting patients. Mechanical lifting devices that are available in institutional settings are seldom available in patients’ homes. 336 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Personal and home care aides held about 414,000 jobs in 2000. Most aides are employed by social services agencies, home health agencies, or residential care facilities. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or supervision, and accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In some States, this occupation is open to individuals with no for mal training. On-the-job training is generally provided. Other States may require formal training, depending on State law. The National Association for Home Care offers national certification for personal and home care aides. Certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry standards. Successful personal and home care aides like to help people and do not mind hard work. They should be responsible, compassion ate, emotionally stable, and cheerful. In addition, aides should be tactful, honest, and discreet because they work in private homes. Aides also must be in good health. A physical examination includ ing State-mandated tests, such as those for tuberculosis, may be required. Advancement for personal and home care aides is limited. In some agencies, workers start out performing homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on per sonal care duties. Most employers give slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Aides usually are paid only for the time worked in the home. They normally are not paid for travel time between jobs. Employers often hire on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits. Related Occupations Personal and home care aide is a service occupation combining duties of caregivers and social service workers. Workers in related occu pations that involve personal contact to help others include childcare workers; nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; occupational therapist assistants and aides; and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information General information about training and referrals to State and local agencies about opportunities for personal and home care aides, a list of relevant publications, and information on certification are available from: >- National Association for Home Care, 228 7th St. SE., Washington, DC 20003. Internet: http://www.nahc.org Recreation and Fitness Workers (0*NET 39-9031.00, 39-9032.00) Job Outlook A large number ofjob openings are expected for personal and home care aides because of much faster than average employment growth and high replacement needs. Personal and home care aides is ex pected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2010. The number of elderly people is projected to rise substantially. This age group is characterized by mounting health problems re quiring some assistance. In addition to the elderly, there will be an increasing reliance on home care for patients of all ages. This trend reflects several developments: efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing facilities as quickly as pos sible; the realization that treatment can be more effective in famil iar surroundings rather than clinical surroundings; and the development and improvement of medical technologies for in-home treatment. In addition to job openings created by the increase in demand for these workers, replacement needs are expected to produce nu merous openings. Turnover is high, a reflection of the relatively low skill requirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work. For these same reasons, many people are reluctant to seek these jobs. Therefore, persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have excellent job opportunities, particu larly those with experience or training as personal care, home health, or nursing aides. Earnings Median hourly earnings of personal and home care aides were $7.50 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.43 and $8.53 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.74, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 10.13 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of per sonal and home care aides in 2000 are shown below: Residential care........................................................................... $7.97 Job training and related services...................................................... 7.85 Nursing and personal care facilities................................................. 7.82 Individual and family services.......................................................... 7.75 Home health care services................................................................ 6-49 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • • Educational requirements for recreation workers range from a high school diploma to a graduate degree, whereas fitness workers usually need certification. Competition will remain keen for full-time career positions in recreation; however, job prospects for fitness workers will be more favorable. Nature of the Work People spend much of their leisure time participating in a wide va riety of organized recreational activities, such as aerobics, arts and crafts, the performing arts, camping, and sports. Recreation and fitness workers plan, organize, and direct these activities in local playgrounds and recreation areas, parks, community centers, health clubs, fitness centers, religious organizations, camps, theme parks, and tourist attractions. Increasingly, recreational and fitness work ers also are found in workplaces, where they organize and direct leisure activities and athletic programs for employees of all ages. Recreation workers hold a variety of positions at different levels of responsibility. Recreation leaders, who are responsible for a rec reation program’s daily operation, primarily organize and direct par ticipants. They may lead and give instruction in dance, drama, crafts, games, and sports; schedule use of facilities; keep records of equip ment use; and ensure that recreation facilities and equipment are used properly. Workers who provide instruction and coach groups in specialties such as art, music, drama, swimming, or tennis may be called activity specialists. Recreation supervisors oversee recreation leaders and plan, organize, and manage recreational activities to meet the needs of a variety of populations. These workers often serve as liaisons between the director of the park or recreation center and the recreation leaders. Recreation supervisors with more-specialized re sponsibilities also may direct special activities or events or oversee a major activity, such as aquatics, gymnastics, or performing arts. Directors of recreation and parks develop and manage compre hensive recreation programs in parks, playgrounds, and other set tings. Directors usually serve as technical advisors to State and Service Occupations 337 local recreation and park commissions and may be responsible for recreation and park budgets. Camp counselors lead and instruct children and teenagers in outdoor-oriented forms of recreation, such as swimming, hiking, horseback riding, and camping. In addition, counselors provide campers with specialized instruction in activities such as archery, boating, music, drama, gymnastics, tennis, and computers. In resi dent camps, counselors also provide guidance and supervise daily living and general socialization. (Workers in a related occupation, recreational therapists, help individuals recover from or adjust to illness, disability, or specific social problems; this occupation is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Fitness workers instruct or coach groups or individuals in vari ous exercise activities. Because gyms and health clubs offer a variety of exercise activities such as weightlifting, yoga, aerobics, and ka rate, fitness workers typically specialize in only a few areas. Fit ness trainers help clients assess their level of physical fitness and help them set and reach fitness goals. They also demonstrate vari ous exercise activities and help clients improve their techniques. They may keep records of their clients’ exercise sessions to analyze their progress towards physical fitness. Personal trainers work with clients on a one-on-one basis in either a gym or the client’s home. Aerobics instructors conduct group exercise sessions that involve aerobic exercise, stretching, and muscle conditioning. Some fit ness workers may perform the duties of both aerobics instructors and fitness trainers. Fitness directors oversee the operations of a Recreation andfitness workers lead and give instruction in various activities such as aerobics, crafts, and drama. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis health club or fitness center. Their work involves creating and main taining programs that meet the needs of the club’s members. (Work ers in a related occupation—athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers—participate in organized sports; this occupation is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Recreation and fitness workers may work in a variety of settings— for example, a health club, cruise ship, woodland recreational park, or a playground in the center of a large urban community. Regard less of setting, most recreation workers spend much of their time outdoors and may work in a variety of weather conditions, whereas most fitness workers spend their time indoors at fitness centers and health clubs. Recreation and fitness directors and supervisors, how ever, typically spend most of their time in an office, planning pro grams and special events. Directors and supervisors generally engage in less physical activity than do lower-level recreation and fitness workers. Nevertheless, recreation and fitness workers at all levels risk suffering injuries during physical activities. Most recreation and fitness workers work about 40 hours a week. People entering this field, especially camp counselors, should ex pect some night and weekend work and irregular hours. About 3 out of 10 work part time, and many recreation jobs are seasonal. Employment Recreation and fitness workers held about 427,000 jobs in 2000, and many additional workers held summer jobs in this occupation. About 63 percent were recreation workers; the rest were fitness trainers and aerobics instructors. Of those with year-round jobs as recreation workers, more than one-third worked in park and recre ation departments of municipal and county governments. Nearly 1 in 5 recreation workers worked in membership organizations, such as the Boy or Girl Scouts or Red Cross, or worked for programs run by social service organizations, including senior centers, adult daycare programs, or residential care facilities like halfway houses, group homes, and institutions for delinquent youths. Another 1 out of 10 recreation workers worked for nursing and other personal care facilities. Almost all fitness trainers and aerobics instructors were employed in physical fitness facilities, health clubs, and fitness centers, mainly within the amusement and recreation services industry or member ship organizations. Other employers of recreation and fitness work ers included commercial recreation establishments, amusement parks, sports and entertainment centers, wilderness and survival enterprises, tourist attractions, vacation excursion companies, ho tels and resorts, summer camps, and apartment complexes. About 26,000 recreation and fitness workers were self-employed; many of these were personal trainers. The recreation field has an unusually large number of part-time, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. These jobs include summer camp counselors, lifeguards, craft specialists, and after-school and week end recreation program leaders. In addition, many teachers and college students accept jobs as recreation and fitness workers when school is not in session. The vast majority of volunteers serve as activity leaders at local day-camp programs, or in youth organiza tions, camps, nursing homes, hospitals, senior centers, and other settings. Some volunteers serve on local park and recreation boards and commissions. Volunteer experience, part-time work during school, or a summer job can lead to a full-time career as a recre ation worker. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for recreation workers range from a high school diploma—or sometimes less for many summer jobs—to 338 Occupational Outlook Handbook graduate degrees for some administrative positions in large public recreation systems. Full-time career professional positions usually require a college degree with a major in parks and recreation or leisure studies, but a bachelor’s degree in any liberal arts field may be sufficient for some jobs in the private sector. In industrial recre ation, or “employee services” as it is more commonly called, com panies prefer to hire those with a bachelor’s degree in recreation or leisure studies and a background in business administration. Specialized training or experience in a particular field, such as art, music, drama, or athletics, is an asset for many jobs. Some jobs also require certification. For example, a lifesaving certificate is a prerequisite for teaching or coaching water-related activities. Gradu ates of associate degree programs in parks and recreation, social work, and other human services disciplines also enter some career recreation positions. High school graduates occasionally enter ca reer positions, but this is not common. Some college students work part time as recreation workers while earning degrees. A bachelor’s degree and experience are preferred for most rec reation supervisor jobs and required for most higher level adminis trator jobs. However, increasing numbers of recreation workers who aspire to administrator positions obtain master’s degrees in parks and recreation or related disciplines. Certification in the rec reation field also may be helpful for advancement. Also, many persons in other disciplines, including social work, forestry, and resource management, pursue graduate degrees in recreation. Programs leading to an associate or bachelor’s degree in parks and recreation, leisure studies, or related fields are offered at sev eral hundred colleges and universities. Many also offer master’s or doctoral degrees in this field. In 2000, 100 bachelor’s degree pro grams in parks and recreation were accredited by the National Rec reation and Park Association (NRPA). Accredited programs provide broad exposure to the history, theory, and practice of park and rec reation management. Courses offered include community organi zation; supervision and administration; recreational needs of special populations, such as the elderly or disabled; and supervised field work. Students may specialize in areas such as therapeutic recre ation, park management, outdoor recreation, industrial or commercial recreation, or camp management. Certification in the recreation field is offered by the NRPA Na tional Certification Board. The NRPA, along with its State chap ters, offers certification as a Certified Park and Recreation Professional (CPRP) for those with a college degree in recreation, and as a Certified Park and Recreation Associate (CPRA) for those with less than 4 years of college. Other NRPA certifications in clude Certified Playground Safety Inspector (CPSI) and Aquatic Facility Operator (AFO) Certification. Continuing education is necessary to remain certified. Generally, fitness trainers and aerobics instructors must obtain a certification in the fitness field to obtain employment. Certifica tion may be offered in various areas of exercise such as personal training, weight training, and aerobics. There are many organiza tions that offer certification testing in the fitness field, including the American College of Sports Medicine, American Council on Exercise, and National Strength and Conditioning Association. Certification generally is good for two years, after which workers must become recertified. Recertification is accomplished by at tending continuing education classes. Most fitness workers are re quired to maintain a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) certification. Some employers also require workers to be certified in first aid. An increasing number of employers require fitness workers to have a bachelor’s degree in fields related to health or fitness, such as exercise science or physical education. Some employers allow workers to substitute a college degree for certification, while others https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis require both a degree and certification. A bachelor’s degree (and, in some cases, a master’s degree in exercise science, physical edu cation, or a related area), along with experience, usually is required to advance to management positions in a health club or fitness cen ter. Many fitness workers become personal trainers, in addition to their main job in a fitness center or as a full-time job. Some work ers go into business for themselves and open up their own fitness centers. Persons planning recreation and fitness careers should be out going, good at motivating people, and sensitive to the needs of oth ers. Excellent health and physical fitness are required due to the physical nature of the job. As in many fields, managerial skills are needed to advance to supervisory or managerial positions. College courses in management, business administration, accounting, and personnel management are helpful for advancement to supervisory or managerial positions. Job Outlook Competition will be keen for career positions for recreation work ers because this field attracts many applicants and because the num ber of career positions is limited compared with the numerous lower level seasonal jobs. Opportunities for staff positions should be best for persons with formal training and experience gained in part-time or seasonal recreation jobs. Those with graduate degrees should have the best opportunities for supervisory or administrative posi tions. Opportunities are expected to be better for fitness trainers and aerobics instructors because of relatively rapid growth in em ployment. Job openings for both recreation and fitness workers also will stem from the need to replace the large numbers of work ers who leave these occupations each year. The recreation field provides a large number of temporary, sea sonal jobs. These positions, which typically are filled by high school or college students, generally do not have formal education require ments and are open to anyone with the desired personal qualities. Employers compete for a share of the vacationing student labor force and, although salaries in recreation often are lower than those in other fields, the nature of the work and the opportunity to work outdoors are attractive to many. Seasonal employment prospects as program directors should be best for applicants with specialized training and certification in certain activities, such as swimming. Overall employment of recreation and fitness workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as increasing numbers of people spend more time and money on lei sure and fitness services. Average employment growth is projected for recreation workers—reflecting growth in local government and civic and social associations, industries that employ about half of all recreation workers. Employment of fitness workers—who are concentrated in the rapidly growing amusement and recreation ser vices industry—is expected to increase much faster than average due to rising interest in personal training, aerobics instruction, and other fitness activities. Projected job growth stems, in part, from rising demand for rec reational and fitness activities for older adults in senior centers, retirement communities, and other settings. In order to prevent many illnesses, such as heart disease, strokes, and arthritis, the general population has increasingly sought the benefits of exercise and its effects on overall health and well-being. In addition, more workers will be needed to develop and lead activity programs in halfway houses, children’s homes, and daycare programs for people with special needs. Recreation and fitness jobs also will continue to increase as more businesses recognize the benefits of recreation and fitness programs and other services such as wellness programs. Job growth also will occur in amusement parks, athletic clubs, camps, sports clinics, and swimming pools. Service Occupations 339 Earnings Median hourly earnings of recreation workers who worked full time in 2000 were $8.24. The middle 50 percent earned between about $6.75 and $10.65, while the top 10 percent earned $14.61 or more. However, earnings of recreation directors and others in supervisory or managerial positions can be substantially higher. Most public and private recreation agencies provide full-time recreation work ers with typical benefits; part-time workers receive few, if any, ben efits. Hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of recreation workers in 2000 were: Nursing and personal care facilities.............................................. Local government, except education and hospitals....................... Individual and family services........................................................ Civic and social associations.......................................................... Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services....................... $8.70 8.40 8.27 7.62 7.46 Median hourly earnings of fitness trainers and aerobics instruc tors in 2000 were $10.96. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.65 and $17.84, while the top 10 percent earned $25.98 or more. In 2000, earnings of these workers in the miscellaneous amusement and recreation services industry, which includes commercial fitness clubs, were $12.22 an hour; fitness trainers and aerobics instructors in civic and social associations earned $9.03. Earnings for success ful self-employed personal trainers can be much higher. Related Occupations Recreation workers must exhibit leadership and sensitivity when dealing with people. Other occupations that require similar personal qualities include counselors, probation officers and correctional treat ment specialists, psychologists, recreational therapists, and social workers. Occupations that focus on physical fitness, as do fitness workers, include athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on jobs in recreation, contact employers such as local government departments of parks and recreation, nursing and personal care facilities, local YMCAs, or the Boy or Girl Scouts. Ordering information for materials describing careers and aca demic programs in recreation is available from: >■ National Recreation and Park Association, Division of Professional Services, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd., Ashbum, VA 20148. Internet: http://www.activeparks.org For information on careers and certification in the fitness field, contact: >- American Council on Exercise, 5820 Oberlin Dr., Suite 102, San Diego, CA 92121-3787. Internet: http://www.acefltness.org ► American College of Sports Medicine, P.O. Box 1440, Indianapolis, IN 46206-1440. Internet: http://www.acsm.org ► National Strength and Conditioning Association, 1955 North Union Blvd., Colorado Springs, CO 80909. Internet: http://www.nsca-lift.org Protective Service Occupations Correctional Officers (0*NET 33-1011.00, 33-3011.00, 33-3012.00) • • • Significant Points The work can be stressful and hazardous. Job opportunities are expected to be excellent, due to fast growth and high replacement needs. Most jobs are in prisons in rural areas or in large regional jails. Nature of the Work Correctional officers are responsible for overseeing individuals who have been arrested and are awaiting trial or who have been con victed of a crime and sentenced to serve time in a jail, reformatory, or penitentiary. They maintain security and inmate accountability to prevent disturbances, assaults, or escapes. Officers have no law enforcement responsibilities outside the institution where they work. (For more information on related occupations, see the statements on police and detectives and probation officers and correctional treatment specialists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Police and sheriffs’ departments in county and municipal jails or precinct station houses employ many correctional officers, also known as detention officers. Most of the approximately 3,300 jails in the United States are operated by county governments, with about three-quarters of all jails under the jurisdiction of an elected sher iff. Individuals in the jail population change constantly as some are released, some are convicted and transferred to prison, and new offenders are arrested and enter the system. Correctional officers in the American jail system admit and process more than 11 million people a year, with about half a million offenders in jail at any given https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis time. When individuals are first arrested, the jail staff may not know their true identity or criminal record, and violent detainees may be placed in the general population. This is the most dangerous phase of the incarceration process for correctional officers. Most correctional officers are employed in large jails or State and Federal prisons, watching over the approximately one million offenders who are incarcerated in Federal and State prisons at any given time. In addition to jails and prisons, a relatively small num ber of correctional officers oversee individuals being held by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service before they are released or deported, or they work for correctional institutions that are run by private for-profit organizations. While both jails and prisons can be dangerous places to work, prison populations are more stable than jail populations, and correctional officers in prisons know the security and custodial requirements of the prisoners with whom they are dealing. Regardless of the setting, correctional officers maintain order within the institution, and enforce rules and regulations. To help ensure that inmates are orderly and obey rules, correctional officers monitor the activities and supervise the work assignments of in mates. Sometimes, it is necessary for officers to search inmates and their living quarters for contraband like weapons or drugs, settle disputes between inmates, and enforce discipline. Correctional of ficers periodically inspect the facilities, checking cells and other areas of the institution for unsanitary conditions, contraband, fire hazards, and any evidence of infractions of rules. In addition, they routinely inspect locks, window bars, grilles, doors, and gates for signs of tampering. Finally, officers inspect mail and visitors for prohibited items. Correctional officers report orally and in writing on inmate con duct and on the quality and quantity of work done by inmates. Of ficers also report security breaches, disturbances, violations of rules, and any unusual occurrences. They usually keep a daily log or record 340 Occupational Outlook Handbook *ro:» m remaining jobs were in city and county jails or other institutions run by local governments. About 15,000 jobs for correctional officers were in Federal correctional institutions, and about 19,000jobs were in privately owned and managed prisons. There are 118 jail systems in the United States that house over 1,000 inmates, all of which are located in urban areas, though most correctional officers work in institutions located in rural areas with smaller inmate populations. A significant number work in jails and other facilities located in law enforcement agencies throughout the country. mm. Correctional officers ensure the security and safety of penal facilities. of their activities. Correctional officers cannot show favoritism and must report any inmate who violates the rules. Should the situation arise, they help the responsible law enforcement authorities investi gate crimes committed within their institution or search for escaped inmates. In jail and prison facilities with direct supervision cellblocks, officers work unarmed. They are equipped with communications devices so that they can summon help if necessary. These officers often work in a cellblock alone, or with another officer, among the 50 to 100 inmates who reside there. The officers enforce regu lations primarily through their interpersonal communications skills and the use of progressive sanctions, such as loss of some privileges. In the highest security facilities where the most dangerous inmates are housed, correctional officers often monitor the activi ties of prisoners from a centralized control center with the aid of closed-circuit television cameras and a computer tracking system. In such an environment, the inmates may not see anyone but offic ers for days or weeks at a time and only leave their cells for show ers, solitary exercise time, or visitors. Depending on the offender’s security classification within the institution, correctional officers may have to restrain inmates in handcuffs and leg irons to safely escort them to and from cells and other areas to see authorized visitors. Officers also escort prisoners between the institution and courtrooms, medical facilities, and other destinations outside the institution. Working Conditions Working in a correctional institution can be stressful and hazard ous. Every year, a number of correctional officers are injured in confrontations with inmates. Correctional officers may work indoors or outdoors. Some correctional institutions are well lit, temperature controlled, and ventilated, while others are old, over crowded, hot, and noisy. Correctional officers usually work an 8hour day, 5 days a week, on rotating shifts. Prison and jail security must be provided around the clock, which often means that offic ers work all hours of the day and night, weekends, and holidays. In addition, officers may be required to work paid overtime. Employment Correctional officers held about 457,000 jobs in 2000. Almost 6 of every 10 jobs were in State correctional institutions such as pris ons, prison camps, and youth correctional facilities. Most of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most institutions require correctional officers to be at least 18 to 21 years of age and a U.S. citizen; have a high school education or its equivalent; demonstrate job stability, usually by accumulating two years of work experience; and have no felony convictions. Promo tion prospects may be enhanced through obtaining a postsecondary education. Correctional officers must be in good health. Candidates for employment are generally required to meet formal standards of physical fitness, eyesight, and hearing. In addition, many jurisdic tions use standard tests to determine applicant suitability to work in a correctional environment. Good judgment and the ability to think and act quickly are indispensable. Applicants are typically screened for drug abuse, subject to background checks, and required to pass a written examination. Federal, State, and some local departments of corrections pro vide training for correctional officers based on guidelines estab lished by the American Correctional Association and the American Jail Association. Some States have regional training academies which are available to local agencies. All States and local correc tional agencies provide on-the-job training at the conclusion of for mal instruction, including legal restrictions and interpersonal relations. Many systems require firearms proficiency and self-de fense skills. Officer trainees typically receive several weeks or months of training in an actual job setting under the supervision of an experienced officer. However, specific entry requirements and on-the-job training vary widely from agency to agency. Academy trainees generally receive instruction on a number of subjects, including institutional policies, regulations, and operations, as well as custody and security procedures. As a condition of em ployment, new Federal correctional officers must undergo 200 hours of formal training within the first year of employment. They also must complete 120 hours of specialized training at the U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons residential training center at Glynco, Georgia within the first 60 days after appointment. Experienced officers receive annual in-service training to keep abreast of new develop ments and procedures. Some correctional officers are members of prison tactical re sponse teams, which are trained to respond to disturbances, riots, hostage situations, forced cell moves, and other potentially danger ous confrontations. Team members receive training and practice with weapons, chemical agents, forced entry methods, crisis man agement, and other tactics. With education, experience, and training, qualified officers may advance to correctional sergeant. Correctional sergeants supervise correctional officers and usually are responsible for maintaining security and directing the activities of other officers during an as signed shift or in an assigned area. Ambitious and qualified correc tional officers can be promoted to supervisory or administrative positions all the way up to warden. Officers sometimes transfer to related areas, such as probation officer, parole officer, or correc tional treatment specialist. Service Occupations 341 Job Outlook Job opportunities for correctional officers are expected to be excel lent through 2010. The need to replace correctional officers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force, coupled with rising employment demand, will generate thousands of job openings each year. In the past, some local and State corrections agencies have experienced difficulty in attracting and keeping quali fied applicants, largely due to relatively low salaries and the con centration of jobs in rural locations. This situation is expected to continue. Employment of correctional officers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as addi tional officers are hired to supervise and control a growing inmate population. The adoption of mandatory sentencing guidelines call ing for longer sentences and reduced parole for inmates will con tinue to spur demand for correctional officers. Moreover, expansion and new construction of corrections facilities also are expected to create many new jobs for correctional officers, although State and local government budgetary constraints could affect the rate at which new facilities are built and staffed. Some employment oppor tunities also will arise in the private sector as public authorities contract with private companies to provide and staff corrections facilities. Layoffs of correctional officers are rare because of increasing offender populations. While officers are allowed to join bargain ing units, they are not allowed to strike. Earnings Median annual earnings of correctional officers were $31,170 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,650 and $40,100. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,310. Median annual earnings in the public sector were $37,430 in the Federal Government, $31,860 in State government, and $29,240 in local government. In the man agement and public relations industry, where officers employed by privately operated prisons are classified, median annual earnings were $21,600. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the starting salary for Federal correctional officers was about $27,000 a year in 2001. Starting Federal salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where prevailing local pay levels were higher. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers were $41,880 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,460 and $55,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,280, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,280. Median annual earnings were $40,560 in State govern ment and $49,680 in local government. In addition to typical benefits, correctional officers employed in the public sector usually are provided with uniforms or a clothing allowance to purchase their own uniforms. Civil service systems or merit boards cover officers employed by the Federal Government and most State governments. Their retirement coverage entitles them to retire at age 50 after 20 years of service or at any age with 25 years of service. Related Occupations A number of options are available to those interested in careers in protective services and security. Security guards and gaming sur veillance officers protect people and property against theft, vandal ism, illegal entry, and fire. Police and detectives maintain law and order, prevent crime, and arrest offenders. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists monitor and counsel offenders in the community and evaluate their progress in becoming productive members of society. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about correctional jobs in a jail setting is available from: ► The American Jail Association, 2053 Day Rd., Suite 100, Hagerstown, MD 21740. Internet: http://www.corrections.coin/aja/index.html Information on entrance requirements, training, and career op portunities for correctional officers at the Federal level may be ob tained by calling the Federal Bureau of Prisons at (800) 347-7744. Internet: http://www.bop.gov. Information on obtaining a position as a correctional officer with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Firefighting Occupations (0**NET 33-1021.01, 33-1021.02, 33-2011.01, 33-2011.02, 33-2021 01 33-2021.02, 33-2022.00) • • Significant Points Firefighting involves hazardous conditions and long, irregular hours. Keen competition for jobs is expected; many people are attracted to the occupation because it provides considerable job security and the opportunity to perform an essential public service. Nature of the Work Every year, fires and other emergencies take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against these dangers by rapidly responding to a variety of emergencies. They are frequently the first emergency personnel at the scene of a traffic accident or medical emergency and may be called upon to put out a fire, treat injuries, or perform other vital functions. During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond immediately to a fire or any other emergency that arises. Because fighting fires is dangerous and complex, it requires organization and teamwork. At every emergency scene, firefighters perform spe cific duties assigned by a superior officer. At fires, they connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump to send water to high pres sure hoses, and position ladders to enable them to deliver water to the fire. They also rescue victims and provide emergency medical attention as needed, ventilate smoke-filled areas, and attempt to salvage the contents of buildings. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. Sometimes they remain at the site of a disaster for days at a time, rescuing trapped survivors and assisting with medical treatment. Firefighters have assumed a range of responsibilities, including emergency medical services. In fact, most calls to which firefighters respond involve medical emergencies, and about half of all fire departments provide ambulance service for victims. Firefighters receive training in emergency medical procedures, and many fire departments require them to be certified as emergency medical tech nicians. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on emergency medical technicians and paramedics.) Firefighters work in a variety of settings, including urban and suburban areas, airports, chemical plants, other industrial sites, and 342 Occupational Outlook Handbook gt ljfa*S,jBL3| 4 : | •=> i lliliill I *.llllw* '. - m Firefighters secure their equipment after responding to afire. rural areas like grasslands and forests. In addition, some firefighters work in hazardous materials units that are trained for the control, prevention, and cleanup of oil spills and other hazardous materials incidents. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on hazardous material removal workers.) Workers in urban and subur ban areas, airports, and industrial sites typically use conventional firefighting equipment and tactics, while forest fires and major haz ardous materials spills call for different methods. In national forests and parks, forestfire inspectors atid preven tion specialists spot fires from watchtowers and report their find ings to headquarters by telephone or radio. Forest rangers patrol to ensure travelers and campers comply with fire regulations. When fires break out, crews of firefighters are brought in to suppress the blaze using heavy equipment, handtools, and water hoses. Forest firefighting, like urban firefighting, can be rigorous work. One of the most effective means of battling the blaze is by creating fire lines through cutting down trees and digging out grass and all other combustible vegetation, creating bare land in the path of the fire that deprives it of fuel. Elite firefighters, called smoke jumpers, parachute from airplanes to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. This can be extremely hazardous because the crews have no way to escape if the wind shifts and causes the fire to burn toward them. Between alarms, firefighters clean and maintain equipment, con duct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. They also prepare written reports on fire inci dents and review fire science literature to keep abreast of techno logical developments and changing administrative practices and policies. . . . Most fire departments have a fire prevention division, usually headed by a fire marshall and staffed by fire inspectors. Workers in this division conduct inspections of structures to prevent fires and ensure fire code compliance. These firefighters also work with de velopers and planners to check and approve plans for new build ings. Fire prevention personnel often speak on these subjects in schools and before public assemblies and civic organizations. Some firefighters become fire investigators, who determine the origin and causes of fires. They collect evidence, interview wit nesses, and prepare reports on fires in cases where the cause may be arson or criminal negligence. They often are called upon to testify in court. Working Conditions Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have features common to a residential facility like a dormitory. When https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis an alarm sounds, firefighters respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. Firefighting involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors, toppling walls, traffic accidents when responding to calls, and exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters may also come in contact with poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and chemicals, as well as radioactive or other hazardous ma terials that may have immediate or long-term effects on their health. For these reasons, they must wear protective gear that can be very heavy and hot. Work hours of firefighters are longer and vary more widely than hours of most other workers. Many work more than 50 hours a week, and sometimes they may work even longer. In some agen cies, they are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In others, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies and are regu larly assigned to work on holidays. Fire lieutenants and fire cap tains often work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours include time when firefighters study, train, and perform fire prevention duties. Employment Employment figures in this Handbook statement include only paid career firefighters—they do not cover volunteer firefighters, who perform the same duties and may comprise the majority of firefighters in a residential area. Paid career firefighters held about 258,000jobs in 2000. First-line supervisors/managers of firefighting and prevention workers held about 62,000 jobs; and fire inspectors held about 13,000. More than 9 out of 10 worked in municipal or county fire departments. Some large cities have thousands of ca reer firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the remainder worked in fire departments on Federal and State in stallations, including airports. Private firefighting companies em ploy a small number of firefighters and usually operate on a subscription basis. In response to the expanding role of firefighters, some munici palities have combined fire prevention, public fire education, safety, and emergency medical services into a single organization com monly referred to as a public safety organization. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into countywide establishments in order to reduce administrative staffs and cut costs, and to establish consistent training standards and work procedures. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs generally must pass a written exam; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examination that includes drug screening. Workers may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after accepting employment. Examinations are generally open to per sons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school educa tion or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores in all phases of testing have the best chances for appointment. The completion of community college courses in fire science may improve an applicant’s chances for appointment. In recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupation has had some postsecondary education. As a rule, entry-level workers in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center or academy. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, hazardous materials control, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures, including first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. They also learn how to use axes, chain saws, fire extinguishers, ladders, and Service Occupations 343 other firefighting and rescue equipment. After successfully com pleting this training, they are assigned to a fire company, where they undergo a period of probation. A number of fire departments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting up to 5 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruction covers subjects such as firefighting techniques and equipment, chemical hazards associated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical procedures, and fire prevention and safety. Fire depart ments frequently conduct training programs, and some firefighters attend training sessions sponsored by the U.S. National Fire Acad emy. These training sessions cover topics including executive de velopment, anti-arson techniques, disaster preparedness, hazardous materials control, and public fire safety and education. Some States also have extensive firefighter training and certification programs. In addition, a number of colleges and universities offer courses lead ing to 2- or 4-year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. Many fire departments offer firefighters incentives such as tuition reim bursement or higher pay for completing advanced training. Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alert ness, self-discipline, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, strength, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judg ment are also extremely important because firefighters make quick decisions in emergencies. Because members of a crew live and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger for ex tended periods, they must be dependable and able to get along well with others. Leadership qualities are necessary for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency, as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies. Most experienced firefighters continue studying to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, they acquire expertise in advanced firefighting equipment and techniques, building construction, emer gency medical technology, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and public relations. Opportunities for promotion depend upon written examination results, job performance, interviews, and seniority. Increasingly, fire departments use assessment centers, which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks, to screen for the best candidates for promo tion. The line of promotion usually is to engineer, lieutenant, cap tain, battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Many fire departments now require a bachelor’s degree, preferably in fire science, public administration, or a related field, for promo tion to positions higher than battalion chief. A master’s degree is required for executive fire officer certification from the National Fire Academy and for State chief officer certification. Job Outlook Prospective firefighters are expected to face keen competition for available job openings. Many people are attracted to firefighting because it is challenging and provides the opportunity to perform an essential public service, a high school education is usually suffi cient for entry, and a pension is guaranteed upon retirement after 20 years. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas exceeds the number ofjob openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist in coming years. Employment of firefighters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010 as fire depart ments continue to compete with other public safety providers for funding. Most job growth will occur as volunteer firefighting po sitions are converted to paid positions. In addition to job growth, openings are expected to result from the need to replace firefighters https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis who retire, stop working for other reasons, or transfer to other occupations. Layoffs of firefighters are uncommon. Fire protection is an es sential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on local officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire protection. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment purchases or not hir ing new firefighters, rather than by laying off staff. Earnings Median hourly earnings of firefighters were $16.43 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 11.82 and $21.75. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.03, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.58. Median hourly earnings were $16.71 in local government and $15.00 in Federal government. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of firefighting and prevention workers were $51,990 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,920 and $64,760. The low est 10 percent earned less than $31,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $77,700. First-line supervisors/managers of firefighting and prevention workers employed in local government earned about $52,390 a year in 2000. Median annual earnings of fire inspectors and investigators were $41,630 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,630 and $53,130 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,030. Fire inspec tors and investigators employed in local government earned about $44,030 a year. Median annual earnings of forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists were $32,140 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,930 and $41,150ayear. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,680. The International City-County Management Association’s annual Police and Fire Personnel, Salaries, and Expenditures Survey revealed that 89 percent of the municipalities surveyed provided fire protection services in 2000. The following 2000 salaries per tain to sworn full-time positions. Fire chief................................... .... Deputy chief......................... ... Battalion chief............................ .... Assistant fire chief.......................... Fire captain........................... ... Fire lieutenant.......................... ... Fire prevention/code inspector..... .... Engineer............................. .... Firefighter.................................. .... Minimum annual average base salary Maximum annual average base salary $58,156 52,174 50,164 48,391 41,816 38,875 37,142 35,090 29,316 $74,749 65,112 62,309 60,179 50,848 46,327 46,798 44,310 39,477 Firefighters who average more than a certain number of hours a week are required to be paid overtime. The hours threshold is deter mined by the department during the firefighter’s work period, which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Firefighters often earn overtime for work ing extra shifts to maintain minimum staffing levels or for special emergencies. Firefighters receive benefits usually including medical and lia bility insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Almost all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters are generally covered by pension plans, often providing retirement at half pay after 25 years of service or if disabled in the line of duty. 344 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Like firefighters, emergency medical technicians and paramedics and police and detectives respond to emergencies and save lives. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from local fire departments and from: > International Association of Firefighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iaff.org/iaff/index.html ► U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. i Information about firefighter professional qualifications and a list of colleges and universities offering 2- or 4-year degree pro grams in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: >- National Fire Academy, Degrees at a Distance Program, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.fema.gov/nfa/index.htm Police and Detectives^ ____ ______ (0**NET 33-1012.00, 33-3021.01, 33-3021.02, 33-3021.03, 33-3021.04, 33-3021.05, 33-3031.00, 33-3051.01, 33-3051.02, 33-3051.03, 33 3052.00) ________ Significant Points • • • Police work can be dangerous and stressful. The number of qualified candidates exceeds the number of job openings in Federal and State law enforcement agencies but is inadequate to meet growth and replacement needs in many local and special police departments. The largest number of employment opportunities will arise in urban communities with relatively low salaries and high crime rates. Nature of the Work People depend on police officers and detectives to protect their lives and property. Law enforcement officers, some of whom are State or Federal special agents or inspectors, perform these duties in a variety of ways, depending on the size and type of their organiza tion. In most jurisdictions, they are expected to exercise authority when necessary, whether on or off duty. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, about 65 percent of State and local law enforcement officers are uniformed personnel. Uniformed police officers who work in municipal police depart ments of various sizes, small communities, and rural areas have general law enforcement duties including maintaining regular pa trols and responding to calls for service. They may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are becoming more involved in community policing a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neigh borhoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime. Police agencies are usually organized into geographic districts, with uniformed officers assigned to patrol a specific area, such as part of the business district or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers may work alone, but in large agencies they often patrol with a partner. While on patrol, officers attempt to become thor oughly familiar with their patrol area and remain alert for anything unusual. Suspicious circumstances and hazards to public safety are Digitizedinvestigated for FRASERor noted, and officers are dispatched to individual calls https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for assistance within their district. During their shift, they may iden tify, pursue, and arrest suspected criminals, resolve problems within the community, and enforce traffic laws. Public college and university police forces, public school dis trict police, and agencies serving transportation systems and facili ties are examples of special police agencies. There are more than 1,300 of these agencies with special geographic jurisdictions or enforcement responsibilities in the United States. More than 75 percent of the sworn personnel in special agencies are uniformed officers, and about 15 percent are investigators. Some police officers specialize in such diverse fields as chemi cal and microscopic analysis, training and firearms instruction, or handwriting and fingerprint identification. Others work with spe cial units such as horseback, bicycle, motorcycle or harbor patrol, canine corps, or special weapons and tactics (SWAT) or emergency response teams. About 10 percent of local and special law enforce ment officers perform jail-related duties, and around 4 percent work in courts. Regardless of job duties or location, police officers and detectives at all levels must write reports and maintain meticulous records that will be needed if they testify in court. Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs enforce the law on the county level. Sheriffs are usually elected to their posts and perform duties similar to those of a local or county police chief. Sheriffs’ departments tend to be relatively small, most having fewer than 25 sworn offic ers. A deputy sheriff in a large agency will have law enforcement duties similar to those of officers in urban police departments. Nationwide, about 40 percent of full-time sworn deputies are uni formed officers assigned to patrol and respond to calls, 12 percent are investigators, 30 percent are assigned to jail-related duties, and 11 percent perform court-related duties, with the balance in admin istration. Police and sheriffs’ deputies who provide security in city and county courts are sometimes called bailiffs. (For information on other officers who work in jails and prisons see correctional officers elsewhere in the Handbook.) State police officers (sometimes called State troopers or high way patrol officers) arrest criminals Statewide and patrol highways to enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. Uniformed officers are best known for issuing traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of accidents, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports used to determine the cause of the accident. State police officers are frequently called upon to render assistance to other law enforce ment agencies, especially those in rural areas or small towns. State law enforcement agencies operate in every State except Hawaii. Seventy percent of the full-time sworn personnel in the 49 State police agencies are uniformed officers who regularly patrol and respond to calls for service. Fifteen percent are investigators; 2 percent are assigned to court-related duties; and the remaining 13 percent work in administrative or other assignments. Detectives are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. Some are assigned to inter agency task forces to combat specific types of crime. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Detectives and State and Federal agents and inspectors usually specialize in one of a wide variety of viola tions such as homicide or fraud. They are assigned cases on a rotat ing basis and work on them until an arrest and conviction occurs or the case is dropped. The Federal Government maintains a high profile in many areas of law enforcement. The U.S. Department of Justice is the largest employer of sworn Federal officers. Federal Bureau of Investi gation (FBI) agents are the Government’s principal investi gators, responsible for investigating violations of more than 260 statutes and conducting sensitive national security investigations. Agents may conduct surveillance, monitor court-authorized wire taps, examine business records, investigate white-collar crime, track the interstate movement of stolen property, collect evidence of espionage activities, or participate in sensitive undercover assign ments. The FBI investigates organized crime, public corruption, financial crime, fraud against the government, bribery, copyright infringement, civil rights violations, bank robbery, extortion, kid napping, air piracy, terrorism, espionage, interstate criminal activ ity, drug trafficking, and other violations of Federal statutes. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents enforce laws and regulations relating to illegal drugs. Not only is the DEA the lead agency for domestic enforcement of Federal drug laws, it also has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing U.S. dmg investigations abroad. Agents may conduct complex criminal in vestigations, carry out surveillance of criminals, and infiltrate illicit drug organizations using undercover techniques. U.S. marshals and deputy marshals protect the Federal courts and ensure the effective operation of the judicial system. They pro vide protection for the Federal judiciary, transport Federal prison ers, protect Federal witnesses, and manage assets seized from criminal enterprises. They enjoy the widest jurisdiction of any Fed eral law enforcement agency and are involved to some degree in nearly all Federal law enforcement efforts. In addition, U.S. mar shals pursue and arrest Federal fugitives. U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) agents and inspectors facilitate the entry of legal visitors and immigrants to the United States and detain and deport those arriving illegally. They consist of border patrol agents, immigration inspectors, criminal investigators and immigration agents, and detention and deporta tion officers. Nearly half of sworn INS officers are border patrol agents. U.S. Border Patrol agents protect more than 8,000 miles of international land and water boundaries. Their missions are to de tect and prevent the smuggling and unlawful entry of undocumented foreign nationals into the United States, apprehend those persons found in violation of the immigration laws, and interdict contra band, such as narcotics. Immigration inspectors interview and ex amine people seeking entrance to the United States and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eli gible to enter the United States. Immigration inspectors also pre pare reports, maintain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States. Special agents and inspectors employed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury work for the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Fire arms; the Customs Service; and the Secret Service. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) agents regulate and investi gate violations of Federal firearms and explosives laws, as well as Federal alcohol and tobacco tax regulations. Customs agents investigate violations of narcotics smuggling, money laundering, child pornography, customs fraud, and enforcement of the Arms Export Control Act. Domestic and foreign investigations involve the development and use of informants, physical and electronic sur veillance, and examination of records from importers/exporters, banks, couriers, and manufacturers. They conduct interviews, serve on joint task forces with other agencies, and get and execute search warrants. Customs inspectors inspect cargo, baggage, and articles worn or carried by people and carriers including vessels, vehicles, trains and aircraft entering or leaving the United States to enforce laws gov erning imports and exports. These inspectors examine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial and noncommercial car goes entering and leaving the United States. Customs inspectors seize prohibited or smuggled articles, intercept contraband, and apprehend, search, detain, and arrest violators of U.S. laws. U.S. Secret Service special agents protect the President, Vice President, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Service Occupations 345 * Police and detectives collect evidence at crime scenes. and their immediate families; Presidential candidates; former Presi dents; and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, forgery of Govern ment checks or bonds, and fraudulent use of credit cards. The U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents are engaged in the battle against terrorism. Over seas, they advise ambassadors on all security matters and manage a complex range of security programs designed to protect person nel, facilities, and information. In the United States, they inves tigate passport and visa fraud, conduct personnel security investigations, issue security clearances, and protect the Secretary of State and a number of foreign dignitaries. They also train foreign civilian police and administer a counter-terrorism reward program. Other Federal agencies employ police and special agents with sworn arrest powers and the authority to carry firearms. These agen cies include the U.S. Postal Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement under the U.S. Department of the Inte rior, the U.S. Forest Service under the U.S. Department ofAgricul ture, the National Park Service under the U.S. Department of the Interior, and Federal Air Marshals under the U.S. Department of Transportation. Other police agencies have evolved from the need for security for the agency’s property and personnel. The largest such agency is the General Services Administration’s Federal Pro tective Service, which provides security for Federal workers, build ings, and property. 346 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Police work can be very dangerous and stressful. In addition to the obvious dangers of confrontations with criminals, officers need to be constantly alert and ready to deal appropriately with a number of other threatening situations. Many law enforcement officers wit ness death and suffering resulting from accidents and criminal be havior. A career in law enforcement may take a toll on officers’ private lives. Uniformed officers, detectives, agents, and inspectors are usu ally scheduled to work 40-hour weeks, but paid overtime is com mon. Shiftwork is necessary because protection must be provided around the clock. Junior officers frequently work weekends, holi days, and nights. Police officers and detectives are required to work at any time their services are needed and may work long hours dur ing investigations. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, officers are expected to be armed and to exercise their arrest au thority whenever necessary. The jobs of some Federal agents such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents require extensive travel, often on very short notice. They may relocate a number of times over the course of their careers. Some special agents in agencies such as the U.S. Border Patrol work outdoors in rugged terrain for long periods and in all kinds of weather. Employment Police and detectives held about 834,000 jobs in 2000. About 80 percent were employed by local governments. State police agen cies employed about 13 percent and various Federal agencies em ployed about 6 percent. A small proportion worked for schools, railroads, transit agencies, or private detective, guard, and armored car services. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detectives employed by local governments primarily worked in cit ies with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while thousands of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each. Forty-six local, special, and State agencies employed 1,000 or more full-time sworn officers, while approxi mately 7,000 departments employed fewer than 10 each. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detec tives in practically all States, large municipalities, and special po lice agencies, as well as in many smaller ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years of age, and must meet rigor ous physical and personal qualifications. In the Federal Govern ment, candidates must be at least 21 years of age but less than 37 years of age at the time of appointment. Physical examinations for entrance into law enforcement often include tests of vision, hear ing, strength, and agility. Eligibility for appointment usually de pends on performance in competitive written examinations and previous education and experience. In larger departments, where the majority of law enforcement jobs are found, applicants usually must have at least a high school education. Federal and State agen cies typically require a college degree. Candidates should enjoy working with people and meeting the public. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, sound judg ment, integrity, and a sense of responsibility are especially impor tant in law enforcement, candidates are interviewed by senior officers, and their character traits and backgrounds are investigated. In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or given a personality test. Most applicants are sub jected to lie detector examinations or drug testing. Some agencies sworn personnel to random drug testing as a condition of Digitized subject for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org continuing employment. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In State and large local departments, recruits get train ing in their agency’s police academy, often for 12 to 14 weeks. In small agencies, recruits often attend a regional or State academy. Training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, State laws and local ordinances, and accident investi gation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency response. Police departments in some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, usually for 1 to 2 years, at which point they reach the minimum age requirement and may be appointed to the regular force. Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a pro bationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large de partment, promotion may enable an officer to become a detective or specialize in one type of police work, such as working with juve niles. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usu ally are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-thejob performance. The FBI has the largest number of special agents. To be consid ered for appointment as an FBI agent, an applicant either must be a graduate of an accredited law school or a college graduate with a major in accounting, fluency in a foreign language, or 3 years of related full-time work experience. All new agents undergo 16 weeks of training at the FBI academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Department of Treasury’s Secret Service and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms must have a bachelor’s degree or a minimum of 3 years related work experience. Prospective special agents undergo 10 weeks of initial criminal investigation training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia, and another 17 weeks of specialized training with their particular agencies. Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Drug Enforce ment Administration (DEA) must have a college degree and either 1 year of experience conducting criminal investigations, 1 year of graduate school, or have achieved at least a 2.95 grade point aver age while in college. DEA special agents undergo 14 weeks of specialized training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. U.S. Border Patrol agents must be U.S. citizens, younger than 37 years of age at the time of appointment, possess a valid driver’s license, and pass a three-part examination on reasoning and lan guage skills. A bachelor’s degree or previous work experience that demonstrates the ability to handle stressful situations, make deci sions, and take charge is required for a position as a Border Patrol agent. Applicants may qualify through a combination of education and work experience. Postal inspectors must have a bachelor’s degree and 1 year of related work experience. It is desirable that they have one of sev eral professional certifications, such as that of certified public ac countant. They also must pass a background suitability investigation, meet certain health requirements, undergo a drug screening test, possess a valid State driver’s license, and be a U.S. citizen between 21 and 36 years of age when hired. Law enforcement agencies are encouraging applicants to take postsecondary school training in law enforcement-related subjects. Many entry-level applicants for police jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education and a significant number are col lege graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities of fer programs in law enforcement or administration ofjustice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a career in law enforcement include accounting, finance, electrical engineering, computer science, and Service Occupations 347 foreign languages. Physical education and sports are helpful in de veloping the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for many law enforcement positions. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many Federal agencies and urban departments. Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and spe cial agents improve their job performance. Through police depart ment academies, regional centers for public safety employees established by the States, and Federal agency training centers, in structors provide annual training in self-defense tactics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and communications skills, crowdcontrol techniques, relevant legal developments, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward degrees in criminal justice, po lice science, administration ofjustice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn such a degree. Job Outlook The opportunity for public service through law enforcement work is attractive to many because the job is challenging and involves much personal responsibility. Furthermore, law enforcement offic ers in many agencies may retire with a pension after 20 or 25 years of service, allowing them to pursue a second career while still in their 40s. Because of relatively attractive salaries and benefits, the number of qualified candidates exceeds the number of job open ings in Federal law enforcement agencies and in most State police departments—resulting in increased hiring standards and selectiv ity by employers. Competition is expected to remain keen for the higher paying jobs with State and Federal agencies and police de partments in more affluent areas. Opportunities will be better in local and special police departments, especially in departments that offer relatively low salaries or urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high. Applicants with college training in police science, military police experience, or both should have the best opportunities. Employment ofpolice and detectives is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. A more secu rity-conscious society and concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the increasing demand for police services. At the lo cal and State levels, growth is likely to continue as long as crime remains a serious concern. However, employment growth at the Federal level will be tempered by continuing budgetary constraints faced by law enforcement agencies. The level of government spending determines the level of em ployment for police officers, detectives, and special agents. The number of job opportunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare be cause retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforcement officers who lose their jobs be cause of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. The need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of many job openings. Earnings Police and sheriff’s patrol officers had median annual earnings of $39,790 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,460 and $50,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,900. Median annual earnings were $44,400 in State government, $39,710 in local gov ernment, and $37,760 in Federal Government. In 2000, median annual earnings of police and detective super visors were $57,210. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,630 and $70,680. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,060. Median annual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis earnings were $74,070 in Federal Government, $57,030 in local government, and $53,960 in State government. In 2000, median annual earnings of detectives and criminal in vestigators were $48,870. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,240 and $61,750. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,160. Median annual earnings were $61,180 in Federal Government, $46,340 in local government, and $43,050 in State government. Federal law provides special salary rates to Federal employees who serve in law enforcement. Additionally, Federal special agents and inspectors receive law enforcement availability pay (LEAP)— equal to 25 percent of the agent’s grade and step—awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these agents are expected to work. For example, in 2001 FBI agents enter Federal service as GS10 employees on the pay scale at a base salary of $36,621, yet earned about $45,776 a year with availability pay. They can advance to the GS-13 grade level in field nonsupervisory assignments at a base salary of $57,345 which is worth $71,681 with availability pay. FBI supervisory, management, and executive positions in grades GS-14 and GS-15 pay a base salary of about $67,765 or $79,710 a year, respectively, and equaled $84,706 or $99,637 per year including availability pay. Salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Because Federal agents may be eligible for a special law enforcement benefits package, ap plicants should ask their recruiter for more information. The International City-County Management Association’s an nual Police and Fire Personnel, Salaries, and Expenditures Survey revealed that 84 percent of the municipalities surveyed provided police services in 2000. The following pertains to sworn full-time positions in 2000. Minimum annual base salary Police chief..................... Deputy chief.......................... ............... Police captain........................ Police lieutenant............ ............... Police sergeant..................... Police corporal....................... ............... Police officer............... 53,740 47,750 35,370 Maximum annual base salary $78,580 67,370 64,230 57,740 50,670 43,830 43,450 Total earnings for local, State, and special police and detectives frequently exceed the stated salary because of payments for over time, which can be significant. In addition to the common ben efits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sheriffs’ departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms. Because police officers usu ally are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half-pay after 20 or 25 years of service. Related Occupations Police and detectives maintain law and order, collect evidence and information, and conduct investigations and surveillance. Workers in related occupations include correctional officers, private detec tives and investigators, and security guards and gaming surveillance officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies. Further information about qualifications for employment as a FBI Special Agent is available from the nearest State FBI office. The address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory. Internet: http://www.fbi.gov 348 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information about qualifications for employment as a DEA Spe cial Agent is available from the nearest DEA office, or call (800) DEA-4288. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea Information about career opportunities, qualifications, and train ing to become a deputy marshal is available from: > United States Marshals Service, Employment and Compensation Divi sion, Field Staffing Branch, 600 Army Navy Dr., Arlington, VA 22202. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/marshals Information on career opportunities, qualifications, and training for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents is available from: >- U.S. Secret Service, Personnel Division, Suite 7400, 950 H St. NW, Washington, DC 20223. Internet: http://www.treas.gov/usss For information on career opportunities and U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms operations, contact: ► U.S. Bureau ofAlcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Personnel Division, 650 Massachusetts Avenue NW., Room 4100, Washington, DC 20226. Internet. http://www.atf.treas.gov Information about careers in the United States Border Patrol is available from: >- U.S. Border Patrol, Chester A. Arthur Building, 425 I St. NW., Washington DC 20536. Internet: http:// www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/workfor/careers/bpcareer/index.htm Private Detectives and Investigators (Q*Net 33-9021.00) ___________ Significant Points • • • Work hours often are irregular for beginning detectives and investigators, many of whom work part time. Most applicants have related experience in areas such as law enforcement, insurance, or the military. Stiff competition is expected for better paying jobs because of the large number of qualified people who are attracted to this occupation. Nature of the Work Private detectives and investigators use many means to determine the facts in a variety of matters. To carry out investigations, they may use various types of surveillance or searches. To verify facts, such as an individual’s place of employment or income, they may make phone calls or visit a subject’s workplace. In other cases, especially those involving missing persons and background checks, investigators often interview people to gather as much information as possible about an individual. In all cases, private detectives and investigators assist attorneys, businesses, and the public with a variety of legal, financial, and personal problems. Private detectives and investigators offer many services, includ ing executive, corporate, and celebrity protection; pre-employment verification; and individual background profiles. They also pro vide assistance in civil liability and personal injury cases, insurance claims and fraud, child custody and protection cases, and premari tal screening. Increasingly, they are hired to investigate individuals to prove or disprove infidelity. Most detectives and investigators are trained to perform physi cal surveillance, often for long periods, in a car or van. They may observe a site, such as the home of a subject, from an inconspicu ous location. The surveillance continues using still and video cam eras, binoculars, and a cell phone, until the desired evidence is obtained. They also may perform computer database searches, or with someone who does. Computers allow detectives and Digitized work for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org investigators to quickly obtain massive amounts of information on Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis individuals’ prior arrests, convictions, and civil legal judgments; telephone numbers; motor vehicle registrations; association and club memberships; and other matters. The duties of private detectives and investigators depend on the needs of their client. In cases for employers involving workers’ fraudulent compensation claims, for example, investigators may carry out long-term covert observation of subjects. If an investiga tor observes a subject performing an activity that contradicts inju ries stated in a workers’ compensation claim, the investigator would take video or still photographs to document the activity and report it to the client. Private detectives and investigators often specialize. Those who focus on intellectual property theft, for example, investigate and docu ment acts of piracy, help clients stop the illegal activity, and provide intelligence for prosecution and civil action. Other investigators spe cialize in developing financial profiles and asset searches. Their re ports reflect information gathered through interviews, investigation and surveillance, and research, including review of public documents. Legal investigators specialize in cases involving the courts and are normally employed by law firms or lawyers. They frequently assist in preparing criminal defenses, locating witnesses, serving legal documents, interviewing police and prospective witnesses, and gathering and reviewing evidence. Legal investigators also may collect information on the parties to the litigation, take photographs, testify in court, and assemble evidence and reports for trials. Corporate investigators conduct internal and external investi gations for corporations other than investigative firms. In internal investigations, they may investigate drug use in the workplace, en sure that expense accounts are not abused, or determine if employ ees are stealing merchandise or information. External investigations typically prevent criminal schemes originating outside the corpora tion, such as theft of company assets through fraudulent billing of products by suppliers. Financial investigators may be hired to develop confidential fi nancial profiles of individuals or companies who are prospective parties to large financial transactions. They often are Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) and work closely with investment bankers and accountants. They search for assets in order to recover damages awarded by a court in fraud or theft cases. Detectives who work for retail stores or hotels are responsible for loss control and asset protection. Store detectives, also known as loss prevention agents, safeguard the assets of retail stores by appre hending anyone attempting to steal merchandise or destroy store prop erty. They prevent theft by shoplifters, vendor representatives, {■ A; One ofthe hallmark skills ofprivate detectives and investigators is surveillance. Service Occupations 349 delivery personnel, and even store employees. Store detectives also conduct periodic inspections of stock areas, dressing rooms, and restrooms, and sometimes assist in opening and closing the store. They may prepare loss prevention and security reports for manage ment and testify in court against persons they apprehend. Hotel detectives protect guests of the establishment from theft of their belongings and preserve order in hotel restaurants and bars. They also may keep undesirable individuals, such as known thieves, off the premises. Working Conditions Private detectives and investigators often work irregular hours be cause of the need to conduct surveillance and contact people who are not available during normal working hours. Early morning, evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Many detectives and investigators spend time away from their offices conducting interviews or doing surveillance, but some work in their office most of the day conducting computer searches and making phone calls. Those who have their own agencies and em ploy other investigators may work primarily in an office and have normal business hours. When working on a case away from the office, the environment might range from plush boardrooms to seedy bars. Store and hotel detectives work in the businesses that they protect. Investigators generally work alone, but they sometimes work with others during surveillance or when following a subject in order to avoid detection by the subject. Some of the work involves confrontation, so the job can be stress ful and dangerous. Some situations call for the investigator to be armed, such as certain bodyguard assignments for corporate or ce lebrity clients. Detectives and investigators who carry handguns must be licensed by the appropriate authority. In most cases, how ever, a weapon is not necessary because the purpose of their work is gathering information and not law enforcement or criminal appre hension. Owners of investigative agencies have the added stress of having to deal with demanding and sometimes distraught clients. Employment Private detectives and investigators held about 39,000jobs in 2000. About 2 out of 5 were self-employed. Approximately a third of salaried private detectives and investigators worked for detective agencies, while another third were employed as store detectives in department or clothing and accessories stores. The remainder worked for hotels and other lodging places, legal services firms, and in other industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no formal education requirements for most private detec tive and investigator jobs, although many private detectives have college degrees. Almost all private detectives and investigators have previous experience in other occupations. Some work initially for insurance or collections companies or in the private security indus try. Many investigators enter the field after serving in law enforce ment, the military, government auditing and investigative positions, or Federal intelligence jobs. Former law enforcement officers, military investigators, and government agents often become private detectives or investigators as a second career because they are frequently able to retire after 20 years of service. Others enter from such diverse fields as finance, accounting, commercial credit, investigative reporting, insurance, and law. These individuals often can apply their prior work experi ence in a related investigative specialty. A few enter the occupa tionfordirectly after graduation from college, generally with associate Digitized FRASER or bachelor of criminal justice or police science degrees. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The majority of the States and the District of Colombia require private detectives and investigators to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary widely, but convicted felons cannot receive a license in most States and a growing number of States are enact ing mandatory training programs for private detectives and inves tigators. Some States have few requirements, and 6 States— Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, and South Dakota—have no statewide licensing requirements while others have stringent regulations. For example, the Bureau of Security and Investigative Services of the California Department of Con sumer Affairs requires private investigators to be 18 years of age or older, have a combination of education in police science, crimi nal law, or justice, and experience equaling 3 years (6,000 hours) of investigative experience; pass an evaluation by the Federal Department of Justice and a criminal history background check; and receive a qualifying score on a 2-hour written examination covering laws and regulations. There are additional requirements for a firearms permit. For private detective and investigator jobs, most employers look for individuals with ingenuity, persistence and assertiveness. A candidate must not be afraid of confrontation, should communicate well, and should be able to think on his or her feet. Good inter viewing and interrogation skills also are important and usually are acquired in earlier careers in law enforcement or other fields. Be cause the courts often are the ultimate judge of a properly conducted investigation, the investigator must be able to present the facts in a manner a jury will believe. Training in subjects such as criminal justice is helpful to aspir ing private detectives and investigators. Most corporate investiga tors must have a bachelor’s degree, preferably in a business-related field. Some corporate investigators have master’s degrees in busi ness administration or law, while others are certified public accoun tants. Corporate investigators hired by large companies may receive formal training from their employers on business practices, man agement structure, and various finance-related topics. The screen ing process for potential employees typically includes a background check of candidates’ criminal history. Some investigators receive certification from a professional organization to demonstrate competency in a field. For example, the National Association of Legal Investigators (NALI) confers the designation Certified Legal Investigator to licensed investiga tors who devote a majority of their practice to negligence or crimi nal defense investigations. To receive the designation, applicants must satisfy experience, educational, and continuing training requirements, and must pass written and oral exams administered by the NALL Most private detective agencies are small, with little room for advancement. Usually there are no defined ranks or steps, so ad vancement takes the form of increases in salary and assignment status. Many detectives and investigators work for detective agen cies at the beginning of their careers and after a few years start their own firms. Corporate and legal investigators may rise to supervi sor or manager of the security or investigations department. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected because private detective and investi gator careers attract many qualified people, including relatively young retirees from law enforcement and military careers. Opportunities will be best for entry-level jobs with detective agencies or as store detectives on a part-time basis. Those seeking store detective jobs have the best prospects with large chains and discount stores. Employment of private detectives and investigators is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition to growth, replacement of those who retire or leave the 350 Occupational Outlook Handbook occupation for other reasons should create many additional job open ings. Increased demand for private detectives and investigators will result from fear of crime, increased litigation, and the need to pro tect confidential information and property of all kinds. More pri vate investigators also will be needed to assist attorneys working on criminal defense and civil litigation. Growing financial activity worldwide will increase the demand for investigators to control in ternal and external financial losses, and to monitor competitors and prevent industrial spying. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried private detectives and investi gators were $26,750 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $20,040 and $38,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 16,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,200. Median annual earnings were $21,180 in department stores, the industry employing the largest numbers of private detectives and investigators. Earnings of private detectives and investigators vary greatly de pending on their employer, specialty, and the geographic area in which they work. According to a study by Abbott, Langer & Asso ciates, security/loss prevention directors and vice presidents had a median income of $77,500 per year in 2000; investigators, $39,800, and store detectives, $25,000. In addition to typical benefits, most corporate investigators received profit-sharing plans. Related Occupations Private detectives and investigators often collect information and protect the property and other assets of companies. Others with related duties include bill and account collectors; claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators; police and detectives, and security guards and gaming surveillance officers. Investigators who specialize in conducting financial profiles and asset searches per form work closely related to that of accountants and auditors and financial analysts and personal finance advisors. Sources of Additional Information For information on local licensing requirements, contact your State Department of Public Safety, State Division of Licensing, or your local or State police headquarters. For information on a career as a legal investigator, contact: >• The National Association of Legal Investigators, P.O. Box 905, Grand Blanc, MI 48439. Internet: http://www.nali.com/index.html Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Officers____ (0**NET 33-9031.00, 33-9032.00) Significant Points • • Favorable opportunities are expected for lower paying jobs, but stiff competition is likely for higher paying positions at facilities requiring a high level of security, such as nuclear plants and government installations. Some positions, such as those of armored car guards, are hazardous. • Because of limited formal training requirements and flexible hours, this occupation attracts many https://fraser.stlouisfed.org individuals seeking a second or part-time job. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Guards, who are also called security officers, patrol and inspect property to protect against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal activ ity. These workers protect their employer’s investment, enforce laws on the property, and deter criminal activity or other problems. They use radio and telephone communications to call for assistance from an ambulance, wrecker, or the police or fire departments as the situation dictates. Security guards write comprehensive reports outlining their observations and activities during their assigned shift. They may also interview witnesses or victims, prepare case reports, and testify in court. Although all security guards perform many of the same duties, specific duties vary based on whether the guard works in a static security position or on a mobile patrol. Guards assigned to static security positions usually serve the client at one location for a spe cific length of time. These guards must become closely acquainted with the property and people associated with it, complete all tasks assigned them, and often monitor alarms and closed-circuit TV cam eras. In contrast, guards assigned to mobile patrol duty drive or walk from location to location and conduct security checks within an assigned geographical zone. They may detain or arrest criminal violators, answer service calls concerning criminal activity or prob lems, and issue traffic violation warnings. Specific job responsibilities also vary with the size, type, and location of the employer. In department stores, guards protect people, records, merchandise, money, and equipment. They often work with undercover store detectives to prevent theft by custom ers or store employees and help in the apprehension of shoplifting suspects prior to arrival by police. Some shopping centers and the aters have officers mounted on horses or bicycles who patrol their parking lots to deter car theft and robberies. In office buildings, banks, and hospitals, guards maintain order and protect the institu tions’ property, staff, and customers. At air, sea, and rail terminals and other transportation facilities, guards protect people, freight, property, and equipment. They may screen passengers and visitors for weapons and explosives using metal detectors and high-tech equipment, ensure nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and watch for fires and criminals. Guards who work in public buildings such as museums or art galleries protect paintings and exhibits by inspecting people and packages entering and leaving the building. In factories, laborato ries, government buildings, data processing centers, and military bases, security officers protect information, products, computer codes, and defense secrets and check the credentials of people and vehicles entering and leaving the premises. Guards working at uni versities, parks, and sports stadiums perform crowd control, super vise parking and seating, and direct traffic. Security guards stationed at the entrance to bars and places of adult entertainment, such as nightclubs, prevent access by minors, collect cover charges at the door, maintain order among customers, and protect property and patrons. _ Armored car guards protect money and valuables during transit. In addition, they protect individuals responsible for making com mercial bank deposits from theft or bodily injury. When the ar mored car arrives at the door of a business, an armed guard enters, signs for the money, and returns to the truck with the valuables in hand. Carrying money between the truck and the business can be extremely hazardous for guards, and a number of them have been robbed and shot in recent years, so armored car guards usually wear bullet-proof vests. All security officers must show good judgment and common sense, follow directions and directives from supervisors, accurately testify in court, and follow company policy and guidelines. Guards should have a professional appearance and attitude and be able to Service Occupations 351 hsik m ■'•U L :>► £ A security guard communicates with other guards to ensure that proper procedures are followed. interact with the public. They also must be able to take charge and direct others in emergencies or other dangerous incidents. In a large organization, the security manager is often in charge of a trained guard force divided into shifts; whereas in a small organization, a single worker may be responsible for all security. Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators act as security agents for casino managers and patrons. They observe ca sino operations for irregular activities, such as cheating or theft, by either employees or patrons. To do this, surveillance officers and investigators monitor activities from a catwalk over one-way mir rors located above the casino floor. Many casinos use audio and video equipment, allowing surveillance officers and investigators to observe these same areas via monitors. Recordings are kept as a record and are sometimes used as evidence against alleged crimi nals in police investigations. Working Conditions Most security guards and gaming surveillance officers spend con siderable time on their feet, either assigned to a specific post or patrolling buildings and grounds. Guards may be stationed at a guard desk inside a building to monitor electronic security and sur veillance devices or to check the credentials of persons entering or leaving the premises. They also may be stationed at a guardhouse outside the entrance to a gated facility or communities and use a portable radio or telephone that allows them to be in constant con tact with a central station. Guardwork usually is routine, but guards must be constantly alert for threats to themselves and the property they are protecting. Guards who work during the day may have a great deal of contact with other employees and members of the pub lic. Gaming surveillance often takes place behind a bank of moni tors controlling several cameras in a casino, which can cause eyestrain. Guards usually work at least 8-hour shifts for 40 hours per week and often are on call in case an emergency arises. Some employers have three shifts, and guards rotate to equally divide daytime, week end, and holiday work. Guards usually eat on the job instead of taking a regular break away from the site. Employment Security guards and gaming surveillance officers held more than 1.1 million jobs in 2000. Industrial security firms and guard agen cies employed 60 percent of all wage and salary guards. These or ganizations provide security services on a contract basis, assigning https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their guards to buildings and other sites as needed. Most other secu rity officers were employed by the organization they are responsible lor guarding, such as banks, building management companies, ho tels, hospitals, retail stores, restaurants, bars, schools, and govern ments. Guard jobs are found throughout the country, most commonly in metropolitan areas. More than 1 in 7 guards worked part time, and many individuals held a second job as a guard to supplement their primary earnings. Gaming surveillance officers work exclu sively in casinos and other gaming facilities and are employed only in those States and Indian reservations where gambling has been legalized. A significant number of law-enforcement officers work as security guards when off-duty to supplement their incomes. Often working in uniform and with the official cars assigned to them, they add a high profile security presence to the establishment with which they have contracted. At construction sites and apartment complexes, for example, their presence often prevents trouble be fore it starts. (Police and detectives are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States require that guards be licensed. To be licensed as a guard, individuals must usually be at least 18 years old, pass a back ground check, and complete classroom training in such subjects as property rights, emergency procedures, and detention of suspected criminals. Drug testing often is required, and may be random and ongoing. Many employers of unarmed guards do not have any specific educational requirements. For armed guards, employers usually prefer individuals who are high school graduates or hold an equiva lent certification. Many jobs require a driver’s license. For posi tions as armed guards, employers often seek people who have had responsible experience in other occupations. Guards who carry weapons must be licensed by the appropriate government authority, and some receive further certification as spe cial police officers, which allows them to make limited types of arrests while on duty. Armed guard positions have more stringent background checks and entry requirements than those of unarmed guards because of greater insurance liability risks. Compared to unarmed security guards, armed guards and special police typically enjoy higher earnings and benefits, greater job security, more ad vancement potential, and usually are given more training and re sponsibility. Rigorous hiring and screening programs consisting of back ground, criminal record, and fingerprint checks are becoming the norm in the occupation. Applicants are expected to have good char acter references, no serious police record, and good health. They should be mentally alert, emotionally stable, and physically fit in order to cope with emergencies. Guards who have frequent contact with the public should communicate well. Candidates for guard jobs in the Federal Government must have some experience in the occupation and pass a written examination to be certified by the U.S. General Services Administration. Armed Forces experience is an asset. For Federal guard positions, appli cants also must qualify in the use of firearms and pass a first aid test. The amount of training guards receive varies. Training require ments are higher for armed guards because their employers are le gally responsible for any use of force. Armed guards receive formal training in areas such as weapons retention and laws covering the use of force. Many employers give newly hired guards instruction before they start the job and also provide on-the-job training. An increasing number of States are making ongoing training a legal requirement 352 Occupational Outlook Handbook for retention of certification. Guards may receive training in protec tion, public relations, report writing, crisis deterrence, and first aid, as well as specialized training relevant to their particular assignment. Guards employed at establishments placing a heavy emphasis on security usually receive extensive formal training. For example, guards at nuclear power plants undergo several months of training before being placed on duty under close supervision. They are taught to use firearms, administer first aid, operate alarm systems and elec tronic security equipment, and spot and deal with security prob lems. Guards authorized to carry firearms may be periodically tested . . in their use. Although guards in small companies may receive periodic salary increases, advancement opportunities are limited. Most large orga nizations use a military type of ranking that offers the possibility of advancement in position and salary. Some guards may advance to supervisor or security manager positions. Guards with management skills may open their own contract security guard agencies. In addition to the keen observation skills required to perform their jobs, gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators must have excellent verbal and writing abilities to document viola tions or suspicious behavior. They also need to be physically fit and have quick reflexes because they sometimes must detain indi viduals until local law enforcement officials arrive. Surveillance officers and investigators usually do not need a bachelor’s degree, but some training beyond high school is required; previous security experience is a plus. Several educational insti tutes offer certification programs. Training classes usually are con ducted in a casino-like atmosphere using surveillance camera equipment. Job Outlook Opportunities for most jobs as security guards and gaming surveil lance officers should be very favorable through the year 2010. Numerous job openings will stem from employment growth attrib utable to the desire for increased security, and from the need to replace those who leave this large occupation each year. Many op portunities are expected for persons seeking full-time employment, as well as for those seeking part-time or second jobs. However, competition is expected for higher paying positions that require longer periods of training; these positions usually are found at fa cilities that require a high level of security, such as nuclear power plants or weapons installations. Employment of security guards and gaming surveillance offic ers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010 as concern about crime, vandalism, and terrorism continue to increase the need for security. Demand for guards also will grow as private security firms increasingly perform duties— such as monitoring crowds at airports and providing security in courts—which were formerly handled by government police offic ers and marshals. Because enlisting the services of a security guard firm is easier and less costly than assuming direct responsibility for hiring, training, and managing a security guard force, job growth is https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis expected to be concentrated among contract security guard agen cies. Casinos will continue to hire more surveillance officers as more states legalize gambling and as the number of casinos increases in states where gambling is already legal. Additionally, casino se curity forces will employ more technically trained personnel as tech nology becomes increasingly important in thwarting casino cheating and theft. Median annual earnings of security guards were $17,570 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,930 and $21,950. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,860, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $28,660. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of security guards in 2000 were as follows: Hospitals............................................. Elementary and secondary schools Hotels and motels............................. Miscellaneous business services ... Eating and drinking places.......... $22,260 22,240 20,230 16,830 15,870 Depending on their experience, newly hired guards in the Fed eral Government earned $21,950 to $27,190 a year in 2001. Begin ning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Guards employed by the Fed eral Government averaged $28,960 a year in 2001. These workers usually receive overtime pay as well as a wage differential for the second and third shifts. Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators had me dian annual earnings of $21,220 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,080 and $25,950. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32,890. Median annual earnings in 2000 in miscellaneous amuse ment and recreation services, the industry employing the largest numbers of gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators, were $20,650. Related Occupations Guards protect property, maintain security, and enforce regulations and standards of conduct in the establishments at which they work. Related security and protective service occupations include cor rectional officers, police and detectives, and private detectives and investigators. Sources of Additional Information Further information about work opportunities for guards is avail able from local security and guard firms and State employment ser vice offices. Information about licensing requirements for guards may be obtained from the State licensing commission or the State police department. In States where local jurisdictions establish li censing requirements, contact a local government authority such as the sheriff, county executive, or city manager. Sales and Related Occupations Cashiers (0*NET 41-2011.00, 41-2012.00) • • • Significant Points Cashiers are trained on the job; this occupation provides opportunities for many young people with no previous work experience. About one-half of all cashiers work part time. Good employment opportunities are expected because of the large number of workers who leave this occupation each year. Nature of the Work Supermarkets, department stores, gasoline service stations, movie theaters, restaurants, and many other businesses employ cashiers to register the sale of their merchandise. Most cashiers total bills, receive money, make change, fill out charge forms, and give receipts. Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers usually are assigned to a register at the beginning of their shifts and given drawers containing “banks” of money. They must count their banks to ensure that they contain the correct amount of money and adequate supplies of change. At the end of their shifts, they once again count the drawers’ contents and compare the totals with sales data. An occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked but, in many establishments, repeated shortages are grounds for dismissal. In addition to counting the contents of their drawers at the end of their shifts, cashiers usually separate and total charge forms, re turn slips, coupons, and any other noncash items. Cashiers also handle returns and exchanges. They must ensure that returned mer chandise is in good condition, and determine where and when it was purchased and what type of payment was used. After entering charges for all items and subtracting the value of any coupons or special discounts, cashiers total the bill and take payment. Acceptable forms of payment include cash, per sonal check, charge, and debit cards. Cashiers must know the store’s policies and procedures for each type of payment the store accepts. For checks and charges, they may request additional iden tification from the customer or call in for an authorization. They must verify the age of customers purchasing alcohol or tobacco. When the sale is complete, cashiers issue a receipt to the customer and return the appropriate change. They may also wrap or bag the purchase. Cashiers traditionally have totaled customers’ purchases using cash registers—manually entering the price of each product bought. However, most establishments now use more sophisticated equip ment, such as scanners and computers. In a store with scanners, a cashier passes a product’s Universal Product Code over the scan ning device, which transmits the code number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price. In other establishments, cashiers manually enter codes into computers, and descriptions of the items and their prices appear on the screen. Depending on the type of establishment, cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets, for example, cashiers weigh produce and bulk food, as well as return unwanted items to the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ♦ -'*r Cashiers sell refreshments and snacks at many ofourfavorite places. shelves. In convenience stores, cashiers may be required to know how to use a variety of machines other than cash registers, and how to furnish money orders. Operating ticket-dispensing machines and answering customers’ questions are common duties for cashiers who work at movie theaters and ticket agencies. In casinos, gaming change persons and booth cashiers exchange coins and tokens and may issue payoffs. They may also operate a booth in the slot-ma chine area and furnish change persons with a money bank at the start of the shift, or count and audit money in drawers. Working Conditions About one-half of all cashiers work part time. Hours of work often vary depending on the needs of the employer. Generally, cashiers are expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accom modate customers’ needs. However, many employers offer flex ible schedules. For example, full-time workers who work on weekends may receive time off during the week. Because the holi day season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in booths or be hind counters. In addition, they often are unable to leave their work stations without supervisory approval because they are responsible for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repeti tious, but improvements in workstation design are being made to combat problems caused by repetitive motion. In addition, the work can sometimes be dangerous; their risk from workplace homicides is much higher than that of the total workforce. Employment Cashiers held about 3.4 million jobs in 2000. Although employed in almost every industry, one-third of all jobs were in supermarkets and other food stores. Restaurants, department stores, gasoline ser vice stations, drug stores, and other retail establishments also em ployed large numbers of these workers. Outside of retail establishments, many cashiers worked in hotels, schools, motion picture theaters, and casinos. Because cashiers are needed in busi nesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are found throughout the country. 353 354 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cashier jobs tend to be entry-level positions requiring little or no previous work experience. Although there are no specific educa tional requirements, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer applicants with high school diplomas. Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small businesses, an experienced worker often trains beginners. The first day usually is spent observing the operation and becoming familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures. After this, trainees are assigned to a register—frequently under the supervision of a moreexperienced worker. In larger businesses, before being placed at cash registers, trainees spend several days in classes. Topics typi cally covered include a description of the industry and the com pany, store policies and procedures, equipment operation, and security. Training for experienced workers is not common, except when new equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases, the employer or a representative of the equipment manufac turer trains workers on the job. Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do rep etitious work accurately. They also need basic mathematics skills and good manual dexterity. Because cashiers deal constantly with the public, they should be neat in appearance and able to deal tact fully and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some businesses prefer to hire persons who can operate specialized equipment or who have business experience, such as typing, selling, or handling money. Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those work ing part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance to head cashier or cash-office clerk. In addition, this job offers a good opportunity to learn about an employer’s business and can serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible position. Department stores...................................................................................... Grocery stores............................................................................................. Gasoline service stations......................................................................... Drug stores and proprietary stores........................................................ Eating and drinking places...................................................................... »/. x j ^-99 ^.87 663 6.56 Benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than those for cashiers working part time. In addition to typical benefits, those working in retail establishments often receive discounts on pur chases, and cashiers in restaurants may receive free or low-cost meals. Some employers also offer employee stock-option plans and education-reimbursement plans. Related Occupations Cashiers accept payment for the purchase of goods and services. Other workers with similar duties include tellers, counter and rental clerks, food and beverage serving and related workers, gaming cage workers, postal service workers, and retail salespersons, all of whom are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Sources of Additional Information General information on retailing is available from: > National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW, Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nrf.com For information about employment opportunities as a cashier, contact: >- National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St., Alexan dria, VA 22314-2792. Internet: http://www.cstorecentral.com >- United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, Education Office, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006-1502. Counter and Rental Clerks (Q**NET 41-2021.00) Job Outlook As in the past, opportunities for full- and part-time cashier jobs should continue to be good, because of employment growth and the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Cashier employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010 because of ex panding demand for goods and services by a growing population. The rising popularity of electronic commerce, which does not re quire a cashier to complete a transaction or accept payment, may reduce the employment growth of cashiers. However, electronic commerce will have a limited impact on this large occupation. Tra ditionally, workers under the age of 25 have filled many of the open ings in this occupation—in 2000, more than half of all cashiers were 24 years of age or younger. Some establishments have begun hiring elderly and disabled persons as well to fill some of their job openings. Earnings The starting wage for many cashiers is the Federal minimum wage, which was $5.15 an hour in 2001. In some States, State law sets the minimum wage higher, and establishments must pay at least that amount. Wages tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. Median hourly earnings of cashiers, except gaming in 2000 were $6.95. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.14 and $8.27 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.61, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.39 an hour. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cashiers in 2000 were as follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • • • Jobs primarily are entry-level and require little or no experience and minimal formal education. Average employment growth is expected as businesses strive to improve customer service. Part-time employment opportunities should be plentiful. Nature of the Work Whether renting videotapes, moving trucks, or air compressors, drop ping off clothes to be dry-cleaned or appliances to be serviced, we rely on counter and rental clerks to handle these transactions effi ciently. Although specific duties vary by establishment, counter and rental clerks answer questions involving product availability, cost, and rental provisions. Counter and rental clerks also take or ders, calculate fees, receive payments, and accept returns. (Cash iers and retail salespersons, occupations with similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be knowledgeable about the company’s services, policies, and pro cedures. Depending on the type of establishment, counter and rental clerks use their special knowledge to give advice on a wide variety of products and services, which may range from hydraulic tools to shoe repair. For example, in the car rental industry, they inform customers about the features of different types of automobiles, as well as daily and weekly rental costs. They also ensure that custom ers meet age and other requirements for rental cars, and indicate Sales and Related Occupations 355 Working conditions usually are pleasant; most stores and ser vice establishments are clean, well-lighted, and temperature-con trolled. However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be confined behind a small counter area or be exposed to harmful chemicals. This job requires constant interaction with the public and can be stressful—especially during busy periods. Employment Counter and rental clerks held 423,000 jobs in 2000. About 1 of every 6 clerks worked in a videotape rental store. Other large em ployers included dry-cleaners, automobile rental firms, equipment rental firms, and miscellaneous amusement and recreation estab lishments. Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the country but are concentrated in metropolitan areas, where personal services and renting and leasing services are in greater demand. Counter and rental clerks inspect rental items and calculate additional fees. when and in what condition cars must be returned. Those in the equipment rental industry have similar duties, but must also know how to operate and care for the machinery rented. In dry-cleaning establishments, counter clerks inform customers when items will be ready and what the effects of the chemicals used on garments are, if any. In video rental stores, they advise customers about the use of video and game players and the length of rental, scan re turned movies and games, restock the shelves, handle money, and log daily reports. When taking orders, counter and rental clerks use various types of equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order forms, although most use computers or bar code scanners. Most of these computer systems are user-friendly, require very little data entry, and are customized for the firm. Scanners read the prod uct code and display a description of the item on a computer screen. However, clerks must ensure that the data on the screen accurately matches the product. Working Conditions Firms employing counter and rental clerks usually operate nights and weekends for the convenience of their customers. However, many employers offer flexible schedules. Some counter and rental clerks work 40-hour weeks, but about half are on part-time sched ules—usually during rush periods, such as weekends, evenings, and holidays. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Counter and rental clerk jobs primarily are entry-level and require little or no experience and minimal formal education. However, many employers prefer workers with at least a high school diploma. In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the job, sometimes through the use of videotapes, brochures, and pam phlets. Clerks usually learn how to operate the equipment and be come familiar with the establishment’s policies and procedures under the observation of a more experienced worker. However, some employers have formal classroom training programs lasting from a few hours to a few weeks. Topics covered in this training include a description of the industry, the company and its policies and proce dures, equipment operation, sales techniques, and customer service. Counter and rental clerks also must become familiar with the dif ferent products and services rented or provided by their company in order to give customers the best possible service. Counter and rental clerks should enjoy working with people and have the ability to deal tactfully with difficult customers. They should be able to handle several tasks at once, while continuing to provide friendly service. In addition, good oral and written com munication skills are essential. Advancement opportunities depend on the size and type of com pany. Many establishments that employ counter or rental clerks tend to be small businesses, making advancement difficult. But in larger establishments with a corporate structure, jobs as counter and rental clerks offer good opportunities for workers to learn about their company’s products and business practices. These jobs can lead to more responsible positions. It is common in many establishments to promote counter and rental clerks to event planner, assistant man ager, or sales positions. Workers may choose to pursue related posi tions, such as mechanic, or even establish their own business. In certain industries, such as equipment repair, counter and rental jobs may be an additional or alternate source of income for workers who are unemployed or entering semiretirement. For example, re tired mechanics could prove invaluable at tool rental centers be cause of their relevant knowledge. Job Outlook Employment of counter and rental clerks is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, as all types of businesses strive to improve customer service. In addition, some industries employing counter and rental clerks are expected to grow rapidly, including equipment rental and leas ing and amusement and recreation services. Nevertheless, most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Part time employment opportunities are expected to be plentiful. 356 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which, in establishments covered by Federal law, was $ 5.15 an hour in 2001. In some States, the law sets the minimum wage higher and establish ments must pay at least that amount. Wages also tend to be higher in areas where there is intense competition for workers. In addition to wages, some counter and rental clerks receive commissions, based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell. Median hourly earnings of counter and rental clerks in 2000 were $7.87. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.51 and $10.22 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.80 an hour, and the highest lOpercent earned more than$13.75 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of counter and rental clerks in 2000 were as follows: New and used car dealers........................................................................ $14.90 Miscellaneous equipment rental and leasing...................................... 9.54 Automotive rentals, no drivers............................................................... 9.16 Grocery stores............................................................................................ 7.66 Video tape rental........................................................................................ &.60 Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance, paid vacation, and sick leave. Benefits for counter and rental clerks who work part-time or for independent stores tend to be significantly less than for those who work full time. Many companies offer discounts to both full- and part-time employees on the services they provide. Related Occupations Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for ser vices rendered. Other workers with similar duties include tellers, cashiers, food and beverage serving and related workers, gaming cage workers, postal service workers, and retail salespersons. Sources of Additional Information For general information on employment in the equipment rental industry, contact: >• American Rental Association, 1900 19th St., Moline, IL 61265. Internet: http ://www.ararental.org For more information about the work of counter clerks in dry cleaning and laundry establishments, contact: ► International Fabricare Institute, 12251 Tech Rd„ Silver Spring, MD 20904. Internet: http://www.ifi.org Demonstrators, Product Promoters, and Models ______ _____________ (0*NET 41-9011.00, 41-9012.00) Significant Points • • • Job openings should be plentiful for demonstrators and product promoters, but keen competition is expected for modeling jobs. Most jobs are part time or have variable work schedules. Many jobs require frequent travel. Nature of the Work Demonstrators, product promoters, and models create public inter est in buying products such as clothing, cosmetics, food items, and housewares. The information they provide helps consumers make educated choices among the wide variety of products and services available. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Demonstrators and product promoters create public interest in buying a product by demonstrating it to prospective customers and answering their questions. They may sell the demonstrated mer chandise, or gather names of prospects to contact at a later date or to pass on to a sales staff. Demonstrators promote sales of a prod uct to consumers, while product promoters try to induce retail stores to sell particular products and market them effectively. Product demonstration is an effective technique used by both to introduce new products or promote sales of old products because it allows face-to-face interaction with potential customers. Demonstrators and product promoters build current and future sales of both sophisticated and simple products, ranging from com puter software to mops. They attract an audience by offering samples, administering contests, distributing prizes, and using di rect-mail advertising. They must greet and catch the attention of possible customers and quickly identify those who are interested and qualified. They inform and educate customers about the fea tures of products and demonstrate their use with apparent ease to inspire confidence in the product and its manufacturer. They also distribute information, such as brochures and applications. Some demonstrations are intended to generate immediate sales through impulse buying, while others are considered an investment to gen erate future sales and increase brand awareness. Demonstrations and product promotions are conducted in retail and grocery stores, shopping malls, trade shows, and outdoor fairs. Locations are selected based on both the nature of the product and the type of audience. Demonstrations at large events may require teams of demonstrators to efficiently handle large crowds. Some demonstrators promote products on videotape or on television pro grams, such as “infomercials” or home shopping programs. Demonstrators and product promoters may prepare the content of a presentation and alter it to target a specific audience or to keep it current. They may participate in the design of an exhibit or cus tomize exhibits for particular audiences. Results obtained by dem onstrators and product promoters are analyzed, and presentations are adjusted to make them more effective. Demonstrators and prod uct promoters also may be involved in transporting, assembling, and disassembling materials used in demonstrations. A demonstrator’s presentation may include visuals, models, case studies, testimonials, test results, and surveys. The equipment used for a demonstration varies with the product being demonstrated. A food product demonstration might require the use of cooking uten sils, while a software demonstration could require the use of a mul timedia computer. Demonstrators must be familiar with the product to be able to relate detailed information to customers and to answer any questions that arise before, during, or after a demonstration. Therefore, they may research the product to be presented, the prod ucts of competitors, and the interests and concerns of the target audience before conducting a demonstration. Demonstrations of complex products can require practice. Models pose for photos or as subjects for paintings or sculp tures. They display clothing, such as dresses, coats, underclothing, swimwear, and suits, for a variety of audiences and in various types of media. They model accessories, such as handbags, shoes, and jewelry, and promote beauty products, including fragrances and cosmetics. The most successful models, called supermodels, hold celebrity status and often use their image to sell products such as books, calendars, and fitness videos. In addition to modeling, they may appear in movies and television shows. Models’ clients use printed publications, live modeling, and tele vision to advertise and promote products and services. There are different categories of modeling jobs within these media, and the nature of a model’s work may vary with each. Most modeling jobs are for printed publications, and models usually do a combination https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mmm M l of editorial, commercial, and catalog work. Editorial print model ing uses still photographs of models for fashion magazine covers and to accompany feature articles, but does not include modeling for advertisements. Commercial print modeling includes work for advertisements in magazines and newspapers, and for outdoor ad vertisements such as billboards. Catalog models appear in depart ment store and mail order catalogs. During a photo shoot, a model poses to demonstrate the features of clothing and products. Models make small changes in posture and facial expression to capture the look desired by the client. As they shoot film, photographers instruct models to pose in certain positions and to interact with their physical surroundings. Models work closely with photographers, hair and clothing stylists, makeup artists, and clients to produce the desired look and to finish the photo shoot on schedule. Stylists and makeup artists prepare the model for the photo shoot, provide touchups, and change the look of models throughout the day. If stylists are not provided, models must apply their own makeup and bring their own clothing. Be cause the client spends time and money planning for and preparing an advertising campaign, the client usually is present to ensure that the work is satisfactory. The client also may offer suggestions. Editorial printwork generally pays less than other types of mod eling, but provides exposure for a model and can lead to commer cial modeling opportunities. Often, beginning fashion models work in foreign countries, where fashion magazines are more plentiful. Live modeling is done in a variety of locations. Live models stand, turn, and walk to demonstrate clothing to a variety of audi ences. At fashion shows and in showrooms, garment buyers are the primary audience. Runway models display clothes that either are intended for direct sale to consumers or are the artistic expressions of the designer. High fashion, or haute couture, runway models confidently walk a narrow runway before an audience of photogra phers, journalists, designers, and garment buyers. Live modeling also is done in apparel marts, department stores, and fitting rooms of clothing designers. In retail establishments, models display cloth ing directly for shoppers and may be required to describe the fea tures and price of the clothing. Other models pose for sketching artists, painters, and sculptors. Models may compete with actors and actresses for work in tele vision and may even receive speaking parts. Television work in cludes commercials, cable television programs, and even game shows. However, competition for television work is intense be cause of the potential for high earnings and extensive exposure. Because advertisers need to target very specific segments of the population, models may specialize in a certain area. Petite and plussize fashions are modeled by women whose dress size is smaller or larger than the typical model. Models who are disabled may be used to model fashions or products for disabled consumers. “Parts” models have a body part, such as a hand or foot, that is particularly well-suited to model products such as fingernail polish or shoes. Almost all models work through agents. Agents provide a link between models and clients. Clients pay models, while the agency receives a portion of the model’s earnings for its services. Agents scout for new faces, advise and train new models, and promote them to clients. A typical modeling job lasts only 1 day, so modeling agencies differ from other employment agencies in that they main tain an ongoing relationship with the model. Agents find and nur ture relationships with clients, arrange auditions called “go-sees,” and book shoots if a model is hired. They also provide bookkeep ing and billing services to models and may offer them financial planning services. Relatively short careers and high incomes make financial planning an important issue for successful models. With the help of agents, models spend a considerable amount of time promoting and developing themselves. Models assemble and Sales and Related Occupations 357 «p% Demonstrators, product promoters, and models interact with potential clients to explain a new product. maintain portfolios, print composite cards, and travel to go-sees. A portfolio is a collection of model’s previous work that is carried to all go-sees and bookings. A composite card, or comp card, con tains the best photographs from a model’s portfolio, along with his or her measurements. Models must gather information before a job. From an agent, they learn the pay, date, time, and length of the shoot. Also, models must ask agents if hair, makeup, and clothing stylists will be pro vided. It is helpful to know what product is being promoted and what image they should project. Some models research the client and the product being modeled to prepare for a shoot. Models use a document called a voucher to record the rate of pay and the actual duration of the job. The voucher is used for billing purposes after both the client and model sign it. Once a job is completed, models must check in with their agency and plan for the next appointment. Working Conditions Over half of all demonstrators, product promoters, and models work part time and almost a quarter have variable work schedules. Many positions last 6 months or less. Demonstrators and product promoters may work long hours while standing or walking, with little opportunity to rest. Some of them travel frequently, and night and weekend work often is required. The atmosphere of a crowded trade show or State fair often is hec tic, and demonstrators and product promoters may feel pressure to influence the greatest number of consumers possible in a very lim ited amount of time. However, many enjoy the opportunity to in teract with a variety of people. The work of models is both glamorous and difficult, and they may work under a variety of conditions. The coming season’s fash ions may be modeled in a comfortable, climate-controlled studio or in a cold, damp outdoor location. Schedules can be demanding, and models must keep in constant touch with an agent so that they do not miss an opportunity for work. Being away from friends and family, and needing to focus on the photographer’s instructions despite constant interruption for touchups, clothing, and set changes can be stressful. Yet, successful models interact with a variety of people and enjoy frequent travel. They may meet potential clients at several go-sees in one day and often travel to work in distant cities, foreign countries, and exotic locations. Employment Demonstrators, product promoters, and models held about 121,000 jobs in 2000. Models alone held only about 3,700 jobs in 2000. 358 Occupational Outlook Handbook About 14 percent of all salaried jobs were in miscellaneous busi ness services—which includes trade shows and demonstration ser vices—and about 13 percent were in personnel-supply services, which includes modeling agencies. Others worked in advertising, department stores, drug stores, grocery and related products whole salers, grocery stores, management and public relations, and com puter and data processing services. Demonstrator and product promoter jobs may be found in com munities throughout the Nation, but modeling jobs are concentrated in New York, Miami, and Los Angeles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training and education requirements are limited for demon strators, product promoters, and models. Training usually is short term, occurring over a period of days or weeks. Postsecondary education, while helpful, usually is not required. About 55 percent of these workers have no more than a high school diploma. Demonstrators and product promoters usually receive on-thejob training. Training is primarily product-oriented because a dem onstrator must be familiar with the product to demonstrate it properly. The length of training varies with the complexity of the product. Experience with the product or familiarity with similar products may be required for demonstration of complex products, such as computers. During the training process, demonstrators may be in troduced to the manufacturer’s corporate philosophy and preferred methods for dealing with customers. Employers look for demonstrators and product promoters with good communication skills and a pleasant appearance and person ality. Demonstrators and product promoters must be comfortable with public speaking. They should be able to entertain an audience and use humor, spontaneity, and personal interest in the product as promotional tools. Foreign language skills are helpful. While no formal training is required to begin a modeling career, models should be photogenic and have a basic knowledge of hair styling, makeup, and clothing. Some local governments require models under the age of 18 to hold a work permit. An attractive physical appearance is necessary to become a successful model. A model should have flawless skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Models must be within certain ranges for height, weight, and dress or coat size in order to meet the practical needs of fashion designers, photographers, and advertisers. Requirements may change slightly from time to time as our society’s perceptions about physi cal beauty change; however, most fashion designers feel their cloth ing looks its best on tall, thin models. Although physical requirements may be relaxed for some types of modeling jobs, opportunities are limited for those who do not meet these basic requirements. Because a model’s career depends on preservation of his or her physical characteristics, models must control their diet, exercise regularly, and get enough sleep in order to stay healthy. Flaircuts, pedicures, and manicures are necessary work-related expenses for models. In addition to being attractive, models must be photogenic. The ability to relate to the camera in order to capture the desired look on film is essential and agents test prospective models using snapshots or professional photographs. For photographic and runway work, models must be able to move gracefully and confidently. Training in acting, voice, and dance is useful and allows a model to be con sidered for television work. Foreign language skills are useful be cause successful models travel frequently to foreign countries. Because models must interact with a large number of people, personality plays an important role in success. Models must be professional, polite, and prompt; every contact could lead to future employment. Organizational skills are necessary to manage per Digitizedsonal for FRASER lives, financial matters, and busy work and travel schedules. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because competition for jobs is stiff and clients’ needs are very specific, patience and persistence are essential. Modeling schools provide training in posing, walking, makeup application, and other basic tasks, but attending such schools does not necessarily lead to job opportunities. In fact, many agents pre fer beginning models with little or no previous experience and dis courage models from attending modeling schools and purchasing professional photographs. A model’s selection of an agency is an important factor for advancement in the occupation. The better the reputation and skill of the agency, the more assignments a model is likely to get. Because clients prefer to work with agents, it is very difficult for a model to pursue a freelance career. Agents continually scout for new faces, and many of the top models are discovered in this way. Most agencies review snapshots or have open calls, during which models are seen in person; this service usually is provided free of charge. Some agencies sponsor modeling contests and searches. Very few people who send in snap shots or attend open calls are offered contracts. Agencies advise models on how to dress, wear makeup, and con duct themselves properly during go-sees and bookings. Because models’ advancement depends on their previous work, develop ment of a good portfolio is key to getting assignments. Models accumulate and display current tear sheets—examples of a model’s editorial print work—and photographs in the portfolio. The higher the quality and currency of the photos in the portfolio, the more likely it is that the model will find work. Demonstrators and product promoters who perform well and show leadership ability may advance to other marketing and sales occupations or open their own businesses. Because modeling careers are relatively short, most models eventually transfer to other occupations. Job Outlook Employment of demonstrators, product promoters, and models is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Job growth should be driven by increases in the number and size of trade shows and greater use of demonstrators and product promoters in department stores and various retail shops for instore promotions. Additional job openings will arise from the need to replace demonstrators, product promoters, and models who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job openings should be plentiful for demonstrators and product promoters. Employers may have difficulty finding qualified dem onstrators who are willing to fill part-time, short-term positions. In addition, product demonstration is considered a very effective mar keting tool. New jobs should arise as firms devote a greater per centage of marketing budgets to product demonstration. On the other hand, modeling is considered a glamorous occupa tion, with limited formal entry requirements. Consequently, those who wish to pursue a modeling career can expect keen competition for jobs. The modeling profession typically attracts many more jobseekers than there are job openings available. Only models who closely meet the unique requirements of the occupation will achieve regular employment. The increasing diversification of the general population should increase demand for models more representa tive of diverse racial and ethnic groups. Work for male models should increase as society becomes more receptive to the market ing of men’s fashions. Because fashions change frequently, demand for a model’s look may fluctuate; most models experience periods of unemployment. Employment of demonstrators, product promoters, and models is affected by downturns in the business cycle. Many firms tend to reduce advertising budgets during recessions. Sales and Related Occupations 359 Earnings Demonstrators and product promoters had median hourly earnings of $9.51 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.71 and $13.51. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.82, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.76. Median hourly earnings in the largest industries that employed demonstrators and product pro moters in 2000 were as follows: Personnel supply services........................................................................ $ 10.47 Advertising................................................................................................. 8.90 Miscellaneous business services ........................................................... 8.29 Department stores...................................................................................... 8.28 Employers of demonstrators, product promoters, and models generally pay for job-related travel expenses. Median hourly earnings of models were $9.17 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.00 and $13.70. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.11, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.94. Earnings vary for different types of modeling, and depend on the experience and reputation of the model. Female models typically earn more than male models for similar work. Hourly earnings can be relatively high, particularly for supermodels and others in high demand, but models may not have work every day, and jobs may last only a few hours. Models occasionally receive clothing or clothing discounts instead of, or in addition to, regular earnings. Almost all models work with agents, and pay 15 to 20 percent of their earnings in return for an agent’s services. Models who do not find immediate work may receive payments, called advances, from agents to cover promotional and living expenses. Models must provide their own health and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Demonstrators, product promoters, and models create public inter est in buying clothing and products. Others who create interest in a product or service include actors, producers, and directors; insur ance sales agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; retail sales persons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and travel agents. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in modeling, contact: >- Models Guild, Office and Professional Employees International Union, 265 W. 14th St., Suite 203, New York, NY 10011. Internet: http://www.opeiu.org/models/index.asp For information about modeling schools and agencies in your area, contact a local consumer affairs organization such as the Bet ter Business Bureau. Insurance Sales Agents (0**NET 41-3021.00) Significant Points • Despite slower than average growth, job opportunities should be good for people with the right skills. • Employers prefer to hire college graduates and persons with proven sales ability or success in other occupations. • In addition to insurance policies, agents are beginning to sell more financial products such as mutual funds, retirement funds, and securities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent. These workers help individuals, families, and businesses select insurance policies that provide the best protection for their lives, health, and property. Insurance sales agents who work exclusively for one insurance company are referred to as captive agents. Independent insurance agents, or brokers, represent several companies and place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. In either case, agents prepare reports, maintain records, seek out new clients, and, in the event of a loss, help policyhold ers settle insurance claims. Increasingly, some may also offer their clients financial analysis or advice on ways they can minimize risk. Insurance sales agents sell one or more types of insurance, such as property and casualty, life, health, disability, and long-term care. Property and casualty insurance agents sell policies that protect in dividuals and businesses from financial loss resulting from auto mobile accidents, fire, theft, storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and casualty insurance can also cover injured workers’ compensation, product liability claims, or medical malpractice claims. Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay ben eficiaries when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a cash-value policy can be designed to provide re tirement income, funds for the education of children, or other ben efits. Life insurance agents also sell annuities that promise a retirement income. Health insurance agents sell health insurance policies that cover the costs of medical care and loss of income due to illness or injury. They may also sell dental insurance and shortand long-term disability insurance policies. An increasing number of insurance sales agents offer compre hensive financial planning services to their clients, such as retire ment planning, estate planning, or assistance in setting up pension plans for businesses. As a result, many insurance agents are in volved in “cross-selling” or “total account development.” Besides insurance, these agents may become licensed to sell mutual funds, variable annuities, and other securities. This is most common for life insurance agents who already sell annuities; however, property and casualty agents also sell financial products. (See the statement on securities, commodities, and financial services sales representa tives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technology has greatly impacted the insurance agency, making it much more efficient and giving the agent the ability to take on more clients. Agents’ computers are now linked directly to the insurance companies via the Internet, making the tasks of obtain ing price quotes and processing applications and service requests, faster and easier. Computers also allow agents to be better in formed about new products that the insurance carriers may be of fering. The growth of the Internet in the insurance industry is gradually changing the relationship between the agent and client. In the past, agents devoted much of their time to marketing and selling prod ucts to new clients; however, this is changing. Increasingly, clients obtain insurance quotes from a company’s website, then contact the company directly to purchase policies. This gives the client a more active role in selecting a policy at the best price, while reduc ing the amount of time agents spend actively seeking new clients. Because insurance sales agents also obtain many new accounts through referrals, it is important that agents maintain regular con tact with their clients to ensure that their financial needs are being met. Developing a satisfied clientele who will recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field. 360 Occupational Outlook Handbook casualty, and medical and health insurance companies. Although most insurance agents specialize in life and health or property and casualty insurance, a growing number of “multiline” agents sell all lines of insurance. Approximately 1 out of 3 insurance sales agents are self-employed. Many agents also work for banking institutions, nondepository institutions, or security and commodity brokers. As more of these types of institutions begin to sell insurance policies, an increasing number of agents should be employed here, rather than in insur ance agencies. Insurance sales agents are employed throughout the country, but most work in or near large urban centers. Some are employed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but the majority work out of local offices or independent agencies. □ Qki "n . A- I J Insurance sales agents must have excellent communication skills in order to effectively explain complicated insurance policies to clients. Increasing competition in the insurance industry means that car riers and agents must find new ways to keep their clients satisfied. One solution is the increasing use of call centers, which usually are accessible to clients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Insurance car riers and sales agents are hiring customer service representatives to handle the routine tasks such as answering questions, making policy changes, processing claims, and selling more products to clients. This opportunity to cross-sell new products to clients will help agents’ business grow. The use of call centers also allows agents to concentrate their efforts on seeking out new clients and maintain ing relationships with old ones. (See separate Handbook statements on customer service representatives; and claims adjusters, apprais ers, examiners, and investigators.) Working Conditions Most insurance sales agents are based in small offices, from which they contact clients and provide insurance policy information. How ever, much of their time may be spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with clients, close sales, or investigate claims. Agents usually determine their own hours of work and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Although most agents work a 40-hour week, some work 60 hours a week or longer. Commercial sales agents, in particular, may meet with clients during business hours and then spend evenings doing paperwork and preparing presentations to prospective clients. Employment Insurance sales agents held about 378,000 jobs in 2000. The fol lowing tabulation shows the percent distribution of wage and sal ary jobs by industry: Insurance agents, brokers, and services.................................................... Life insurance carriers.................................................................................. Property and casualty insurance carriers.................................................. Medical service and health insurance carriers....................................... Pension funds and miscellaneousinsurance carriers.............................. Other industries............................................................................................. 34 16 8 3 2 37 Most insurance sales agents employed in wage and salary posi tions work for insurance agencies. A decreasing number work for insurance carriers. Most of these are employed by life Digitizeddirectly for FRASER insurance companies, and a smaller number work for property, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For insurance agency jobs, most companies and independent agen cies prefer to hire college graduates—particularly those who have majored in business or economics. A few hire high school gradu ates with proven sales ability or who have been successful in other types of work. In fact, many entrants to insurance sales agent jobs transfer from other occupations. In selling commercial insurance, technical experience in a field can be very beneficial in helping to sell policies to those in the same profession. As a result, new agents tend to be older than entrants in many other occupations. College training may help agents grasp the technical aspects of insurance policies and the fundamentals and procedures of selling insurance. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insur ance, and a few schools offer a bachelor’s degree in insurance. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, economics, business law, marketing, and business administration enable insur ance sales agents to understand how social and economic condi tions relate to the insurance industry. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, familiarity with computers and popular software packages has become very important, as computers pro vide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial prod ucts and greatly improve agents’ efficiency. Insurance sales agents must obtain a license in the States where they plan to sell insurance. Separate licenses are required for agents to sell life and health insurance and property and casualty insur ance. In most States, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified prelicensing courses and pass State exam inations covering insurance fundamentals and State insurance laws. A number of organizations offer professional designation pro grams, which certify expertise in specialties such as life, health, property, and casualty insurance, or financial consulting. Although these are voluntary, such programs assure clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant specialty. Many professional societies now require agents to commit to con tinuing education in order to retain their designation. Indeed, as the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents increases, employers are placing greater emphasis on con tinuing professional education. It is important for insurance agents to keep up to date with issues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefits programs, and other State and Federal regulations can affect the insurance needs of clients and the way in which agents conduct business. Agents can enhance their selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services by taking courses at colleges and universities and by attend ing institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. Most States have mandatory continuing education Sales and Related Occupations 361 requirements focusing on insurance laws, consumer protection, and the technical details of various insurance policies. As the role of financial planners increases, many insurance agents are choosing to gain the proper licensing and certification to sell securities and other financial products. This includes passing an additional examination. Before agents can qualify as securities rep resentatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Rep resentative Examination (Series 7 exam), administered by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). To further demonstrate competency in the area of financial planning, many agents also find it worthwhile to obtain a Certified Financial Plan ner (CFP) or Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation. Insurance sales agents should be flexible, enthusiastic, confi dent, disciplined, hardworking, willing to solve problems, and able to communicate effectively. They should be able to inspire cus tomer confidence. Because they usually work without supervision, sales agents must be able to plan their time well and have the initia tive to locate new clients. An insurance sales agent who shows ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. Flowever, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the property/casualty field, establish their own inde pendent agencies or brokerage firms. Job Outlook Although slower than average employment growth is expected among insurance agents through 2010, opportunities for agents will be favorable for persons with the right qualifications and skills. This includes flexible and ambitious people who enjoy competitive sales work, have excellent interpersonal skills, and have developed expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Multi lingual agents also should be in high demand because they can serve a wider range of customers. Insurance language tends to be very technical, so it is important for insurance sales agents to have a firm understanding of relevant technical and legal terms. Because many beginners find it difficult to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this commission-based occupation, some eventually leave for other jobs. Most job openings are likely to result from the need to replace agents who leave the occupation and the large number of agent retirements expected in coming years. Future demand for insurance sales agents depends largely on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. While sales of life insurance are down, rising incomes and a concern for financial security during retirement are lifting sales of annuities, mutual funds, and other financial products sold by insurance agents. Sales of health and long-term care insurance also are expected to rise sharply as the population ages and as the law provides more people access to health insurance. In addition, a growing popula tion will increase the demand for insurance for automobiles, homes, and high-priced valuables and equipment. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand coverage, sales of commercial insurance also should increase, including coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, employee benefits, and pollution liability insurance. Employment of agents will not keep up with the rising level of insurance sales, however. Many insurance companies are trying to contain costs. As a result, many are shedding their captive agents— those agents working directly for insurance carriers—and are rely ing more on independent agents or direct marketing through the mail, by phone, or on the Internet. Agents who incorporate new technology into their existing busi ness will remain competitive. More clients are turning to the Internet first as a source of information. Those agents who use the Internet https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to market their products will reach a broader client base, and ex pand their business. But because most clients value their relation ship with their agent, the Internet should not be a much of a threat to jobs. Many individuals prefer discussing their policies directly with their agents, rather than through a computer. Agents will face increased competition from traditional securi ties brokers and bankers as they begin to sell insurance policies. Because of increasing consolidation among insurance companies, banks, and brokerage firms and increasing demands from clients for more comprehensive financial planning, insurance sales agents will need to expand the products and services they offer. Agents who offer better customer service also will remain com petitive. Call centers are the primary way companies and agents are offering better service because customers are demanding greater access to their policies. Insurance and investments are becoming more complex, and many people and businesses lack the time and expertise to buy in surance without the advice of an agent. Insurance agents who are knowledgeable about their products and sell multiple lines of in surance and other financial products will remain in demand. Addi tionally, agents who take advantage of direct mail and Internet resources to advertise and promote their products can reduce the time it takes to develop sales leads, allowing them to concentrate on following up on potential clients. Most individuals and busi nesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic con ditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession. Earnings The median annual earnings of wage and salary insurance sales agents were $38,750 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $26,920 and $59,370. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of $20,070 or less, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,530. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of insurance sales agents in 2000 were: Fire, marine, and casualty insurance....................................... $46,320 Medical service and health insurance...................................... 38,900 Insurance agents, brokers, and service..................................... 38,470 Life insurance......................................................................... 35 920 Many independent agents are paid by commission only, whereas sales workers who are employees of an agency or an insurance car rier may be paid in one of three ways—salary only, salary plus com mission, or salary plus bonus. In general, commissions are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses usually are awarded when agents meet their sales goals or when an agency’s profit goals are met. Some agents in volved with financial planning receive a fee for their services, rather than a commission. Company-paid benefits to insurance sales agents usually include continuing education, paid licensing training, group insurance plans, and office space and clerical support services. Some may pay for automobile and transportation expenses, attendance at conventions and meetings, promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans. Independent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for marketing and other expenses. Related Occupations Other workers who sell financial products or services include real estate agents and brokers; securities, commodities, and financial ser vices sales representatives; financial analysts and personal financial 362 Occupational Outlook Handbook advisors; and financial managers. Other occupations in the insur ance industry include insurance underwriters; claims adjusters, ex aminers, and investigators; and insurance appraisers. Sources of Additional Information Occupational information about insurance sales agents is available from the home office of many life and casualty insurance compa nies. Information on State licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any State capital. For information about insurance sales careers and training, contact: ► Independent Insurance Agents of America, 127 S. Peyton St., Alexan dria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.iiaa.org > Insurance Vocational Education Student Training (InVEST), 127 S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.investprogram.org ► National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Wash ington St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.pianet.com For information about health insurance sales careers, contact: >- National Association of Health Underwriters, 2000 N. 14th St., Suite 450, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nahu.org >- Health Insurance Association of America, 555 13th St. NW., Suite 600 East, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.hiaa.org For information on the property and casualty field, contact: >- Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org For information regarding training for life insurance sales ca reers, contact: >- LIMRA International, P.O.Box 203, Hartford, CT 06141. Internet: http://www.limra.com For information about professional designation programs, con tact: >- The American College, 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010 2195. Internet: http://www.amercoll.edu > The National Alliance for Insurance Education and Research, P.O. Box 27027, Austin, TX 78755. Internet: http://www.scic.com Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents (0**NET 41-9021.00, 41-9022.00) Significant Points • • • Real estate brokers and sales agents often work evenings and weekends, and are always on call to suit the needs of clients. A license is required in every State and the District of Columbia. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field; well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for success. Nature of the Work One of the most complex and important financial events in peoples’ lives is the purchase or sale of a home or investment property. As a result, people usually seek the help of real estate brokers and sales agents when buying or selling real estate. Real estate brokers and sales agents have a thorough knowledge of the real estate market in their community. They know which neighborhoods will best fit clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws and know where to obtain financing. Agents and brokers also act as an intermediary in price negotiations between buyers and sellers. Real estate agents usually are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed real estate broker on a contract https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis basis. In return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commis sion earned from the agent’s sale of the property. Brokers are inde pendent business people who sell real estate owned by others; they also may rent and manage properties for a fee. When selling real estate, brokers arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers where details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A broker may help to arrange favorable financing from a lender for the prospective buyer that of ten makes the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, brokers and agents assume primary responsibil ity for closing sales; in others, lawyers or lenders do this. Brokers supervise agents who may have many of the same job duties. Bro kers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as selling insurance or practicing law, with their real estate business. There is more to an agent or broker’s job than making sales. They must have properties to sell. Consequently, they spend a sig nificant amount of time obtaining listings—owner agreements to place properties for sale with the firm. When listing a property for sale, agents and brokers compare the listed property with similar properties that have recently sold to determine its competitive mar ket price. Once the property is sold, the agent who sold the prop erty and the agent who obtained the listing both receive a portion of the commission. Thus, agents who sell a property they also listed can increase their commission. Most real estate brokers and sales agents sell residential prop erty. A small number, usually employed in large or specialized firms, sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real es tate. Every specialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about the region’s transportation, utilities, and labor supply. What ever the type of property, the agent or broker must know how to meet the client’s particular requirements. Before showing residential properties to potential buyers, agents meet with buyers to get a feeling for the type of home the buyers would like. In this prequalifying phase, the agent determines how much buyers can afford to spend. In addition, they usually sign a loyalty contract which states the agent will be the only one to show them houses. An agent or broker uses a computer to generate lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and available sources of financing. In some cases, agents and brokers use com puters to give buyers a virtual tour of properties in which they are interested. Buyers can view interior and exterior images or floor plans without leaving the real estate office. Agents may meet several times with prospective buyers to dis cuss and visit available properties. Agents identify and emphasize the most pertinent selling points. To a young family looking for a house, they may emphasize the convenient floor plan, the area’s low crime rate, and the proximity to schools and shopping centers. To a potential investor, they may point out the tax advantages of owning a rental property and the ease of finding a renter. If bar gaining over price becomes necessary, agents must carefully follow their client’s instructions and may have to present counter-offers in order to get the best possible price. Once both parties have signed the contract, the real estate broker or agent must see to it that all special terms of the contract are met before the closing date. For example, the agent must make sure the mandated and agreed-to inspections, including the home, termite, and radon inspections, take place. Also, if the seller agrees to any repairs, the broker or agent must see they are made. Increasingly, brokers and agents handle environmental problems by making sure the properties they sell meet environmental regulations. For example, Sales and Related Occupations 363 ;■ ra i Prospective home buyers can view many properties for sale from the offices of real estate brokers and sales agents. they may be responsible for dealing with lead paint on the walls. While loan officers, attorneys, or other persons handle many de tails, the agent must ensure that they are completed. Working Conditions Advances in telecommunications and the ability to retrieve data on properties over the Internet allows many real estate brokers and sales agents to work out of their homes, instead of real estate offices. Even with this convenience, much of their time is spent away from their desk—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, or researching the state of the market. Agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week; nearly 1 out of every 4 full-time workers worked 50 hours or more a week in 2000. They often work evenings and weekends, and are always on call to suit the needs of clients. Business usually is slower during the winter season. Although the hours are long and often irregular, most agents and brokers also have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Consequently, they can arrange their work so they can have time off when they want it. Employment In 2000, real estate brokers held about 93,000 jobs; real estate sales agents held 339,000 jobs. Many worked part-time, combining their real estate activities with other careers. More than two-thirds of real estate agents and brokers were self-employed. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller, but rapidly growing communities. Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some are a one-person business. Some large real estate firms have several hun dred agents operating out of many branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help training sales staff and running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of their firm. Real estate brokers and sales agents are older, on average, than most other workers. Historically, many homemakers and retired persons were attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part work schedules characteristic of this field. They could enter, Digitizedtime for FRASER leave, and later re-enter the occupation, depending on the strength https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of the real estate market, family responsibilities, or other personal circumstances. Recently, however, the attractiveness of part-time work has declined as increasingly complex legal and technological requirements raise start-up costs associated with becoming an agent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In every State and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospective agents must be a high school graduate, at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents— includes questions on basic real estate transactions and laws affect ing the sale of property. Most States require candidates for the general sales license to complete between 30 and 90 hours of class room instruction. Those seeking a broker’s license need between 60 and 90 hours of formal training and a specific amount of experi ence selling real estate, usually 1 to 3 years. Some States waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. State licenses typically must be renewed every 1 or 2 years, usu ally without examination. However, many States require continu ing education for license renewal. Prospective agents and brokers should contact the real estate licensing commission of the State in which they wish to work to verify exact licensing requirements. As real estate transactions have become more legally complex, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents and brokers have some college training. College courses in real estate, finance, business administration, sta tistics, economics, law, and English are helpful. For those who intend to start their own company, business courses such as marketing and accounting are as important as those in real estate or finance. Personality traits are equally as important as academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess a pleasant personality, hon esty, and a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, trustworthiness, and en thusiasm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this highly competitive field. Agents should be well organized, detail oriented, and have a good memory for names, faces, and business details. Those interested in jobs as real estate agents often begin in their own communities. Their knowledge of local neighborhoods is a clear advantage. Under the direction of an experienced agent, be ginners learn the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties and identify sources of financing. Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms usually offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. More than 1,000 universities, col leges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real es tate associations that are members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in mortgage financing, prop erty development and management, and other subjects also are avail able through various affiliates of the National Association of Realtors. Advancement opportunities for agents may take the form of higher commission rates. As agents gain knowledge and expertise, they become more efficient in closing a greater number of transac tions and increase their earnings. Experienced agents can advance in many large firms to sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may be come real estate appraisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property managers. (See the statement on property, real estate, and community association 364 Occupational Outlook Handbook managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Experienced agents and brokers with a thorough knowledge of business conditions and prop erty values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling. Job Outlook Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. However, a large number of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Not everyone is successful in this highly competitive field; many beginners become discouraged by their inability to get listings and to close a sufficient number of sales. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for success. Increasing use of electronic information technology will con tinue to increase the productivity of agents and brokers, thus limit ing job growth. Real estate companies use computer-generated images to show houses to customers without leaving the office. Internet sites contain information on vast numbers of homes for sale with maps and directions to find them, available to anyone. In addition, wireless products such as cellular phones and pagers that can send and receive large amounts of data allow agents and bro kers to become more efficient and to serve a greater number of cus tomers. Use of this technology may eliminate some marginal agents such as those practicing real estate part-time or between jobs. These workers will not be able to compete as easily with full-time agents who have invested in this technology. Changing legal requirements, like disclosure laws, may dissuade some who are not serious about practicing full time from continuing to work part time. Another factor expected to adversely impact the need for agents and brokers is the ability of prospective customers to conduct their own searches for properties that meet their criteria by accessing real estate information on the Internet. While they are not able to conduct the entire real estate transaction online, it does allow the prospective buyer the convenience of making a more informed choice of properties to visit, as well as the ability to find out about financing, inspections, and appraisals. Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from increased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the age distri bution of the population over the next decade will result in a growing number of retirements and persons moving to smaller accommoda tions, often in quieter, smaller cities and towns or retirement commu nities. At the same time, younger families are expected to move out of apartments or smaller houses to larger accommodations. Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is very sen sitive to swings in the economy. During periods of declining eco nomic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers falls. During these periods, the earnings of agents and brokers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation altogether. Earnings The median annual earnings of salaried real estate agents, includ ing commission, were $27,640 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,530 and $45,740 a year. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $14,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,540. Median annual earnings in the industries em ploying the largest number of salaried real estate agents in 2000 were as follows: Residential building constmction...................................................... Subdividers and developers................................................................. Real estate agents and managers....................................................... Digitized forestate FRASER Real operators and lessors........................................................ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $44,940 32,030 27,770 20,770 Median annual earnings of salaried real estate brokers, includ ing commission, were $47,690 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,630 and $80,250 a year. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $18,080, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $143,560 a year. Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers. The rate of commission varies according to agent and broker agreement, the type of property, and its value. The percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than the percentage paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and bro kers. The broker and the agent in the firm who obtained the listing usually share their commission when the property is sold; the bro ker and the agent in the firm who made the sale also usually share their part of the commission. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. Agents who both list and sell a property maxi mize their commission. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but indi vidual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and local real estate associations can broaden their contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account against future earnings, this practice is not usual with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on for about 6 months or until commissions increase. Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these charac ter traits important in their work include insurance sales agents; retail salespersons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufac turing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information Information on license requirements for real estate brokers and sales agents is available from most local real estate organizations or from the State real estate commission or board. For more information about opportunities in real estate, contact: >■ National Association of Realtors, 700 11th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. Internet: http://www.nar.realtor.com Retail Salespersons (0**NET 41-2031.00) Significant Points • • • Good employment opportunities are expected due to the need to replace the large number of workers who leave the occupation each year. Many salespersons work evenings, weekends, and long hours from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January, during sales, and in other peak retail periods. Opportunities for part-time work are plentiful, attracting people looking to supplement their income; however, most of those selling high-priced items work full time and have substantial experience. Sales and Related Occupations 365 Nature of the Work Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, retail salespersons assist customers in finding what they are looking for and try to interest them in buying the merchandise. They describe a product’s features, demonstrate its use, or show various models and colors. For some sales jobs, particularly those involving expensive and complex items, retail salespersons need special knowledge or skills. For example, salespersons who sell automobiles must be able to explain to customers the features of various models, war ranty information, the meaning of manufacturers’ specifications, and the types of options and financing available. Consumers spend millions of dollars every day on merchandise and often form their impressions of a store by evaluating its sales force. Therefore, retailers stress the importance of providing cour teous and efficient service in order to remain competitive. When a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, for example, the salesperson may check the stockroom, place a special order, or call another store to locate the item. In addition to selling, most retail salespersons, especially those who work in department and apparel stores, make out sales checks; receive cash, check, and charge payments; bag or package purchases; and give out change and receipts. Depending on the hours they work, retail salespersons may have to open or close cash registers. This may include counting the money; separating charge slips, cou pons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash of fice. Salespersons often are held responsible for the contents of their registers, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in many organizations. (Cashiers, who have similar job duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Salespersons also may handle returns and exchanges of merchandise, wrap gifts, and keep their work areas neat. In addi tion, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays. Frequently, salespersons must be aware of special sales and pro motions. They must also recognize possible security risks and thefts and know how to handle or prevent such situations. Digitized FRASER A for retail salesperson checks the availability’ of a product. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most salespersons in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, welllighted stores. Flowever, they often stand for long periods and may need supervisory approval to leave the sales floor. The Monday-through-Friday, 9-to-5 workweek is the exception rather than the rule in retail trade. Most salespersons work eve nings and weekends, particularly during sales and other peak retail periods. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. This job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with people. Patience and courtesy are required, especially when the work is repetitious and the customers are demanding. Employment Retail salespersons held about 4.1 millionjobsin2000. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing a few work ers, to giant department stores with hundreds of salespersons. In addition, some were self-employed representatives of direct sales companies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail salespersons are department stores, clothing and accessories stores, furniture and home furnishing stores, and motor vehicle dealers. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others looking to supplement their income. However, most of those selling “bigticket” items, such as cars, jewelry, furniture, and electronic equip ment, work full time and have substantial experience. Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employ ment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no formal education requirements for this type of work, although a high school diploma or equivalent is preferred. Employers look for people who enjoy working with others and have the tact and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appear ance, and the ability to communicate clearly and effectively. The ability to speak more than one language may be helpful for employ ment in communities where people from various cultures tend to live and shop. Before hiring a salesperson, some employers may conduct a background check, especially for a job selling high-priced items. In most small stores, an experienced employee, or the propri etor, instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating cash registers. In large stores, training programs are more formal and usually conducted over several days. Topics usu ally discussed are customer service, security, the store’s policies and procedures, and how to work a cash register. Depending on the type of product they are selling, they may be given additional spe cialized training by manufacturers’ representatives. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of prod ucts available and for whom the cosmetics would be most benefi cial. Likewise, salespersons employed by motor vehicle dealers may be required to participate in training programs designed to pro vide information on the technical details of standard and optional equipment available on new models. Because providing the best service to customers is a high priority for many employers, employ ees often are given periodic training to update and refine their skills. As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usually move to positions of greater responsibility and may be given their choice of departments. This often means moving to areas with potentially higher earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential usually is found in selling big-ticket items. This type of position 366 Occupational Outlook Handbook often requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion. Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some establishments, advancement is limited, because one person, often the owner, does most of the managerial work. In others, however, some salespersons are promoted to assistant managers. Traditionally, capable salespersons without college degrees could advance to management positions. Today, however, large retail businesses usually prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increasingly important. De spite this trend, motivated and capable employees without college degrees still may advance to administrative or supervisory positions in large establishments. Retail selling experience may be an asset when applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as finan cial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing. Job Outlook As in the past, employment opportunities for retail salespersons are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large num ber of workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force each year. In addition, many new jobs will be created for retail salespersons. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, reflecting rising retail sales stemming from a growing population. Opportu nities for part-time work should be abundant, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak selling periods, such as the end-of-year holiday season. During economic downturns, sales volumes and the resulting demand for sales workers usually decline. Purchases of costly items, such as cars, appliances, and furniture, tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of many types of goods decline. However, because turnover of sales workers usually is very high, employers often can adjust employ ment levels by simply not replacing all those who leave. Earnings The starting wage for many retail sales positions is the Federal mini mum wage, which was $5.15 an hour in 2001. In areas where em ployers have difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages tend to be higher than the legislated minimum. Median hourly earnings of retail salespersons, including com mission, were $8.02 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $6.63 and $ 10.54 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.86, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.86 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of retail salespersons in 2000 were as follows: New and used car dealers.................................................................... Lumber and other building materials................................................ Department stores.................................................................................. Miscellaneous shopping goods stores.............................................. Family clothing stores.......................................................................... $17.81 10.38 7.63 7.50 7.39 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer chandise sold. Salespersons receive hourly wages, commissions, or a combination of wages and commissions. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales that they make. This system offers sales workers the opportunity to significantly increase their earnings, but they may find that their earnings strongly depend on their ability to sell their product and on the ups and downs of the economy. Employers may use incentive programs such as awards, banquets, bonuses, and profit-sharing plans to promote team Digitizedwork for FRASER among the sales staff. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but benefits in large establishments usually are comparable to those offered by other employers. In addition, nearly all salespersons are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, with the savings depending upon the type of merchandise. Related Occupations Salespersons use sales techniques, coupled with their knowledge of merchandise, to assist customers and encourage purchases. Workers in a number of other occupations use these same skills, including sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; se curities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; counter and rental clerks; real estate brokers and sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; insurance sales agents; sales engineers; and cashiers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the per sonnel offices of local stores or from State merchants’ associations. General information about retailing is available from: > National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nrf.com Information about retail sales employment opportunities is avail able from: ► Retail, Wholesale, and Department Store Union, 30 East 29th St., 4th Floor, New York, NY 10016. Information about training for a career in automobile sales is available from: >- National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Depart ment, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http ://www.nada.org Sales Engineers (0**NET 41-9031.00) Significant Points • • • A bachelor’s degree in engineering is required; many sales engineers have previous work experience in an engineering specialty. Projected employment growth stems from the increasing variety and number of goods to be sold. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year. Nature of the Work Many products and services, especially those purchased by large companies and institutions, are highly complex. Sales engineers, using their engineering skills, help customers determine which prod ucts or services provided by the sales engineer’s employer best suit their needs. Sales engineers—who also may be called manufactur ers’ agents, sales representatives, or technical sales support work ers—often work with both the customer and the production, engineering, or research and development departments of their com pany or of independent firms to determine how products and ser vices could be designed or modified to best suit the customer’s needs. They also may advise the customer on how to best utilize the prod ucts or services being provided. Selling, of course, is an important part of the job. Sales engi neers use their technical skills to demonstrate to potential custom ers how and why the products or services they are selling would Sales and Related Occupations 367 suit the customer better than competitors’ products. Often, there may not be a directly competitive product. In these cases, the job of the sales engineer is to demonstrate to the customer the usefulness of the product or service—for example, how much new production machinery would save the customer. Most sales engineers have a bachelor’s degree in engineering and some have previous work experience in an engineering spe cialty before becoming a sales engineer. Engineers apply the theo ries and principles of science and mathematics to technical problems. Their work is the link between scientific discoveries and commer cial applications. Many sales engineers specialize in an area re lated to an engineering specialty. For example, sales engineers selling chemical products may have a background as a chemical engineer while those selling electrical products may have a degree in electrical engineering. (See the statements on engineers and 14 engineering specialties elsewhere in the Handbook) Many of the job duties of sales engineers are similar to those of other salespersons. They must interest the client in purchasing their products, many of which are durable manufactured products such as turbines. Sales engineers are often teamed with other salesper sons who concentrate on the marketing and sales, enabling the sales engineer to concentrate on the technical aspects ofthe job. By work ing as a sales team, each member is able to utilize his or her strengths and knowledge. (Information on other sales occupations, including sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, appears else where in the Handbook) ii§j§ii§ ■Hi A degree in engineering is required to become a sales engineer. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales engineers tend to employ selling techniques that are dif ferent from those used by most other sales workers. They may use a “consultative” style; that is, they focus on the client’s problem and show how it could be solved or mitigated with their product or service. This selling style differs from the “benefits and features” method, whereby the product is described and the customer is left to decide how the product would be useful. In addition to maintaining current clients and attracting new ones, sales engineers help clients work out any problems that arise when the product is installed, and may continue to serve as a liaison be tween the client and their company. In addition, due to their famil iarity with the client’s needs, sales engineers may help identify and develop potential new products. Sales engineers may work directly for manufacturers or serviceproviders, or in small independent firms. In an independent firm, they may sell a complimentary line of products from several differ ent suppliers, in which case they are paid on a commission basis. Working Conditions Many sales engineers work more than 40 hours per week to meet sales goals and their clients’ needs. Selling can be stressful be cause sales engineers’ income and job security often directly de pend on their success in sales and customer service. Some sales engineers have large territories and travel extensively. Because sales regions may cover several States, they may be away from home for several days or even weeks at a time. Others work near their “home base” and travel mostly by automobile. However, international travel is becoming more important to secure contracts with foreign customers. Although the hours may be long and are often irregular, many sales engineers have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Consequently, they often can arrange their appointments so they can have time off when they want it. However, most independent sales workers do not earn any income while on vacation. Employment Sales engineers held about 85,000 jobs in 2000. Almost two-thirds were in durable goods manufacturing industries—for example, in dustrial machinery and equipment, measuring and controlling de vices, or electronic and other electrical equipment—and wholesale trade, including machinery, equipment, and supplies. Services and nondurable goods manufacturing industries employed most of the remaining sales engineers. Unlike many other sales occupations, very few sales engineers are self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is required to become a sales engineer. However, some workers with previous experience in sales combined with technical experience or training sometimes hold the title of sales engineer. Also, workers who have a degree in a sci ence, such as chemistry, or even a degree in business with little or no previous sales experience, may be termed sales engineers. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include a solid background in mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigo nometry, and calculus), physical sciences (biology, chemistry, and physics), and courses in English, social studies, humanities, and computer science. University programs vary in content. For ex ample, some programs emphasize industrial practices, preparing stu dents for a job in industry, whereas others are more theoretical and prepare students for graduate school. Therefore, students should investigate curricula and check accreditations carefully before selecting a college. Once a college has been selected, a student must choose an area of engineering in which to specialize. Some 368 Occupational Outlook Handbook programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then spe cialize in graduate school or on the job. Most engineering degrees are granted in electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering. How ever, engineers trained in one branch may work in related branches. Many sales engineers first worked as engineers. For some, the engineering experience was necessary to obtain the technical back ground needed to effectively sell their employers’ products or ser vices. Others moved into the occupation because it offered better earnings and advancement potential or because they were looking for a new challenge. New graduates with engineering degrees may need sales experi ence and training to obtain employment directly as a sales engineer. This may involve teaming with a sales mentor who is familiar with the business practices, customers, and company procedures and culture. After the training period has been completed, the sales engineer may continue to partner with someone who lacks techni cal skills, yet excels in the art of sales. Promotion may include a higher commission rate, larger sales territory, or promotion to supervisor or marketing manager. In other cases, sales engineers may leave their companies and form a small independent firm that may offer higher commissions and more free dom. Independent firms tend to be small, although relatively few sales engineers are self-employed. It is important for sales engineers to continue their education throughout their careers because much of their value to their em ployer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. Sales engineers in high-technology areas, such as information technol ogy or advanced electronics, may find that technical knowledge can become obsolete rapidly. a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of sales engineers in 2000 were as follows: Electrical goods...................................................................................... Computer and data processing services............................................ Professional and commercial equipment.......................................... $67,100 60,810 49,860 In addition to their earnings, sales engineers who work for manu facturers are usually reimbursed for expenses such as transporta tion, meals, hotels, and customer entertainment. In addition to typical benefits, sales engineers often get personal use of a company car and frequent-flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding performance. Sales engineers who work in independent firms may have higher but less stable earnings and, often, relatively few benefits. Related Occupations Sales engineers must have sales ability and knowledge of the prod ucts they sell, as well as technical and analytical skills. Other occu pations that require similar skills include advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; engineers; insur ance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and securities, commodities, and fi nancial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information For more information about becoming a sales engineer, contact: >■ Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, P.O. Box 3467, Laguna http://www.manaonline.org Career and certification information is available from: Hills, CA 92654-3467. Internet: ► Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, P.O. Job Outlook Employment of sales engineer is expected to grow about as fast as tbe average for all occupations through the year 2010. Projected employment growth stems from the increasing variety and number of goods to be sold. Competitive pressures and advancing tech nology will force companies to improve and update product designs more frequently and to optimize their manufacturing and sales Box processes. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, as well as the personal traits necessary for successful sales work. While most job openings will be new positions created as com panies expand their sales force, some openings will arise each year from the need to replace sales workers who transfer to other occu pations or leave the labor force; compared to other occupations, however, the number of these openings should be relatively small. (0**NET 41 -4011.01, 41 -4011.02, 41 -4011.03, 41 -4011.04, 41 -4011.05, 41-4011.06, 41-4012.00) Earnings Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and product sold. Most employers use a combination of salary and com mission or salary plus bonus. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Earnings from com missions and bonuses may vary greatly from year to year, depend ing on sales ability, the demand for the company’s products or services, and the overall economy. Median annual earnings of sales engineers, including commis sion, were $56,520 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,240 and $76,230 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less Digitizedthan for FRASER $33,930 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $95,560 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 247, Geneva, IL 60134. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing Significant Points • • • Many are self-employed manufacturers’ agents who work for a commission. A bachelor’s degree increasingly is required; nevertheless, some individuals with previous sales experience enter the occupation without a college degree. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, as well as the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Nature of the Work Sales representatives are an important part of manufacturers’ and wholesalers’ success. Regardless of the type of product they sell, their primary duties are to interest wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchandise, and to address any of the client’s questions or concerns. Sales representatives represent one or several manufacturers or wholesale distributors by selling one product or a complimentary line of products. Sales representa tives also advise clients on methods to reduce costs, use their prod ucts, and increase sales. They market their company’s products to Sales and Related Occupations 369 manufacturers, wholesale and retail establishments, construction contractors, government agencies, and other institutions. (Retail salespersons, who sell directly to consumers, and sales engineers, who specialize in sales of technical products and services, are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on where they work, sales representatives have dif ferent job titles. Those employed directly by a manufacturer or whole saler often are called sales representatives. Manufacturers ’ agents or manufacturers ’ representatives are self-employed sales workers who contract their services to all types of manufacturing companies. However, many of these titles are used interchangeably. Sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers and current clients. During a sales call, they discuss the client’s needs and suggest how their merchan dise or services can meet those needs. They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their company stocks and inform cus tomers about prices, availability, and ways in which their products can save money and improve productivity. Because a vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers sell similar products, sales repre sentatives must emphasize any unique qualities of their products and services. As independent agents, they might sell several com plimentary products made by different manufacturers and, thus, take a broad approach to their customers’ business. Sales representa tives may help install new equipment and train employees. They also take orders and resolve any problems with or complaints about the merchandise. Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job. Sales representatives follow leads from other clients, track advertisements in trade journals, participate in trade shows and conferences, and may visit potential clients unannounced. In addition, they may spend time meeting with and entertaining prospective clients during eve nings and weekends. In a process that may take several months, sales representatives present their product and negotiate the sale. Aided by a laptop com puter connected to the Internet, they often can answer technical and nontechnical questions immediately. Frequently, sales representatives who lack technical expertise work as a team with a technical expert. In this arrangement, the technical expert—sometimes a sales engineer—will attend the sales presentation to explain the product and answer questions or con cerns. The sales representative makes the preliminary contact with customers, introduces the company’s product, and closes the sale. The representative is then able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. "' ■ — * ixSi.t*. Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, advise potential buyers on the use of their products. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis After the sale, representatives may make follow-up visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs, store displays, and advertising. Sales representatives have several duties beyond selling prod ucts. They also analyze sales statistics; prepare reports; and handle administrative duties, such as filing their expense account reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They study lit erature about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors. Manufacturers’ agents who operate a sales agency must also manage their business. This requires organizational skills as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration. Working Conditions Some sales representatives have large territories and travel consid erably. A sales region may cover several States, so they may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their “home base” and travel mostly by automobile. Due to the nature of the work and the amount of travel, sales representatives typically work more than 40 hours per week. Although the hours are long and often irregular, most sales rep resentatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Consequently, they can arrange their appointments so they can have time off when they want it. Sales representatives are often on their feet for long periods and may carry heavy sample products, which necessitates some physical stamina. Dealing with different types of people can be stimulating but demanding. Sales representatives often face competition from rep resentatives of other companies. Companies usually set goals or quotas that representatives are expected to meet. Because their earn ings depend on commissions, manufacturers’ agents are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their clientele. Employment Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about 1.8 million jobs in 2000. Three of every 5 salaried representatives worked in wholesale trade—mostly for distributors of machinery and equipment, groceries and related products, and motor vehicles and parts. Others were employed in manufacturing and mining. Due to the diversity of products and services sold, employment opportunities are available in every part of the country in a wide range of industries. In addition to those working directly for a firm, many sales rep resentatives are self-employed manufacturers’ agents. They often form small sales firms and work for a straight commission based on the value of their own sales. However, manufacturers’ agents usu ally gain experience and recognition with a manufacturer or whole saler before becoming self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. Most firms require a strong educational background and increasingly prefer or require a bachelor’s degree as the job re quirements have become more technical and analytical. Neverthe less, many employers still hire individuals with previous sales experience who do not have a college degree. For some consumer products, factors such as sales ability, personality, and familiarity with brands are as important as a degree. On the other hand, firms selling complex, technical products may require a technical degree in addition to some sales experience. Many sales representatives attend seminars in sales techniques or take courses in marketing, 370 Occupational Outlook Handbook economics, communication, or even a foreign language to provide the extra edge needed to make sales. In general, companies are looking for the best and brightest individuals who have the person ality and desire to sell. Many companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives lasting up to 2 years. However, most busi nesses are accelerating these programs to reduce costs and expedite the returns from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installa tion, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the supervision of a field sales manager. Some sales repre sentatives complete certification courses to become Certified Pro fessional Manufacturers’ Representatives (CPMRs). New workers may get training by accompanying experienced workers on their sales calls. As they gain familiarity with the firm’s products and clients, these workers are given increasing responsi bility until they are eventually assigned their own territory. As busi nesses experience greater competition, increased pressure is placed upon sales representatives to produce sales. Sales representatives stay abreast of new products and the chang ing needs of their customers in a variety of ways. They attend trade shows where new products and technologies are showcased. They also attend conferences and conventions to meet other sales repre sentatives and clients and discuss new product developments. In addition, the entire sales force may participate in company-spon sored meetings to review sales performance, product development, sales goals, and profitability. Those who want to become sales representatives should be goaloriented and persuasive, and work well both independently and as part of a team. A pleasant personality and appearance, the ability to communicate well with people, and problem-solving skills are highly valued. Furthermore, completing a sale can take several months and thus requires patience and perseverance. Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Experienced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales train ers, who instmct new employees on selling techniques and com pany policies and procedures. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor or district manager. In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, some manufacturers’ agents go into business for themselves. Others find opportunities in purchasing, advertising, or marketing research. Job Outlook Employment of sales representatives, wholesale and manufactur ing, is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occu pations through the year 2010. Continued growth due to the increasing variety and number of goods to be sold will be tempered by the increased effectiveness and efficiency of sales workers. Many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Prospective customers will still require sales workers to demon strate or illustrate the particulars about the good or service. How ever, computer technology makes them more effective and productive, for example, by allowing them to provide accurate and current information to customers during sales presentations. In addition, electronic commerce provides sales representatives an other way to advertise and sell, thus requiring fewer sales represen tatives to do the same amount of work. Manufacturers are expected to continue outsourcing sales duties to independent agents rather than using in-house or direct selling personnel. To their advantage, these agents are more likely to work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in a sales area or territory longer than representatives, creating a better working relationship and understanding of how customers operate their businesses. Agents are paid only if they sell, which reduces the overhead cost to their clients. Also, by using an agent who usually lends his or her services to more than one company, companies can share costs with the other companies involved with that agent. Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that direct selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best for prod ucts with strong demand. Furthermore, jobs will be most plentiful in small wholesale and manufacturing firms because a growing num ber of these companies will rely on agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base. Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise as well as the personal traits necessary for successful selling. Earnings Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and product sold. Most employers use a combination of salary and com mission or salary plus bonus. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance. Median annual earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products, were $52,620, including commission, in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $37,420 and $74,470 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $102,000 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employ ing the largest number of sales representatives, technical and scien tific products, in 2000 were as follows: Computer and data processing services.................................... $62,310 Professional and commercial equipment.................................. 56,840 Drugs, proprietaries, and sundries............................................ 56,660 Machinery, equipment, and supplies........................................ 52,820 Electrical goods...................................................................... 51,650 Median annual earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products, were $40,340, including commission, in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,850 and $57,280 a year. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $21,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,830 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of sales representatives, except tech nical and scientific products, in 2000 were as follows: Machinery, equipment, and supplies........................................ $43,190 Professional and commercial equipment.................................. 41,880 Electrical goods...................................................................... 41,390 Groceries and related products................................................. 37,220 Miscellaneous nondurable goods ............................................. 33,630 In addition to their earnings, sales representatives are usually reimbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plan, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and frequent flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers. Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, manufacturers’ agents are paid strictly on commission and are usually Sales and Related Occupations 371 not reimbursed for expenses. Depending on the type of product or products they are selling, their experience in the field, and the num ber of clients, their earnings can be significantly higher or lower than those working in direct sales. Related Occupations Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occu pations that require similar skills include advertising, marketing, promotions, and public relations, and sales managers; insurance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; retail salespersons; sales engi neers; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Sources of Additional Information Career information on manufacturers’ agents is available from: > Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, P.O. Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654-3467. Internet: http://www.manaonline.org P5K* ■"•"iSSE> Sales worker supervisors ensure that the store junctions smoothly. Career and certification information is available from: >* * Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, P.O. Box 247, Geneva, IL 60134. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org Sales Worker Supervisors (0*NET 41-1011.00, 41-1012.00) Significant Points • Applicants with experience as a retail salesperson, cashier, or customer service representative should have the best job opportunities. • The number of self-employed sales worker supervisors in retail trade is expected to decline as independent retailers face increasing competition from national chains. Work schedules may be irregular and often include evenings and weekends. A postsecondary degree is increasingly needed for advancement into management. • • Nature of the Work Sales worker supervisors oversee the work of sales and related work ers such as retail salespersons, cashiers, customer service represen tatives, stock clerks and order fillers, sales engineers, and wholesale and manufacturing sales representatives. They are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employees, as well as preparing work schedules and assigning workers to specific duties. Many of these workers hold job titles such as sales manager or department manager. Under the occupational classification system used in the Handbook, however, workers with the title manager, who mainly supervise nonsupervisory workers, are called supervisors rather than managers even though many of these workers often perform many managerial functions. (Sales worker supervisors oversee retail sales persons, cashiers, customer service representatives, stock clerks and order fillers, sales engineers, and sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; these workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In retail establishments, sales worker supervisors ensure that customers receive satisfactory service and quality goods. They also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis answer customers’ inquiries and deal with complaints, and may handle purchasing, budgeting, and accounting. Their responsibili ties vary, depending on the size and type of establishment. As the size of retail stores and the types of goods and services increase, these workers tend to specialize in one department or one aspect of merchandising. (Managers in eating and drinking places are dis cussed in the Handbook statement on food service managers.) Sales worker supervisors in large retail establishments, often referred to as department managers, provide day-to-day oversight of individual departments, such as shoes, cosmetics, or housewares in large department stores; produce and meat in grocery stores; and sales in automotive dealerships. These workers establish and imple ment policies, goals, objectives, and procedures for their specific departments; coordinate activities with other department heads; and strive for smooth operations within their departments. They super vise employees who price and ticket goods and place them on dis play; clean and organize shelves, displays, and inventory in stockrooms; and inspect merchandise to ensure that nothing is out dated. Sales worker supervisors also review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, coordinate sales pro motions, and may greet and assist customers and promote sales and good public relations. Sale workers supervisors in nonretail establishments supervise and coordinate the activities of sales workers who sell industrial products, automobiles, or services such as advertising or Internet services. They may prepare budgets, make personnel decisions, devise sales-incentive programs, assign sales territories, or approve sales contracts. In small or independent companies and retail stores, sales worker supervisors not only directly supervise sales associates, but are also responsible for the operation of the entire company or store. Some are also self-employed business or store owners. Working Conditions Most sales worker supervisors have offices. In retail trade, their offices are within the stores, usually close to the area they oversee. Although some time is spent in the office completing merchandise orders or arranging work schedules, a large portion of their work day is spent on the sales floor, supervising employees or selling. Work hours of supervisors vary greatly among establishments, because work schedules usually depend on customers’ needs. Most supervisors work 40 hours or more a week; long hours are common. This is particularly true during sales, holidays, busy shopping hours, 372 Occupational Outlook Handbook and times during which inventory is taken. They are expected to work evenings and weekends, but usually are compensated with a day off during the week. Hours can change weekly, and managers sometimes must report to work on short notice, especially when employees are absent. Independent owners can often set their own schedules, but hours must be convenient to customers. Employment Sales worker supervisors held about 2.5 million jobs in 2000. About one-third were self-employed; most of these were store owners. Most are found in grocery and department stores, motor vehicle dealerships, and clothing and accessory stores, and in services such as advertising or other business services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales worker supervisors usually acquire knowledge of manage ment principles and practices—an essential requirement for a su pervisory or managerial position in retail trade—through work experience. Many supervisors begin their careers on the sales floor as salespersons, cashiers, or customer service representatives. In these positions, they learn merchandising, customer service, and the basic policies and procedures of the company. The educational background of sales worker supervisors varies widely. Regardless of the education received, recommended courses include accounting, marketing, management, and sales, as well as psychology, sociology, and communication. Supervisors must be computer literate because almost all cash registers, inventory con trol systems, and sales quotes and contracts are computerized. Most supervisors who have postsecondary education hold asso ciate or bachelor’s degrees in liberal arts, social sciences, business, or management. To gain experience, many college students partici pate in internship programs that usually are developed jointly by individual schools and firms. Once supervisors are on the job, the type and amount of training available to them varies from company to company. Many national retail chains and companies have formal training programs for man agement trainees that include both classroom and onsite training. Training time may be as brief as 1 week but may also last up to 1 year or more, because many organizations require that trainees gain experience during all sales seasons. Ordinarily, classroom training includes such topics as interview ing and customer service skills, employee and inventory manage ment, and scheduling. Management trainees may work in one specific department while training on the job, or they may rotate through several departments to gain a well-rounded knowledge of the company’s operation. Training programs for retail franchises are generally extensive, covering all functions of the company’s operation, including budgeting, marketing, management, finance, purchasing, product preparation, human resource management, and compensation. College graduates usually can enter management training programs directly. Sales worker supervisors must get along with all types of people. They need initiative, self-discipline, good judgment, and decisive ness. Patience and a mild temperament are necessary when dealing with demanding customers. Sales worker supervisors must also be able to motivate, organize, and direct the work of subordinates and communicate clearly and persuasively with customers and other supervisors. Individuals who display leadership and team-building skills, self confidence, motivation, and decisiveness become candidates for promotion to assistant manager or manager. A postsecondary de gree may speed advancement, because it is viewed by employers as a sign of motivation and maturity—qualities deemed important https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for promotion to more responsible positions. In many retail estab lishments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establishments, where the number of positions is lim ited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. Large establishments often have extensive career ladder programs, and may offer supervisors the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Although promotions may occur more quickly in large establishments, some managers may need to relocate every several years to advance. Supervisors also can become advertising, mar keting, promotions, public relations, and sales managers—work ers who coordinate marketing plans, monitor sales, and propose advertisements and promotions; or purchasing managers, buyers, or purchasing agents—workers who purchase goods and supplies for their organization or for resale. (These occupations are cov ered in other Handbook statements.) Some supervisors who have worked in their industry for a long time open their own stores or sales firms. However, retail trade and sales are highly competitive and, although many independent own ers succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. To prosper, owners usually need good business sense and strong customer service and public relations skills. Job Outlook Candidates who have retail experience will have the best job op portunities. As in other fields, competition is expected for sales worker supervisor jobs with the most attractive earnings and work ing conditions. Employment of sales worker supervisors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Growth in this occupation will be restrained somewhat as retail companies hire more sales staff, but increase the responsibili ties of sales worker supervisors. However, many job openings are expected to occur as experienced supervisors and managers move into higher levels of management, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. The Internet and electronic commerce are creating new opportu nities to reach and communicate with potential customers. Some firms are hiring Internet sales managers, who are in charge of main taining an Internet site and answering inquiries relating to the prod uct, price, and delivery terms—a trend that will increase demand for these supervisors. Overall, however, Internet sales and elec tronic commerce will reduce somewhat the number of additional sales workers needed, thus reducing the number of additional su pervisors needed. Projected employment growth of sales worker supervisors will mirror, in part, the patterns of employment growth in the industries in which they work. For example, faster than average employment growth is expected in rapidly growing services industries. The num ber of self-employed retail sales worker supervisors is expected to decline, as independent retailers face increasing competition from national chains. Unlike middle- and upper-level management positions, storelevel retail supervisors generally will not be affected by the restruc turing and consolidation taking place at the corporate and headquarters levels of many retail chains. Earnings Salaries of sales worker supervisors vary substantially, depending upon the level of responsibility; length of service; and type, size, and location of the firm. In 2000, median annual earnings of salaried sales worker super visors of retail sales workers, including commission, were $27,510. Sales and Related Occupations 373 The middle 50 percent earned between $21,050 and $37,200 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,590 a year. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried sales worker supervisors of retail sales workers in 2000 were as follows: Grocery stores......................................................................... $27,380 Dmg stores and proprietary stores........................................... 27,250 Miscellaneous shopping goods stores...................................... 25,750 Gasoline service stations......................................................... 23,630 Department stores................................................................... 23 530 In 2000, median annual earnings of salaried sales worker super visors of non-retail sales workers, including commission, were $48,960. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,270 and $72,770 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $107,520 a year. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of salaried sales worker supervisors of non-retail sales workers in 2000 were as follows: Professional and commercial equipment.................................. $66,610 Machinery, equipment, and supplies........................................ 56,380 Groceries and related products................................................ 47,920 Telephone communication....................................................... 47 540 Miscellaneous business services............................................. 31,600 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and mer chandise sold. Many supervisors receive a commission, or a com bination of salary and commission. Under a commission system, supervisors receive a percentage of department or store sales. Un der these systems, supervisors have the opportunity to significantly increase their earnings, but they may find that their earnings de pend on their ability to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those who sell large amounts of merchandise or exceed sales goals often receive bonuses or other awards. Related Occupations Sales worker supervisors serve customers, supervise workers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment. Others with similar responsibilities include financial managers, food ser vice managers, lodging managers, and medical and health services managers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for sales worker super visors may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establishments or State employment service offices. General information on management careers in retail establish ments is available from: ► National Retail Federation, 325 7th St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nrf.com Information on management careers in grocery stores, and on schools offering related programs, is available from: >• Food Distributors International, 201 Park Washington Ct., Falls Church, VA 22046-4521. Internet: http://fdi.org Information about management careers and training programs in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from: > National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Dept., 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org Information about management careers in convenience stores is available from: >- National Association of Convenience Stores, 1605 King St., Alexan dria, VA 22314-2792. Internet: http://www.cstorecentral.com https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents (Q*NET 41-3031.01, 41-3031.02) Significant Points • • • Employment is expected to grow faster than average, but competition for entry-level jobs is expected to be keen because sales agents who succeed often have high earnings. A college degree, sales ability, good interpersonal and communication skills, and a strong desire to succeed are important qualifications for this profession. Beginning securities and commodities sales agents must pass a licensing exam to sell securities and commodities. Many eventually leave the occupation because they are unable to establish a sufficient clientele. Nature of the Work Most investors, whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or large institutions with millions, use securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities, or other financial products. In addition, many clients seek out these agents for advice on investments, estate planning, and other finan cial matters. Securities and commodities sales agents, also called brokers, stockbrokers, registered representatives, account executives, or fi nancial consultants, perform a variety of tasks depending on their specific job duties. When an investor wishes to buy or sell a secu rity, for example, sales agents may relay the order through their firm’s computers to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities and commodities sales agents known as floor brokers negotiate the price with other floor brokers, make the sale, and forward the purchase price to the sales agents. If a security is not traded on an exchange, as in the case of bonds and over-the-counter stocks, the broker sends the order to the firm’s trad ing department. Here, other securities sales agents, known as deal ers, buy and sell securities directly from other dealers using their own funds or those of the firm, with the intention of reselling the security to customers at a profit. After the transaction has been completed, the broker notifies the customer of the final price. Securities and commodities sales agents also provide many re lated services for their customers. They may explain stock market terms and trading practices, offer financial counseling or advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities, and devise an individual client’s financial portfolio, which could include securities, life in surance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit, annuities, and other investments. Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some indi viduals prefer long-term investments for capital growth or to pro vide income over a number of years; others might want to invest in speculative securities that they hope will quickly rise in price. Se curities and commodities sales agents furnish information about advantages and disadvantages of an investment based on each customer’s objectives. They also supply the latest price quotes on any security, as well as information on the activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing these securities. Most securities and commodities sales agents serve individual investors, but others specialize in institutional investors, such as 374 Occupational Outlook Handbook banks and pension funds. In institutional investing, sales agents usually concentrate on a specific financial product, such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. At other times, they may also handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate secu rities issued to finance plant expansion. The most important part of a sales representative’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities and commodities sales agents spend much of their time searching for customers—relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They also may meet clients through business and social contacts. Many sales agents find it useful to contact potential clients by teaching adult education investment courses, or by giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales agents lists of people with whom the firm has done business in the past. Some agents inherit the clients of agents who have retired. Financial services sales agents sell a wide variety of banking and related services. They contact potential customers to explain their services and to ascertain customers’ banking and other finan cial needs. In doing so, they discuss services such as loans, deposit accounts, lines of credit, sales or inventory financing, certificates of deposit, cash management, or investment services. They also may solicit businesses to participate in consumer credit card pro grams. Financial services sales agents who serve all the financial needs of a single affluent individual or a business often are called private bankers or relationship managers. As deregulation of the financial services industry is implemented, the distinctions among these sales agents become less clear as secu rities firms, banks and insurance companies begin to offer each other’s products and services. The agents’jobs are also becoming more important as competition between the firms intensifies. Beginning securities sales representatives spend much of their day calling potential clients. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most securities and commodities sales agents work in offices under fairly stressful conditions. They have access to “quote boards” or computer terminals that continually provide information on the prices of securities. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unanticipated changes in the economy, the pace can become very hectic. Established securities and commodities sales agents usually work a standard 40 hour week. Beginners who are seeking customers may work longer hours. New brokers spend a great deal of time learning the firm’s products and services and studying for exams in order to qualify to sell other products, such as insurance and com modities. Most securities and commodities sales agents accommo date customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends. A growing number of securities sales agents, employed mostly by discount or online brokerage firms, work in call center environ ments. In these centers, hundreds of agents spend much of the day on the telephone taking orders from clients or offering advice and information on different securities. Often, these call centers oper ate 24 hours a day, requiring agents to work in shifts. Financial services sales agents normally work 40 hours a week in a comfortable, less stressful office environment. They may spend considerable time outside the office meeting with current and pro spective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales agents work exclusively inside banks, providing service to “walk-in” customers. Employment Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents held 367,000 jobs in 2000, including 90,000 who were self-employed. Of the wage and salary workers, 7 out of 10 worked for securities and commodities brokers, exchanges, and investment services com panies. One in seven worked for commercial banks, savings insti tutions and credit unions. Although securities and commodities sales agents are employed by firms in all parts of the country, many sales agents work for a small number of large securities and invest ment banking firms headquartered in New York City. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities and commodities sales agents must be knowl edgeable about economic conditions and trends, a college educa tion is important, especially in larger securities firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of workers in this occupation are college graduates. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful. Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have considerable sales ability, good interpersonal and communi cation skills, and a strong desire to succeed. Some employers also make sure that applicants have a good credit history and a clean record. Self-confidence and an ability to handle frequent rejections also are important ingredients for success. Because maturity and the ability to work independently are important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candidates with sales experience, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Therefore, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securities and commodities sales agents following retirement from other fields. Securities and commodities sales agents must meet State licens ing requirements, which usually include passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales Sales and Related Occupations 375 agents must register as representatives of their firm with the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination (Series 7 exam), administered by the NASD, and be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months. Most States require a second examina tion—the Uniform Securities Agents State Law Examination. These tests measure the prospective representative’s knowledge of the se curities business in general, customer protection requirements, and recordkeeping procedures. Many take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities examinations. Within 2 years, bro kers are encouraged to take additional licensing exams in order to sell mutual funds, insurance, and commodities. Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities and commodities sales agents meet the registration requirements for certification. In most firms, this training period takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses offered by business schools and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. Many firms like to rotate their trainees among various departments to give them a broad perspective of the securities business. In small firms, sales agents often receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Securities and commodities sales agents must understand the basic characteristics of the wide variety of financial products of fered by brokerage firms. Brokers periodically take training through their firms or outside institutions to keep abreast of new financial products and improve their sales techniques. Computer training also is important, as the securities sales business is highly auto mated. Since 1995, it also has become mandatory for all registered securities and commodities sales agents to attend periodic continu ing-education classes to maintain their licenses. Courses consist of computer-based training in regulatory matters and company train ing on new products and services. The principal form of advancement for securities and commodi ties sales agents is an increase in the number and size of the ac counts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, they may eventually handle very large insti tutional accounts, such as those of banks and pension funds. After taking a series of tests, some brokers become portfolio managers and have greater authority to make investment decisions regarding an account. Some experienced sales agents become branch office managers and supervise other sales agents while continuing to pro vide services for their own customers. A few agents advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms. Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college gradu ates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree in cluding courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Often, financial services sales agents learn their jobs through on-the-job training under the su pervision of bank officers. However, those who wish to sell mu tual funds and insurance products may need to undergo formal training and pass some of the same exams required of securities sales agents. Job Outlook Barring a significant decline in the stock market, the number of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents should grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. As people’s incomes continue to climb and they seek better returns on their investments, they will increasingly need the advice and ser vices of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to realize their financial goals. Growth in the volume of trade in stocks over the Internet will reduce the need for brokers for many transactions. Nevertheless, the rapid overall increase in invest ment is expected to spur employment growth among these work ers, as a majority of transactions will still require the advice and services of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. Baby boomers in their peak savings years will fuel much of the investment boom. Saving for retirement is being made much easier by the government, which continues to offer a number of tax-favor able pension plans, such as the 401(k) and the Roth IRA. The par ticipation of more women in the workforce also means higher household incomes and more women qualifying for pensions. And many of these pensions are self-directed—meaning that the recipi ent has the responsibility for investing the money. With such large amounts of money to invest, sales agents, in their role as financial advisors, will be in great demand. Other factors that will impact the demand for brokers are the increasing number and complexity of investment products, as well as the effects of globalization. As the public and businesses be come more sophisticated about investing, they are venturing into the options and futures markets. Brokers are needed to buy or sell these products, which are not traded online. Also, markets for in vestment are expanding with the increase in global trading of stocks and bonds. Furthermore, the New York Stock Exchange has an nounced its intention to extend its trading hours to accommodate trading in foreign stocks and compete with foreign exchanges. If this takes place, it will vastly increase the demand for brokers, both on the floor of the exchange and in brokerage firms, to handle the larger volume of trades. Employment of brokers, however, will be adversely affected if the stock market or the economy suddenly declines. Even in good times, turnover is relatively high for beginning brokers who are unable to establish a sizable clientele. Once established, securities and commodities sales agents have a very strong attachment to their occupation because of their high earnings and the consider able investment in training. Competition usually is intense, espe cially in larger companies with more applicants than jobs. Opportunities for beginning brokers should be better in smaller firms. The number of financial services sales agents in banks will in crease faster than average as banks expand their product offerings in order to compete directly with other investment firms. Earnings Median annual earnings of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were $56,080 in 2000. The middle half earned between $33,630 and $107,800. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,770; more than 10 percent earned $145,600 or more. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of securities and financial services sales agents in 2000 were: Security and commodity services............................................ $71,260 Security brokers and dealers....................................................... 69,550 Mortgage bankers and brokers................................................... 39,740 Personal credit institutions........................................................ 37,690 Mortgage bankers and brokers................................................... 36,590 Stockbrokers, who provide personalized service and more guid ance with respect to a client’s investments, usually are paid a com mission based on the amount of stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, and other products they sell. Commission earnings are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling, and low when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales 376 Occupational Outlook Handbook agents with a steady income by paying a “draw against commis sion”—a minimum salary based on commissions they can be ex pected to earn. Securities and commodities sales agents who can provide their clients with the most complete financial services should enjoy the greatest income stability. Trainee brokers usually are paid a salary until they develop a client base. The salary gradually de creases in favor of commissions as the broker gains clients. A small but increasing number of full-service brokers are paid a percentage of the assets they oversee. This fee often covers a certain number of trades done for free. Brokers who work for discount brokerage firms that promote the use of telephone and online trading services usually are paid a salary. Sometimes this salary is boosted by bonuses that reflect the profitability of the office. Financial services sales agents usually are paid a salary; however, bonuses or commissions from sales are starting to account for a larger share of their income. Related Occupations Other jobs requiring knowledge of finance and an ability to sell include insurance sales agents, real estate agents, and personal fi nancial advisors. TRAVEL THE .'rsw"' I - Sources of Additional Information For general information on the securities industry, contact: > The Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271. Internet: http://www.sia.com For information about job opportunities for financial services sales agents in various States, contact State bankers’ associations or write directly to a particular bank. Travel Agents ________________ (0**NET 41-3041.00) Significant Points • • • Travel benefits, such as reduced rates for transportation and accommodations, attract many people to this occupation. Training at a postsecondary vocational school or college or university is increasingly important for getting a job. New developments in Internet technology, allowing people to access travel information from their personal computers and make their own travel arrangements, will limit the need for travel agents in the future. Nature of the Work Constantly changing airfares and schedules, thousands of available vacation packages, and a vast amount of travel information on the Internet can make travel planning frustrating and time-consuming. To sort out the many travel options, tourists and business people often turn to travel agents, who assess their needs and help them make the best possible travel arrangements. Also, many major cruiselines, resorts, and specialty travel groups use travel agents to promote travel packages to millions of people every year. In general, travel agents give advice on destinations and make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommodations, car rent als, tours, and recreation. They also may advise on weather condi tions, restaurants, tourist attractions, and recreation. For Digitizedinternational for FRASER travel, agents also provide information on customs https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Travel agents consult a variety ofpublished and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates. Travel agents consult a variety of published and computer-based sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to evaluate their comfort, cleanliness, and the qual ity of food and service so that they can base recommendations on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients. Travel agents also promote their services, using telemarketing, direct mail, and the Internet. They make presentations to social and special-interest groups, arrange advertising displays, and sug gest company-sponsored trips to business managers. Depending on the size of the travel agency, an agent may specialize by type of travel, such as leisure or business, or destination, such as Europe or Africa. Working Conditions Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. During vaca tion seasons and holiday periods, they may be under a great deal of pressure. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. With advanced computer systems and telecommunication networks, some travel agents are able to work at home. Sales and Related Occupations 377 Employment Travel agents held about 135,000 jobs in 2000 and are found in every part of the country. More than 8 out of 10 salaried agents worked for travel agencies. Many of the remainder worked for membership organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for those interested in becoming a travel agent is a high school diploma or equivalent. Technology and com puterization are having a profound effect on the work of travel agents, however, and formal or specialized training is increasingly important. Many vocational schools offer 6- to 12-week full-time travel agent programs, as well as evening and weekend programs. Travel agent courses also are offered in public adult-education pro grams and in community and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer bachelor’s or master’s degrees in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to the travel industry, a college edu cation sometimes is desired by employers to establish a background in fields such as computer science, geography, communication, for eign languages, and world history. Courses in accounting and busi ness management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies. The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) offers a corre spondence course that provides a basic understanding of the travel industry. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job training for their employees, a significant part of which consists of computer instruc tion. Computer skills are required by all employers to operate air line and centralized reservation systems. Experienced travel agents can take advanced self or group study courses from the Institute of Certified Travel Agents (ICTA) that lead to the designation of Certified Travel Counselor (CTC). The ICTA also offers marketing and sales skills development programs and destination specialist programs, which provide a detailed knowl edge of regions such as North America, Western Europe, the Carib bean, and the Pacific Rim. Travel experience is an asset since personal knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influence clients’ travel plans, as is experience as an airline reservation agent. Patience and the ability to gain the confidence of clients also are useful qualities. Travel agents must be well-organized, accurate, and meticulous to compile information from various sources and plan and organize their clients’ travel itineraries. Other desirable qualifications in clude good writing, computer, and sales skills. Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may ad vance to office manager or to other managerial positions. Those who start their own agencies generally have had experi ence in an established agency. Before they can receive commis sions, these agents usually must gain formal approval from suppliers or corporations, such as airlines, shiplines, or raillines. The Air lines Reporting Corporation and the International Airlines Travel Agency Network, for example, are the approving bodies for air lines. To gain approval, an agency must be financially sound and employ at least one experienced manager or travel agent. There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents. However, nine States—California, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Washington—require some form of registration or certification of retail sellers of travel ser vices. More information may be obtained by contacting the Office of the Attorney General or Department of Commerce for each State. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Some job openings will arise as new agencies open and existing agencies expand, but most openings will occur as experienced agents transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. New developments will continue to limit the need for travel agents. The Internet increasingly allows people to access travel information from their personal computers, enabling them to re search and plan their own trips, make their own reservations and travel arrangements, and purchase their own tickets. Further, sup pliers of travel services now are able to make their services avail able through other means, such as electronic ticketing machines and remote ticket printers. Also, airline companies have put a limit on the amount of commissions they will pay to travel agencies, re ducing revenues. However, many consumers still will prefer to use a professional travel agent to ensure reliability, to save time, and, in some cases, money. Projected employment growth stems from increased spending on tourism and business travel over the next decade. With rising household incomes, smaller families, and an increasing number of older people who are more likely to travel, more people are ex pected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently—than in the past. Business travel also should grow as business activity expands. Further, professional and related workers, who are pro jected to be the fastest growing occupational group, do a signifi cant amount of business travel. Several other factors also will lead to more business for travel agents. For example, charter flights and larger, more efficient planes have brought air transportation within the budgets of more people, and the easing of Federal regulation of air fares and routes has fostered greater competition among airlines, resulting in more af fordable service. In addition, American travel agents now orga nize more tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Also, travel agents often are able to offer various travel packages at a substantial discount. The travel business is sensitive to economic downturns and in ternational political crises, when travel plans are likely to be de ferred. Therefore, the number ofjob opportunities for travel agents fluctuates. Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Median annual earnings of travel agents were $25,150 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,890 and $31,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,900, while the top 10 percent earned more than $39,300. Salaried agents usually enjoy standard benefits that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Among agencies, those focus ing on corporate sales pay higher salaries and provide more exten sive benefits, on average, than those who focus on leisure sales. When they travel for personal reasons, agents usually get reduced rates for transportation and accommodations. In addition, agents sometimes take “familiarization” trips, at no cost to themselves, to learn about various vacation sites. These benefits attract many people to this occupation. Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from airlines and other carriers, cruise lines, tour operators, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel arrangements, cruises, hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals are about 7-10 percent of the total sale, and for international travel, about 10 percent. Travel agents also may charge clients a service fee for the time and expense involved in planning a trip. 378 Occupational Outlook Handbook During the first year of business or while awaiting corporation approval, self-employed travel agents often have low earnings. Their income usually is limited to commissions from hotels, cruises, and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated arrange ments. Established agents may have lower earnings during eco nomic downturns. ties include tour and travel guides, and reservation and transporta tion ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training opportunities, contact: American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.astanet.com/education/edu_becoming.asp Related Occupations Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recrea tional travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibili https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on certification qualifications, contact: The Institute of Certified Travel Agents, 148 Linden St., P.O. Box 812059, Wellesley, MA 02181-0012. Internet: http://www.icta.com Office and Administrative Support Occupations Communications Equipment Operators (0**NET 43-2011.00, 43-2021.01, 43-2021.02, 43-2099.99) Significant Points • • • Switchboard operators constitute 3 out of 4 of these workers. Workers train on the job. Employment is expected to decline due to new laborsaving communications technologies and consolidation of jobs. Nature of the Work Most communications equipment operators work as switchboard operators for a wide variety of businesses, such as hospitals, hotels, and personnel-supply services. Switchboard operators operate pri vate branch exchange (PBX) switchboards to relay incoming, out going, and interoffice calls, usually for a single organization. They also may handle other clerical duties, such as supplying informa tion, taking messages, and announcing visitors. Technological improvements have automated many of the tasks handled by switch board operators. New systems automatically connect outside calls to the correct destination, and voice mail systems take messages without the assistance of an operator. Some communications equipment operators work as telephone operators, assisting customers in making telephone calls. Although most calls are connected automatically, callers sometimes require the assistance of an operator. Central office operators help cus tomers complete local and long-distance calls. Directory assistance operators provide customers with information such as phone num bers or area codes. When callers dial “0,” they usually reach a central office opera tor, also known as a local, long distance, or call completion opera tor. Most of these operators work for telephone companies, and many of their responsibilities have been automated. For example, callers can make international, collect, and credit card calls without the assistance of a central office operator. Other tasks previously handled by these operators, such as billing calls to third parties or monitoring the cost of a call, also have been automated. Callers still need a central office operator for a limited number of tasks. These include placing person-to-person calls or interrupt ing busy lines if an emergency warrants the disruption. When natu ral disasters occur, such as storms or earthquakes, central office operators provide callers with emergency phone contacts. They also assist callers having difficulty with automated phone systems. An operator monitoring an automated system for placing collect calls, for example, may intervene if a caller needs assistance with the system. Directory assistance operators provide callers with information such as telephone numbers or area codes. Most directory assis tance operators work for telephone companies; increasingly, they also work for companies that provide business services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis c, 3 Rap Switchboard operators constitute three-fourths of communications equipment operators. Automated systems now handle many of the responsibilities once performed by directory assistance operators. The systems prompt callers for a listing, and may even connect the call after providing the phone number. However, directory assistance operators moni tor many of the calls received by automated systems. The opera tors listen to recordings of the customer’s request, and then key information into electronic directories to access the correct phone numbers. Directory assistance operators also provide personal assistance to customers having difficulty using the automated system. Other communications equipment operators include workers who operate telegraphic typewriter, telegraph key, facsimile machine, and related equipment to transmit and receive signals and messages. They prepare messages according to prescribed formats, and verify and correct errors in messages. As part of their job, they also may adjust equipment for proper operation. 379 380 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Most communications equipment operators work in pleasant, welllighted surroundings. Because telephone operators spend much time seated at keyboards and video monitors, employers often provide workstations designed to decrease glare and other physical discom forts. Such improvements reduce the incidence of eyestrain, back discomfort, and injury due to repetitive motion. Switchboard operators generally work the same hours as other clerical employees at their company. In most organizations, full time operators work regular business hours over a 5-day workweek. Work schedules are more irregular in hotels, hospitals, and other organizations that require round-the-clock operator services. In these companies, switchboard operators may work in the evenings and on holidays and weekends. Central office and directory assistance operators must be acces sible to customers 24 hours a day and, therefore, work a variety of shifts. Some operators work split shifts; that is, they are on duty during peak calling periods in the late morning and early evening and off duty during the intervening hours. Telephone companies normally assign shifts by seniority, allowing the most experienced operators first choice of schedules. As a result, entry-level opera tors may have less desirable schedules, including late evening, splitshift, and weekend work. Telephone company operators may work overtime during emergencies. Approximately 1 in 5 communications equipment operators works part time. Because of the irregular nature of telephone oper ator schedules, many employers seek part-time workers for those shifts that are difficult to fill. An operator’s work may be quite repetitive and the pace hectic during peak calling periods. To maintain operator efficiency, su pervisors at telephone companies often monitor operator perfor mance, including the amount of time spent on each call. The rapid pace of the job and frequent monitoring may cause stress. To re duce job-related stress, some workplaces attempt to create a more stimulating and less rigid work environment. Employment Communications equipment operators held about 339,000 jobs in 2000. About 3 out of 4 worked as switchboard operators. Employ ment was distributed as follows: Switchboard operators............................................................. 259,000 Telephone operators................................................................ 54,000 All other communications equipment operators ....................... 26,000 Most switchboard operators worked for services establishments, such as personnel-supply services, hospitals, and hotels and motels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Communications equipment operators receive their training on the job. At large telephone companies, entry-level central office and directory assistance operators may receive both classroom and onthe-job instruction that can last several weeks. At small telephone companies, operators usually receive shorter, less formal training. These operators may be paired with experienced personnel who provide hands-on instruction. Switchboard operators also may receive short-term, informal training, sometimes provided by the manufacturer of their switchboard equipment. New employees train in equipment operation and procedures designed to maximize efficiency. They are familiarized with com pany policies, including the expected level of customer service. Instructors monitor both the time and quality of trainees’ responses to customer requests. Supervisors may continue to closely monitor new employees after their initial training session is complete. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employers generally require a high school diploma for operator positions. Applicants should have strong reading, spelling, and numerical skills; clear speech; and good hearing. Computer lit eracy and typing skills also are important, and familiarity with a foreign language is helpful because of the increasing diversity of the population. Most companies emphasize customer service skills. They seek operators who will remain courteous to customers while working at a fast pace. After 1 or 2 years on the job, communications equipment opera tors may advance to other positions within a company. Many enter clerical occupations in which their operator experience is valuable, such as customer service representatives, dispatchers, and recep tionists. (See the Handbook statements on customer service repre sentatives, dispatchers, and receptionists and information clerks.) Operators with a more technical background may advance into po sitions installing and repairing equipment. Promotion to supervi sory positions also is possible. Job Outlook Employment of communications equipment operators is projected to decline through 2010, largely due to new laborsaving communi cations technologies and to consolidation of telephone operator jobs into fewer locations, often staffed by personnel-supply services firms. Virtually all job openings will result from the need to re place communications equipment operators who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Developments in communications technologies, specifically the ease and accessibility of voice recognition systems, will continue to have a significant impact on the demand for communications equipment operators. The decline in employment will be sharpest among directory assistance operators; smaller decreases will occur for switchboard operators. Voice recognition technology allows automated phone systems to recognize human speech. Callers speak directly to the system, which interprets the speech and then con nects the call. Because voice recognition systems do not require callers to input data on a telephone keypad, they are easier to use than touch-tone systems. The systems also can understand increas ingly sophisticated vocabulary and grammatical structures; how ever, many companies will continue to employ operators so that those callers having problems can access a “live” employee, if desired. Electronic communications through the Internet or e-mail, for example, provides alternatives to telephone communications and requires no operators. Internet directory assistance services are re ducing the need for directory assistance operators. Local phone companies currently have the most reliable phone directory data; however, Internet services provide information such as addresses and maps, in addition to phone numbers. As telephones and com puters converge, the convenience of Internet directory assistance is expected to attract many customers, reducing the need for telephone operators to provide this service. Consolidations among telephone companies also will reduce the need for operators. As communications technologies improve and long-distance prices fall, telephone companies will contract out and consolidate telephone operator jobs. Operators will be employed at fewer locations and will serve larger customer populations. Earnings Median hourly earnings of switchboard operators, including answer ing service, were S9.71 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.02 and $11.71. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.87, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.76. Me dian hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of switchboard operators in 2000 are shown below: Office and Administrative Support Occupations 381 Offices and clinics of medical doctors......................................... $9.74 Hospitals.................................................................................... 9.54 Hotels and motels....................................................................... 9. ig Personnel supply services............................................................ 9.02 Miscellaneous business services................................................. 8.66 Median hourly earnings of telephone operators in 2000 were $13.46. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.40 and $16.76. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.23, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.57. Some telephone operators working at telephone companies are members of the Communications Workers of America (CWA) or the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW). For these operators, union contracts govern wage rates, wage increases, and the time required to advance from one pay step to the next. (It normally takes 4 years to rise from the lowest paying, nonsupervisory operator position to the highest.) Contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 hours a day or 5 days a week, for Sunday and holiday work, and for a pay differential for nightwork and split shifts. Many contracts provide for a 1-week vacation after 6 months of service; 2 weeks after 1 year; 3 weeks after 7 years; 4 weeks after 15 years; and 5 weeks after 25 years. Holidays range from 9 to 11 days a year. Related Occupations Other workers who provide information to the general public in clude dispatchers; hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks; information and record clerks; and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact a tele phone company, temporary-help agency, or write to: ► Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.cwa-union.org ► International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. Computer Operators (0**NET 43-9011.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to decline sharply due to advances in technology. • Opportunities will be best for operators who have formal computer-related education, are familiar with a variety of operating systems, and keep up-to-date with the latest technology. Nature of the Work Computer operators oversee the operation of computer hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are used as efficiently as pos sible. They may work with mainframes, minicomputers, or net works of personal computers. Computer operators must anticipate problems and take preventive action, as well as solve problems that occur during operations. The duties of computer operators vary with the size of the instal lation, the type of equipment used, and the policies of the employer. Generally, operators control the console of either a mainframe digi tal for computer Digitized FRASERor a group of minicomputers. Working from operat ing instmctions prepared by programmers, users, or operations https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer operators usually receive on-the-job training. managers, computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job. Computer operators load equipment with tapes, disks, and pa per, as needed. While the computer is running—which may be 24 hours a day for large computers—computer operators monitor the control console and respond to operating and computer messages. Messages indicate the individual specifications of each job being run. If an error message occurs, operators must locate and solve the problem or terminate the program. Operators also maintain log books or operating records, listing each job that is run and events, such as machine malfunctions, that occur during their shift. In ad dition, computer operators may help programmers and systems ana lysts test and debug new programs. (See the statements on computer programmers; and systems analysts, computer scientists, and data base administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) As the trend toward networking computers accelerates, a grow ing number of computer operators are working on personal com puters (PCs) and minicomputers. In many offices, factories, and other work settings, PCs and minicomputers are connected in net works, often referred to as local area networks (LANs) or multi user systems. Whereas users in the area operate some of these computers, many require the services of full-time operators. The tasks performed on PCs and minicomputers are very similar to those performed on large computers. As organizations continue to look for opportunities to increase productivity, automation is expanding into additional areas of com puter operations. Sophisticated software, coupled with robotics, enables a computer to perform many routine tasks formerly done by computer operators. Scheduling, loading and downloading pro grams, mounting tapes, rerouting messages, and running periodic reports can be done without the intervention of an operator. Conse quently, these improvements will change what computer operators do in the future. As technology advances, the responsibilities of many computer operators are shifting to areas such as network op erations, user support, and database maintenance. Working Conditions Computer operators generally work in well-lighted, well-ventilated, comfortable rooms. Because many organizations use their comput ers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, computer operators may be re quired to work evening or night shifts and weekends. Shift assignments usually are made based on seniority. However, increas ingly automated operations will lessen the need for shift work, be cause many companies let the computer take over operations during 382 Occupational Outlook Handbook less desirable working hours. In addition, advances in tele commuting technologies—such as faxes, modems, and e-mail— and data center automation, such as automated tape libraries, enable some operators to monitor batch processes, check systems perfor mance, and record problems for the next shift. Because computer operators generally spend a lot of time in front of a computer monitor, as well as performing repetitive tasks such as loading and unloading printers, they may be susceptible to eye strain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment Computer operators held about 194,000 jobs in 2000. Most jobs are found in organizations such as wholesale trade establishments, manufacturing companies, business services firms, financial insti tutions, and government agencies that have data-processing needs requiring large computer installations. A large number of com puter operators are employed by service firms in the computer and data-processing services industry, as more companies contract out the operation of their data-processing centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer operators usually receive on-the-job training in order to become acquainted with their employer’s equipment and routines. The length of training varies with the job and the experience of the worker. However, previous work experience is the key to obtaining an operator job in many large establishments. Employers generally look for specific, hands-on experience with the type of equipment and related operating systems they use. Additionally, formal com puter-related training, perhaps through a community college or tech nical school, is recommended. Related training also can be obtained through the Armed Forces and from some computer manufacturers. As computer technology changes and data processing centers become more automated, employers will increasingly require can didates to have formal training and experience for operator jobs. And although not required, a bachelor’s degree in a computer-re lated field can be helpful when one is seeking employment as a computer operator. Because computer technology changes so rapidly, operators must be adaptable and willing to learn. Analytical and technical exper tise also are needed, particularly by operators who work in auto mated data centers, to deal with unique or high-level problems that a computer is not programmed to handle. Operators must be able to communicate well, and to work effectively with programmers, users, and other operators. Computer operators also must be able to work independently because they may have little or no direct supervision. A few computer operators may advance to supervisory jobs, al though most management positions within data-processing or com puter-operations centers require advanced formal education, such as a bachelor’s or higher degree. Through on-the-job experience and additional formal education, some computer operators may advance to jobs in areas such as network operations or support. As they gain experience in programming, some operators may advance to jobs as programmers or analysts. A move into these types ofjobs is becoming much more difficult, as employers increasingly require candidates for more-skilled computer jobs to possess at least a bachelor’s degree. Job Outlook Employment of computer operators is expected to decline sharply through the year 2010. Experienced operators are expected to com pete for the small number of openings that will arise each year to workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor Digitizedreplace for FRASER force. Opportunities will be best for operators who have formal https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis computer-related education, are familiar with a variety of operating systems, and keep up-to-date with the latest technology. Advances in technology have reduced both the size and cost of computer equipment, while increasing the capacity for data storage and processing automation. Sophisticated computer hardware and software are now used in practically every industry, in such areas as factory and office automation, telecommunications, medicine, edu cation, and administration. The expanding use of software that au tomates computer operations gives companies the option of making systems user-friendly, greatly reducing the need for operators. Such improvements require operators to monitor a greater number of operations at the same time and be capable of solving a broader range of problems that may arise. The result is that fewer operators will be needed to perform more highly skilled work. Computer operators who are displaced by automation may be reassigned to support staffs that maintain personal computer net works or assist other members of the organization. Operators who keep up with changing technology, by updating their skills and enhancing their training, should have the best prospects of moving into other areas such as network administration and technical sup port. Others may be retrained to perform different job duties, such as supervising an operations center, maintaining automation pack ages, or analyzing computer operations to recommend ways to increase productivity. In the future, operators who wish to work in the computer field will need to know more about programming, auto mation software, graphics interface, client/server environments, and open systems, in order to take advantage of changing opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer operators were $27,670 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between about $21,280 and $35,320 a year. The highest 10 percent earned more than $43,950, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,350. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of com puter operators in 2000 are shown below: Computer and data processing services.................................... $28,530 Hospitals....................................................................................... 26,550 Commercial banks................................................................... Personnel supply services........................................................ Miscellaneous business services.............................................. 22,840 22,130 21,980 The average salary for computer operators employed by the Fed eral Government was $37,574 in early 2001. According to Robert Half International, the average starting sala ries for console operators ranged from $28,250 to $40,500 in 2001. Salaries generally are higher in large organizations than in small ones. Related Occupations Other occupations involving work with computers include com puter software engineers; computer programmers; computer sup port specialists and systems administrators; and systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators. Other occupa tions in which workers operate electronic office equipment include data entry and information-processing workers, as well as secretar ies and administrative assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in computer operations, contact establishments with large computer centers, such as banks, manufacturing and insurance firms, colleges and universities, and data processing service organizations. The local office of the State employment service can supply information about employment and training opportunities. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 383 Data Entry and Information Processing Workers (0*NET 43-9021.00, 43-9022.00) • • • Significant Points Workers can acquire their skills through high schools, community colleges, business schools, or self-teaching aids such as books, tapes, or Internet tutorial applications. Overall employment is projected to decline due to the proliferation of personal computers and other technologies; however, the need to replace workers who leave this large occupation each year should produce many job openings. Those with expertise in appropriate computer software applications should have the best job prospects. Nature of the Work Organizations need to process a rapidly growing amount of infor mation. Data entry and information processing workers help ensure this work is handled smoothly and efficiently. By typing texts, en tering data into a computer, operating a variety of office machines, and performing other clerical duties, these workers help organiza tions keep up with the rapid changes of the “Information Age.” Word processors and typists usually set up and prepare reports, letters, mailing labels, and other text material. Typists make neat, typed copies of materials written by other clerical, professional, or managerial workers. They may begin as entry-level workers by typ ing headings on form letters, addressing envelopes, or preparing standard forms on typewriters or computers. As they gain experi ence, they often are assigned tasks requiring a higher degree of ac curacy and independent judgment. Senior typists may work with highly technical material, plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies. Most keyboarding is now done on word processing equipment— usually a personal computer or part of a larger computer system— which normally includes a keyboard, video display terminal, and printer, and may have “add-on” capabilities such as optical charac ter recognition readers. Word processors use this equipment to record, edit, store, and revise letters, memos, reports, statistical tables, forms, and other printed materials. Although it is becoming less common, some word processing workers are employed in cen tralized word processing teams that handle the transcription and typing for several departments. In addition to the duties mentioned above, word processors and typists often perform other office tasks, such as answering tele phones, filing, and operating copiers or other office machines. Job titles of these workers often vary to reflect these duties. Clerk typ ists, for example, combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answer ing telephones, and other general office work. Notereaders transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into standard formats. Data entry keyers usually input lists of items, numbers, or other data into computers or complete forms that appear on a computer screen. They may also manipulate existing data, edit current infor mation, or proofread new entries to a database for accuracy. Some examples of data sources include customers’ personal information, medical records, and membership lists. Usually this information is used internally by a company and may be reformatted before use by other departments or by customers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis !lSIi Data entry and information processing workers may transcribe Braille for the visually impaired. Keyers use various types of equipment to enter data. Many keyers use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks for entry into a computer system. Others prepare materials for printing or publication by using data entry composing machines. Some keyers operate online terminals or per sonal computers. Data entry keyers increasingly also work with nonkeyboard forms of data entry such as scanners and electroni cally transmitted files. When using these new character recogni tion systems, data entry keyers often enter only those data which cannot be recognized by machines. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties. Working Conditions Data entry and information processing workers usually work a stan dard 40-hour week in clean offices. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines. These workers are susceptible to repetitive strain injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and neck, back, and eye strain. To help prevent these from occurring, many offices have scheduled exercise breaks, ergonomically designed keyboards, and workstations that allow workers to stand or sit as they wish. Employment Data entry and information processing workers held about 806,000 jobs in 2000 and were employed in every sector of the economy; 509,000 were data entry keyers and 297,000 were word processors and typists. Some workers telecommute by working from their homes on personal computers linked by telephone lines to those in the main office. This enables them to type material at home while still being able to produce printed copy in their offices. About 1 out of 3 data entry and information processing workers held jobs in firms providing business services, including temporary help, word processing, and computer and data processing. Nearly 1 out of 5 worked in Federal, State, and local government agencies. 384 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally hire high school graduates who meet their re quirements for keyboarding speed. Increasingly, employers also expect applicants to have word processing or data entry training or experience. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar skills are impor tant, as is familiarity with standard office equipment and procedures. Students acquire skills in keyboarding and in the use of word processing, spreadsheet, and database management computer soft ware packages through high schools, community colleges, business schools, temporary help agencies, or self-teaching aids such as books, tapes, or Internet tutorials applications. For many people, a job as a data entry and information process ing worker is their first job after graduating from high school or after a period of full-time family responsibilities. This work fre quently serves as a steppingstone to higher paying jobs with in creased responsibilities. Large companies and government agencies usually have training programs to help administrative employees upgrade their skills and advance to other positions. It is common for data entry and information processing workers to transfer to other administrative jobs, such as secretary, administrative assis tant, statistical clerk, or to be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing or data entry center. Job Outlook Overall employment of data entry and information processing work ers is projected to decline through 2010. Nevertheless, the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave this large occupation for other reasons will produce numerous job openings each year. Job prospects will be most favorable for those with the best technical skills—in particular, expertise in appropriate com puter software applications. Data entry and information processing workers must be willing to continuously upgrade their skills to re main marketable. Although data entry and information processing workers are all affected by productivity gains stemming from organizational restruc turing and the implementation of new technologies, projected growth differs among these workers. Employment of word processors and typists is expected to decline due to the proliferation of personal computers which allows other workers to perform duties formerly assigned to word processors and typists. Most professionals and managers, for example, now use desktop personal computers to do their own word processing. Because technologies affecting data entry keyers tend to be costlier to implement, however, these work ers will be less affected by technology and should experience slower than average growth. Employment growth of data entry keyers will still be dampened by productivity gains, as various data capturing technologies, such as bar code scanners, voice recognition technologies, and sophisti cated character recognition readers, become more prevalent. These technologies can be applied to a variety of business transactions, such as inventory tracking, invoicing, and order placement. More over, as telecommunications technology improves, many organiza tions will increasingly take advantage of computer networks that allow data to be transmitted electronically, thereby avoiding the reentry of data. These technologies will allow more data to be entered auto matically into computers, reducing the demand for data entry keyers. In addition to technology, employment of data entry and infor mation processing workers will be adversely affected as businesses increasingly contract out their work. Many organizations have re duced or even eliminated permanent in-house staff, for example, in favor of temporary-help and staffing services firms. Some large data entry and information processing firms increasingly employ in nations with low wages to enter data. As international Digitizedworkers for FRASER trade barriers continue to fall and telecommunications technology https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis improves, this transfer will mean reduced demand for data entry keyers in the United States. Earnings Median annual earnings of word processors and typists in 2000 were $24,710. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,070 and $29,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,410, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,410. The salaries of these workers vary by industry and by region. In 2000, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of word processors and typists were: Local government.................................................................... $25,710 State government..................................................................... 24,850 Federal Government................................................................ 23,890 Elementary and secondary schools........................................... 23,300 Personnel supply services........................................................ 22,720 Median annual earnings of data entry keyers in 2000 were $21,300. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,850 and $25,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30,910. In 2000, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of data entry keyers were: Federal Government................................................................ $27,260 22,310 Accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping................................... Computer and data processing services.................................... 20,480 Commercial banks................................................................... 20,410 20,070 Personnel supply services........................................................ In the Federal Government, clerk-typists and data entry keyers without work experience started at $ 16,015 a year in 2001. Begin ning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the pre vailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary for all clerk-typists in the Federal Government was 24,934 in 2001. Related Occupations Data entry and information processing workers must transcribe in formation quickly. Other workers who deliver information in a timely manner are dispatchers and communications equipment op erators. Data entry and information processing workers also must be comfortable working with office automation, and in this regard they are similar to court reporters, medical records and health infor mation technicians, secretaries and administrative assistants, and computer operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities for data entry and informa tion processing workers, contact the nearest office of the State em ployment service. Desktop Publishers ____ (0**NET 43-9031.00) • • • Significant Points Desktop publishers rank among the 10 fastest growing occupations. Most jobs are in firms that handle commercial or business printing, and in newspaper plants. Although formal training is not always required, those with certification or degrees will have the best job opportunities. Nature of the Work Using computer software, desktop publishers format and combine text, numerical data, photographs, charts, and other visual graphic elements to produce publication-ready material. Depending on the nature of a particular project, desktop publishers may write and edit text, create graphics to accompany text, convert photographs and drawings into digital images and then manipulate those images, de sign page layouts, create proposals, develop presentations and ad vertising campaigns, typeset and do color separation, and translate electronic information onto film or other traditional forms. Materi als produced by desktop publishers include books, business cards, calendars, magazines, newsletters and newspapers, packaging, slides, and tickets. As companies have brought the production of market ing, promotional, and other kinds of materials in-house, they in creasingly have employed people who can produce such materials. Desktop publishers use a keyboard to enter and select format ting specifics such as size and style of type, column width, and spacing, and store them in the computer. The computer then dis plays and arranges columns of type on a video display terminal or computer monitor. An entire newspaper, catalog, or book page, complete with artwork and graphics, can be created on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators transmit the pages for production either into film and then into printing plates, or directly into plates. Desktop publishing is a rapidly changing field that encompasses a number of different kinds of jobs. Personal computers enable desktop publishers to perform publishing tasks that would other wise require complicated equipment and human effort. Advances in computer software and printing technology continue to change and enhance desktop publishing work. Instead of receiving simple typed text from customers, desktop publishers get the material on a computer disk. Other innovations in desktop publishing work in clude digital color page makeup systems, electronic page layout systems, and off-press color proofing systems. And because most materials today often are published on the Internet, desktop pub lishers may need to know electronic publishing technologies, such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and may be responsible for converting text and graphics to an Internet-ready format. Typesetting and page layout have been affected by the techno logical changes shaping desktop publishing. Increasingly, desktop publishers use computers to do much of the typesetting and page layout work formerly done by prepress workers, posing new chal lenges for the printing industry. The old “hot type” method of text composition—which used molten lead to create individual letters, paragraphs, and full pages of text—is nearly extinct. Today, com position work is primarily done with computers. Improvements in desktop publishing software also allow customers to do much more of their own typesetting. Desktop publishers use scanners to capture photographs, images or art as digital data that can be incorporated directly into electronic page layouts or further manipulated using computer software. The desktop publisher then can correct for mistakes or compensate for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Digital files are used to produce printing plates. Like photographers and multi media artists and animators, desktop publishers also can create spe cial effects or other visual images using film, video, computers, or other electronic media. (Separate statements on photographers and artists and related workers appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on the establishment employing these workers, desk top publishers also may be referred to as publications specialists, electronic publishers, DTP operators, desktop publishing editors, electronic prepress technicians, electronic publishing specialists, image designers, typographers, compositors, layout artists, and web publications designers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 385 Desktop publishers use computer software to prepare material for publication. Working Conditions Desktop publishers usually work in clean, air-conditioned office areas with little noise. Desktop publishers usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. Some workers—particularly those self-em ployed—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Desktop publishers often are subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Like other workers who spend long hours working in front of a computer monitor, they may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment Desktop publishers held about 38,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly all worked in the printing and publishing industries. About 1,000 desk top publishers were self-employed. Most desktop publishing jobs were found in firms that handle commercial or corporate printing, and in newspaper plants. Com mercial printing firms print a wide range of products—newspaper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and advertisements—while business form establishments print material such as sales receipts. A large number of desktop publishers also were found in printing trade ser vices firms. Establishments in printing trade services typically per form custom compositing, platemaking, and related prepress services. Others work printing or publishing materials “in-house” or “in-plant” for business services firms, government agencies, hos pitals, or universities, typically in a reproduction or publications department that operates within the organization. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geo graphically dispersed in the United States, and desktop publishing jobs are found throughout the country. However, job prospects may be best in large metropolitan cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers qualify for jobs as desktop publishers by taking classes or completing certificate programs at vocational schools, universi ties and colleges, or via the Internet. Programs range in length, but the average nondegree certification training program takes approx imately 1 year. However, some desktop publishers train on the job to develop the necessary skills. The length of training on the job varies by company. An internship or part-time desktop publishing assignment is another way to gain experience as a desktop publisher. Students interested in pursuing a career in desktop publishing also may obtain an associate degree in applied science or a bachelor’s 386 Occupational Outlook Handbook degree in graphic arts, graphic communications or graphic design. Graphic arts programs are a good way to learn about desktop pub lishing software used to format pages, assign type characteristics, and import text and graphics into electronic page layouts to pro duce printed materials such as advertisements, brochures, newslet ters, and forms. Applying this knowledge of graphic arts techniques and computerized typesetting usually are intended for students who may eventually move into management positions, while 2-year as sociate degree programs are designed to train skilled workers. Stu dents also develop finely tuned skills in typography, print mediums, packaging, branding and identity, Web design and motion graphics. These programs teach print and graphic design fundamentals and provide an extensive background in imaging, prepress, print repro duction, and emerging media. Courses in other aspects of printing also are available at vocational-technical institutes, industry-spon sored update and retraining programs, and private trade and techni cal schools. Although formal training is not always required, those with cer tification or degrees will have the best job opportunities. Most employers prefer to hire people who have at least a high school diploma, possess good communication skills, basic computer skills, and a strong work ethic. Desktop publishers should be able to deal courteously with people because in small shops they may have to take customer orders. They also may add, subtract, multiply, di vide, and compute ratios to estimate job costs. Persons interested in working for firms using advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers. Desktop publishers need good manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, also are assets. Artis tic ability often is a plus. Employers also seek persons who are even-tempered and adaptable—important qualities for workers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment. Workers with limited training and experience may start as help ers. They begin with instruction from an experienced desktop pub lisher and advance based on their demonstrated mastery of skills at each level. All workers should expect to be retrained from time to time to handle new, improved software and equipment. As workers gain experience, they advance to positions with greater responsibil ity. Some move into supervisory or management positions. Other desktop publishers may start their own company or work as an in dependent consultant, while those with more artistic talent and fur ther education may find opportunities in graphic design or commercial art. Job Outlook Employment of desktop publishers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as more page layout and design work is performed in-house using computers and sophisticated publishing software. Desktop publishing is replacing much of the prepress work done by compositors and typesetters, enabling organizations to reduce costs while increasing production speeds. Many new jobs for desktop publishers are expected to emerge in commercial printing and publishing establishments. However, more companies also are turning to in-house desktop publishers, as computers with elaborate text and graphics capabili ties have become common, and desktop publishing software has become cheaper and easier to use. In addition to employment growth, many job openings for desktop publishers also will result from the need to replace workers who move into managerial posi tions, transfer to other occupations, or who leave the labor force. Printing and publishing costs represent a significant portion of a corporation’s expenses, no matter the industry, and corporations are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. Desktop publishing reduces the time needed to complete a printing job, and allows com mercial printers to make inroads into new markets that require fast turnaround. Most employers prefer to hire experienced desktop publishers. As more people gain desktop publishing experience, however, com petition for jobs may increase. Among persons without experience, opportunities should be best for those with computer backgrounds who are certified or who have completed postsecondary programs in desktop publishing or graphic design. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn the page layout process and adapt more rapidly to new software and techniques. Earnings Earnings for desktop publishers vary according to level of experi ence, training, location, and size of firm. Median annual earnings of desktop publishers were $30,600 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,890 and $40,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,800, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,920 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these workers in 2000 are shown below: Commercial printing................................................................ $30,940 Newspapers.............................................................................. 24,520 Related Occupations Desktop publishers use artistic and editorial skills in their work. These skills also are essential for artists and related workers; designers; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; public relations spe cialists; writers and editors; and prepress technicians and workers. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training programs may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, or from local offices of the State employment service. For information on careers and training in printing, desktop pub lishing, and graphic arts, write to: > Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191. Internet: http://www.npes.org > Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. Internet: http://www.gatf.org For information on benefits and compensation in desktop pub lishing, write to: > Printing Industries of America, Inc., 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.gain.org Financial Clerks (0**NET 43-3011.00, 43-3021.01, 43-3021.02, 43-3021.03, 43-3031.00, 43-3041.00, 43-3051.00, 43-3061.00, 43-3071.00) Significant Points • Most jobs require only a high school diploma. • Numerous job opportunities should arise due to high turnover. Slower than average growth is expected in overall employment, reflecting the spread of computers and other office automation as well as organizational restructuring. • Office and Administrative Support Occupations 387 Nature of the Work Financial clerks keep track of money. They record all amounts com ing into or leaving an organization. Their records are vital to an organization’s need to keep track of all revenues and expenses. While most financial clerks work in offices maintaining and pro cessing various accounting records, some deal directly with cus tomers, taking in and paying out money. When bills are not paid on time, financial clerks must contact customers to find out why and attempt to resolve the problem. Other clerks keep track of a store’s inventory and order replacement stock when supplies are low. (Ad ditional information about specific financial clerks appears in sepa rate statements that follow this introductory statement.) Depending on their specific titles, these workers perform a wide variety of financial recordkeeping duties. Bill and account collec tors notify customers with delinquent accounts in order to solicit payment. Billing and posting clerks and machine operators pre pare bills and invoices. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks maintain financial data in computer and paper files. Payroll and timekeeping clerks compute wages for payroll records and re view employee timecards. Procurement clerks prepare purchase orders and monitor purchase requests. Tellers receive and pay out money for financial institutions, while gaming cage workers per form many of the same services for casinos. The duties of financial clerks vary with the size of the firm. In a small business, a bookkeeper may handle all financial records and transactions, as well as payroll and billing duties. A large firm, on the other hand, may employ specialized accounting, payroll, and billing clerks. In general, however, clerical staffs in firms of all sizes increasingly perform a broader variety of tasks than in the past. Another change in these occupations is the growing use of fi nancial software to enter and manipulate data. Computer programs automatically perform calculations on data that were previously calculated manually. Computers also enable clerks to access data within files more quickly and even generate statements automati cally. Nevertheless, most workers still keep backup paper records for research, auditing, and reference purposes, although a paperless office is increasingly the goal for many organizations. Despite the growing use of automation, interaction with the public and coworkers remains a basic part of the job for many financial clerks. Payroll clerks, for example, answer questions concerning employee benefits; tellers and gaming cage workers help customers with their financial needs, and procurement clerks often have to deal with an organization’s suppliers. Working Conditions With the exception of gaming cage workers, financial clerks typi cally are employed in an office environment. Bill collectors who work for third-party collection agencies may spend most of their days on the phone in a call center environment. However, a grow ing number of financial clerks, particularly medical billers, work at home and many work part time. Because the majority of financial clerks use computers on a daily basis, these workers may experience eye and muscle strain, back aches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Also, clerks who review detailed data may have to sit for extended periods of time. Most financial clerks work regular business hours. However, since most casinos are open 24 hours a day, gaming cage workers often work in shifts, including nights and weekends. Tellers can work some evenings and Saturday mornings, while bill collectors often have to work evenings and weekends when it is easier to reach people. Accounting clerks may work longer hours to meet dead lines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and yearly accounting audits are performed. Billing, bookkeeping, and accounting clerks in hotels, restaurants, and stores may work overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons. Employment Financial clerks held more than 3.7 million jobs in 2000. The follow ing tabulation shows employment in individual clerical occupations: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks........................ 1,991,000 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators................... 506,000 Tellers................................................................................... 499,000 Bill and account collectors......„............................................. 400,000 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.............................................. 201,000 Procurement clerks................................................................ 76,000 Gaming cage workers............................................................. 22,000 These workers are employed in virtually every industry, includ ing manufacturing, business and health services, and government. However, it is becoming more common for these clerks to work for companies that specialize in performing specific accounting ser vices, such as bill collection, medical billing, and payroll services as companies seek to cut costs and outsource many administrative functions. Also, more financial clerks are finding jobs with per sonnel supply agencies, as companies increasingly hire temporary workers for peak periods. All financial clerk occupations have some part-time workers, but tellers and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks have the most with more than one-fourth working part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most financial clerks are required to have at least a high school diploma. However, having some college is becoming increasingly important, particularly for those occupations requiring knowledge of accounting. For occupations such as bookkeepers, accounting clerks, and procurement clerks, an associate’s degree in business or accounting often is required. Some financial clerks have bachelor’s degrees in business, accounting, or liberal arts. Although a degree is rarely required, many graduates accept entry-level clerical posi tions to get into a particular company or to enter the finance or accounting field with the hope of being promoted to professional or managerial positions. Some companies have a set plan of ad vancement that tracks college graduates from entry-level clerical jobs into managerial positions. Workers with bachelor’s degrees are likely to start at higher salaries and advance more easily than those without degrees. Experience in a related job also is recommended fora number of these positions. For example, cash-handling experience is impor tant for gaming cage workers and tellers. Telemarketing experi ence is useful for bill and account collectors. For other financial clerks, experience working in an office environment or in customer service is always beneficial. Regardless of the type of work, most employers prefer workers with good communication skills who are computer-literate; knowledge of word processing and spreadsheet software is especially valuable. Gaming cage workers have additional requirements. They must be at least 21 years old and they are required to obtain a license by the State gaming commission or other regulatory body. In addition to a fee, applicants must provide a photograph and proof of age and residence. A background check is conducted to make sure that ap plicants do not have a criminal history. Once hired, financial clerks usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees leam company procedures. Some formal classroom train ing also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer 388 Occupational Outlook Handbook software. Bill and account collectors generally receive training in telephone techniques, negotiation skills, and the laws governing the collection of debt. Financial clerks must be careful, orderly, and detail-oriented in order to avoid making errors and recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy, because they frequently come in contact with confi dential material. Additionally, all financial clerks should have a strong aptitude for numbers. Bookkeepers, particularly those who handle all the recordkeeping for companies, may find it beneficial to become certified. The Cer tified Bookkeeper designation, awarded by the American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, assures employers that individuals have the skills and knowledge required to carry out all the book keeping and accounting functions up through the adjusted trial bal ance, including payroll functions. For certification, candidates must have at least 2 years bookkeeping experience, pass three tests, and adhere to a code of ethics. Collection agencies may require their collectors to become certified by the American Collectors Associa tion (ACA). ACA seminars concentrate on current State and Fed eral compliance laws. Since most States recognize these credentials, ACA-certified collectors have greater career mobility. Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses offered or accredited by the American Institute of Banking (an educational affiliate of the American Bankers Association) or the Institute of Financial Educa tion (an affiliate of the Bank Administration Institute). These organ izations have several hundred chapters in cities across the country and numerous study groups in small communities. Financial clerks usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation for higher pay or by transferring to a closely re lated occupation. For example, procurement clerks with the appro priate experience often become buyers. Most companies fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within their organization, so finan cial clerks who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate expe rience and education, some clerks may become accountants; hu man resource specialists; or buyers. Job Outlook Overall employment of financial clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Despite continued growth in the volume of business transactions, rising pro ductivity stemming from the spread of office automation, as well as organizational restructuring, will adversely affect demand for finan cial clerks. Turnover in this large occupation, however, will pro vide the most job openings. As a result, opportunities should be plentiful for full-time and part-time employment as financial clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many basic data entry accounting and clerical jobs already have become heavily automated. Productivity has increased significantly, as workers increasingly use personal computers instead of manual entry and time-consuming equipment such as typewriters, adding machines, and calculators. The growing use of bar code readers, point-of-sale terminals, automated teller machines, and optical scan ners that record transactions reduces much of the data entry handled by financial clerks. In addition, the use of local area networks also is facilitating electronic data interchange—the sending of data from computer to computer—abolishing the need for clerks to reenter the data. To further eliminate duplicate functions, many large com panies are consolidating their clerical operations in a central office where accounting, billing, personnel, and payroll functions are per formed for all offices—main and satellite—within the organiza Digitizedtion. for FRASER In addition, as more companies merge or are acquired, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis accounting departments also are usually merged, reducing the num ber of financial clerks. More companies also are outsourcing their accounting functions to specialized companies that can do the job more efficiently. Despite the expected slow growth, some financial clerks will fare better than others. The number of gaming cage workers should grow over time as more Indian tribes become involved in gaming. Also, the number of bill collectors is expected to increase as con sumer debt continues to rise. The healthcare services industry is expected to hire more financial clerks, particularly billing clerks, to match the explosive growth of this sector and to process the large amounts of paperwork required to process patient claims. Earnings Salaries of financial clerks vary considerably. The region of the country, size of city, and type and size of establishment all influ ence salary levels. Also, the level of expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a clerk’s responsibilities also may affect earnings. Median hourly earnings of full-time financial clerks in 2000 were as follows: Procurement clerks..................................................... $13.33 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................... 13.07 12.34 12.17 11.81 9.99 9.21 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks..... Bill and account collectors................................ Billing and posting clerks and machine operators Gaming cage workers........................................ Tellers............................................................... In addition to their salary, some bill and account collectors re ceive commissions or bonuses based on the number of cases they close. Related Occupations Financial clerks enter data into a computer, handle cash, and keep track of business and other financial transactions. Higher level finan cial clerks can generate reports and perform analysis of the finan cial data. Other occupations that perform these duties include brokerage clerks; cashiers; credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; loan interviewers and clerks; new accounts clerks; order clerks, and secretaries and administrative assistants. For more information on financial clerks, see the following state ments on bill and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; gaming cage workers; payroll and timekeeping clerks; procurement clerks; and tellers. Bill and Account Collectors (0*NET 43-3011.00) Nature of the Work Bill and account collectors, called simply collectors, keep track of accounts that are overdue and attempt to collect payment on them. Some are employed by third-party collection agencies, while oth ers, known as “in-house collectors,” work directly for the original creditors, such as department stores, hospitals, or banks. The duties of bill and account collectors are similar in the many different organizations in which they are employed. First, collec tors are called upon to locate and notify customers of delinquent accounts, usually over the telephone, but sometimes by letter. When customers move without leaving a forwarding address, collectors Office and Administrative Support Occupations 389 .$I_j Bill and account collectors often use computers to keep track of overdue accounts. may check with the post office, telephone companies, credit bu reaus, or former neighbors to obtain their new address. This is called “skiptracing.” Once collectors find the debtor, they inform them of the overdue account and solicit payment. If necessary, they review the terms of the sale, service, or credit contract with the customer. Collectors also may attempt to learn the cause of the delay in payment. Where feasible, they offer the customer advice on how to pay off the debts, such as by taking out a bill consolidation loan. However, the collector s objective is always to ensure that the customer first pays the debt in question. If a customer agrees to pay, collectors record this commitment and check later to verify that the payment was indeed made. Col lectors may have authority to grant an extension of time if custom ers ask for one. If a customer fails to respond, collectors prepare a statement indicating this for the credit department of the establish ment. In more extreme cases, collectors may initiate repossession proceedings, service disconnections, or hand the account over to an attorney for legal action. Most collectors handle other adminis trative functions for the accounts assigned to them. This may in clude recording changes of addresses, and purging the records of the deceased. Collectors use computers and a variety of automated systems to keep track of overdue accounts. Typically, collectors work at video display terminals that are linked to computers. In sophisticated pre dictive dialer systems, a computer dials the telephone automatically and the collector speaks only when a connection has been made. Such systems eliminate time spent calling busy or nonanswering numbers. Many collectors use regular telephones, but others wear headsets like those used by telephone operators. Employment Bill and account collectors held about 400,000jobs in 2000. About 1 in 6 collectors work for collection agencies. Many others work in banks, department stores, government, hospitals, and other institu tions that lend out money and extend credit. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of bill and account collectors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as the level of consumer debt continues to rise and as more companies seek to improve their debt collection by contracting with thirdparty collection agencies. Hospitals and physician’s offices are two of the fastest growing areas requiring collectors. With insurance reimbursements not keeping up with cost increases, the healthcare industry is seeking to recover more money from patients. Govern ment agencies also are using collectors more to collect on every thing from parking tickets to child-support payments and past-due taxes. An increasing number of mergers between collection agen cies may reduce the overall growth in the number collectors, as small, less automated agencies are bought, resulting in a bigger, more efficient firm. Contrary to the pattern in most occupations, employment ofbill and account collectors tends to rise during reces sions, reflecting the difficulty that many people have in meeting their financial obligations. However, success at getting people to repay their debts is better when the economy is good. Sources of Additional Information Career information on bill and account collectors is available from: American Collectors Association, Inc., P.O. Box 39106, Minneapolis, MN 55439-0106. Internet: http://www.collector.com (Information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings appears in the introduction to financial clerk occupations.) Billing and Posting Clerks and Machine Operators (0*NET 43-3021.01, 43-3021.02, 43-3021-03) Nature of the Work Billing and posting clerks and machine operators, commonly called billing clerks, compile records of charges for services rendered or goods sold, calculate and record the amounts of these services and goods, and prepare invoices to be mailed to customers. Billing clerks review purchase orders, sales tickets, hospital records, or charge slips to calculate the total amount due from a customer. They must take into account any applicable discounts, special rates, or credit terms. A billing clerk for a trucking com pany often needs to consult a rate book to determine shipping costs of machine parts, for example. A hospital’s billing clerk may need to contact an insurance company to determine what they will reim burse. In accounting, law, consulting, and similar firms, billing clerks calculate client fees based on the actual time required to per form the task. They keep track of the accumulated hours and dollar amounts to charge to each job, the type ofjob performed for a cus tomer, and the percentage of work completed. After billing clerks review all necessary information, they com pute the charges using calculators or computers. They then prepare itemized statements, bills, or invoices used for billing and recordkeeping purposes. In one organization, the clerk might pre pare a bill containing the amount due and date and type of service; in another, the clerk would produce a detailed invoice with codes for all goods and services provided. This latter form might list items sold, credit terms, date of shipment or dates services were provided, a salesperson’s or doctor’s identification, if necessary, and the sales total. Computers and specialized billing software allow many clerks to calculate charges and prepare bills in one step. Computer packages prompt clerks to enter data from hand-written forms and manipulate 390 Occupational Outlook Handbook (See the introductory statement on financial clerks for informa tion on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) «iia ; Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for billing clerks is avail able from local offices of the State employment service. Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks __ (0*NET 43-3031.00) Billing clerks may review purchase orders, charge slips, or hospital records to calculate customers' bills. the necessary entries of quantities, labor, and rates to be charged. Billing clerks verify the entry of information and check for errors before the computer prints the bill. After the bills are printed, bill ing clerks check them again for accuracy. In offices that are not automated, billing machine operators run off the bill on a billing machine to send to the customer. In addition to producing invoices, billing clerks may be asked to handle follow-up questions from customers and resolve any dis crepancies or errors. And, finally, all changes must be entered in the accounting records. Employment In 2000, billing and posting clerks and machine operators held about 506,000 jobs. Although all industries employ billing clerks, the health services industry employs the most. About 1 in 3 billing clerks work in health services. Transportation and wholesale trade industries also employ a large number of billing clerks. Job Outlook Employment of billing and posting clerks and machine operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. As computers simplify the jobs of most billing clerks, more of these jobs are being performed by other accounting or bookkeeping clerks. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will occur as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in this occupation is relatively high, which is characteristic of an entry-level occupation requiring only a high school diploma. Most of the employment growth will occur in the expanding health services industries and in accounting firms and other billing services companies, as a result of increased outsourcing of this service. Other areas will see declines as the billing function becomes increasingly automated and invoices and statements are automatically generated upon delivery of the service or shipment of the goods. Bills also will increasingly be delivered electroni cally over the Internet, eliminating the production and mailing of paper bills. The health services area will also see increasing auto mation. More medical billers are using electronic billing software to electronically submit insurance claims to the insurer. This speeds up the process and eliminates many of the coding errors that medi cal bills are prone to have. The standardization of codes in the medical field also is expected to simplify medical bills and reduce errors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ______ Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are an organization s financial recordkeepers. They update and maintain one or more accounting records, including those that tabulate expenditures, receipts, accounts payable and receivable, and profit and loss. They have a wide range of skills and knowledge, from full-charge book keepers, who can maintain an entire company’s books, to accounting clerks who handle specific accounts. All of these clerks make nu merous computations each day and increasingly must be comfort able using computers to calculate and record data. In small establishments, bookkeeping clerks handle all financial transactions and recordkeeping. They record all transactions, post debits and credits, produce financial statements, and prepare re ports and summaries for supervisors and managers. Bookkeepers also prepare bank deposits by compiling data from cashiers, verify ing and balancing receipts, and sending cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. They also may handle the payroll, make purchases, prepare invoices, and keep track of overdue accounts. In large offices and accounting departments, accounting clerks have more specialized tasks. Their titles often reflect the type of accounting they do, such as accounts payable clerk or accounts re ceivable clerk. In addition, responsibilities vary by level of experi ence. Entry-level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total accounts, and compute interest charges. They also may monitor loans and accounts, to ensure that payments are up to date. More advanced accounting clerks may total, balance, and recon cile billing vouchers; ensure completeness and accuracy of data on accounts; and code documents, according to company procedures. They post transactions in journals and on computer files and update these files when needed. Senior clerks also review computer print outs against manually maintained journals and make necessary cor rections. They also may review invoices and statements to ensure that all information is accurate and complete, and reconcile com puter reports with operating reports. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other workers. They check figures, postings, and documents for correct entry, mathematical accuracy, and proper codes. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other workers to adjust. As organizations continue to computerize their financial records, many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks use specialized accounting software on personal computers. They increasingly post charges to accounts on computer spreadsheets and databases, as manual posting to general ledgers is becoming obsolete. These workers now enter information from receipts or bills into comput ers, which is then stored either electronically, as computer printouts, or both. Widespread use of computers also has enabled bookkeep ing, accounting, and auditing clerks to take on additional responsi bilities, such as payroll, procurement, and billing. Many of these functions require these clerks to write letters, make phone calls to customers or clients, and interact with colleagues. Therefore, good communication skills are becoming increasingly important. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 391 I *** WMXJ* OLtW* WfWWG Bookkeepers with some college accounting training will have the best job prospects. Employment Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held about 2 million jobs in 2000. Although they can be found in all industries and levels of government, a growing number work for personnel supply firms, the result of an increase in outsourcing of this occupation. Approximately 1 out of 4 bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks worked part time in 2000. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in the employment of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks through 2010. Virtually all job open ings will stem from replacement needs. Each year, numerous jobs will become available as these clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The large size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for temporary and part-time work, even though turnover is lower than for other clerical jobs. Although a growing economy will result in more financial trans actions and other activities that require these clerical workers, the continuing spread of office automation will lift worker productiv ity and contribute to the lack of growth in employment. In addi tion, organizations of all sizes will continue to consolidate various recordkeeping functions, thus reducing the demand for these clerks. Specialized clerks will be in much less demand than those who can do a wider range of accounting activities. Demand for fullcharge bookkeepers is expected to increase as they are called upon to do much of the work of accountants. Those with several years of accounting or bookkeeper certification will have the best job prospects. Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Bookkeeper designation, contact: > The American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, 6001 Montrose Rd., Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.aipb.org (See the introductory statement on financial clerks for informa tion on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Gaming Cage Workers (0*NET 43-3041.00) Nature of the Work Gaming cage workers, more commonly called cage cashiers, work Digitized in forcasinos FRASER and other gaming establishments. The “cage,” where these https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Gaming cage workers must follow strict procedures for handling money. workers can be found, is the central depository for money, gaming chips, and paperwork necessary to support casino play. Cage work ers perform a wide range of financial transactions and handle any paperwork that may be required. They perform credit checks and verify credit references for people who want to open a house credit account. They cash checks according to rules established by the casino. Cage workers sell gambling chips, tokens, or tickets to pa trons or to other workers for resale to patrons and exchange chips and tokens for cash. They may use cash registers, adding machines, or computers to calculate and record transactions. At the end of their shift, cage cashiers must reconcile the books and make sure they balance. Cageworkers must follow a number of rules and regulations re lated to their handling of money as this industry is highly scruti nized. Large cash transactions, for example, must be reported to the Internal Revenue Service. Also, when determining when to extend credit or cash a check, very detailed procedures must be followed. Employment Gaming cage workers held about 22,000 jobs in 2000. All of them work in the gaming industry, which is heavily concentrated in Ne vada and Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, a growing number of States and Indian reservations have legalized gambling and gam ing establishments can now be found in many parts of the country. Job Outlook Employment of gaming cage workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition, even more job openings should result from high turnover in this occupation due to the high level of scrutiny workers in this occupa tion receive and the need to be very accurate. Opportunities for gaming cage workers depend on the health of the gaming industry. The industry as a whole is strong and demand will remain high as gambling becomes a more popular and acceptable leisure pursuit. However, as a result of a boom in casino building in the 1990s, slower growth in casino building in established markets is expected. New casinos will be built on Indian reservations, especially in Cali fornia, where the legislature recently passed a law allowing casinos on tribal lands in that State. Persons with good math skills, some background in accounting or bookkeeping, and good customer ser vice skills should have the best opportunities. 392 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for gaming cage work ers is available from local offices of the State employment service. (See the introductory statement on financial clerks for informa tion on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks (0*NET 43-3051.00) Nature of the Work Payroll and timekeeping clerks perform a vital function—ensuring that employees are paid on time and that their paychecks are accu rate. If inaccuracies arise, such as monetary errors or incorrect amounts of vacation time, these workers research and correct the records. In addition, they may also perform various other clerical tasks. Automated timekeeping systems that allow employees to directly enter their hours worked into a computer have eliminated much of the data entry and review by timekeepers and has elevated the job of payroll clerk. But in offices that have not automated this function, payroll and timekeeping clerks still perform many of the following functions. The fundamental task of timekeeping clerks is distributing and collecting timecards each pay period. They review employee workcharts, timesheets, and timecards to ensure that information is properly recorded and that records have the signatures of authoriz ing officials. In companies that bill for the time spent by staff, such as law or accounting firms, timekeeping clerks make sure the hours recorded are charged to the correct job, so clients can be properly billed. These clerks also review computer reports listing timecards that cannot be processed because of errors, and they contact the employee or the employee’s supervisor to resolve the problem. In addition, timekeeping clerks are responsible for informing manag ers and other employees of procedural changes in payroll policies. Payroll clerks, also called payroll technicians, screen timecards for calculating, coding, or other errors. They compute pay by sub tracting allotments, including Federal and State taxes, retirement, insurance, and savings, from gross earnings. Increasingly, comput ers perform these calculations and alert payroll clerks to problems or errors in the data. In small organizations, or for new employees whose records are not yet entered into a computer system, clerks may perform the necessary calculations manually. In some small Payroll clerks review computer listings for payroll errors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis '■; -Tv offices, clerks or other employees in the accounting department pro cess payroll. Payroll clerks record changes in employee addresses; close out files when workers retire, resign, or transfer; and advise employ ees on income tax withholding and other mandatory deductions. They also issue and record adjustments to pay because of previous errors or retroactive increases. Payroll clerks need to follow changes in tax and deduction laws, so they are aware of the most recent revisions. Finally, they prepare and mail earnings and tax with holding statements for employees’ use in preparing income tax returns. In small offices, payroll and timekeeping duties are likely to be included in the duties of a general office clerk, secretary, or accounting clerk. Flowever, large organizations employ special ized payroll and timekeeping clerks to perform these functions. In offices that have automated timekeeping systems, payroll clerks perform more analysis of the data, look at trends, and work with computer systems. They also spend more time answering employee questions and processing unique data. Employment Payroll and timekeeping clerks held about 201,000 jobs in 2000. They can be found in every industry, but a growing number work for personnel supply companies and for accounting firms, which are taking on payroll duties as an additional service. About 13 per cent of all payroll and timekeeping clerks worked part time in 2000. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in the employment of payroll and timekeeping clerks through 2010, due to the continuing automation ofpayroll and timekeeping functions and the consolidation of clerical jobs. A growing number of mergers and acquisitions also will ad versely affect payroll departments as administrative offices are usu ally the first to be downsized. Nevertheless, a number of job openings should arise in coming years as payroll and timekeeping clerks leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Many payroll clerks use this position as a steppingstone to higher level accounting jobs. As in many other clerical occupations, new technology will con tinue to allow many of the tasks formerly handled by payroll and timekeeping clerks to be partially or completely automated. For example, automated timeclocks, which calculate employee hours, allow large organizations to centralize their timekeeping duties in one location. At individual sites, employee hours are increasingly tracked by computer and verified by managers. This information is then compiled and sent to a central office to be processed by pay roll clerks, eliminating the need to have payroll clerks at every site. In addition, the growing use of direct deposit eliminates the need to draft paychecks, because these funds are automatically transferred each pay period. Also, a growing number of organizations are allow ing employees to automatically update their payroll records. Fur thermore, payroll and timekeeping duties are increasingly being distributed to secretaries, general office clerks, or accounting clerks or are being contracted out to organizations that specialize in these services. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for payroll and timekeep ing clerks is available from local offices of the State employment service. (See the introductory statement on financial clerks for informa tion on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Office and Administrative Support Occupations 393 Procurement Clerks (0*NET 43-3061.00) Nature of the Work Procurement clerks compile requests for materials, prepare purchase orders, keep track of purchases and supplies, and handle inquiries about orders. Usually c&Wcd purchasing clerks, ox purchasing tech nicians, they perform a variety of tasks related to the ordering of goods and supplies for an organization and make sure that what was purchased arrives when scheduled and meets the purchaser’s specifications. Automation is having a profound effect on the occupation. Or ders for goods can now be placed electronically when supplies are low. For example, computers integrated with cash registers at stores record purchases and automatically reorder goods when supplies reach a certain target level. However, automation is still years away for many firms and the role of the procurement clerk is unchanged in many organizations. There is a wide range of tasks performed by procurement clerks and a wide range of responsibilities. Some clerks may act more like buyers, particularly at small to medium-sized companies, while oth ers perform strictly clerical functions. In general, procurement clerks process requests for purchases. They first determine if there is any product left in inventory and may go through catalogs or to the Internet to find suppliers. They may prepare invitation-to-bid forms and mail them to suppliers or distribute them for public posting. Once suppliers are found, they may interview the suppliers to check on prices and specifications and put together spreadsheets with price comparisons and other facts about each supplier. Upon approval of a supplier, purchase orders are prepared, mailed, and recorded into computers. Procurement clerks keep track of orders and determine the causes of any delays. If the supplier has questions, clerks try to answer them and resolve any problems. When the shipment ar rives, procurement clerks may reconcile the purchase order with the shipment, making sure they match, notify the vendors when invoices not received, and make sure the bills concur with the pur chase orders. Some purchasing departments, particularly in small companies, are responsible for overseeing the organization’s inventory control system. At these organizations, procurement clerks monitor in-house inventory movement and complete inventory transfer forms for book keeping purposes. They may keep inventory spreadsheets and place orders when materials on hand are insufficient. mm Procurement clerks prepare purchase orders and make sure the Digitized shipment for FRASER and the bills agree with the order. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment In 2000, procurement clerks held about 76,000 jobs. Procurement clerks are found in every industry, including manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, healthcare, and government. Job Outlook Employment of procurement clerks is expected to decline through 2010 as a result of increasing automation. The need for procure ment clerks will be reduced as the use of computers to place orders directly with suppliers—called electronic data interchange—and as ordering over the Internet—known as “e-procurement”—become more commonplace. In addition, procurement responsibilities are gradually being decentralized within organizations and are increas ingly being performed in the originating departments by managers or by a designated employee. These departments may be issued procurement cards, which are similar to credit cards, that enable a department to charge purchases up to a specified amount. Although employment in the occupation is expected to decline, job openings will occur for qualified individuals as workers trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Persons with good writing and communication skills, along with computer skills, will have the best opportunities for employment. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for procurement clerks is available from local offices of the State employment service. (See the introductory statement on financial clerks for informa tion on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Tellers (0*NET 43-3071.00) Nature of the Work The teller is the person most people associate with a bank. Tellers make up 25 percent of bank employees, and conduct most of a bank’s routine transactions. Among their responsibilities are cashing checks, accepting deposits and loan payments, and processing with drawals. They also may sell savings bonds, accept payment for customers’ utility bills and charge cards, process necessary paper work for certificates of deposit, and sell travelers’ checks. Some tellers specialize in handling foreign currencies or commercial or business accounts. Being a teller requires a great deal of attention to detail. Before cashing a check, a teller must verify the date, bank name, identifi cation of the person to receive payment, and legality of the docu ment. They also must make sure that written and numerical amounts agree and that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller then must carefully count cash to avoid errors. Some times a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller prepares and verifies. When accepting a deposit, tellers must check the accuracy of the deposit slip before process ing the transaction. Prior to starting their shift, tellers receive and count an amount of working cash for their drawer. A supervisor, usually the head teller, verifies this amount. Tellers use this cash for payments dur ing the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. Before leaving, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a balance sheet, make sure the accounts balance, and sort checks and deposit slips. Over the course of a workday, tellers also may process numerous mail transactions. Some tellers replenish cash drawers and corroborate deposits and payments to automated teller machines (ATMs). 394 Occupational Outlook Handbook ■ill# ars There will be fewer jobs for tellers as more people access funds electronically. In most banks, head tellers are responsible for the teller line. They set work schedules, ensure that the proper procedures are ad hered to, and act as a mentor to less experienced tellers. In addi tion, head tellers may perform the typical duties of a teller as needed and deal with the more difficult customer problems. They may ac cess the vault, ensure the correct cash balance is in the vault, and oversee large cash transactions. Technology continues to play a large role in the job duties of all tellers. In most banks, for ex ample, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and with drawals. These terminals often give tellers quick access to detailed information on customer accounts. Tellers can use this information to tailor services to fit a customer’s needs or to recommend an ap propriate bank product or service. As banks begin to offer more and increasingly complex finan cial services, tellers are being trained to identify potential sales op portunities. This requires them to learn about the various financial products and services the bank offers so they can briefly explain them to customers and refer interested customers to appropriate specialized sales personnel. In addition, tellers in many banks are being cross-trained to perform some of the functions of customer service representatives. (Customer service representatives are dis cussed separately in the Handbook.) Employment Tellers held about 499,000 jobs in 2000; about 1 out of 4 worked part time. The overwhelming majority worked in commercial banks, savings institutions, or credit unions. The remainder were employed in a variety of other financial service companies. Job Outlook Employment of tellers is expected to decline through 2010. Never theless, many job openings will arise from replacement needs because turnover is high—a characteristic typical of large occupations that normally require little formal education and offer relatively low pay. The banking industry will continue to undergo many changes that will impact employment of traditional tellers, who perform only routine transactions. Principal among these are technology and changing employment needs. For example, ATMs and the increased use of direct deposit of paychecks and benefit checks have reduced the need for bank customers to interact with tellers for routine trans actions. In addition, electronic banking is spreading rapidly through out the banking industry. This type of banking, conducted over the telephone or the Internet, also will reduce the number of tellers over the long run. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Teller employment also is being impacted by the increasing use of 24-hour phone centers by many large banks. These telephone centers allow a customer to interact with a bank representative at a distant location, either by telephone or video terminal. Such cen ters usually are staffed by customer service representatives, who can handle a wider variety of transactions than tellers, including loan applications and credit card issuance. Even though some banks have streamlined their branches, the total number of bank branches is expected to increase to meet the needs of a growing population. Branches are being added in nontraditional locations, such as grocery stores, malls, and mobile trailers designed to reach people who do not have easy access to banks. Often, these branches are open longer hours and offer greater cus tomer convenience. Many of these nontraditional branch offices are small and are staffed by tellers who also have customer service training. As a result, tellers who can provide a variety of financial services will be in greater demand in the future. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for tellers is available from local offices of the State employment service. (See the introductory statement on financial clerks for informa tion on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Information and Record Clerks _____ (0**NET 43-4011.00, 43-4021.00, 43-4031.01, 43-4031.02, 43-4031.03, 43-4041.01, 43-4041.02, 43-4051.01, 43-4051.02, 43-4061.01, 43 4061.02, 43-4071.00, 43-4081.00, 43-4111.00, 43-4121.00, 43-4131.00, 43-4)41.00, 43-4151.00, 43-4161.00, 43-4171.00, 43-4181.01, 43 4181.02) Significant Points • • • Numerous job openings should arise for most types of information and record clerks due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave these occupations. A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Because many information and record clerks deal directly with the public, a professional appearance and pleasant personality are imperative. Nature of the Work Information and record clerks are found in nearly every industry in the Nation, gathering data and providing information to the public. The specific duties of these clerks vary as widely as the job titles they hold. Although their day-to-day duties vary widely, most information clerks greet customers, guests, or other visitors. Many also answer telephones and either obtain information from or provide informa tion to the public. Most information clerks use multiline telephones, fax machines, and personal computers. Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks, for example, are a guest’s first contact for check-in, check-out, and other services within hotels, motels, and resorts. Interviewers, except eligibility and loan, found most often in medi cal facilities, research firms, and financial institutions, assist the public in completing forms, applications, or questionnaires. Eligi bility interviewers, government programs determine eligibility of individuals applying to receive assistance. Receptionists and infor mation clerks often are a visitor’s or caller’s first contact within an organization, providing information and routing calls. Reservation Office and Administrative Support Occupations 395 and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks assist the public in making travel plans, reservations, and purchasing tickets for a variety of transportation services. Court, municipal, and license clerks perform administrative duties in courts of law, municipalities, and governmental licensing agen cies and bureaus. Court clerks prepare the docket of cases to be called, secure information forjudges, and contact witnesses, attor neys, and litigants to obtain information for the court. Municipal clerks prepare draft agendas or bylaws for town or city councils, answer official correspondence, and keep fiscal records and accounts. License clerks issue licenses or permits, record data, administer tests, and collect fees. New account clerks interview individuals desiring to open bank accounts. Their principal tasks include handling customer inquir ies, explaining the institution’s products and services to people, and referring customers to the appropriate sales personnel. If a cus tomer wants to open a checking or savings account, or an IRA, the new account clerk will interview the customer and enter the re quired information into a computer for processing. Customer service representatives interact with customers to pro vide information in response to inquires about products and ser vices and to handle and resolve complaints. Record clerks, on the other hand, maintain, update, and process a variety of records, ranging from payrolls to information on the shipment of goods or bank statements. They ensure that other work ers get paid on time, customers’ questions are answered, and records are kept of all transactions. Depending on their specific titles, these workers perform a wide variety of recordkeeping duties. Brokerage clerks prepare and main tain the records generated when stocks, bonds, and other types of investments are traded. File clerks store and retrieve various kinds of office information for use by staff members. Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping maintain employee records. Library assistants, clerical assist library patrons. Order clerks process incoming orders for goods and services. Correspon dence clerks reply to customers regarding damage claims, delin quent accounts, incorrect billings, complaints of unsatisfactory service, and requests for merchandise exchanges or returns. Loan interviewers and clerks and credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks review credit history and obtain the information needed to deter mine the creditworthiness of loan and credit card applications. The duties of record clerks vary with the size of the firm. In a small business, a bookkeeping clerk may handle all financial records and transactions, as well as payroll and personnel duties. A large firm, on the other hand, may employ specialized accounting, payroll, and human resources clerks. In general, however, clerical staffs in firms of all sizes increasingly perform a broader variety of tasks than in the past. This is especially true for clerical occupations involving accounting work. As the growing use of computers enables book keeping, accounting, and auditing clerks to become more productive, these workers may assume billing, payroll, and timekeeping duties. Another change in these occupations is the growing use of finan cial software to enter and manipulate data. Computer programs automatically perform calculations on data that were previously calculated manually. Computers also enable clerks to access data within files more quickly than the former method of reviewing stacks ofpaper. Nevertheless, most workers still keep backup paper records for research, auditing, and reference purposes. Despite the grow ing use of automation, interaction with the public and coworkers remains a basic part of the job for many records processing clerks. Working Conditions Working conditions vary for different types of information and record Digitized clerks, for FRASER but most clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis relatively quiet. This is especially true for information clerks who greet customers and visitors and usually work in highly visible ar eas that are furnished to make a good impression. Reservation agents and interviewing clerks who spend much of their day talking on the telephone, however, commonly work away from the public, often in large centralized reservation or phone centers. Because a num ber of agents or clerks may share the same workspace, it may be crowded and noisy. Interviewing clerks may conduct surveys on the street, in shopping malls, or go door to door. Although most information and record clerks work a standard 40-hour week, about 1 out of 5 work part time. Some high school and college students work part time as information clerks, after school or during vacations. Some jobs—such as those in the trans portation industry, hospitals, and hotels, in particular—may require working evenings, late night shifts, weekends, and holidays. This also is the case for a growing number of customer service represen tatives who work for large banks with call centers that are staffed around the clock. Interviewing clerks conducting surveys or other research may mainly work evenings or weekends. In general, employees with the least seniority tend to be assigned the less desirable shifts. The work performed by information clerks may be repetitious and stressful. For example, many receptionists spend all day an swering telephones while performing additional clerical or secre tarial tasks. Reservation agents and travel clerks work under stringent time constraints or have quotas on the number of calls answered or reservations made. Additional stress is caused by tech nology that enables management to electronically monitor use of computer systems, tape record telephone calls, or limit the time spent on each call. The work of hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks and transporta tion ticket agents also can be stressful when trying to serve the needs of difficult or angry customers. When flights are canceled, reserva tions mishandled, or guests are dissatisfied, these clerks must bear the brunt of the customers’ anger. Hotel desk clerks and ticket agents may be on their feet most of the time, and ticket agents may have to lift heavy baggage. In addition, prolonged exposure to a video dis play terminal may lead to eye strain for the many information clerks who work with computers. Employment Information and record clerks held 5.1 million jobs in 2000. The following tabulation shows employment for the individual occu pations. Customer service representatives.................................................. Receptionists and information clerks............................................ Order clerks......................................................................................... File clerks............................................................................................ Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.. Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.............................................. Interviewers, except eligibility and loan ...................................... Loan interviewers and clerks.......................................................... Eligibility interviewers, government programs.......................... Court, municipal, and license clerks............................................. Library assistants, clerical............................................................... New accounts clerks.......................................................................... Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks....................................... Brokerage clerks................................................................................. Correspondence clerks ......... ,.......................................................... 1,946,000 1,078,000 348,000 288,000 191,000 177,000 177,000 154,000 139,000 117,000 105,000 98,000 87,000 86,000 70,000 38,000 Although information and record clerks are found in a variety of industries, employment is concentrated in health services; finance, insurance, and real estate; transportation, communications, and utili ties; and business services. 396 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although hiring requirements for information and record clerk jobs vary from industry to industry, a high school diploma or its equiva lent is the most common educational requirement. Increasingly, familiarity or experience with computers and good interpersonal skills often are equally important to employers. Although many employers prefer to hire information and record clerks with a higher level of education, it is only required in a few of these clerical occu pations. For example, brokerage firms usually seek college gradu ates for brokerage clerk jobs, and order clerks in high-technology firms often need to understand scientific and mechanical processes, which may require some college education. For customer service representatives, new account clerks, and airline reservation and ticket agent jobs, some college education may be preferred. Many information clerks deal directly with the public, so a pro fessional appearance and pleasant personality are important. A clear speaking voice and fluency in the English language also are essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address systems. Good spelling and computer literacy often are needed, particularly because most work involves considerable computer use. It also is increasingly helpful for those wishing to enter the lodging or travel industries to speak a foreign language fluently. With the exception of airline reservation and transportation ticket agents, orientation and training for information clerks usu ally takes place on the job. For example, orientation for hotel and motel desk clerks usually includes an explanation of the job duties and information about the establishment, such as room locations and available services. New employees learn job tasks through on-the-job training under the guidance of a supervisor or an expe rienced clerk. They often need additional training in how to use the computerized reservation, room assignment, and billing sys tems and equipment. Most clerks continue to receive instruction on new procedures and company policies after their initial train ing ends. Receptionists usually receive on-the-job training which may include procedures for greeting visitors, operating telephone and computer systems, and distributing mail, fax, and parcel deliveries. Some employers look for applicants who already possess certain skills, such as prior computer and word processing experience, or previous formal education. Customer service representatives also receive on-the-job training, which includes instructions on how to operate telephone and computer systems. These workers must pos sess strong communication skills since they are constantly interact ing with customers. Most airline reservation and ticket agents leam their skills through formal company training programs. In a classroom setting, they leam company and industry policies, computer systems, and ticket ing procedures. They also leam to use the airline’s computer sys tem to obtain information on schedules, seat availability, and fares; to reserve space for passengers; and to plan passenger itineraries. They also must become familiar with airport and airline code desig nations, regulations, and safety procedures, and may be tested on this knowledge. After completing classroom instmction, new agents work on the job with supervisors or experienced agents for a pe riod. During this period, supervisors may monitor telephone con versations to improve the quality of customer service. Agents are expected to provide good service while limiting the time spent on each call without being discourteous to customers. In contrast to the airlines, automobile clubs, bus lines, and railroads tend to train their ticket agents or travel clerks on the job through short in-house classes that last several days. Most banks prefer to hire college graduates for new account clerk positions. Nevertheless, many new account clerks without college https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis degrees start out as bank tellers and are promoted by demonstrating excellent communication skills and motivation to leam new skills. If a new account clerk has not been a teller before, he or she often will receive such training and work for several months as a teller. In both cases, new account clerks undergo formal training regard ing the bank’s procedures, products, and services. Record clerks often leam the skills they need in high schools, business schools, and community colleges. Business education pro grams offered by these institutions typically include courses in typ ing, word processing, shorthand, business communications, records management, and office systems and procedures. Specialized order clerks in technical positions obtain their training from technical insti tutes and 2- and 4-year colleges. Some entry-level record clerks are college graduates with de grees in business, finance, or liberal arts. Although a degree rarely is required, many graduates accept entry-level clerical positions to get into a particular company or to enter a particular field. Some companies, such as brokerage and accounting firms, have a set plan of advancement that tracks college graduates from entry-level clerical jobs into managerial positions. Workers with college degrees are likely to start at higher salaries and advance more easily than those without degrees. Once hired, record clerks usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior workers, new employees leam company procedures. Some formal classroom train ing also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Advancement for information and record clerks usually comes by transfer to a position with more responsibilities or by promotion to a supervisory position. Most companies fill office and adminis trative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals within their organization, so information clerks who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. Receptionists, interviewers, and new account clerks with word processing or other clerical skills may advance to a better paying job as a secretary or administrative assis tant. Within the airline industry, a ticket agent may advance to lead worker on the shift. Additional training is helpful in preparing information clerks for promotion. In the lodging industry, clerks can improve their chances for advancement by taking home or group study courses in lodging management, such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. In some industries— such as lodging, banking, insurance, or the airlines—workers com monly are promoted through the ranks. Information and record clerk positions offer good opportunities for qualified workers to get started in the business. In a number of industries, a college degree may be required for advancement to management ranks. Job Outlook Overall employment of information and record clerks is expected grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition to many openings occurring as businesses and organi zations expand, numerous job openings for information and record clerks will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replace ment needs are expected to be significant in this large occupational group, as many young people work as clerks for a few years before switching to other, higher paying jobs. The occupation is wellsuited to flexible work schedules, and many opportunities for part time work will continue to be available, particularly as organizations attempt to cut labor costs by hiring more part-time or temporary workers. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 397 The outlook for different types of information and record clerks is expected to vary in the coming decade. Customer service repre sentatives are expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations, as they increasingly take over the duties of a variety of other workers. Economic growth and general business expansion are expected to stimulate faster than average growth among recep tionists and information clerks. Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks are expected to grow faster than the average, as the occupational composition of the lodging industry changes and services provided by these workers expand. Employment of interviewers, except eli gibility and loan also is expected to grow faster than average, as these workers will benefit from rapid growth in the health services industry. Library assistants and human resources assistants are expected to grow about as fast as average as these workers take on more responsibilities. Average employment growth also is projected for court, municipal, and license clerks as the number of court cases and demand for citizen services continues to increase. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks also are expected to grow about as fast as average due to rising demand for travel services. Employment of correspondence clerks; credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; file clerks; and new account clerks, on the other hand, is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations due to automation and the consolidation of recordkeeping functions across all industries. The remainder of the information and record clerks are expected to decline. Employment of eligibility interviewers will decline as government programs, such as welfare, continue to be reformed, reducing the need for these types of workers. Both brokerage clerks and loan interviewers are expected to decline as online trading and other technological innovations continue to automate more of this type of work. And, employment of order clerks is expected to decline as advances in electronic commerce continue to increase the efficiency of transactions among businesses, consumers, and government. Earnings Earnings vary widely by occupation and experience. Annual earn ings ranged from less than $12,370 for the lowest paid 10 percent of hotel clerks to over $51,410 for the top 10 percent of brokerage clerks in 2000. Salaries of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks tend to be significantly higher than for other information and record clerks, while hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks tend to earn quite a bit less, as the following tabulation of median annual earnings shows. Brokerage clerks.................................................................................... Eligibility interviewers, government programs.............................. Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..... Loan interviewers and clerks.............................................................. Court, municipal, and license clerks................................................ Customer service representatives...................................................... Credit authorizes, checkers, and clerks........................................... Correspondence clerks......................................................................... Order clerks............................................................................................ New accounts clerks............................................................................. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ... Interviewers, except eligibility and loan.......................................... Receptionists and information clerks............................................... File clerks................................................................................................ Library assistants, clerical................................................................... Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.................................................. $31,060 28,380 28,340 26,410 26,150 24,600 24,570 24,150 23 620 23,090 22,620 20,840 20,040 18,700 17,980 16,380 Earnings of hotel and motel desk clerks also vary considerably depending on the location, size, and type of establishment in which Digitized they for FRASER work. For example, clerks at large luxury hotels and those https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis located in metropolitan and resort areas generally pay clerks more than less exclusive or “budget” establishments and those located in less populated areas. In early 2001, the Federal Government typically paid salaries ranging from $18,667 to $22,734 a year to beginning receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of experience. The aver age annual salary for all receptionists employed by the Federal Gov ernment was about $24,477 in 2001. In addition to their hourly wage, full-time information and record clerks who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may re ceive shift differential pay. Some employers offer educational as sistance to their employees. Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks receive free or reduced rate travel on their company’s carriers for themselves and their immediate family and, in some companies, for friends. Related Occupations A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and pro vide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these are dispatchers, security guards and gaming surveil lance workers, tellers, and counter and rental clerks. For more information on information and record clerks, see the statements on brokerage clerks; credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; customer service representatives; file clerks; hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks; human resources assistants; interviewers; library assistants; order clerks; receptionists and information clerks; and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks following this statement. Brokerage Clerks (0*NET 43-4011.00) Nature of the Work Brokerage clerks perform a number of different jobs with wide rang ing responsibilities, but all involve computing and recording data on securities transactions. Brokerage clerks also may contact cus tomers, take orders, and inform clients of changes to their accounts. Some of these jobs are more clerical and require only a high school diploma, while others are considered entry-level positions for which a bachelor’s degree is needed. Brokerage clerks, who work in the operations departments of securities firms, on trading floors, and in branch offices, also are called margin clerks, dividend clerks, trans fer clerks, and broker’s assistants. The broker’s assistant, also called sales assistant, is the most common type of brokerage clerk. These workers typically assist two brokers, for whom they take calls from clients, write up order tickets, process the paperwork for opening and closing accounts, record a client’s purchases and sales, and inform clients of changes in their accounts. All brokers’ assistants must be knowledgeable about investment products so that they can clearly communicate with clients. Those with a “Series 7” license can make recommen dations to clients at the instruction of the broker. The Series 7 li cense is issued to securities and commodities sales representatives by the National Association of Securities Dealers and allows them to provide advice on securities to the public. Brokerage clerks in the operations areas of securities firms per form many duties to facilitate the sale and purchase of stocks, bonds, commodities, and other kinds of investments. These clerks pro duce the necessary records of all transactions that occur in their area of the business. Job titles for many of these clerks depend upon the type of work they perform. Purchase-and-sale clerks, for 398 Occupational Outlook Handbook securities, brokerage clerks will still be required to process larger volumes of transactions. And, some brokerage clerks will still be needed to update records, enter changes to customer’s accounts, and verify securities transfers. However, due to the emergence of online trading and widespread automation in the securities and com modities industry, the demand for brokerage clerks in the coming decade will be limited. All job openings will stem from the need to replace clerks who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks ____ ___ (0*NET 43-4041.01, 43-4041.02) lllrPSi" Nature of the Work Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks review credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of individuals or businesses applying for credit. They spend much of their day on the telephone obtaining information from credit bu reaus, employers, banks, credit institutions, and other sources to determine applicants’ credit history and ability to pay back the charge. Brokerage clerks record data on securities transactions. example, match orders to buy with orders to sell. They balance and verify stock trades by comparing the records of the selling firm with those of the buying firm. Dividend clerks ensure timely payments of stock or cash dividends to clients of a particular brokerage firm. Transfer clerks execute customer requests for changes to security registration and examine stock certificates for adherence to bank ing regulations. Receive-and-deliver clerks facilitate the receipt and delivery of securities among firms and institutions. Margin clerks post to and monitor activity in customers’ accounts to ensure that clients make payments and stay within legal boundaries con cerning stock purchases. Technology is changing the nature of many of these workers’ jobs. A significant and growing number of brokerage clerks use custom-designed software programs to process transactions more quickly. Only a few customized accounts are still handled manu ally. Furthermore, the rapid expansion of online trading reduces the amount of paperwork because brokerage clerks are able to make trades electronically. Employment Brokerage clerks held about 70,000 jobs in 2000. Most worked in firms that sell securities and commodities. Job Outlook Employment of brokerage clerks is expected to decline through the year 2010, as technological advancements continue to automate many of their job duties. With people increasingly investing in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I Credit clerks typically handle the processing ofcredit applications. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 399 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks process and authorize applications for credit, including credit cards. Although the dis tinctions among the three job titles are becoming less, some general differences remain. Credit clerks typically handle the processing of credit applications by verifying the information on the applica tion, calling applicants if additional data are needed, contacting credit bureaus for a credit rating, and obtaining any other information nec essary to determine applicants’ creditworthiness. If the clerk works in a department store or other establishment that offers instant credit, he or she enters applicant information into a computer at the pointof-sale. A credit rating will then be transmitted from a central of fice within seconds to indicate whether the application should be rejected or approved. Some organizations have credit checkers, who investigate a person’s or business’s credit history and current credit standing prior to the issuance of a loan or line of credit. Credit checkers also may telephone or write to credit departments of businesses and service companies to obtain information about an applicant’s credit standing. Credit reporting agencies and bureaus hire a num ber of checkers to secure, update, and verify information for cre dit reports. These workers often are called credit investigators or reporters. Credit authorizers approve charges against customers’ existing accounts. Most charges are approved automatically by computer. When accounts are past due, overextended, or invalid, or show a change of address, however, sales persons refer transactions to credit authorizers located in a central office. These authorizers evaluate the customers’ computerized credit records and payment histories to quickly decide whether or not to approve new charges. Employment Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks held about 86,000 jobs in 2000. About 4 out of 10 were employed by commercial and sav ings banks, credit unions, mortgage banks, and personal and busi ness credit institutions. Credit reporting and collection agencies and establishments in wholesale and retail trade also employ these clerks. Job Outlook Slower-than-average employment growth for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks is expected through 2010. Despite a projected increase in the number of credit applications, automation will al low fewer workers to process, check, and authorize applications than in the past. Credit scoring is a major development that has improved the productivity of these workers, thus limiting employment growth. Companies and credit bureaus now can purchase software that quickly analyzes an applicant’s creditworthiness and summarizes it into a “score.” Credit issuers then can easily decide whether to accept or reject the application depending on the score, speeding up the authorization of loans or credit. Obtaining credit ratings also is much easier for credit checkers and authorizers, as busi nesses now have computer systems that are directly linked to credit bureaus that provide immediate access to a person’s credit history. The job outlook for credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in interest rates usually lead to a decline in demand for credit. Even in slow economic times, however, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training, requirements, and earnings). https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Customer Service Representatives (Q*NET 43-4051.01, 43-4051.02) Nature of the Work Customer service representatives interact with customers to pro vide information in response to inquires about products and ser vices. They also handle and resolve customer’s complaints. Some customer service representatives assist individuals interested in opening accounts for various utilities such as electricity and gas, or for communication services such as cable television and telephone. In many cases, they gather information by phone or in person. They receive orders for services to be installed, turned on, turned off, or changed. They may look into and resolve complaints about billings and service provided by phone, cable television, and utility compa nies. Customer service representatives also may explain how to use equipment and solve any equipment problems. Others explain to users how to navigate an Internet site. Many customer service representatives use multiline telephones, fax machines, and personal computers. Because banks are highly automated, their customer service call centers route each call to the first available representative as quickly as possible. Insurance agen cies, on the other hand, often use time-consuming searches for files and related paperwork in providing customer service. Self-service Web sites and e-mail are providing more efficient and targeted customer service. Many companies are starting to trans form conventional call centers, and e-mail has become a principal method through which to serve customers. The challenge of pro viding customer service via e-mail is having enough representa tives to deal with the large volume of mail. Employment Customer service representatives held about 1.9 million jobs in 2000. Although they were found in all industries, about 1 in 4 customer service representatives worked in finance, insurance, and real es tate. Telephone communications and cable television services also employed a large number of customer service representatives. Job Outlook Overall employment of customer service representatives is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addition to many new openings occurring as busi nesses and organizations expand, numerous job openings will result paisas** Customer service representatives handle and resolve customers ’ complaints. 400 Occupational Outlook Handbook from the need to replace experienced customer service representa tives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are expected to be significant in this large oc cupation as many young people work as customer service represen tatives for a few years before switching to other, higher paying jobs. This occupation is well-suited to flexible work schedules, and many opportunities for part-time work will continue to be available, par ticularly as organizations attempt to cut labor costs by hiring more temporary workers. Customer service is critical to the success of any organization that deals with customers. Strong customer service can build sales and visibility as companies try to distinguish themselves from com petitors. Advances in technology, especially the increased use of the Internet and the expected growth in electronic commerce, should result in rapid employment growth among customer service repre sentatives. Web sites, e-mail, and more recently, wireless commu nications, are proving more efficient because they provide targeted customer service. As more business is conducted over the Internet, more customer service representatives will be needed over the next decade to answer questions, provide assistance in navigating Web sites, make product recommendations, and quickly and efficiently respond to the growing volume of e-mail. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) File Clerks . (0*NET 43-4071.00) Nature of the Work The amount of information generated by organizations continues to grow rapidly. File clerks classify, store, retrieve, and update this information. In many small offices, they often have additional re sponsibilities, such as data entry, word processing, sorting mail, and operating copying or fax machines. They are employed across the Nation by organizations of all types. File clerks, also called records, information, or record center clerks, examine incoming material and code it numerically, alpha betically, or by subject matter. They then store forms, letters, re ceipts, or reports in paper form or enter necessary information into other storage devices. Some clerks operate mechanized files that rotate to bring the needed records to them; others convert docu ments to films that are then stored on microforms, such as micro film or microfiche. A growing number of file clerks use imaging systems that scan paper files or film and store the material on opti cal disks. In order for records to be useful they must be up-to-date and accurate. File clerks ensure that new information is added to the files in a timely manner and may get rid of outdated file materials or transfer them to inactive storage. They also check files at regular intervals to make sure that all items are correctly sequenced and placed. Whenever records cannot be found, the file clerk attempts to locate the missing material. As an organization’s needs for in formation change, file clerks also implement changes to the filing system established by supervisory personnel. When records are requested, file clerks locate them and give them to the borrower. The record may be a sheet of paper stored in a file cabinet or an image on microform. In the first example, the clerk manually retrieves the document and hands or forwards it to the borrower. In the latter example, the clerk retrieves the micro form and displays it on a microform reader. If necessary, file clerks make copies of records and distribute them. In addition, they keep https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis File clerks classify, store, and retrieve information. track of materials removed from the files to ensure that borrowed files are returned. Increasingly, file clerks use computerized filing and retrieval systems. These systems use a variety of storage devices, such as a mainframe computer, CD-ROM, or floppy disk. To retrieve a docu ment in these systems, the clerk enters the document’s identifica tion code, obtains the location, and pulls the document. Accessing files in a computer database is much quicker than locating and physi cally retrieving paper files. Even when files are stored electroni cally, however, backup paper or electronic copies usually are also kept. Employment File clerks held about 288,000 jobs in 2000. Although file clerk jobs are found in nearly every sector of the economy, about 85 per cent of these workers are employed in services, government, finance, insurance, and real estate. More than 1 out of every 7 is employed in temporary services firms, and about 1 out of 3 worked part time in 2000. Job Outlook Employment of file clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Projected job growth stems from rising demand for file clerks to record and retrieve in formation in organizations across the economy. This growth will Office and Administrative Support Occupations 401 be slowed, however, by productivity gains stemming from office automation and the consolidation of clerical jobs. Nonetheless, job opportunities for file clerks should be plentiful because a large num ber of workers will be needed to replace workers who leave the occupation each year. Job turnover among file clerks reflects the lack of formal training requirements, limited advancement poten tial, and relatively low pay. Job seekers who have typing and other secretarial skills and are familiar with a wide range of office machines, especially personal computers, should have the best job opportunities. File clerks should find many opportunities for temporary or part-time work, especially during peak business periods. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Hotel, Motel, and Resort Desk Clerks (0*NET 43-4081.00) Nature of the Work Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks perform a variety of services for guests of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments. Re gardless of the type of accommodation, most desk clerks have simi lar responsibilities. Primarily, they register arriving guests, assign rooms, and check out guests at the end of their stay. They also keep records of room assignments and other registration information on computers. When guests check out, they prepare and explain the charges, as well as process payments. Front desk clerks always are in the public eye and, through their attitude and behavior, greatly influence the public’s impressions of the establishment. When answering questions about services, check out times, the local community, or other matters of public interest, clerks must be courteous and helpful. Should guests report prob lems with their rooms, clerks contact members of the housekeeping or maintenance staff to correct them. In some smaller hotels and motels, clerks may have a variety of additional responsibilities usually performed by specialized employ ees in larger establishments. In these places, the desk clerk often is responsible for all front office operations, information, and services. These clerks, for example, may perform the work of a bookkeeper, advance reservation agent, cashier, laundry attendant, and telephone switchboard operator. Hotel and motel clerks register arriving guests. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks held about 177,000 jobs in 2000. This occupation is well-suited to flexible work schedules, as about 3 in 10 hotel clerks works part time. Because hotels and motels need to be staffed 24 hours a day, evening and weekend work is common. Job Outlook Employment of hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as more hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments are built and occupancy rates rise. Job opportunities for hotel and motel desk clerks also will result from a need to replace workers, as thousands of workers transfer to other occupations that offer better pay and advancement opportunities or simply leave the work force altogether. Opportunities for part-time work should continue to be plentiful, as front desks often are staffed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Employment of hotel and motel desk clerks should be affected by an increase in business and leisure travel. Shifts in travel prefer ence away from long vacations and toward long weekends and other, more frequent, shorter trips also should increase demand as this trend increases the total number of nights spent in hotels. The ex pansion of budget and extended-stay hotels relative to larger, luxury establishments reflects a change in the composition of the hotel and motel industry. As employment shifts from luxury hotels to these extended-stay establishments offering larger rooms with kitchen ettes and laundry services, the proportion of hotel desk clerks should increase in relation to staff such as waiters and waitresses and rec reation workers. Desk clerks are able to handle more of the guest’s needs in these establishments, answering the main switchboard, providing business services, and coordinating services like dry clean ing or grocery shopping. New technologies automating check-in and check-out procedures now allow some guests to bypass the front desk in many larger es tablishments, reducing staffing needs. As some of the more tradi tional duties are automated, however, many desk clerks are assuming a wider range of responsibilities. Employment of desk clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, vacation and business travel declines, and hotels and motels need fewer clerks. Similarly, desk clerk em ployment is affected by seasonal fluctuations in travel during high and low tourist seasons. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in the lodging industry, as well as informa tion about professional development and training programs, may be obtained from: ► Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association, 800 N. Magnolia Ave., Suite 1800, Orlando, FL 32803. Internet: http:// www.ei-ahma.org (See introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping (0*NET 43-4161.00) Nature of the Work Human resources assistants maintain the personnel records of an organization’s employees. These records include information such as name, address, job title, and earnings, benefits such as health 402 Occupational Outlook Handbook 6 works for a government agency. Colleges and universities, hospi tals, department stores, and banks also employ large numbers of human resources assistants. Human resources assistants maintain the personnel records of employees. and life insurance, and tax withholding. On a daily basis, these assistants record and answer questions about employee absences and supervisory reports on job performance. When an employee receives a promotion or switches health insurance plans, the human resources assistant updates the appropriate form. Human resources assistants also may prepare reports for managers elsewhere within the organization. For example, they might compile a list of em ployees eligible for an award. In smaller organizations, some human resources assistants per form a variety of other clerical duties. They answer telephone or letter inquiries from the public, send out announcements of job openings or job examinations, and issue application forms. When credit bureaus and finance companies request confirmation of a person’s employment, the human resources assistant provides au thorized information from the employee’s personnel records. Pay roll departments and insurance companies also may be contacted to verify changes to records. Some human resources assistants also are involved in hiring. They screen job applicants to obtain information such as education and work experience; administer aptitude, personality, and interest tests; explain the organization’s employment policies and refer quali fied applicants to the employing official; and request references from present or past employers. Also, human resources assistants inform job applicants, by telephone or letter, of their acceptance or rejection for employment. In some job settings, human resources assistants have specific job titles. For example, assignment clerks notify a firm’s existing employees of position vacancies and identify and assign qualified applicants. They keep track of vacancies throughout the organiza tion and complete and distribute vacancy advertisement forms. These clerks review applications in response to advertisements and verify information, using personnel records. After a selection is made, they notify all the applicants of their acceptance or rejection. For another example, identification clerks are responsible for security matters at defense installations. They compile and record personal data about vendors, contractors, and civilian and military personnel and their dependents. Job duties include interviewing applicants; corresponding with law enforcement authorities; and preparing badges, passes, and identification cards. Employment Human resources assistants held about 177,000 jobs in 2000. Al though these workers are found in most industries, about 1 in every https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of human resources assistants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, as assistants continue to take on more responsibilities. For example, workers conduct Internet research to locate resumes, must be able to scan resumes of job candidates quickly and effi ciently, and must be increasingly sensitive to confidential infor mation such as salaries and social security numbers. In a favorable job market, more emphasis is placed on human resources depart ments, thus increasing the demand for human resources assistants. However, even in economic downturns, there will be continuing demand for human resources assistants as human resources de partments in all industries try to make their organizations more efficient by determining what type of employees to hire and stra tegically filling job openings. Human resources assistants may play an instrumental role in their organization’s human resources policies. For example, they may talk to staffing firms and consult ing firms and conduct other research, and then offer their ideas on issues such as whether to hire temporary contract workers or full time staff. Similar to other office and administrative support occupations, the growing use of computers in human resources departments means that a lot of data entry done by human resources assistants can be eliminated, as employees themselves enter the data and send it to the human resources office. This is most feasible in large organiza tions with multiple human resources offices and, to some extent, could limit job growth among human resources assistants. In addition to job growth, replacement needs will account for many job openings for human resources assistants as they advance within the human resources department, take jobs unrelated to human resources administration, or leave the labor force. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Interviewers (Q*NET 43-4061.01, 43-4061.02, 43-4111.00, 43-4131.00) Nature of the Work Interviewers obtain information from individuals and business rep resentatives who are opening bank accounts, trying to obtain loans, seeking admission to medical facilities, participating in consumer surveys, applying to receive aid from government programs, and providing data for various other purposes. By mail, telephone, or in person, these workers solicit and verify information, create files, and perform a number of other related tasks. The specific duties and job titles of interviewers, except eligibil ity and loan depend upon the type of employer. In doctors’ offices and other healthcare facilities, for example, interviewing clerks also are known as admitting interviewers or patient representatives. These workers obtain all preliminary information required for a patient’s record or for his or her admission to a hospital, such as the patient’s name, address, age, medical history, present medications, previous hospitalizations, religion, persons to notify in case of emer gency, attending physician, and the party responsible for payment. In some cases, interviewing clerks may be required to verify that an individual is eligible for health benefits or to work out financing options for those who might need them. Other duties of interviewers in healthcare include assigning pa tients to rooms and summoning escorts to take patients to their rooms; sometimes, interviewers may escort patients themselves. Using the facility’s computer system, they schedule laboratory work, x-rays, and surgeries, and prepare admitting and discharge records and route them to appropriate departments. They also may bill pa tients, receive payments, and answer the telephone. In an outpa tient or office setting, they schedule appointments, keep track of cancellations, and provide general information about care. In addi tion, the role of the admissions staff, particularly in hospitals, is expanding to include a wide range of patient services, from assist ing patients with financial and medical questions to helping family members find hotel rooms. Interviewing clerks who conduct market research surveys and polls for research firms have somewhat different responsibilities. These interviewers ask a series of prepared questions, record the responses, and forward the results to management. They may ask individuals questions about their occupation and earnings, political preferences, buying habits, customer satisfaction, or other aspects of their lives. Although most interviews are conducted over the telephone, some are conducted in focus groups or by randomly poll ing people in a public place. More recently, the Internet is being used to elicit people’s opinions. Almost all interviewers use com puters or similar devices to enter the responses to questions. Eligibility interviewers, government programs determine the eligibility of individuals applying to receive assistance from gov ernment programs such as welfare, unemployment benefits, social security, and public housing. They gather the relevant personal and financial information on an applicant and, based on the rules and regulations ofthe particular government program, they grant, modify, deny, or terminate individuals’ eligibility for the program in ques tion. These interviewers also are involved in the detection of fraud committed by persons who try to obtain benefits although they are not eligible to receive them. Loan interviewers and clerks review credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of loan and credit card applicants. They spend much of their day on the phone obtaining credit information from credit bureaus, employ ers, banks, credit institutions, and other sources to determine appli cants’ credit history and ability to pay back the loan or charge. Loan clerks, also called loan processing clerks, loan closers, or loan service clerks, assemble loan documents, process the paper work associated with the loan, and ensure that all information is complete and verified. Mortgage loans are the primary type of loan handled by loan clerks, who also may have to order appraisals on the property, set up escrow accounts, and secure any additional in formation required to transfer the property. The specific duties of loan clerks vary by specialty. Loan clos ers, for example, complete the loan process by gathering the proper documents for signature at the closing, including deeds of trust, property insurance papers, and title commitments. They set the time and place for the closing, make sure that all parties are present, and ensure that all conditions for settlement have been met. After settle ment, the loan closer records all documents and submits the final loan package to the owner of the loan. Loan service clerks main tain the payment records once the loan is issued. These clerical workers process the paperwork for payment of fees to insurance companies and tax authorities, and also may record changes to cli ent addresses and loan ownership. When necessary, they answer calls from customers with routine inquiries. Loan interviewers have duties that are similar to those of loan clerks. They interview potential borrowers and help them fill out loanFRASER applications. Interviewers may then investigate the applicant’s Digitized for background and references, verify information on the application, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Office and Administrative Support Occupations 403 111*11 I Interviewers solicit and verify information from individuals. and forward any findings, reports, or documents to the appraisal department. Finally, interviewers inform the applicant whether the loan has been accepted or denied. Employment Interviewers held about 410,000 jobs in 2000. About 154,000 were interviewers, except eligibility and loan; 139,000 were loan inter viewers and clerks; and 117,000 were eligibility interviewers, gov ernment programs. Almost 1 out of every 5 interviewers worked in health services, while most loan interviewers and clerks worked in financial institutions. Almost 3 out of every 10 interviewers worked part time. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in overall employment of interview ers through 2010. However, the projected change in employment varies by specialty. Most job openings should arise from the need to replace the numerous interviewers who leave the occupation or the labor force each year. Prospects for filling these openings will be best for applicants with a broad range ofjob skills, such as good customer service, math, and telephone skills. In addition to full time jobs, opportunities also should be available for part-time and temporary jobs. The number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, is pro jected to grow faster than average, reflecting growth in the health services industry. This industry will hire more admissions inter viewers as healthcare facilities consolidate staff and expand the role of the admissions staff, and as an aging and growing population requires more visits to healthcare practitioners. In addition, increas ing use of market research will create more jobs requiring inter viewers to collect data. In the future, though, more market research is expected to be conducted over the Internet, thus reducing the need for telephone interviewers to make individual calls. The number of loan interviewers and clerks is projected to de cline, due to advances in technology that are making these workers more productive. Despite a projected increase in the number of loan applications, automation will allow fewer workers to process, check, and authorize applications than in the past. The effects of automation on employment will be moderated, however, by the many interpersonal aspects of the job. Mortgage loans, for example, re quire loan processors to personally verify financial data on the ap plication, and loan closers are needed to assemble documents and prepare them for settlement. Employment also will be adversely affected by changes in the financial services industry. For example, 404 Occupational Outlook Handbook significant consolidation has occurred among mortgage loan ser vicing companies. As a result, fewer mortgage banking companies are involved in loan servicing, making the function more efficient and reducing the need for loan servicing clerks. The job outlook for loan interviewers and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in the interest rates usually leads to a decline in the demand for loans, particularly mortgage loans, and can result in layoffs. Even in slow economic times, however, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons. Like loan interviewers and clerks, employment of eligibility in terviewers for government programs also is projected to decline, due to technology advances and the transformation of government aid programs that have taken place over the last decade. Automa tion should have a significant effect on these workers because, as with credit and loan ratings, eligibility for government aid programs can be determined instantaneously by entering information into a computer. The job outlook for eligibility interviewers, however, also is sensitive to overall economic activity; a severe slowdown in the economy will cause more people to apply for government aid programs, increasing demand for eligibility interviewers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities. For specific information on a career as a loan processor or loan — frwmHPW m Library assistants check out books to library patrons. Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons who have vision problems. Sometimes referred to as library, talking-books, or braille-and-talking-books clerks, they review the borrower’s list of desired reading material. They locate those materials or closely related substitutes from the library collection of large type or braille volumes, tape cassettes, and open-reel talking books. They com plete the paperwork and give or mail them to the borrower. closer, contact: >- Mortgage Bankers Association of America, 1125 15th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.mbaa.org (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Library Assistants, Clerical __ (0*NET 43-4121.00) Nature of the Work Library assistants organize library resources and make them avail able to users. They assist librarians and, in some cases, library technicians. Library assistants, clerical—sometimes referred to as library media assistants, library aides, or circulation assistants—register patrons so they can borrow materials from the library. They record the borrower’s name and address from an application and then is sue a library card. Most library assistants enter and update patrons’ records using computer databases. At the circulation desk, assistants lend and collect books, peri odicals, video tapes, and other materials. When an item is bor rowed, assistants stamp the due date on the material and record the patron’s identification from his or her library card. They inspect returned materials for damage, check due dates, and compute fines for overdue material. Library assistants review records to compile a list of overdue materials and send out notices. They also answer patrons’ questions and refer those they cannot answer to a librarian. Throughout the library, assistants sort returned books, periodi cals, and other items and return them to their designated shelves, files, or storage areas. They locate materials to be loaned, either for a patron or another library. Many card catalogues are computer ized, so library assistants must be familiar with the computer sys tem. If any materials have been damaged, these workers try to repair them. For example, they use tape or paste to repair tom pages or covers and other specialized processes to repair more valu Digitizedbook for FRASER able materials. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Library assistants held about 98,000 jobs in 2000. More than onehalf of these workers were employed by local government in public libraries; most of the remaining worked in school libraries. Oppor tunities for flexible schedules are abundant; more than one-half of these workers were on part-time schedules. Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for persons interested in jobs as li brary assistants through 2010. Turnover of these workers is quite high, reflecting the limited investment in training and subsequent weak attachment to this occupation. This work is attractive to retir ees, students, and others who want a part-time schedule, and there is a lot of movement into and out of the occupation. Many open ings will become available each year to replace workers who trans fer to another occupation or leave the labor force. Some positions become available as library assistants move within the organiza tion. Library assistants can be promoted to library technicians, and eventually supervisory positions in public service or technical ser vice areas. Advancement opportunities are greater in larger librar ies and may be more limited in smaller ones. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. The vast majority of library assis tants work in public or school libraries. Efforts to contain costs in local governments and academic institutions of all types may result in more hiring of library support staff than librarians. Also, due to changing roles within libraries, library assistants are taking on more responsibility. Because most are employed by public institutions, library assistants are not directly affected by the ups and downs of the business cycle. Some of these workers may lose their jobs, however, if there are cuts in government budgets. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library assistant can be obtained from: ► Council on Library/Media Technology, P.O. Box 951, Oxon Hill, MD 20750. Internet: http://library.ucr.edu/COLT Office and Administrative Support Occupations 405 > American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org/hrdr Public libraries and libraries in academic institutions can pro vide information about job openings for library assistants. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Order Clerks (0*NET 43-4151.00) Nature of the Work Order clerks receive and process incoming orders for a wide variety of goods or services, such as spare parts for machines, consumer appliances, gas and electric power connections, film rentals, and articles of clothing. They sometimes are called order-entry clerks, sales representatives, order processors, or order takers. Orders for materials, merchandise, or services can come from inside or from outside of an organization. In large companies with many worksites, such as automobile manufacturers, clerks order parts and equipment from the company’s warehouses. Inside order clerks receive orders from other workers employed by the same company or from salespersons in the field. Many other order clerks, however, receive orders from outside companies or individuals. Order clerks in wholesale businesses, for instance, receive orders from retail establishments for merchan dise that the retailer, in mm, sells to the public. An increasing num ber of order clerks work for catalogue companies and online retailers, receiving orders from individual customers by telephone, fax, regular mail, or e-mail. Order clerks dealing primarily with the public some times are referred to as outside order clerks. Computers provide order clerks with ready access to information such as stock numbers, prices, and inventoty. The successful filling of an order frequently depends on having the right products in stock and being able to detennine which products are most appropriate for the customer’s needs. Some order clerks, especially those in indus trial settings, must be able to give price estimates for entire jobs, not just single parts. Others must be able to take special orders, give expected arrival dates, prepare contracts, and handle complaints. Many order clerks receive orders directly by telephone, entering the required information as the customer places the order. How ever, a rapidly increasing number of orders now are received through computer systems, the Internet, faxes, and e-mail. In some cases, these orders are sent directly from the customer’s terminal to the order clerk’s terminal. Orders received by regular mail are some times scanned into a database that is instantly accessible to clerks. Clerks review orders for completeness and clarity. They may complete missing information or contact the customer for the infor mation. Similarly, clerks contact customers if the customers need additional information, such as prices or shipping dates, or if de lays in filling the order are anticipated. For orders received by regular mail, clerks extract checks or money orders, sort them, and send them for processing. After an order has been verified and entered, the customer’s fi nal cost is calculated. The clerk then routes the order to the proper department—such as the warehouse—that actually sends out or delivers the item in question. In organizations with sophisticated computer systems, inventory records are adjusted automatically, as sales are made. In less auto mated organizations, order clerks may adjust inventory records. Clerks also may notify other departments when inventories are low or when filling certain orders would deplete supplies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis More than half of all order clerks are employed in wholesale and retail establishments. Some order clerks must establish priorities in filling orders. For example, an order clerk in a blood bank may receive a request from a hospital for a certain type of blood. The clerk must first find out if the request is routine or an emergency, and then take appropriate action. Employment Order clerks held about 348,000jobs in 2000. About one-half were in wholesale and retail establishments and about one-fifth were in manufacturing firms. Most of the remaining jobs for order clerks were in business services. Job Outlook Job openings for order clerks should be limited, as improvements in technology and office automation continue to increase worker productivity. While overall employment of order clerks is expected to decline through the year 2010, numerous openings will become available each year to replace order clerks who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force completely. Many of these openings will be for seasonal work, especially in catalogue compa nies or online retailers catering to holiday gift buyers. The growth in online retailing, business-to-business electronic commerce, and the use of automated systems that make placing orders easy and convenient will decrease demand for order clerks. The spread of electronic data interchange, a system enabling com puters to communicate directly with each other, allows orders within establishments to be placed with little human intervention. Besides electronic data interchange, extranets and other internal systems allowing a firm’s employees to place orders directly are increas ingly common. Outside orders placed over the Internet often are entered directly into the computer by the customer; thus, the order clerk is not involved at all in placing the order. Some companies also use automated phone menus accessible with a touch-tone phone to receive orders, and others use answering machines. Develop ments in voice recognition technology may further reduce the de mand for order clerks. Furthermore, increased automation will allow current order clerks to be more productive, as each clerk is able to handle an increas ingly higher volume of orders. Sophisticated inventory control and automatic billing systems permit companies to track inventory and accounts with much less help from order clerks than in the past. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) 406 Occupational Outlook Handbook Receptionists and Information Clerks (0*NET 43-4171.00) _____________ Nature of the Work Receptionists and information clerks are charged with a responsi bility that may have a lasting impact on the success of an organiza tion—making a good first impression. These workers often are the first representatives of an organization a visitor encounters, so they need to be courteous, professional, and helpful. Receptionists an swer telephones, route calls, greet visitors, respond to inquiries from the public and provide information about the organization. In addi tion, receptionists contribute to the security of an organization by helping to monitor the access of visitors. Whereas some tasks are common to most receptionists and in formation clerks, the specific responsibilities of receptionists vary depending upon the type of establishment in which they work. For example, receptionists in hospitals and doctors’ offices may gather personal and financial information and direct patients to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty or hair salons, however, they arrange ap pointments, direct customers to the hairstylist, and may serve as cashier. In factories, large corporations, and government offices, they may provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take visitors to the proper office. Those working for bus and train com panies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and other related matters. Increasingly, receptionists use multiline telephone systems, per sonal computers, and fax machines. Despite the widespread use of automated answering systems or voice mail, many receptionists still take messages and inform other employees of visitors’ arrivals or cancellation of an appointment. When they are not busy with call ers, most receptionists are expected to perform a variety of office duties including opening and sorting mail, collecting and distribut ing parcels, making fax transmittals and deliveries, updating ap pointment calendars, preparing travel vouchers, and performing basic bookkeeping, word processing, and filing. Employment ... . Receptionists and information clerks held about 1.1 million jobs in 2000. Almost two-thirds worked in services industries, and a little less than half of these were employed in the health services indus try in doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent care centers, surgical centers, and clinics. Manufacturing, whole sale and retail trade, government, and real estate industries also * r • —MMtttfl ■ Sts©*?' mBKKm MHH Digitized Receptionists for FRASER answer and route telephone calls, greet visitors, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org provide information to the public. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis employed large numbers of receptionists and information clerks. About 3 of every 10 receptionists and information clerks worked part time. Job Outlook Employment of receptionists and information clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. This increase will result from rapid growth in services industries— including physician’s offices, law firms, temporary help agencies, and consulting firms—where most are employed. In addition, turn over in this large occupation will create numerous openings as recep tionists and information clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force altogether. Opportunities should be best for experi enced persons with a wide range of clerical and technical skills. Technology should have conflicting effects on the demand for receptionists and information clerks. The increasing use of voice mail and other telephone automation reduces the need for recep tionists by allowing one receptionist to perform work that formerly required several receptionists. However, increasing use of technol ogy also has caused a consolidation of clerical responsibilities and growing demand for workers with diverse clerical and technical skills. Because receptionists and information clerks may perform a wide variety of clerical tasks, they should continue to be in demand. Further, they perform many tasks that are of an interpersonal nature and are not easily automated, ensuring continued demand for their services in a variety of establishments. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job openings for receptionists. (See introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks (Q*NET 43-4181.01, 43-4181.02) Nature of the Work Each year, millions of Americans travel by plane, train, ship, bus, and automobile. Many of these travelers rely on the services of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. These ticket agents and clerks perform functions as varied as selling tick ets, confirming reservations, checking baggage, and providing tour ists with useful travel information. Most reservation agents work for large hotel chains or airlines, helping people plan trips and make reservations. They usually work in large reservation centers answering telephone or e-mail inquiries and offering suggestions on travel arrangements, such as routes, time schedules, rates, and types of accommodation. Reservation agents quote fares and room rates, provide travel information, and make and confirm transportation and hotel reservations. Most agents use proprietary networks to quickly obtain information needed to make, change, or cancel reservations for customers. Transportation ticket agents are sometimes known as passenger service agents, passenger-booking clerks, reservation clerks, airport service agents, ticket clerks, or ticket sellers. They work in air ports, train, and bus stations selling tickets, assigning seats to pas sengers, and checking baggage. In addition, they may answer inquiries and give directions, examine passports and visas, or check in pets. Other ticket agents, more commonly known as gate or Office and Administrative Support Occupations 407 Ticket agents sell tickets, assign seats to passengers, and check baggage. station agents, work in airport terminals assisting passengers board ing airplanes. These workers direct passengers to the correct board ing area, check tickets and seat assignments, make boarding announcements, and provide special assistance to young, elderly, or disabled passengers when they board or disembark. Most travel clerks are employed by membership organizations, such as automobile clubs. These workers, sometimes called mem ber services counselors or travel counselors, plan trips, calculate mileage, and offer travel suggestions, such as the best route from the point of origin to the destination, for club members. Travel clerks also may prepare an itinerary indicating points of interest, restaurants, overnight accommodations, and availability of emer gency services during the trip. In some cases, they make rental car, hotel, and restaurant reservations for club members. Passenger rate clerks generally work for bus companies. They sell tickets for regular bus routes and arrange nonscheduled or char tered trips. They plan travel routes, compute rates, and keep cus tomers informed of appropriate details. They also may arrange travel accommodations. Employment Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks held about 191,000 jobs in 2000. More than 6 of every 10 are employed by airlines. Others work for membership organizations, such as auto mobile clubs; hotels and other lodging places; railroad companies; bus lines; and other companies that provide transportation services. Although agents and clerks are found throughout the country, most work in large metropolitan airports, downtown ticket offices, large reservation centers, and train or bus stations. The remainder work in small communities served only by intercity bus or railroad lines. Job Outlook Applicants for reservation and transportation ticket agent jobs are likely to encounter considerable competition, because the supply of qualified applicants exceeds the expected number of job openings. Entry requirements for these jobs are minimal, and many people seeking to get into the airline industry or travel business often start out in these types of positions. These jobs provide excellent travel benefits, and many people view airline and other travel-related jobs as glamorous. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis occupations through 2010. Although a growing population will de mand additional travel services, employment of these workers will grow more slowly than this demand, because of the significant impact of technology on productivity. Automated reservations and ticket ing, as well as “ticketless” travel, for example, are reducing the need for some workers. Most train stations and airports now have satellite ticket printer locations, or “kiosks,” that enable passengers to make reservations and purchase tickets themselves. Many passengers also are able to check flight times and fares, make reservations, and pur chase tickets on the Internet. Nevertheless, all travel-related passen ger services can never be fully automated, primarily for safety and security reasons. As a result, job openings will continue to become available as the occupation grows and as workers transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force altogether. Employment of reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, discretionary passenger travel declines, and transporta tion service companies are less likely to hire new workers and even may resort to layoffs. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities as reservation and trans portation ticket agents and travel clerks, write the personnel man ager of individual transportation companies. Addresses of airlines are available from: >■ Air Transport Association of America, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004-1707. (See the introductory statement on information and record clerks for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations, Except Postal Workers (0*NET 43-5011.00, 43-5021.00, 43-5031.00, 43-5032.00, 43-5041.00, 43-5061.00, 43-5071.00, 43-5081.01, 43-5081.02, 43-5081.03, 43 5081.04, 43-5111.00) Significant Points • • • Many of these occupations are entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Workers develop the necessary skills through on-thejob training lasting from several days to a few months; dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. Numerous job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupational group. Nature of the Work Workers in this group are responsible for a variety of communica tions, recordkeeping, and scheduling operations. Typically, they coordinate, expedite, and track orders for personnel, materials, and equipment. Cargo and freight agents route and track cargo and freight shipments, whether from airline, train, or truck terminals, or shipping docks. They keep records of any missing or damaged items and any excess supplies. The agents sort cargo according to its destination and separate any items that cannot be packed together. They also coordinate payment schedules with customers and ar range for the pickup or delivery of freight. 408 Occupational Outlook Handbook Couriers and messengers deliver letters, important business docu ments, or packages within a firm, to other businesses, or to custom ers. They usually keep records of deliveries and sometimes obtain the recipient’s signature. Couriers and messengers travel by car, van, bicycle, or even by foot when making nearby deliveries. Dispatchers receive requests for service and initiate action to provide that service. Duties vary, depending on the needs of the employer. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called pub lic safety dispatchers, handle calls from people reporting crimes, fires, and medical emergencies. Truck, bus, and train dispatchers schedule and coordinate the movement of these vehicles to ensure that they arrive on schedule. Taxicab dispatchers relay requests for cabs to individual drivers, tow truck dispatchers take calls for emer gency road service, and utility company dispatchers handle calls related to utility and telephone service. Courier and messenger ser vice dispatchers route drivers, riders, and walkers around a usually urban area. They distribute work by radio, email, or phone, making sure that service deadlines are met. Meter readers read meters and record consumption of electric ity, gas, water, or steam. They serve a variety of consumers and travel along designated routes to track consumption. Although many meters still are read at the house or building, many newer meters can be read remotely from a central point. Meter readers also look for evidence of unauthorized utility usage. Production, planning, and expediting clerks coordinate and ex pedite the flow of information, work, and materials, usually accord ing to a production or work schedule. They gather information for reports on work progress and production problems. They also may schedule workers or parts shipments, estimate costs, and keep in ventories of materials. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks track all incoming and outgoing shipments of goods transferred between businesses, sup pliers, and customers. These clerks may be required to lift cartons of various sizes. Shipping clerks assemble, address, stamp, and ship merchandise or materials. Receiving clerks unpack, verify, and record incoming merchandise. Traffic clerks record the desti nation, weight, and cost of all incoming and outgoing shipments. In a small company, one clerk may perform all of these tasks. Stock clerks and orderfillers receive, unpack, and store materi als and equipment, and maintain and distribute inventories. Inven tories may include merchandise in wholesale and retail establishments, or equipment, supplies, or materials in other kinds of organizations. In small firms, stock clerks and order fillers may perform all of the above tasks, as well as those usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks. In large establishments, they may be responsible for only one task. Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers check and record the weight and measurement of various materials and equipment. They use scales, measuring and counting devices, and calculators to compare the weight, measurements, or other specifications against bills or invoices. They also prepare reports on inventory levels. (This introductory section is followed by sections that provide more detail on cargo and freight agents; couriers and messengers; dispatchers; utility meter readers; production, planning, and expe diting clerks; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers.) Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably by occupation and employ ment setting. Couriers and messengers spend most of their time alone making deliveries and usually are not closely supervised. Those who deliver by bicycle must be physically fit and are ex posed to all weather conditions, as well as to the many hazards associated with heavy traffic. Car, van, and truck couriers must https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sometimes carry heavy loads, either manually or with the aid of a handtruck. They also have to deal with difficult parking situations as well as traffic jams and road construction. The pressure of mak ing as many deliveries as possible to increase earnings can be stress ful and may lead to unsafe driving or bicycling practices. Meter readers, usually working 40 hours a week, work outdoors in all types of weather as they travel through communities and neigh borhoods taking readings. The work of dispatchers can be very hectic when many calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatcher is particularly stressful because slow or improper response to a call can result in serious injury or further harm. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may become excited and be unable to provide needed information; some may even become abusive. Despite provocations, dispatchers must remain calm, objective, and in con trol of the situation. Dispatchers sit for long periods, using telephones, computers, and two-way radios. Much of their time is spent at video display terminals, viewing monitors and observing traffic patterns. As a result of working for long stretches with computers and other elec tronic equipment, dispatchers can experience significant eyestrain and back discomfort. Generally, dispatchers work a 40-hour week; however, rotating shifts and compressed work schedules are com mon. Alternative work schedules are necessary to accommodate evening, weekend, and holiday work, as well as 24-hour-per-day, 7-day-per-week operations. Other workers in this group—cargo and freight agents; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; produc tion, planning, and expediting clerks; and weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers—work in a wide variety of businesses, in stitutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature con trolled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather. Production, planning, and expediting clerks work closely with supervisors who must approve production and work schedules. Most jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks, stock clerks and or der fillers, and cargo and freight agents involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automation devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. Work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material handling equipment is employed to move heavy items. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common for some jobs, such as stock clerks and order fillers in retail trade and couriers and mes sengers, and may be required in other jobs when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken. Employment In 2000, material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distribut ing workers held about 3.5 million jobs. Employment was distrib uted among the detailed occupations as follows: Stock clerks and order fillers............................................................. 1,679,000 890.000 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks............................................ 332.000 Production, planning, and expediting clerks................................. Dispatchers............................................................................................ Couriers and messengers.................................................................... Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping... Cargo and freight agents..................................................................... Meter readers, utilities......................................................................... All other material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers................................................................. 254.000 141.000 83.000 60.000 49.000 63.000 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 409 About two thirds of material recording, scheduling, dispatch ing, and distributing jobs were in services or wholesale and retail trade. Although these workers are found throughout the country, most work near population centers where retail stores, warehouses, factories, and large communications centers are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations are entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Those who have taken business courses or have previous business, dispatching, or specific job-related experience may be preferred. Because communication with other people is an integral part of some material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing jobs, good oral and written communications skills are essential. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important. State or local government civil service regulations usually gov ern police, fire, emergency medical, and ambulance dispatching jobs. Candidates for these positions may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. Also, they may be asked to attend training classes and attain the proper certification in order to qualify for advancement. Trainees usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This informal training lasts from several days to a few months, depend ing on the complexity of the job. Dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. Working with an experienced dispatcher, they monitor calls and learn how to operate a variety of communi cations equipment, including telephones, radios, and various wire less devices. As trainees gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. In smaller operations, dispatchers sometimes act as customer service representatives, processing orders themselves. Many public safety dispatchers also participate in structured train ing programs sponsored by their employer. Some employers offer a course designed by the Association of Public Safety Communica tions Officials. This course covers topics such as interpersonal com munications; overview of the police, fire, and rescue functions; modern public safety telecommunications systems; basic radio broadcasting; local, State, and national crime information computer systems; and telephone complaint/report processing procedures. Other employers develop in-house programs based on their own needs. Emergency medical dispatchers often receive special train ing or have special skills. Increasingly, public safety dispatchers receive training in stress and crisis management, as well as family counseling. Employers are recognizing the toll this work has on daily living and the potential impact that stress has on the job, on the work environment, and in the home. Communications skills and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Residency in the city or county of employment frequently is required for public safety dispatchers. Dispatchers in transportation industries must be able to deal with sudden influxes of shipments and disruptions of shipping schedules caused by bad weather, road construction, or accidents. Although there are no mandatory licensing or certification re quirements, some States require that public safety dispatchers pos sess a certificate to work on a State network, such as the Police Information Network. The Association of Public Safety Communi cations Officials, the National Academy of Emergency Medical Dis patch, and the International Municipal Signal Association all offer certification programs. Many dispatchers participate in these pro grams in order to improve their prospects for career advancement. Couriers and messengers usually learn on the job, training with a veteran for a short time. Those who work as independent contrac https://fraser.stlouisfed.org tors for a messenger or delivery service may be required to have a Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis valid driver’s license, a registered and inspected vehicle, a good driving record, and insurance coverage. Many couriers and mes sengers who are employees, rather than independent contractors, also are required to provide and maintain their own vehicle. Although some companies have spare bicycles or mopeds that their riders may rent for a short period, almost all two-wheeled couriers own their own bicycle, moped, or motorcycle. A good knowledge of the geographic area in which they travel, as well as a good sense of direction, also are important. Utility meter readers usually shadow a more experienced meter reader until they feel comfortable doing the job on their own. They learn how to read the meters and determine the consumption rate. They also must learn the route that they need to travel in order to read all their customers’ meters. Production, planning, and expediting clerks; weighers, measur ers, checkers, and samplers; stock clerks and order fillers; and ship ping, receiving, and traffic clerks usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They learn how to count and mark stock, and then start keeping records and taking inventory. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repeti tive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics. Production, planning, and expediting clerks must learn how their company operates along with its priorities before they can begin to efficiently write production and work schedules. Stock clerks, whose sole responsibility is to bring merchandise to the sales floor to stock shelves and racks, need little training. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks and stock clerks and order fillers who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may be bonded. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks, as well as cargo and freight agents, start out by checking items to be shipped and then attaching labels and making sure the addresses are correct. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done informally, on the job. As these occupations become more automated, however, workers in these jobs may need longer training in order to master the use of the equipment. Advancement opportunities for material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers vary with the place of em ployment. Dispatchers who work for private firms, which usually are small, will find few opportunities for advancement. Public safety dispatchers, on the other hand, may become a shift or divisional supervisor or chief of communications, or move to higher paying administrative jobs. Some become police officers or firefighters. Couriers and messengers, especially those who work for messenger or courier services, have limited advancement opportunities; a small fraction move into the office to learn dispatching or to take service requests by phone. In large firms, stock clerks can advance to in voice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad understanding of shipping and receiving may enter a related field such as industrial traffic management. With additional training, some stock clerks and order fillers and shipping, receiv ing, and traffic clerks advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent. Job Outlook Overall employment of material recording, scheduling, dispatch ing, and distributing workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition, numer ous job openings will arise each year from the need to replace work ers who leave this very large occupational group. Projected employment growth varies by detailed occupation. Meter readers will experience a decline in employment due to auto mated meter reading systems that greatly increase productivity. The use of e-mail and fax will contribute to a decline for couriers and 410 Occupational Outlook Handbook messengers as well. New technologies will enable stock clerks and order fillers to handle more stock, resulting in slower-than-average employment growth. Employment of shipping, receiving, and traf fic clerks and of cargo and freight agents also will grow more slowly than average due to the increasing use of automation that enables these workers to handle materials and shipments more efficiently and more accurately. Employment of dispatchers; production, planning, and expedit ing clerks; and weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers is pro jected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Population growth, in addition to the expanded role of dis patchers stemming from advances in telecommunications, should boost employment levels. Employment of production, planning, and expediting clerks should benefit from more emphasis on effi ciency in the production process, while the growing need for accu rate inventory records spurs employment of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers. &&&■ HHHi Earnings Earnings of material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and dis tributing occupations vary somewhat by occupation and industry. The range of median hourly earnings in 2000 are shown in the fol lowing tabulation: Production, planning, and expediting clerks.............................. Cargo and freight agents.................................................................. Dispatchers......................................................................................... Meter readers, utilities..................................................................... Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks........................................ Couriers and messengers................................................................. Stock clerks and order fillers.......................................................... All other material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing workers............................................................. $14.71 13.73 13.66 13.32 11.36 10.52 8.96 8.75 11.66 Workers in material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and dis tributing occupations usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers usually provide ei ther the uniforms or an allowance to purchase them. More information on cargo and freight agents; couriers and mes sengers; dispatchers; meter readers, utilities; production, planning, and expediting clerks; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and weighers, measurers, checkers, and sam plers is available in statements on these occupations that follow this introduction. Cargo and Freight Agents (0*NET 43-5011.00) Nature of the Work Cargo and freight agents arrange for and track incoming and outgo ing cargo and freight shipments in airline, train, or trucking termi nals or on shipping docks. They expedite movement of shipments by determining the route that shipments are to take and preparing all necessary shipping documents. The agents take orders from customers and arrange for pickup of freight or cargo for delivery to loading platforms. They may keep records of the properties of the cargo, such as amount, type, weight, and dimensions. They keep a tally of missing items, record conditions of damaged items, and document any excess supplies. Cargo and freight agents arrange cargo according to its destina tion. They also determine the shipping rates and other charges that can sometimes apply to the freight. For imported or exported freight, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cargo and freight agents keep records of the type, weight, and dimensions of cargo shipped. they verify that the proper customs paperwork is in order. They often track shipments using electronic data, such as bar codes, and answer customer inquiries on the status of their shipments. Employment Cargo and freight agents held about 60,000 jobs in 2000. Most jobs were in transportation. About 35 percent of cargo and freight agents worked in transportation services, 23 percent worked for air carriers, and 10 percent worked for local and long distance trucking establishments. Department stores employed 12 percent, while per sonnel supply services employed 3 percent. Job Outlook Employment of cargo and freight agents is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Although cargo traffic is expected to grow faster than it has in the past, em ployment of cargo and freight agents will not grow as rapidly be cause of technological advances. For example, the increasing use of bar codes on cargo and freight allows agents and customers to track these shipments quickly over the Internet, rather than manu ally tracking their location. In addition, customs and insurance pa perwork now can be completed over the Internet by customers, reducing the need for cargo and freight agents. Despite these advances in technology that dampen job growth among cargo and freight agents, job openings will continue to arise due to increases in buying over the Internet, which will result in more Office and Administrative Support Occupations 411 shipments, and the importance of same-day delivery, which expands the role of agents. In addition, many job openings will be created to replace cargo and freight agents who leave the occupation. Related Occupations Cargo and freight agents plan and coordinate cargo shipments us ing airlines, trains, and trucks. They also arrange freight pickup with customers. Others who do similar work are couriers and mes sengers; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; weighers, measur ers, checkers, and samplers; truckdrivers and driver/sales workers; and Postal Service workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) liter" (Wv; Couriers usually maintain records of deliveries and often obtain signatures from the people receiving the items. Couriers and Messengers (0*NET 43-5021.00) Nature of the Work Couriers and messengers move and distribute information, docu ments, and small packages for businesses, institutions, and govern ment agencies. They pick up and deliver letters, important business documents, or packages that need to be sent or received quickly within a local area. Trucks and vans are used for larger deliveries, such as legal caseloads and conference materials. By sending an item by courier or messenger, the sender ensures that it reaches its destination the same day or even within the hour. Couriers and messengers also deliver items that the sender is unwilling to entrust to other means of delivery, such as important legal or financial docu ments, passports, airline tickets, or medical samples to be tested. Couriers and messengers receive their instructions either by re porting to their office in person, by telephone, by two-way radio, or wireless data service. They then pick up the item and carry it to its destination. After each pickup or delivery, they check in with dis patch to receive instructions. Sometimes dispatch will contact them while they are between stops; they may be routed to go past a stop that has very recently called in a delivery. Since most couriers and messengers work on commission, they are carrying more than one package at any given time of the day. Consequently, most couriers and messengers spend much of their time outdoors or in their ve hicle. They usually maintain records of deliveries and often obtain signatures from the persons receiving the items. Most couriers and messengers deliver items within a limited geographic area, such as a city or metropolitan area. Items that need to go longer distances usually are sent by mail or by an over night delivery service. Some couriers and messengers carry items only for their employer, which typically might be a law firm, bank, or financial institution. Others may act as part of an organization’s internal mail system and mainly carry items among an organization’s buildings or entirely within one building. Many couriers and mes sengers work for messenger or courier services; for a fee, they pick up items from anyone and deliver them to specified destinations within a local area. Most are paid on a commission basis. Couriers and messengers reach their destination by several meth ods. Many drive vans or cars or ride motorcycles. A few travel by foot, especially in urban areas or when making deliveries nearby. In congested urban areas, messengers often use bicycles to make deliveries. Bicycle messengers usually are employed by messenger Digitized or forcourier FRASER services. Although e-mail and fax machines can deliver https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis information faster than couriers and messengers can and a great deal of information is available over the Internet, an electronic copy cannot substitute for the original document for many types of busi ness transactions. Employment Couriers and messengers together held about 141,000 jobs in 2000. About 9 percent of couriers and messengers worked for law firms, another 10 percent worked for hospitals and medical and dental laboratories, and 29 percent were employed by local and long-dis tance trucking establishments. Financial institutions, such as com mercial banks, savings institutions, and credit unions, employed 10 percent. The rest were employed in a variety of other industries. Technically, many messengers are self-employed independent con tractors because they provide their vehicles and, to a certain extent, set their own schedules but, in many respects, they are like employ ees because they usually work for one company. Job Outlook Employment of couriers and messengers is expected to decline through 2010 despite an increasing volume of parcels, business documents, promotional materials, and other written information that must be handled and delivered as the economy expands. Em ployment of couriers and messengers will continue to be adversely impacted by the more widespread use of electronic information handling technology. For example, fax machines that allow copies of documents to be immediately sent across town or around the world have become standard office equipment. The transmission of information using e-mail also has become commonplace and will continue to reduce the demand for messengers. Many documents, forms, and application that people used to have delivered by hand are now downloaded from the Internet. Flowever, couriers and messengers still will be needed to transport materials that cannot be sent electronically—such as legal documents, blueprints and other oversized materials, large multipage documents, securities, pass ports, financial statements, and airline tickets. Also, they still will be required by medical and dental laboratories to pick up and de liver medical samples, specimens, and other materials. Related Occupations Messengers and couriers deliver letters, parcels, and other items. They also keep accurate records of their work. Others who do similar work are Postal Service workers; truckdrivers and driver/ 412 Occupational Outlook Handbook sales workers; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; and cargo and freight agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Per sons interested in courier and messenger jobs also may contact mes senger and courier services, mail-order firms, banks, printing and publishing firms, utility companies, retail stores, or other large firms. (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Dispatchers (0*NET 43-5031.00, 43-5032.00) Nature of the Work Dispatchers schedule and dispatch workers, equipment, or service vehicles for conveyance of materials or passengers. They keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls they receive, the transpor tation vehicles they monitor and control, and the actions they take. They maintain information on each call, and then prepare a detailed report on all activities occurring during the shift. Many dispatchers employ computer-aided dispatch systems to accomplish these tasks. The work of dispatchers varies greatly, depending on the industry in which they work. Regardless of where they work, all dispatchers are assigned a specific territory and have responsibility for all communications within this area. Many work in teams, especially in large commu nications centers or companies. One person usually handles all dis patching calls to the response units or company drivers, while the other members of the team usually receive the incoming calls and deal with the public. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, monitor the location of emergency services personnel from any one or all of the jurisdiction’s emergency services depart ments. They dispatch the appropriate type and number of units in response to calls for assistance. Dispatchers, or call takers, often are the first people the public contacts when they call for emer gency assistance. If certified for emergency medical services, the dispatcher may provide medical instruction to those on the scene of the emergency until the medical staff arrives. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers work in a variety of set tings; they may work in a police station, a fire station, a hospital, or, increasingly, in a centralized communications center. In many areas, the police department serves as the communications center. In these situations, all 911 emergency calls go to the police department, where a dispatcher handles the police calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. When handling calls, dispatchers carefully question each caller to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. This information is posted either electronically by computer or, with decreasing frequency, by hand. It is communicated immediately to uniformed or supervisory personnel, who quickly decide on the pri ority of the incident, the kind and number of units needed, and the location of the closest and most suitable units available. Usually, dispatchers constitute the communications workforce on a shift. Typically, there is a team of call takers who answer calls and relay the information to be dispatched. Responsibility then shifts to the dispatchers who send response units to the scene and monitor the activity of the public safety personnel answering the dispatch. Dur ing the course of the shift, dispatchers may rotate these functions. When appropriate, dispatchers stay in close contact with other service providers—for example, a police dispatcher would monitor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Projected employment growth of public safety dispatchers stems from increased demand for emergency services. the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medical emergency, dispatchers keep in close touch not only with the dispatched units, but also with the caller. They may give exten sive pre-arrival first aid instructions while the caller is waiting for the ambulance. They continuously give updates on the patient s con dition to the ambulance personnel, and often serve as a link between the medical staff in a hospital and the emergency medical techni cians in the ambulance. (A separate statement on emergency medi cal technicians and paramedics appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other dispatchers coordinate deliveries, service calls, and related activities for a variety of firms. Truck dispatchers, who work for local and long-distance trucking companies, coordinate the move ment of trucks and freight between cities. They direct the pickup and delivery activities of drivers. They receive customers’ requests for pickup and delivery of freight; consolidate freight orders into truckloads for specific destinations; assign drivers and trucks; and draw up routes and pickup and delivery schedules. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long-distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service, and dispatch other buses or arrange for repairs in order to restore service and sched ules. Train dispatchers ensure the timely and efficient movement of trains according to train orders and schedules. They must be aware of track switch positions, track maintenance areas, and the location of other trains running on the track. Taxicab dispatchers, or starters, dispatch taxis in response to requests for service and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service. They relay the nature of the problem to a nearby service station or a tow truck service and see to it that the emergency road service is completed. Gas and water service dis patchers monitor gaslines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies. Employment Dispatchers held 254,000 jobs in 2000. About one-third were po lice, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for State and local governments—primarily for local police and fire departments. Most of the remaining dispatchers worked for local and long-distance trucking companies and buslines; air carriers; wholesale establishments; railroads; taxicab companies; and com panies providing business services. Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most dispatchers work in urban areas, where large communications centers and businesses are located. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 413 Job Outlook Employment of dispatchers is expected to grow as fast as the aver age for all occupations through 2010. In addition to those resulting from job growth, openings will arise from the need to replace work ers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Projected employment growth of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, or public safety dispatchers, stems from increased de mand for emergency services. Many districts are consolidating their communications centers into a shared, areawide facility. Individu als with computer skills and experience will have a greater oppor tunity for employment as public safety dispatchers. Population growth and economic expansion are expected to spur employment growth for other types of dispatchers. Employment of some dispatchers is more adversely affected by economic down turns than that of other dispatchers. When economic activity falls, demand for transportation services declines. As a result, taxicab^ train, and truck dispatchers may experience layoffs or a shortened workweek, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding entrylevel jobs. Employment of tow truck dispatchers, on the other hand, is seldom affected by general economic conditions because of the emergency nature of their business. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve directing and controlling the move ment of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as distributing infor mation and messages, include air traffic controllers, communications equipment operators, customer service representatives, and reser vation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks. Sources of Additional Information For further information on training and certification for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers, contact: > National Academy of Emergency Medical Dispatch, 139 East South Temple, Suite 530, Salt Lake City, UT 84111. Internet: http ://www.emergencydispatch.org >- Association of Public Safety Communications Officials, 2040 S. Ridgewood, South Daytona, FL 32119-2257. Internet: http://www.apcointl.org >- International Municipal Signal Association, 165 East Union St., P.O. Box 539, Newark, NY 14513-0539. Internet: http://www.imsasafety.org For information on train dispatchers, contact: >- American Train Dispatchers Association, 1370 Ontario St„ Cleveland, OH 44113. Internet: http://www.ble.org/atdd/about-atdd.asp Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers is available from personnel offices of State and local governments or police departments. Information about work op portunities for other types of dispatchers is available from local employers and State employment service offices. (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Meter Readers, Utilities - | . ' "1I ssiBi ' Bp w A worker reads a meter outside a home. Meter readers are constantly aware of any abnormal behavior or consumption that might indicate an unauthorized connection. They may turn off service for questionable behavior or nonpayment of charges, and also are responsible for turning on service for new occupants. They usually keep a record of receipt and completion of meter service. Employment Meter readers held about 49,000 jobs in 2000. About half were employed by electric, gas, and water utilities. Most of the rest were employed in local government, reading water meters or meters for other government-owned utilities. Job Outlook Employment of meter readers is expected to decline through 2010. New automated meter reading (AMR) systems allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point, reducing the need for meter readers. However, because it will be many years before AMR systems can be implemented in all locations, there still will be some openings for meter readers, mainly to replace workers who leave the occupation. Related Occupations Other workers responsible for the distribution and control of utili ties include powerplant operators, distributors, and dispatchers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment as a meter reader, and on automatic meter reading technology, can be obtained from: >• Automatic Meter Reading Association. Internet: http:// www.amra-intl.org (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) (0*NET 43-5041.00) Nature of the Work Meter readers read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record the volume used. They serve both residential and com mercial consumers, either walking or driving along the designated route. Their duties include inspecting the meters and their connec tions for any defects or damage, supplying meter repair and mainte nance workers with the necessary information to fix damaged meters, and keeping track of the average usage and record reasons for any Digitized extreme for FRASER fluctuations in volume. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Production, Planning, and Expediting Clerks (0*NET 43-5061.00) Nature of the Work Production, planning, and expediting clerks coordinate and expe dite the flow of information, work, and materials within or among offices. Most of their work is done according to production, work, 414 Occupational Outlook Handbook for production, planning, and expediting clerks will grow. The work of production, planning, and expediting clerks is less likely to be automated than is that of many other administrative support occu pations. In addition to openings due to employment growth, many additional job openings will arise from the need to replace produc tion, planning, and expediting clerks who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. "Ml: Related Occupations Other workers who coordinate the flow of information to assist the production process include cargo and freight agents, shipping, re ceiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and weigh ers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping. PH. —Production, planning, and expediting clerks compile reports on the progress of work and on production problems. or shipment schedules. The schedules are reviewed and distributed after being considered by supervisors who determine work progress and completion dates. Production, planning, and expediting clerks compile reports on progress of work and production problems. They also may schedule workers, estimate costs, schedule shipment of parts, keep inventory of materials, inspect and assemble materials, and write special orders for services and merchandise. In addition, they may route and deliver parts to ensure that production quotas are met and that merchandise is delivered on the date promised. Production and planning clerks compile records and reports on various aspects of production, such as materials and parts used, prod ucts produced, machine and instrument readings, and frequency of defects. They prepare and distribute work tickets or other produc tion guides to workers. They coordinate, schedule, monitor, and chart production and its progress, either manually or using elec tronic equipment. Production and planning clerks also gather in formation from customer orders or other specifications to prepare a detailed production sheet that serves as a guide in assembly or manu facture of the product. Expediting clerks contact vendors and shippers to ensure that merchandise, supplies, and equipment are forwarded on the speci fied shipping dates. They communicate with transportation com panies to prevent delays in transit, and they may arrange for distribution of materials upon arrival. They may even visit work areas of vendors and shippers to check the status of orders. Expe diting clerks locate and distribute materials to specified production areas. They may inspect products for quality and quantity to ensure adherence to specifications. They also keep a chronological list of due dates and may move work not meeting the production schedule to the front. In 2000, production, planning, and expediting clerks held 332,000 jobs. Jobs in manufacturing made up 44 percent and jobs in whole sale trade and groceries and related products comprised about 6 percent. About 8 percent worked in the personnel supply services industry. Job Outlook Employment of production, planning, and expediting clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations 2010. As increasing pressure is put on companies to get Digitizedthrough for FRASER things produced and delivered more quickly and efficiently, the need https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks ___ ___ ___ ___ (0*NET 43-5071.00) __________________ Nature of the Work Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the estab lishment and the level of automation used. Larger companies typi cally are better able to finance the purchase of computers and other equipment to handle some or all of a clerk s responsibilities. In smaller companies, a clerk maintains records, prepares shipments, and accepts deliveries. In both environments, shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks may lift cartons of various sizes. Shipping clerks keep records of all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels, and make sure or ders have been filled correctly. Also, they record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Sometimes they fill the order themselves, obtaining merchandise from the stockroom, noting when inventories run low, and wrapping or packing the goods in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. Shipping clerks also may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to other parts of the com pany, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move the goods from the plant—sometimes by forklift truck—to the shipping dock and direct its loading. Receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether orders have been filled correctly by verify ing incoming shipments against the original order and the accom panying bill of lading or invoice. They make a record of the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks use hand-held scanners to record barcodes on incoming products or enter the information into a computer. These data then can be trans ferred to the appropriate departments. The shipment is checked for any discrepancies in quantity, price, and discounts. Receiving clerks may route or move shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom. They also may arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or damaged. Receiving clerks in small businesses also may perform duties similar to those of stock Office and Administrative Support Occupations 415 this is an entry-level occupation, many vacancies are created by nonnal career progression. Related Occupations Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks record, check, and often store materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks and order fillers; production, planning, and expediting clerks; and cargo and freight agents. H, ’« t'i t'» «„* * Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks maintain records andprepare shipments. clerks. In larger establishments, receiving clerks may control all receiving-platform operations, such as truck scheduling, recording of shipments, and handling of damaged goods. Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They verify rate charges by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. In many companies, this work may be automated. Information ei ther is scanned or is hand-entered into a computer for use by accounting or other departments within the company. Also, they keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit. Employment Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks held about 890,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly 4 out of 5 were employed in manufacturing or by wholesale and retail establishments. Although jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where shipping depots in factories and wholesale establishments usually are located. (For information on shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks working for the U.S. Postal Service, see the statement on Postal Service workers elsewhere in the Handbook). Job Outlook Employment of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Employment growth will continue to be affected by automa tion, as all but the smallest firms move to reduce labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records. Methods of material handling have changed significantly in re cent years. Large warehouses are increasingly automated, using equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, com puter-directed trucks, and automatic data storage and retrieval sys tems. Automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal computers in shipping and receiving depart ments, has increased the productivity of these workers. Despite technology, job openings will continue to arise due to increasing economic and trade activity, and because certain tasks cannot be automated. For example, someone needs to check ship ments before they go out and when they arrive to ensure that every thing is in order. In addition to those arising from job growth, openings will occur because of the need to replace shipping, Digitizedreceiving, for FRASER and traffic clerks who leave the occupation. Because https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Stock Clerks and Order Fillers (0*NET 43-5081.01, 43-5081.02, 43-5081.03, 43-5081.04) Nature of the Work Stock clerks and order fillers receive, unpack, check, store, and track merchandise or materials. They keep records of items enter ing or leaving the stockroom and inspect damaged or spoiled goods. They sort, organize, and mark items with identifying codes, such as prices or stock or inventory control codes, so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. They also may be required to lift cartons of various sizes. In larger establishments, where they may be responsible for only one task, they may be called stockcontrol clerk, merchandise distributor, or property custodian. In smaller firms, they also may perform tasks usually handled by ship ping and receiving clerks. (A separate statement on shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks appears elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) In many firms, stock clerks and order fillers use hand-held scan ners connected to computers to keep inventories up to date. In re tail stores, stock clerks bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, stock clerks store materials in bins, on floors, or on shelves. Instead of putting the merchandise on the sales floor or on shelves, order fillers take customer orders and either hold the merchandise until the customer can pick it up or send it to them. mm The growing use ofcomputers and automated equipment is expected to slow growth in demandfor stock clerks and orderfillers. 416 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment ... . Stock clerks and order fillers held about 1.7 million jobs in 2000; they were, by far, the largest material recording, scheduling, dis patching, and distributing occupation. About 76 percent work in wholesale and retail trade. The greatest numbers are found in gro cery stores, followed by department stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in large urban areas that have many large suburban shopping centers, warehouses, m and factories. Job Outlook Employment of stock clerks and order fillers is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010, due to the use of automation in factories and stores. Because this occu pation is very large and many jobs are entry level, however, numer ous job openings will occur each year to replace those who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. The growing use of computers for inventory control and the in stallation of new, automated equipment are expected to slow growth in demand for stock clerks and order fillers. This is especially true in manufacturing and wholesale trade industries whose operations are most easily automated. In addition to computerized inventory control systems, firms in these industries rely more on sophisticated conveyor belts and automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods. Also, expanded use of battery-powered, driverless, auto matically guided vehicles can be expected. Employment of stock clerks and order fillers who work in gro cery, general merchandise, department, apparel, and accessories stores is expected to be somewhat less affected by automation be cause much of their work is done manually and is difficult to auto mate. In addition, the increasing role of large retail outlets and warehouses, as well as catalogue, mail, telephone, and Internet shop ping services, should bolster employment of stock clerks and order fillers in these sectors of retail trade. Related Occupations Workers who also handle, move, organize, store, and keep records of materials include shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; produc tion, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and procurement clerks. trade can be obtained from: >• National Retail Federation, 325 Seventh St. NW., Suite 1000, Washing ton, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nrf.com/nri/ (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Weighers, Measurers, Checkers, and Samplers, Recordkeeping___ ____ _________ ________ Nature of the Work Weighers, measures, checkers, and samplers weigh, measure, and check materials, supplies, and equipment in order to keep relevant records. Most of their duties are clerical. They verify quantity, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis quality, and overall value and condition of items purchased, sold, or produced against records, bills, invoices, or receipts. Weighers, measures, checkers, and samplers check and document items using either manual or automated data processing systems. They check the items to ensure accuracy of the recorded data. They prepare reports on warehouse inventory levels and use of parts. Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers also check for any defects in the items and record the severity of the defects. These workers use weight scales, counting devices, tally sheets, and calculators to properly record information about the products. They usually move objects to and from the scales using a handtruck or forklift. They issue receipts for the products when needed or requested. Employment Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers held about 83,000jobs in 2000. Their employment is spread across most industries. De partment stores and air carriers accounted for about 16 percent of these jobs. Wholesale trade and services comprised 28 percent of employment. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks and order fillers. Also, see office and administrative support occupations and sales occupations elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information. General information about stock clerks and order fillers in retail (0*NET 43-5111.00) Weighers, measures, checkers, and samplers verify the quantity and quality of items purchased or sold against records. Job Outlook Employment of weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. The emphasis on accurate and nondefective materi als, as well as the use of records for verifying information, is an increasingly important responsibility for companies that will increase the need for weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers. Further more, automation should not have a significant effect on employ ment in this occupation because most of its duties need to be done manually. In addition to those resulting from job growth, openings should arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations. Related Occupations Other workers who determine and document characteristics of ma terials or equipment include cargo and freight agents, production, planning, and expediting clerks; shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and procurement clerks. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 417 (See introduction to the section on material recording, schedul ing, dispatching, and distributing occupations for information on working conditions, training requirements, and earnings.) Office and Administrative Support Worker Supervisors and Managers (0**NET 43-1011.01, 43-1011.02) Significant Points • Most jobs are filled by promoting individuals from within the organization, very often from the ranks of clerks whom they will subsequently supervise. • Office automation will cause employment in some office and administrative support occupations to slow or even decline, but supervisors are more likely to retain their jobs because of their relatively higher skills and longer tenure. Applicants for office and administrative support supervisor or manager jobs are likely to encounter keen competition because their number should greatly exceed the number of job openings. • Nature of the Work All organizations need timely and effective office and administra tive support to operate efficiently. Office and administrative sup port supervisors and managers coordinate this support. These workers are employed in virtually every sector of the economy, working in positions as varied as customer services manager, teller supervisor, and shipping-and-receiving supervisor. Although specific functions of office and administrative sup port supervisors and managers vary considerably, they share many common duties. For example, supervisors perform administrative tasks to ensure that their staffs can work efficiently. Equipment and machinery used in their departments must be in good working order. If the computer system goes down or a facsimile machine malfunctions, they must try to correct the problem or alert repair personnel. They also request new equipment or supplies for their department when necessary. Planning the work of their staff and supervising them are key functions of this job. To do these effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the staff, as well as the required level of quality and time allotted to each job. They must make allowances for unexpected absences and other dis ruptions by adjusting assignments or performing the work them selves if the situation requires it. After allocating work assignments and issuing deadlines, office and administrative support supervisors and managers oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meets estab lished quality standards. This may involve reviewing each person’s work on a computer—as in the case of accounting clerks—or lis tening to how they deal with customers—as in the case of customer services representatives. When supervising long-term projects, the supervisor may meet regularly with staff members to discuss their progress. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers also evaluate each worker’s performance. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor records it in the employee’s personnel file and may recommend a promotion or other award. Alternatively, if a Digitizedworker for FRASER is performing poorly the supervisor discusses the problem https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis with the employee to determine the cause and helps the worker im prove his or her performance. This might require sending the em ployee to a training course or arranging personal counseling. If the situation does not improve, the supervisor may recommend a trans fer, demotion, or dismissal. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers usu ally interview and evaluate prospective clerical employees. When new workers arrive on the job, supervisors greet them and provide orientation to acquaint them with the organization and its operating routines. Some supervisors may be actively involved in recruiting new workers, for example, by making presentations at high schools and business colleges. They may also serve as the primary liaisons between their offices and the general public through direct contact and by preparing promotional information. Supervisors also help train new employees in organization and office procedures. They may teach new employees how to use the telephone system and operate office equipment. Because much clerical work is computerized, they must also teach new employees to use the organization’s computer system. When new office equip ment or updated computer software is introduced, supervisors retrain experienced employees in using it efficiently. If this is not pos sible, they may arrange for special outside training for their employees. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers often act as liaisons between the clerical staff and the professional, tech nical, and managerial staff. This may involve implementing new ■ ■ : :.: • i", f K' Planning work and supervising staffare keyfunctions ofoffice and administrative support worker supervisors and managers. 418 Occupational Outlook Handbook company policies or restructuring the workflow in their departments. They must also keep their superiors informed of their progress and abreast of any potential problems. Often this communication takes the form of research projects and progress reports. Because they have access to information such as their department’s performance records, they may compile and present these data for use in plan ning or designing new policies. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers also may have to resolve interpersonal conflicts among the staff. In or ganizations covered by union contracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labor-management agreements and run their depart ments accordingly. They may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances. Working Conditions Office and administrative support supervisors and managers are employed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in clean, well lit, offices that usually are comfortable. Most work a standard 40-hour week. Because some organiza tions operate around the clock, office and administrative support supervisors and managers may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Sometimes supervisors rotate among the three shifts; in other cases, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority. Employment Office and administrative support supervisors and managers held almost 1.4 million jobs in 2000. Although jobs for office and ad ministrative support supervisors and managers are found in practi cally every industry, the largest number are found in organizations with a large clerical workforce such as banks, wholesalers, govern ment agencies, retail establishments, business service firms, healthcare facilities, schools, and insurance companies. Because of most organizations’ need for continuity of supervision, few of fice and administrative support supervisors and managers work on a temporary or part-time basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most firms fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting clerical or administrative sup port workers from within their organizations. To become eligible for promotion to a supervisory position, clerical or administrative support workers must prove they are capable of handling addi tional responsibilities. When evaluating candidates, superiors look for strong teamwork, problem-solving, leadership, and communi cation skills, as well as determination, loyalty, poise, and confi dence. They also look for more specific supervisory attributes, such as the ability to organize and coordinate work efficiently, to set priorities, and to motivate others. Increasingly, supervisors need a broad base of office skills coupled with personal flexibility to adapt to changes in organizational structure and move among departments when necessary. In addition, supervisors must pay close attention to detail in or der to identify and correct errors made by the staff they oversee. Good working knowledge of the organization’s computer system is also an advantage. Many employers require postsecondary train ing—in some cases, an associate’s or even a bachelor s degree. A clerk with potential supervisory abilities may be given occa sional supervisory assignments. To prepare for full-time supervi sory duties, he or she may attend in-house training or take courses in time management or interpersonal relations. Some office and administrative support supervisor positions are filled with people from outside the organization. These positions may serve as entry-level training for potential higher level managers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis New college graduates may rotate through departments of an organi zation at this level to learn the work of the organization. Job Outlook Like other supervisory occupations, applicants for jobs as office and administrative support supervisors or managers are likely to encounter keen competition because the number of applicants should greatly exceed the number of job openings. Employment is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition to the job openings arising from growth, a larger number of openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this large occu pation for other reasons. Employment of office and administrative support supervisors and managers is largely affected by the demand for administrative support workers. The continuing increase in office automation due to new technology should increase support workers productivity and allow a wider variety of tasks to be performed by more people in professional positions, requiring fewer office and administrative support workers. The result will be to cause employment growth in some clerical occupations to slow or even decline. Supervisors will direct smaller permanent staffs—supplemented by increased use of temporary clerical staff—and perform more professional tasks. Office and administrative support managers will coordinate the in creasing amount of administrative work and make sure the technol ogy is applied and running properly. However, organizational restructuring should continue to reduce some manager positions, distributing more responsibility to office and administrative sup port supervisors. Earnings Median annual earnings of office and administrative support super visors and managers were $36,420 in 2000; the middle 50 percent earned between $28,090 and $47,350. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $22,070, while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $60,600. In 2000, median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of office and administrative support supervisors and managers were: Federal Government............................... State government..................................... Local government.................................... Offices and clinics of medical doctors Commercial banks.................................. Department stores................................... $48,870 40,050 38,450 35,140 34,240 20,370 In addition to typical benefits, some office and administrative support supervisors and managers in the private sector may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses and stock options. Related Occupations Office and administrative support supervisors and managers must understand and sometimes perform the work of those whom they oversee, including bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; cashiers; communications equipment operators; customer service representatives; data entry and information processing workers; gen eral office clerks; receptionists and information clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; and tellers. Their supervisory and administrative duties are similar to those of other supervisors and managers. Sources of Additional Information For a wide variety of information related to management occupa tions, including educational programs, contact: >■ American Management Association, 1601 Broadway, New York, NY 10019-7420. Internet: http://www.amanet.org Office and Administrative Support Occupations 419 >- National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. Internet: http://www.nmal.org >• Association of Records Managers and Administrators, 4200 Somerset Dr., Suite 215, Prairie Village, KS 66208-0540. Internet: http://www.arma.org >- International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW Ambassador Dr„ P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org reports for accuracy and completeness, handle and adjust customer complaints, work with vendors, make travel arrangements, take in ventory of equipment and supplies, answer questions on depart mental services and functions, or help prepare invoices or budgetary requests. Senior office clerks may be expected to monitor and di rect the work of lower level clerks. Working Conditions For the most part, general office clerks work in comfortable office settings. Those on full-time schedules usually work a standard 40hour week; however, some work shifts or overtime during busy periods. About 1 in 4 clerks work part time, and about 1 in 10 work on a temporary basis. Office Clerks, General (0*NET 43-9061.00) Significant Points • Although most jobs are entry level, applicants with previous office experience, computer skills, and sound communication abilities may have an advantage. • Plentiful job opportunities will stem from employment growth, the large size of the occupation, and high replacement needs. Nature of the Work Rather than performing a single specialized task, the daily respon sibilities of general office clerks change with the needs of the spe cific job and the employer. Whereas some clerks spend their days filing or typing, others enter data at a computer terminal. They can also be called upon to operate photocopiers, fax machines, and other office equipment; prepare mailings; proofread copies; and answer telephones and deliver messages. The specific duties assigned to a clerk vary significantly, de pending upon the type of office in which a clerk works. An office clerk in a doctor’s office, for example, would not perform the same tasks as a clerk in a large financial institution or in the office of an auto-parts wholesaler. Although they may sort checks, keep pay roll records, take inventory, and access information, clerks also per form duties unique to their employer, such as organizing medications, making transparencies for a presentation, or filling orders received by fax machine. The specific duties assigned to a clerk also vary by level of experience. Whereas inexperienced employees make photocopies, stuff envelopes, or record inquiries, experienced clerks usually are given additional responsibilities. For example, they may maintain financial or other records, set up spreadsheets, verify statistical ■-mg&f' ' Office clerks usually work in a comfortable office setting. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment General office clerks held about 2.7 million jobs in 2000. Most are employed in relatively small businesses. Although they work in every sector of the economy, more than 60 percent worked in the services or wholesale and retail trade industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most office clerk jobs are entry-level administrative sup port positions, some previous office or business experience may be needed. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some require typing, basic computer skills, and other general office skills. Familiarity with computer word-processing software and applica tions is becoming increasingly important. Training for this occupation is available through business edu cation programs offered in high schools, community and junior colleges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in word processing, other computer applications, and office practices are particularly helpful. Because general office clerks usually work with other office staff, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Employers prefer individuals who are able to perform a variety of tasks and satisfy the needs of the many departments within a com pany. In addition, applicants should have good communication skills, be detail-oriented, and adaptable. General office clerks who exhibit strong communication, inter personal, and analytical skills may be promoted to supervisory po sitions. Others may move into different, more senior clerical or administrative jobs, such as receptionist, secretary, or administra tive assistant. After gaining some work experience or specialized skills, many workers transfer to jobs with higher pay or greater ad vancement potential. Advancement to professional occupations within an establishment normally requires additional formal educa tion, such as a college degree. Job Outlook Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment growth, the large size of the occupation, and high replacement needs should result in plentiful job opportunities for general office clerks in many industries. Furthermore, growth in part-time and temporary clerical positions will lead to a large num ber of job openings. Prospects should be brightest for those who have knowledge of basic computer applications and office machin ery, such as fax machines and copiers. Job opportunities will also be most favorable for those with good writing and communication skills. As general clerical duties continue to be consolidated and the ability to perform multiple tasks becomes increasingly neces sary, employers will seek well-rounded individuals with highly developed communication skills. 420 Occupational Outlook Handbook The employment outlook for general office clerks will be affected by the increasing use of computers, expanding office automation, and the consolidation of clerical tasks. Automation has led to pro ductivity gains, allowing a wide variety of duties to be performed by few office workers. However, automation also has led to a con solidation of clerical staffs and a diversification ofjob responsibili ties. This consolidation increases the demand for general office clerks, because they perform a variety of clerical tasks. It will be come increasingly common within small businesses to find a single general office clerk in charge of all clerical work. Job opportunities may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy affects demand for general office clerks. Compa nies tend to hire more when the economy is strong. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluctuation tend to be the most stable places for employment. Earnings Median annual earnings of general office clerks were $21,130 in 2000; the middle 50 percent earned between $16,710 and $26,670 annually. Ten percent earned less than $13,650, and 10 percent more than $33,050. Median annual salaries in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of general office clerks in 2000 are shown below: State government................................................................................... Local government.............. Commercial banks................................................................................. Hospitals.................................................................................................. Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... Offices and clinics of medical doctors............................................. Colleges and universities..................................................................... Personnel supply services.................................................................... $24,830 24,100 22,320 22,310 21,560 20,440 20,220 19,510 Related Occupations The duties of general office clerks can include a combination of bookkeeping, typing, office machine operation, and filing. Other office and administrative support workers who perform similar du ties include information and record clerks, and secretaries and ad ministrative assistants. Nonclerical entry-level workers include cashiers, medical assistants, and food and beverage serving and re lated workers. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide infor mation about job openings for general office clerks. Postal Service Workers (0*NET 43-5051.00, 43-5052.00, 43-5053.00) Significant Points • • • Qualification is based on an examination. Employment is expected to decline slightly. Keen competition is expected because the number of qualified applicants should continue to exceed the number of job openings. Nature of the Work Each week, the U.S. Postal Service delivers billions of pieces of mail, including letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this in an efficient and timely manner, the Postal Service employs about 860,000 individuals. Most Postal Service workers are postal https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis clerks or mail carriers. Postal clerks include a wide variety of work ers such as window clerks, distribution clerks, and mail processors. Window clerks wait on customers at post offices, whereas distribu tion clerks and mail processors sort mail. Mail carriers deliver mail to urban and rural residences and businesses throughout the United States. Postal clerks, who typically are classified by job duties, per form a variety of functions in the Nation’s post offices. Those who work as window or counter clerks, for example, sell stamps, money orders, postal stationary, and mailing envelopes and boxes. They also weigh packages to determine postage and check that packages are in satisfactory condition for mailing. These clerks register, cer tify, and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Win dow and counter clerks also help customers file claims for dam aged packages. Distribution clerks sort local mail for delivery to individual cus tomers. Other clerks, known as mail processors, operate optical character readers (OCRs) and barcode sorters to arrange mail ac cording to destination. OCRs “read” the ZIP code and spray a barcode onto the mail. Barcode sorters then scan the code and sort the mail. Because this is significantly faster than older sorting meth ods, it is becoming the standard sorting technology in mail process ing centers. Nevertheless, in some locations, mail still is sorted using elec tronic letter-sorting machines. Workers who operate these machines push keys corresponding to the ZIP code of the local post office to which each letter will be delivered. The machine then drops the letter into the proper slot. Odd-sized letters, magazines, and news papers still are sorted by hand. In small post offices, some workers perform all of the functions listed above. Once the mail has been processed and sorted, it is ready to be delivered by mail carriers. Although carriers are classified by their type of route—either city or rural—duties of city and rural carriers are similar. Most travel established routes, delivering and collect ing mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, when they arrange the mail in delivery sequence. Re cently, automated equipment has reduced the time that carriers need to sort the mail, allowing them to spend more time delivering mail. Mail carriers cover their routes on foot, by vehicle, or a combi nation of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it on a cart. In most urban and rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers must use their own automobiles. Deliv eries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings such as offices or apartments, which generally have all the mailboxes at one location. Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and COD (cash-on-delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and businesses and turn in the mail, receipts, and money collected dur ing the day. The duties of some city carriers can be specialized, with some delivering only parcel post, whereas others pick up mail from mail collection boxes. In contrast to city carriers, rural carriers provide a wider range of postal services, in addition to delivering and picking up mail. For example, rural carriers may sell stamps and money orders and register, certify, and insure parcels and letters. All carri ers, however, must be able to answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-of-address cards and other postal forms when requested. Office and Administrative Support Occupations 421 advantages, however. Carriers who begin work early in the morn ing are through by early afternoon and spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, delivering mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk periodically when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post items when load ing their vehicles. In addition, carriers must be cautious of poten tial hazards on their routes. Wet and icy roads and sidewalks can be treacherous, and each year dogs attack numerous carriers. lit® ; : Although some mail still is sorted by hand, machines are increasingly used to sort mail. Working Conditions Window clerks usually work in the public portion of clean, wellventilated, and well lit buildings. They have a variety of duties and frequent contact with the public, but they rarely work at night. However, they may have to deal with upset customers, stand for long periods, and be held accountable for an assigned stock of stamps and funds. Depending on the size of the post office in which they work, they also may be required to sort mail. The working conditions of other postal clerks can vary. In small post offices, workers may sort mail by hand. In large post offices and mail processing centers, chutes and conveyors move the mail, and machines do much of the sorting. Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of postal clerks can be physically demanding. These workers usually are on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Mail distribution clerks and mail processors can become tired and bored with the endless routine of moving and sorting mail. Many work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices pro cess mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Workers can experience stress, as they process ever-larger quantities of mail under tight produc tion deadlines and quotas. Most carriers begin work early in the morning—those with routes in a business district can start as early as 4 a.m. Overtime hours are frequently required for urban carriers during peak delivery times, Digitizedsuch for FRASER as before the winter holidays. A carrier’s schedule has its https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 74,000 clerks; 324,000 mail car riers; and 289,000 mail sorters, processors, and processing-machine operators in 2000. Most of them worked full time. While some postal clerks provided window service, most processed mail. Many distribution clerks and mail processors sorted mail at major metro politan post offices; others worked at mail-processing centers. The majority of mail carriers worked in cities and suburbs, while the rest worked in rural areas. Postal Service workers are classified as casual, part-time flex ible, part-time regular, or full time. Casuals are hired for 90 days at a time to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vaca tion periods. Part-time flexible workers do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours but are called in as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week, often replacing regular full-time workers on their scheduled day off. Full-time postal employees work a 40hour week over a 5-day period. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Postal Service workers must be at least 18 years old and U.S. citi zens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States. Qualification is based on a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and the ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examination and drug test, and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license and a good driving record, and receive a passing grade on a road test. Jobseekers should contact the post office or mail processing cen ter where they wish to work to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably dis charged veteran and 10 points to the score of a veteran who was wounded in combat or is disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires—usually 2 years after the examination date. Relatively few people become postal clerks or mail carriers as their first job, because of keen competition and the customary wait ing period of 1 to 2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupations. New Postal Service workers are trained on the job by experi enced workers. Many post offices offer classroom instruction on safety and defensive driving. Workers receive additional instruc tion when new equipment or procedures are introduced. In these cases, workers usually are trained by another postal employee or a training specialist. Postal clerks and mail carriers should be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. A good memory and the ability to read 422 Occupational Outlook Handbook rapidly and accurately are important. Good interpersonal skills also are vital, because mail distribution clerks work closely with other postal workers, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch or transportation deadlines and quotas. Postal Service workers often begin on a part-time, flexible basis and become regular or full time, in order of seniority as vacancies occur. Full-time workers may bid for preferred assignments, such as the day shift or a high-level nonsupervisory position. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases, or to high-level jobs, such as carrier technician. Postal Service workers can advance to supervisory positions on a com petitive basis. Job Outlook Employment of Postal Service workers is expected to decline slightly through 2010. However, many jobs still will become available be cause of the need to replace those who retire or leave the occupa tion. Those seeking jobs as Postal Service workers can expect to encounter keen competition, because the number of applicants will continue to exceed the number of openings. Although efforts by the U.S. Postal Service to provide better service will increase the number of window clerks, the demand for such clerks will be offset by the use of electronic communications technologies and private delivery companies. Employment of dis tribution clerks and mail processors is expected to decline because of the increasing use of automated materials handling equipment and optical character readers, barcode sorters, and other automated sorting equipment. The expected decline in mail volume also may have a negative impact on the employment of distribution clerks and mail processors. Several factors are expected to influence demand for mail carri ers. The competition from alternative delivery systems and new forms of electronic communication could drastically affect the total volume of mail handled. The Postal Service expects mail volume to increase through 2002, and then decrease through 2010. Most of the decrease is expected to come from first-class and standard mail. The Postal Service expects an increase in package deliveries due to the rising number of purchases made through the Internet by busi nesses and consumers and to partnerships the Postal Service has made with its competitors. Although total mail volume is projected to decrease, perhaps significantly, the number of addresses to which mail must be delivered will continue to increase. However, increased use of the “delivery point sequencing” system, which allows ma chines to sort mail directly by the order of delivery, should reduce the amount of time carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them more time to handle these longer routes. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized mail delivery, such as the increased use of cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. These trends are expected to increase car rier productivity, causing slow employment growth. Currently the role of the Postal Service as a government-approved monopoly is a topic of debate. Any legislative changes that would privatize or deregulate the U.S. Postal Service may affect employ ment of all its workers. Employment and schedules in the Postal Service fluctuate with the demand for its services. When mail vol ume is high, full-time workers work overtime, part-time workers work additional hours, and casual workers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged. Earnings Median annual earnings ofpostal mail carriers were $38,420 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,620 and $41,930. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $26,140, while the top https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 percent earned over $44,040. Rural mail carriers are reimbursed for mileage put on their own vehicles while delivering mail. Median annual earnings of Postal Service clerks were $39,010 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,140 and $41,870. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $31,980, while the top 10 percent earned more than $43,590. Median annual earnings of mail sorters, processors, and pro cessing-machine operators were $32,080 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,560 and $39,300. The lowest 10 per cent had earnings of less than $18,940, while the top 10 percent earned more than $42,570. Postal Service workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits similar to those enjoyed by Federal Government workers. The American Postal Workers Union or the National Association of Letter Carriers, both of which are affiliated with the AFL-CIO, represent most of these workers. Related Occupations Other occupations with duties similar to those of postal clerks in clude cashiers; counter and rental clerks; file clerks; and shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Others with duties related to those of mail carriers include couriers and messengers and truckdrivers and driver/sales workers. Occupations whose duties are related to those of mail sorters, processors, and processing-machine operators in clude inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers, and mate rial moving occupations. Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and State employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment op portunities for Postal Service workers. Secretaries and Administrative Assistants ______ ___ (Q* *NET 43-6011.00, 43-6012.00, 43-6013.00, 43-6014.00) Significant Points • • • Increasing office automation and organizational restructuring will lead to slow growth in overall employment of secretaries and administrative assistants. Job openings will stem primarily from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this very large occupation for other reasons each year. Opportunities should be best for skilled and experienced secretaries. Nature of the Work As technology continues to expand in offices across the Nation, the role of the office professional has greatly evolved. Office automation and organizational restructuring have led secretaries and administrative assistants to assume a wider range of new re sponsibilities once reserved for managerial and professional staff. Many secretaries and administrative assistants now provide train ing and orientation for new staff, conduct research on the Internet, and operate and troubleshoot new office technologies. In the midst of these changes, however, their core responsibilities have remained much the same, although changed from manual to electronic— Office and Administrative Support Occupations 423 performing and coordinating an office’s administrative activities, storing retrieving, and integrating information for dissemination to staff and clients. Secretaries and administrative assistants are responsible for a variety of administrative and clerical duties necessary to run an or ganization efficiently. They serve as an information manager for an office, schedule meetings and appointments, organize and maintain paper and electronic files, manage projects, conduct research, and provide information via the telephone, postal mail, and e-mail. They also may prepare correspondence and handle travel arrangements. Secretaries and administrative assistants are aided in these tasks by a variety of office equipment, such as facsimile machines, pho tocopiers, and telephone systems. In addition, secretaries and ad ministrative assistants increasingly use personal computers to create spreadsheets, compose correspondence, manage databases, and cre ate reports and documents via desktop publishing, and using digital graphics—all tasks previously handled by managers and other pro fessionals. At the same time, these other office workers have as sumed many tasks traditionally assigned to secretaries and administrative assistants, such as word processing and answering the telephone. Because secretaries and administrative assistants are often relieved from dictation and typing, they can support more members of the executive staff. In a number of organizations, sec retaries and administrative assistants work in teams in order to work flexibly and share their expertise. Specific job duties vary with experience and titles. Executive secretaries and administrative assistants, for example, perform fewer clerical tasks than other secretaries. In addition to arranging conference calls, and scheduling meetings, they may handle more complex responsibilities such as conducting research, preparing sta tistical reports, training employees, and supervising other clerical staff. Some secretaries and administrative assistants, such as legal and medical secretaries, perform highly specialized work requiring knowledge of technical terminology and procedures. For instance, legal secretaries prepare correspondence and legal papers such as summonses, complaints, motions, responses, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney or paralegal. They also may review legal journals and assist in other ways with legal research, such as verifying quotes and citations in legal briefs. Medical secretaries transcribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and confer ence proceedings. They also record simple medical histories, arrange Some secretaries and administrative assistants perform highly specialized work requiring knowledge oftechnical terminology and procedures. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for patients to be hospitalized, and order supplies. Most medical secretaries need to be familiar with insurance rules, billing prac tices, and hospital or laboratory procedures. Other technical secre taries who assist engineers or scientists may prepare correspondence, maintain the technical library, and gather and edit materials for sci entific papers. Working Conditions Secretaries and administrative assistants usually work in offices with other professionals in schools, hospitals, corporate settings, or in legal and medical offices. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods. If they spend a lot of time typing, particularly at a video display terminal, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, stress, and repetitive motion, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Office work can lend itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements, such as part time work or telecommuting—especially if their jobs requires extensive computer use. More than 1 secretary in 7 works part time and many others work in temporary positions. A few participate in job sharing arrangements in which two people divide responsibility for a single job. The majority of secretaries, however, are full-time employees who work a standard 40-hour week. Employment Secretaries and administrative assistants held about 3.9 million jobs in 2000, ranking among the largest occupations in the U.S. economy. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by secretarial specialty. Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive........................ 1,864,000 Executive secretaries and administrative assistants..................... 1,445,000 Medical secretaries.............................................................................. 314,000 Legal secretaries................................................................................... 279,000 Secretaries and administrative assistants are employed in orga nizations of every type. Almost 3 out of 5 secretaries and adminis trative assistants are employed in firms providing services, ranging from education and health to legal and business services. Others work for firms engaged in manufacturing, constmction, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communications. Banks, insur ance companies, investment firms, and real estate firms are also important employers, as are Federal, State, and local government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have basic office skills may qualify for entry-level secretarial positions. However, employers increasingly require extensive knowledge of software applications, such as word processing, spreadsheets, and database management. Secretaries and administrative assistants should be proficient in keyboarding and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communica tion. Because secretaries and administrative assistants must be tact ful in their dealings with people, employers also look for good interpersonal skills. Discretion, good judgment, organizational or management ability, initiative, and the ability to work independently are especially important for higher-level administrative positions. As office automation continues to evolve, retraining and con tinuing education will remain an integral part of secretarial jobs. Changes in the office environment have increased the demand for secretaries and administrative assistants who are adaptable and ver satile. Secretaries and administrative assistants may have to attend classes to learn how to operate new office technologies, such as information storage systems, scanners, the Internet, or new updated software packages, or utilize online education. 424 Occupational Outlook Handbook Secretaries and administrative assistants acquire skills in various ways. Training ranges from high school vocational education pro grams that teach office skills and keyboarding to 1- and 2-year pro grams in office administration offered by business schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Many tem porary placement agencies also provide formal training in computer and office skills. Many skills are often acquired, however, through on-the-job instruction by other employees or by equipment and soft ware vendors. Specialized training programs are available for stu dents planning to become medical or legal secretaries or administrative technology specialists. Bachelor’s degrees and pro fessional certifications are becoming increasingly important as busi ness continues to become more global. Testing and certification for entry-level office skills is available through the International Association of Administrative Profession als and NALS, the association for legal professionals. As secretar ies and administrative assistants gain experience, they can earn the Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) designation or the Certi fied Administrative Professional (CAP) designation by meeting certain experience and/or educational requirements and passing an examination. Similarly, those with one year’s experience in the legal field or who have concluded an approved training course and who want to be certified as a legal support professional can acquire the basic designation of Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS) by a testing process administered by NALS. NALS also offers an examination to confer the designation of Professional Legal Secretary (PLS), an advanced certification for legal support pro fessionals. Legal Secretaries International confers the Certified Legal Secretary Specialist (CLSS) designation in specialized areas such as civil trial, real estate, probate, and business law, to those who have 5 years of law-related experience and pass an examina tion. In some instances, waivers of certain requirements may be available. Secretaries generally advance by being promoted to other admini strative positions with more responsibilities. Qualified secretaries who broaden their knowledge of a company’s operations and en hance their skills may be promoted to other positions such as senior or executive secretary, clerical supervisor, or office manager. Sec retaries with word processing or data entry experience can advance to jobs as word processing or data entry trainers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial, word process ing or data entry service bureau. Secretarial experience can also lead to jobs such as instructor or sales representative with manufac turers of software or computer equipment. With additional train ing, many legal secretaries become paralegals. Job Outlook Overall, employment of secretaries and administrative assistants is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period. In addition to openings due to growth, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this very large occupa tion for other reasons each year. Opportunities should be best for well-qualified and experienced secretaries. Projected employment of secretaries will vary by occupational specialty. Employment growth in the health and legal services industries should lead to average growth for medical and legal secretaries. Employment of executive secretaries and administra tive assistants also is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Fast growing industries—such as personnel supply, computer and data processing services, health and legal services education, and engineering and management—will con tinue to generate most new job opportunities. A decline in em ployment is expected for all other secretaries except legal, medical, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or executive. They account for almost half of all secretaries and administrative assistants. Growing levels of office automation and organizational restruc turing will continue to make secretaries and administrative assis tants more productive in coming years. Personal computers, electronic mail, scanners, and voice message systems will allow secretaries to accomplish more in the same amount of time. The use of automated equipment is also changing the distribution of work in many offices. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as keyboarding, filing, photocopying, and bookkeeping are being assigned to workers in other units or departments. Profes sionals and managers increasingly do their own word processing and data entry; and handle much of their own correspondence rather than submit the work to secretaries and other support staff. Also, in some law offices and physicians’ offices, paralegals and medical assistants are assuming some tasks formerly done by secretaries. As other workers assume more of these duties, there is a trend in many offices for professionals and managers to “share” secretaries and administrative assistants. The traditional arrangement of one secretary per manager is becoming less prevalent; instead, secretar ies and administrative assistants increasingly support systems, de partments, or units. This approach often means secretaries and administrative assistants assume added responsibilities and are seen as valuable members of a team, but it also contributes to the decline in employment projected for overall numbers of secretaries and administrative assistants. Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the secretary’s and adminis trative assistant’s work environment. However, many secretarial and administrative duties are of a personal, interactive nature and, there fore, not easily automated. Responsibilities such as planning con ferences, working with clients, and transmitting staff instructions require tact and communication skills. Because technology cannot substitute for these personal skills, secretaries and administrative assistants will continue to play a key role in most organizations. Earnings Median annual earnings of executive secretaries and administrative assistants were $31,090 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,970 and $38,370 in 2000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,350, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,250. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of executive secretaries and administrative assis tants in 2000, were: Computer and data processing services.................................... $33,720 Local government.................................................................... 32,100 Elementary and secondary schools........................................... 3 0,470 Colleges and universities......................................................... 29,710 Personnel supply services........................................................ 28,020 Median annual earnings of legal secretaries, were $34,740 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,650 and $42,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,440, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $50,970. Medical secretaries earned a median annual salary of $23,430 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,530 and $28,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,510, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,510. Median annual earnings of all other secretaries, excluding legal, medical, and executive secretaries, were about $23,870 in 2000. Salaries vary a great deal, however, reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility. Salaries also vary in differ ent parts of the country; earnings are usually lowest in southern cities, and highest in northern and western cities. In addition, sala ries vary by industry; salaries of secretaries tend to be highest in Office and Administrative Support Occupations 425 transportation, legal services, and public utilities, and lowest in retail trade and finance, insurance, and real estate. Certification in this field usually is rewarded by a higher salary. The starting salary for inexperienced secretaries in the Federal Government was $ 17,474 a year in 2001. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. All secretaries employed by the Federal Government averaged about $33,354 a year in early 2001. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among them are bookkeeping, accounting, and audit ing clerks; receptionists and information clerks; court reporters; human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping; com puter operators; data entry and information processing workers; para legals and legal assistants; medical assistants; and medical records and health information technicians. A growing number of secretar ies share in managerial and human resource responsibilities. Occu pations requiring these skills include office and administrative https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis support supervisors and managers, computer and information sys tems managers, administrative services managers, and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Sources of Additional Information State employment offices provide information about job openings for secretaries. For information on the Certified Professional Sec retary designation or the Certified Administrative Professional des ignation, contact: >• International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW Ambassador Dr., P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org Information on the Certified Legal Secretary Specialist designa tion can be obtained from: >- Legal Secretaries International Inc., 8902 Sunnywood Dr., Houston, TX http://www.legalsecretaries.org Information on the Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS) and the Professional Legal Secretary (PLS) certifications is available from: ► NALS, Inc., 314 East 3rd St., Suite 210, Tulsa, OK 74120. Internet: http://www.nals.org 77088-3729. Internet: Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations Agricultural Workers _________ (0*NET 45-2011.00, 45-2041.00, 45-2092.01, 45-2092.02, 45-2093.00) Significant Points • • • • Farmworkers comprise 9 out of 10 agricultural workers. Duties and working conditions vary widely, from working in nurseries, to producing crops and raising livestock outdoors, to inspecting agricultural products in plants. Most workers learn through short-term on-the-job training; agricultural inspectors need work experience or a college degree in a related field. V* - I 'V Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average. Nature of the Work Agricultural workers have a range of responsibilities, from plant ing, cultivating, grading, and sorting agricultural products to in specting agricultural commodities and facilities. They may work with food crops, animals, or trees, shrubs, and plants. Depending on their jobs, they may work outdoors or indoors. Agricultural inspectors are employed by Federal and State gov ernments to inspect agricultural commodities, processing equipment and facilities, and fish and logging operations for compliance with laws and regulations governing health, quality, and safety. They inspect horticultural products or livestock to detect harmful disease or infestations. To assist in eradicating disease, they also inspect livestock to help determine the effectiveness of medication and feed ing programs. They may collect samples of pests, or of suspected diseased animals or materials, and send such samples to a labora tory for identification and analysis. Graders and sorters, agricultural products work to ensure the quality of the agricultural commodities that reach the market. They grade, sort, or classify unprocessed food and other agricultural prod ucts by size, weight, color, or condition. Farmworkers and laborers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse manu ally plant, maintain, and harvest food crops; apply pesticides, her bicides, and fertilizers to crops; and cultivate the plants used to beautify landscapes. They prepare nursery acreage or greenhouse beds for planting; water, weed, and spray trees, shrubs, and plants; cut, roll, and stack sod; stake trees; tie, wrap, and pack flowers, plants, shrubs, and trees to fill orders; and dig up or move fieldgrown and containerized shrubs and trees. Additional duties in clude planting seedlings, transplanting saplings, and watering and trimming plants. Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals care for live farm, ranch, or aquacultural animals that may include cattle, sheep, swine, goats, horses and other equines, poultry, finfish, shellfish, and bees. They also tend to animals raised for animal products, such as meat, fur, skins, feathers, eggs, milk, and honey. Duties may include feeding, watering, herding, grazing, castrating, branding, de-beaking, weigh ing, catching, and loading animals. They also may maintain records on animals, examine animals to detect diseases and injuries, and assist in birth deliveries and administer medications, vaccinations, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org 426 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis On dairyfarms, agricultural workers milk cows two or three times a day. or insecticides as appropriate. Daily duties include cleaning and maintaining animal housing areas. Farmworkers, agricultural production may have a wide range of duties, some of which overlap duties of other farmworkers described above. They tend to livestock and poultry; plant and harvest crops; and apply pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers to crops. These farmworkers also repair farm buildings and fences. Other duties may include operating milking machines and other dairy process ing equipment, supervising seasonal help, irrigating crops, and haul ing livestock products to market. Some farmworkers operate tractors, fertilizer spreaders, haybines, raking equipment, balers, combines, threshers, and other equipment used for plowing, sow ing, and harvesting. They also may help with the sorting, storage, and working in post-harvest treatment of crops. Working Conditions Working conditions vary widely. For example, some inspectors do field work, and may travel frequently. Federal food inspectors may work in highly mechanized plants or with poultry or livestock in confined areas with extremely cold temperatures and slippery floors. The duties often require working with sharp knives, moderate lift ing, and walking or standing for long periods. Many inspectors Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 427 work long and often irregular hours. Inspectors may find them selves in adversarial roles when the organization or individual be ing inspected objects to the inspection process or its potential consequences. Graders and sorters may work with similar products for an en tire shift, or may be assigned a variety of items. They may be on their feet all day and may have to lift heavy objects, whereas others may sit during most of their shift and do little strenuous work. Some graders work in clean, air-conditioned environments, suitable for carrying out controlled tests. Some may work evenings or week ends because of the perishable nature of the products. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. For farmworkers in nurseries, work is seasonal; spring and sum mer are the busier times of the year and hours in the cold weather tend to be fewer. These workers enjoy relatively comfortable work ing conditions while tending to plants indoors. However, during the busy seasons when landscape contractors need plants, work schedules may be more demanding, requiring weekend work. More over, the transition from warm weather to cold weather means that nursery workers might have to work overtime with little notice in order to move plants indoors in case of a frost. Farmworkers enjoy a somewhat independent lifestyle working with animals or on the land. Benefits include the wide-open physi cal expanse, the variability of day-to-day work, and the rural set ting. However, hours are generally uneven and often long; work cannot be delayed when crops must be planted and harvested, or when animals must be sheltered and fed. Weekend work is com mon, and farmworkers may work a 6- or 7-day week during plant ing and harvesting seasons. About 1 out of 5 agricultural workers had variable schedules, compared with fewer than 1 in 10 workers in all occupations combined. As much of the work is seasonal in nature, many workers also obtain other employment. Migrant farmworkers, who move from location to location as crops ripen, live an unsettled lifestyle, which can be stressful. Much farm and ranch work takes place outdoors in all kinds of weather and is physical in nature. Harvesting fruits and vegetables, for example, may requiremuch bending, stooping, and lifting. Some field workers may lack adequate sanitation facilities, and their drink ing water may be limited. The year-round nature of much livestock production work means that ranch workers must be out in the heat of summer, as well as the cold of winter. Those who work directly with animals risk being bitten or kicked. Farmworkers in crop production risk exposure to pesticides and other potentially hazardous chemicals that are sprayed on crops or plants. However, exposure is relatively minimal if safety proce dures are followed. Those who work on mechanized farms must take precautions when working with tools and heavy equipment to avoid injury. Employment Agricultural workers held 987,000 jobs in 2000. Farmworkers held 909,000 jobs, graders and sorters 63,000 jobs, and agricultural in spectors 15,000jobs. More than 60 percent of all agricultural work ers held jobs in crop and livestock production and almost 21 percent held jobs in agricultural services, mostly for farm labor contractors. About 15 percent of farmworkers were part-time employees, about the same proportion as for workers overall. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Becoming an agricultural inspector requires relevant work experi ence, or a college degree in a field such as biology or agricultural science. Inspectors are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In general, people who want to enter this occupation should https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis be responsible, like detailed work, and be able to communicate well. Federal Government inspectors whose job performance is satisfac tory advance through a career ladder to a specified full-performance level. For positions above this level, usually supervisory positions, advancement is competitive and based on agency needs and indi vidual merit. Advancement opportunities in State and local gov ernments and in the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. For graders and sorters, training requirements vary on the basis of their responsibilities. For those who perform tests on various agricultural products, a high school diploma is preferred and may be required. Simple jobs may be filled by beginners provided with short-term on-the-job training. Farmworkers leam through short-term on-the-job training. Fiftysix percent of these workers do not have a high school diploma, compared with only about 13 percent of all workers in the economy. The proportion of workers without a high school diploma is par ticularly high in the crop production sector, where there are more labor-intensive establishments employing migrant farmworkers. In nurseries, entry-level workers must be able to follow direc tions and leam proper planting procedures. If driving is an essen tial part of a job, employers look for applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck. Workers who deal directly with customers must get along well with people. Employ ers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals, because nursery workers sometimes work with little supervision. Advancement depends on motivation and experience. Farm workers who work hard and quickly, have good communication skills, and take an interest in the business may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. Some agricultural workers may aspire to become farm, ranch, and other agricultural managers, or fanners or ranchers themselves. (Farmers, ranchers, and agricul tural managers are discussed in a separate Handbook statement.) In addition, their knowledge of raising and harvesting produce may provide an excellent background for becoming purchasing agents and buyers of farm products. Knowledge of working a farm as a business can help agricultural workers become farm and home man agement advisors. Those who earn a college degree in agricultural science could become agricultural and food scientists. Job Outlook Overall employment of agricultural workers is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period—primarily reflecting the outlook for farmworkers, who con stitute 9 out of 10 agricultural workers. Low wages, the physical demands of the work, and high job turnover should result in abun dant job opportunities. Continued consolidation of farms and technological advance ments in farm equipment will dampen employment growth. Never theless, farms remaining in operation will still need workers to help with farms’ operations, and farm labor contractors’ employment of farmworkers is expected to increase rapidly. Farmworkers in land scape and horticultural services should have among the most rapid job growth, reflecting the demand for agricultural services such as landscaping. Slower-than-average employment growth also is expected for agricultural inspectors, as governments at all levels are not expected to hire significant numbers of new inspectors and regulators. Simi larly, slow growth is expected for graders and sorters, reflecting projections for the industries in which they work. Earnings Median weekly earnings of farmworkers were $309 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $250 and $404. The lowest 10 428 Occupational Outlook Handbook percent earned less than $205, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $526. Median hourly earnings of graders and sorters, agricultural prod ucts were $7.11 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.34 and $8.78. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.87, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.18. Median hourly earnings of agricultural inspectors were $13.75 in2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.61 and$17.85. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.79, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.91. Few agricultural workers are members of unions. Related Occupations The duties of farmworkers who perform outdoor labor are related to the work of fishers and fishing vessel operators; forest, conser vation, and logging workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Farmworkers who work with farm and ranch animals perform work related to that of animal care and service workers. The work of agricultural inspectors and graders and sorters is related to work performed by inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers in manufacturing industries. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs as agricultural workers is available from: > National FFA Organization, The National FFA Center, Career Informa tion Requests, P.O. Box 68690, Indianapolis, IN, 46268-0960. Internet: http://www.ffa.org Information on farmworker jobs is available from: >- The New England Small Farm Institute, 275 Jackson St., Belchertown, MA01007. Internet: http://www.smallfarm.org/newoof/companions.html Information on obtaining a position as an agricultural inspec tor with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may re sult. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov Fishers and Fishing Vessel Operators (0**NET 45-3011.00) • • • Significant Points Over 60 percent of the workers are self-employed, among the highest proportion in the workforce. Many jobs require strenuous work and long hours, and provide only seasonal employment. Employment is projected to decline, due to depletion of fish stocks and new Federal and State laws restricting both commercial and recreational fishing. Nature of the Work Fishers and fishing vessel operators catch and trap various types of marine life for human consumption, animal feed, bait, and other uses. (Aquaculture—the raising and harvesting for commercial purposes of fish and other aquatic life in ponds or confined bodies of water—is covered in the Handbook statement on farmers, ranch ers, and agricultural managers.) Fishing hundreds of miles from shore with commercial fishing Digitizedvessels—large for FRASER boats capable of hauling a catch of tens of thousands https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of pounds of fish—requires a crew including a captain, or skipper, a first mate and sometimes a second mate, boatswain (called a deckboss on some smaller boats), and deckhands with specialized skills. The fishing boat captain plans and oversees the fishing opera tion—the fish to be sought, the location of the best fishing grounds, the method of capture, the duration of the trip, and the sale of the catch. The captain ensures the fishing vessel is seaworthy; oversees the purchase of supplies, gear, and equipment such as fuel, netting, and cables; obtains the required fishing permits and licenses; and hires qualified crew members and assigns their duties. The captain plots the vessel’s course, using navigation instruments and aids such as compasses, sextants, and charts, in addition to electronic naviga tional equipment such as autopilots, loran systems, and satellite navigation systems. Ships also use radar to avoid obstacles and depth sounders to indicate the water depth and the existence of marine life between the vessel and sea bottom. Sophisticated track ing technology allows captains to better locate and analyze schools of fish. The captain directs the fishing operation through the offic ers, and records daily activities in the ship’s log. Upon returning to port, the captain arranges for the sale of the catch—directly to buy ers or through a fish auction—and ensures that each crew member receives the prearranged portion of adjusted net proceeds from the sale of the catch. Some captains have begun buying and selling fish via the Internet; and as electronic commerce grows as a method to find buyers for fresh catch, more captains may use computers. The first mate—the captain’s assistant, who must be familiar with navigation requirements and the operation of all electronic equipment—assumes control of the vessel when the captain is off duty. Duty shifts, called watches, usually last 6 hours. The mate’s regular duty, with the help of the boatswain and under the captain’s oversight, is to direct the fishing operations and sailing responsi bilities of the deckhands. These include the operation, maintenance, and repair of the vessel, and the gathering, preservation, stowing, and unloading of the catch. The boatswain, a highly experienced deckhand with supervi sory responsibilities, directs the deckhands as they carry out the sailing and fishing operations. Before departure, the boatswain di rects the deckhands to load equipment and supplies, either by hand or with hoisting equipment, and to untie lines from other boats and the dock. When necessary, boatswains repair fishing gear, equip ment, nets, and accessories. They operate the fishing gear, letting out and pulling in nets and lines. They extract the catch such as pollock, flounder, menhaden, and tuna, from the nets or lines’ hooks. Deckhands use dip nets to prevent the escape of small fish and gaffs to facilitate the landing of large fish. They then wash, salt, ice, and stow away the catch. Deckhands also must ensure that decks are clear and clean at all times and the vessel’s engines and equipment are kept in good working order. Upon return to port, they secure the vessel’s lines to and from the docks and other vessels. Unless “lumpers” (laborers or longshore workers) are hired, the deckhands unload the catch. Large fishing vessels that operate in deep water generally have technologically advanced equipment, and some may have facilities on board where the fish are processed and prepared for sale. Such vessels are equipped for long stays at sea and can perform the work of several smaller boats. Some full-time and many part-time fishers work on small boats in relatively shallow waters, often in sight of land. Navigation and communication needs are vital and constant for almost all types of boats. Crews are small—usually only one or two people collabo rate on all aspects of the fishing operation. This may include plac ing gill nets across the mouths of rivers or inlets, entrapment nets in bays and lakes, or pots and traps for fish or shellfish such as Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 429 amm Althoughfishing has become more mechanized, netting and hauling the catch aboard is strenuous work. lobsters and crabs. Dredges and scrapes are sometimes used to gather shellfish such as oysters and scallops. A very small propor tion of commercial fishing is conducted as diving operations. De pending upon the water’s depth, divers—wearing regulation diving suits with an umbilical (air line) or a scuba outfit and equipment— use spears to catch fish and use nets and other equipment to gather shellfish, coral, sea urchins, abalone, and sponges. In very shallow waters, fish are caught from small boats having an outboard motor, from rowboats, or by wading or seining from shore. Fishers use a wide variety of hand-operated equipment—for example, nets, tongs, rakes, hoes, hooks, and shovels—to gather fish and shellfish; catch amphibians and reptiles such as frogs and turtles; and harvest ma rine vegetation, such as Irish moss and kelp. Although historically most fishers were involved with the tradi tional commercial fishery, some captains and deckhands are prima rily employed in support of the sport or recreational fishery. Typically, a group of people charter a fishing vessel—for periods ranging from several hours to a number of days—for sport fishing, socializing, and relaxation and employ a captain and possibly sev eral deckhands. This industry had experienced significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s, but declined in the 1990s because of the limited availability of fish. Working Conditions Fishing operations are conducted under various environmental con ditions, depending on the region of the country and the kind of species sought. Storms, fog, and wind may hamper fishing vessels. Divers are affected by murky water and unexpected shifts in under water currents. In relatively busy fisheries, smaller boats have to take care not to be hit by larger vessels. Fishers and fishing vessel operators work under hazardous con ditions, and often help is not readily available. Malfunctioning navigation or communication equipment may lead to collisions or shipwrecks. Malfunctioning fishing gear poses the danger of in jury to the crew, who also must guard against entanglement in fish ing nets and gear, slippery decks resulting from fish processing operations, ice formation in the winter, or being swept overboard— a fearsome situation. Also, treatment for any serious injuries may have to await transfer to a hospital. Divers must guard against en tanglement of air lines, malfunction of scuba equipment, decom pression problems, and attacks by predatory fish. Fishers and fishing vessel operators face strenuous outdoor work Digitizedand for FRASER long hours. Commercial fishing trips may require a stay of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis several weeks, or even months—hundreds of miles away from home port. The pace of work may vary, but even during travel between home port and the fishing grounds, deckhands on smaller boats try to finish their cleaning duties so that there are no chores remaining to be done at port. However, lookout watches are a regular respon sibility, and crew members must be prepared to stand watch at pre arranged times of the day or night. Although fishing gear has improved, and operations have become more mechanized, netting and processing fish are strenuous activities. Whereas newer ves sels have improved living quarters and amenities, such as televi sion and shower stalls, crews still experience the aggravations of confined conditions, continuous close personal contact, and the absence of family. Employment Fishers and fishing vessel operators held an estimated 53,000 jobs in 2000. More than 6 out of 10 were self-employed. Besides fish ing conducted primarily to harvest food, some jobs involved sport fishing activities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Fishers usually acquire occupational skills on the job, many as mem bers of families involved in fishing activities. No formal academic requirements exist. Operators of large commercial fishing vessels are required to complete a Coast Guard-approved training course. Students can expedite their entrance into these occupations by enrolling in 2-year vocational-technical programs offered by sec ondary schools. In addition, some community colleges and univer sities offer fishery technology and related programs that include courses in seamanship, vessel operations, marine safety, naviga tion, vessel repair and maintenance, health emergencies, and fish ing gear technology. Courses include hands-on experience. Secondary and postsecondary programs are normally offered in or near coastal areas. Experienced fishers may find short-term workshops offered through various postsecondary institutions especially useful. These programs provide a good working knowledge of electronic equip ment used in navigation and communication, and the latest improve ments in fishing gear. Captains and mates on large fishing vessels of at least 200 gross tons must be licensed. Captains of sport fishing boats used for charter, regardless of size, must also be licensed. Crew members on certain fish processing vessels may need a merchant mariner’s document. The U.S. Coast Guard issues these documents and li censes to individuals who meet the stipulated health, physical, and academic requirements. (For information about merchant marine occupations, see the statement on water transportation occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Fishers must be in good health and possess physical strength. Good coordination, mechanical aptitude, and the ability to work under difficult or dangerous conditions are necessary to operate, maintain, and repair equipment and fishing gear. Fishers need stamina to work long hours at sea, often under difficult conditions. On large vessels, they must be able to work as members of a team. Fishers must be patient, yet always alert, to overcome the boredom of long watches, when not engaged in fishing operations. The abil ity to assume any deckhand’s functions, on short notice, is impor tant. As supervisors, mates must be able to assume all duties, including the captain’s, when necessary. The captain must be highly experienced, mature, decisive, and possess the business skills needed to run business operations. On fishing vessels, most fishers begin as deckhands. Deckhands who acquire experience and whose interests are in ship engineer ing—maintenance and repair of ship engines and equipment—can 430 Occupational Outlook Handbook eventually become licensed chief engineers on large commercial vessels, after meeting the Coast Guard’s experience, physical, and academic requirements. Experienced, reliable deckhands who dis play supervisory qualities may become boatswains. Boatswains may, in turn, become second mates, first mates, and finally captains. Almost all captains become self-employed, and the overwhelming majority eventually own, or have an interest in, one or more fishing ships. Some may choose to run a sport or recreational fishing op eration. When their seagoing days are over, experienced individu als may work in or, with the necessary capital, own stores selling fishing and marine equipment and supplies. Some captains may assume advisory or administrative positions in industry trade asso ciations or government offices, such as harbor development com missions or in teaching positions in industry-sponsored workshops or educational institutions. Divers in fishing operations can enter commercial diving activity—for example, repairing ships or main taining piers and marinas—usually after completion of a certified training program sponsored by an educational institution or indus try association. percentage. Generally, the ship’s owner—usually its captain re ceives half of the net proceeds. From this, the owner pays for de preciation, maintenance and repair, replacement and insurance costs of the ship and equipment; the money remaining is the owner’s profit. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve outdoor work with fish and water craft include water transportation occupations and fish and game wardens. Sources of Additional Information Names of postsecondary schools offering fishing and related ma rine educational programs are available from: >- Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St. NW, Suite 906, Washington, DC 20036-5104. Internet: http://www.mtsociety.org Information on licensing of fishing vessel captains and mates, and requirements for merchant mariner documentation, is available from the U.S. Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office or Marine Safety Office in your State, or: >- Office of Compliance, Commandant (G-MOC-3) 2100 Second St. SW., Job Outlook Employment of fishers and fishing vessel operators is expected to decline through the year 2010. These occupations depend on the natural ability offish stocks to replenish themselves through growth and reproduction, as well as on governmental regulation of fisher ies. Many operations are currently at or beyond maximum sustain able yield, partially because of habitat destruction, and the number of workers who can earn an adequate income from fishing is ex pected to decline. Job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation. Some fishers and fish ing vessel operators leave the occupation because of the strenuous and hazardous nature of the job and the lack of steady, year-round income. In many areas, particularly the North Atlantic and Pacific North west, damage to spawning grounds and excessive fishing have ad versely affected the stock of fish and, consequently, the employment opportunities for fishers. In some areas, States have greatly reduced permits to fishers, to allow stocks of fish and shellfish to replenish themselves, idling many fishers. Other factors contributing to the projected decline in employment of fishers include the use of so phisticated electronic equipment for navigation, communication, and fish location; improvements in fishing gear, which have greatly increased the efficiency of fishing operations; and the use of highly automated floating processors, where the catch is processed aboard the vessel. Sport fishing boats will continue to provide some job opportunities. Earnings The majority of fishers earn between $300 and $750 per week. Earnings of fishers and fishing vessel operators normally are high est in the summer and fall—when demand for services peaks and environmental conditions are favorable—and lowest during the winter. Many full-time and most part-time workers supplement their income by working in other activities during the off-season. For example, fishers may work in seafood processing plants, establish ments selling fishing and marine equipment, or in construction, or in a number of non-related, seasonal occupations. Earnings of fishers vary widely, depending upon their position, ownership percentage of the vessel, size of ship, and the amount and value of the catch. The costs of the fishing operation—the physical aspects of operating the ship such as the fuel costs, repair and maintenance of gear and equipment, and the crew’s supplies— are deducted from the sale of the catch. Net proceeds are distrib Digitized uted for FRASER among the crew members in accordance with a prearranged https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Washington, DC 20593. >- Licensing and Evaluation Branch, National Maritime Center, 4200 Wil son Blvd., Suite 630, Arlington, VA 22203-1804. Forest, Conservation, and Logging Workers _______ __ (0**NET 45-4011.00, 45-4021.00, 45-4022.01, 45-4023.00) • • • Significant Points Workers spend all their time outdoors, sometimes in poor weather and often in isolated areas. Most jobs are physically demanding and can be hazardous. A small decline is expected in overall employment. Nature of the Work The Nation’s forests are a rich natural resource, providing beauty and tranquillity, varied recreational areas, and wood for commer cial use. Managing forests and woodlands requires many different kinds of workers. Forest and conservation workers help develop, maintain, and protect these forests by growing and planting new tree seedlings, fighting insects and diseases that attack trees, and helping to control soil erosion. Timber cutting and logging work ers harvest thousands of acres of forests each year for the timber that provides the raw material for countless consumer and indus trial products. Forest and conservation workers perform a variety of tasks to reforest and conserve timberlands and maintain forest facilities, such as roads and campsites. Some forest workers, called tree planters, use digging and planting tools called “dibble bars’’ and “hoedads to plant tree seedlings to reforest timberland areas. Forest workers also remove diseased or undesirable trees with a powersaw or hand saw and spray trees with insecticides to kill insects and to protect against disease and herbicides to reduce competing vegetation. Forest workers in private industry usually work for professional foresters and paint boundary lines, assist with prescribed burning, and aid in tree marking and measuring by keeping a tally of the trees examined and counted. Those who work for State and local governments or under contract to the Federal Government also clear away brush and debris from jurisdictional camp trails, roadsides, and camping areas. Some clean kitchens and restrooms at recre ational facilities and campgrounds. Other forest and conservation workers work in forest nurseries, sorting out tree seedlings and discarding those that do not meet prescribed standards of root formation, stem development, and foliage condition. Some forest workers are employed on tree farms, where they plant, cultivate, and harvest many different kinds of trees. Duties vary depending on the type of tree farm. Those who work on spe cialty farms, such as those growing Christmas or ornamental trees for nurseries, are responsible for shearing tree tops and limbs to control growth, increase limb density, and improve tree shape. In addition, duties include planting, spraying to control surrounding weed growth and insects, and harvesting. Other forest workers gather, by hand or using hand tools, prod ucts from the woodlands such as decorative greens, tree cones and barks, moss, and other wild plant life. Still others tap trees for sap to make syrup or to produce chemicals. The timber cutting and logging process is carried out by a vari ety of workers who make up a logging crew. Fallers cut down trees with hand-held power chain saws or occasionally axes. Usually using gas-powered chain saws, buckers trim off the tops and branches and buck (cut) the resulting logs into specified lengths. Choke setters fasten chokers (steel cables or chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by tractors or forwarded by the cable yard ing system to the landing or deck area where logs are separated by species and product type, such as pulpwood, sawlogs, or veneer logs, and loaded onto trucks. Rigging stingers and chasers set up and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the cable yarding system. Log sorters, markers, movers, and debarkers sort, mark, and move logs, based on species, size, and ownership, and tend machines that debarks logs. Logging equipment operators on a logging crew perform a num ber of duties. They drive crawler or wheeled tractors called skidders, or forwarders, which drag or transport logs from the felling site in the woods to the log landing area for loading. They operate grapple loaders, which lift and load logs into trucks, and tree fellers or shears, which cut the trees. They use tree harvesters to shear the tops off of trees, cut and limb the trees, and then cut the logs into desired lengths. Some logging equipment operators use tracked or wheeled equip ment similar to a forklift to unload logs and pulpwood off trucks or gondola railroad cars, usually in a sawmill or pulpmill woodyard. Log graders and scalers inspect logs for defects, measure logs to determine their volume, and estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulpwood. These workers often use hand-held data collection terminals to enter data about individual trees, which can later be downloaded or sent, via modem, from the scaling area to a central computer. Other timber cutting and logging workers have a variety of re sponsibilities. Some workers hike through forests to assess log ging conditions. Laborers clear areas of brush and other growth to prepare for logging activities or to promote growth of desirable spe cies of trees. The timber cutting and logging industry is characterized by a large number of small crews of four to eight workers. A typical crew might consist of one or two fallers or one feller machine op erator, one bucker, two logging tractor operators to drag cut trees to the loading deck, and one equipment operator to load the logs onto trucks. Most crews work for self-employed logging contractors who possess substantial logging experience, the capital to purchase equip ment, and skills needed to run a small business successfully. Most contractors work alongside their crews as working supervisors and often operate one of the logging machines, such as the grapple loader https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 431 mm Forest, conservation, and logging workers spend most oftheir time outdoors, often operating heavy logging equipment. or the tree harvester. Many manage more than one crew and func tion as owner-supervisors. Although timber cutting and logging equipment has greatly im proved and operations are becoming increasingly mechanized, many logging jobs are still labor intensive. These jobs require various levels of skill, ranging from the unskilled task of manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully using chain saws, peavies (hooked poles), and log jacks to cut and position logs for further processing or loading. To keep costs down, some timber cutting and logging workers maintain and repair the equipment they use. A skillful, experienced logger is expected to handle a variety of logging operations. Working Conditions Forestry and logging jobs are physically demanding. These work ers spend all their time outdoors, sometimes in poor weather and often in isolated areas. The increased use of enclosed machines has decreased some of the discomforts caused by inclement weather. A few lumber camps in Alaska house workers in bunkhouses or com pany towns. Workers in sparsely populated western States com mute long distances between their homes and logging sites. In the more densely populated eastern and southern States, commuting distances are much shorter. Most logging occupations involve lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activities, although machinery has eliminated some of the heavy labor. Loggers work under unusually hazardous condi tions. Falling trees and branches are a constant menace, as are the dangers associated with log handling operations and use of sawing equipment, especially delimbing devices. Special care must be taken during strong winds, which can even halt operations. Slippery or muddy ground and hidden roots or vines not only reduce efficiency but also present a constant danger, especially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poisonous plants, brambles, insects, snakes, and heat and humidity are minor annoyances. If safety pre cautions are not taken, the high noise level of sawing and skidding operations over long periods of time may impair hearing. Experi ence, exercise of caution, and use of proper safety measures and equipment—such as hardhats, eye and ear protection, and safety clothing and boots—are extremely important to avoid injury. The jobs of forest and conservation workers generally are much less hazardous. It may be necessary for some forestry aides or for est workers to walk long distances through densely wooded areas to do their work. 432 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Forest, conservation, and logging workers held about 90,000 jobs in 2000, distributed among the following occupations: Logging equipment operators................................................................. 47,000 Forest and conservation workers........................................................... 21,000 Fallers.......................................................................................................... 13,000 Log graders and scalers........................................................................... 8,000 Additional employment of choke setters, buckers, rigging slingers, and other logging workers is not included in the employ ment above. Most wage and salary fallers and logging equipment operators are employed in the logging camps and logging contractors indus try, although some work in sawmills and planing mills. Employ ment of log graders and scalers is largely concentrated in sawmills and planing mills. Although logging operations are found in most States, the Southeast employs the most, about 37 percent of all logging workers, followed by the Northwest, which employs 30 percent. About 2 in 5 wage and salary forest and conservation workers are employed by companies that operate timber tracts, tree farms, or forest nurseries, or for establishments that supply forestry ser vices. Some of those employed in forestry services work on a con tract basis for the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service. Most of the remainder of forest and conservation workers are em ployed by State or local governments; about 4,300 work for State governments, and 1,900 work for local governments. A small num ber work in sawmills and planing mills. Although forest and con servation workers are located in every State, employment is concentrated in the West and Southeast where many national and private forests and parks are located. Self-employed forestry, conservation, and logging workers ac count for about 1 of every 5 logging workers—a much higher pro portion of self-employment than for most occupations. Seasonal demand for forest, conservation, and logging workers varies by region. For example, in the northern States, winter work is common because the frozen ground facilitates logging. In the Southeast, logging and related activities occur year round. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forest, conservation, and logging workers develop skills through on-the-job training with instruction coming primarily from experienced workers. Logging workers must familiarize themselves with the character and potential dangers of the forest environment and the operation of logging machinery and equipment. Fiowever, large logging companies and trade associations, such as the North eastern Loggers Association and the Forest Resources Association, Inc., offer special programs, particularly for workers training to operate large, expensive machinery and equipment. Often, a repre sentative of the manufacturer or company spends several days in the field explaining and overseeing the operation of newly purchased machinery. Safety training is a vital part of instruction for all log ging workers. Many State forestry or logging associations provide training ses sions for fallers, whose job duties require more skill and experience than other positions on the logging team. Sessions may take place in the field, where trainees, under the supervision of an experienced logger, have the opportunity to practice various felling techniques. Fallers leam how to manually cut down extremely large or expen sive trees safely and with minimal damage to the felled or surround ing trees. Training programs for loggers are becoming common in many States, in response to a collaborative effort by the American Forest Digitized FRASER andforPaper Association and others in the forestry industry. Such https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis programs are designed to encourage the health and productivity of the Nation’s forests through the Sustainable Forest Initiative (SFI) program. Logger training programs vary by State, but generally include some type of classroom or field training in a number of areas—best management practices, safety, endangered species, reforestation, and business management. Some programs lead to logger certification. Experience in other occupations can expedite entry into some logging occupations. For example, equipment operators, such as truck drivers and bulldozer and crane operators, can assume skid ding and yarding functions. Some loggers have worked in saw mills or on family farms with extensive wooded areas. Some logging contractors were formerly crew members of family-owned busi nesses operated over several generations. Generally, little formal education is required for most forest, conservation, and logging occupations. Many secondary schools, including vocational and technical schools, and some community colleges offer courses or a 2-year degree in general forestry, wild life, conservation, and forest harvesting, which could be helpful in obtaining a job. A curriculum that includes field trips to observe or participate in forestry or logging activities provides a particularly good background. There are no educational requirements for forest worker jobs. Many of these workers are high school or college students who are hired on a part-time or seasonal basis to perform short-term, labor-intensive tasks, such as planting tree seedlings. Forest, conservation, and logging workers must be in good health and able to work outdoors every day. They also must be able to work as part of a team. Many logging occupations require physical strength and stamina. Maturity and good judgment are important in making quick, intelligent decisions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordination are necessary quali ties for operators of machinery and equipment, who often are re sponsible for repair and maintenance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are necessary for success as a selfemployed logging contractor. Experience working at a nursery or as a laborer can be useful in obtaining a job as a forest or conservation worker. Logging work ers generally advance from occupations involving primarily manual labor to those involving the operation of expensive, sometimes com plicated, machinery and other equipment. Inexperienced entrants usually begin as laborers, who carry tools and equipment, clear brush, and load and unload logs and brush. For some, familiarization with logging operations may lead to jobs such as log handling equip ment operator. Further experience may lead to jobs involving the operation of more complicated machinery and yarding towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those who have the motor skills required for the efficient use of power saws and other equipment may become fallers and buckers. Job Outlook Overall employment of forest, conservation, and logging workers is expected to decline slightly through the year 2010. Most job open ings will result from replacement needs. Many logging workers are older and will retire, or transfer to other jobs that are less physically demanding and dangerous. In addition, some forestry workers are young workers who are not committed to the occupation on a long term basis. Some take jobs to earn money for school; others only work in this occupation until they find a better paying job. Slower-than-average employment growth is expected for forest and conservation workers. Environmental concerns may spur lim ited demand for these workers, especially at the State and local gov ernment levels. If more land is set aside to protect natural resources or wildlife habitats, more forest and conservation workers will be needed to maintain these lands. Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 433 Despite steady demand for lumber and other wood products, employment of timber cutting and logging occupations is expected to decline. Forest conservation efforts may restrict the volume of public timber available for harvesting, particularly in Federal for ests in the West and Northwest, dampening demand for timber cut ting and logging workers. The best job opportunities will be with privately owned forests and tree farms, which are not subject to the same restrictions in timber harvesting as forests on Federal land. Domestic timber producers also face increasing competition from foreign producers who can harvest the same amount of timber at lower cost. As competition increases, the logging industry is expected to continue to consolidate in order to reduce costs, elimi nating some jobs. Increased mechanization of logging operations and improvements in logging equipment will also continue to depress demand for many timber cutting and logging workers. Employment of fallers, buckers, choke setters, and other workers—whose jobs are labor inten sive—should decline, as safer, laborsaving machinery and other equipment are increasingly used. Employment of machinery and equipment operators, such as logging tractor and log handling equip ment operators, should be less adversely affected. Weather can force curtailment of logging operations during the muddy spring season and cold winter months, depending on the geographic region. Changes in the level of construction, par ticularly residential construction, also affect logging activities in the short term. In addition, logging operations must be relocated when timber harvesting in a particular area has been completed. During prolonged periods of inactivity, some workers may stay on the job to maintain or repair logging machinery and equip ment; others are forced to find jobs in other occupations or be without work. Earnings Earnings vary depending on the particular forestry or logging occu pation and experience, ranging from the minimum wage in some beginning forestry and conservation positions to about $27.00 an hour for some experienced fallers. Median hourly earnings in 2000 for forest, conservation, and logging occupations were as follows: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Log graders and scalers....................................................................... Fallers....................................................................................................... Logging equipment operators............................................................. Forest and conservation workers....................................................... $13.07 12.33 12.07 8.97 Earnings of logging workers vary by size of establishment and by geographic area. Workers in the largest establishments earn more than those in the smallest establishments. Workers in Alaska and the Northwest earn more than those in the South, where the cost of living is generally lower. Forest and conservation workers who work for State and local governments and large private firms generally enjoy more generous benefits than workers in smaller firms. Small logging contractors generally offer timber cutting and logging workers few benefits. However, some employers offer full-time workers basic benefits, such as medical coverage, and provide safety apparel and equipment. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with the care of trees and their envi ronment include conservation scientists and foresters, forest and conservation technicians, and grounds maintenance workers. Log ging equipment operators have skills similar to material moving equipment operators, such as industrial truck and tractor operators and crane and tower operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about timber cutting and logging careers and sec ondary and postsecondary programs offering training for logging occupations, contact: >- Northeastern Loggers Association, P.O. Box 69, Old Forge, NY 13420. Internet: http://www.loggertraining.com > Forest Resources Association, Inc., 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 350, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.forestresources.org For information on the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) train ing programs, contact: > American Forest and Paper Association, 1111 19th St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.afandpa.org Schools of forestry at States’ land-grant colleges or universities also should be able to provide useful information. A list of State forestry associations and other forestry-related State associations is available at most public libraries. Construction Trades and Related Workers Boilermakers (0*NET 47-2011.00) Significant Points • • A formal apprenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. Due to the limited number of apprenticeships available and the relatively good wages, prospective boilermakers are likely to face competition. Nature of the Work Boilermakers and boilermaker mechanics make, install, and repair boilers, vats, and other large vessels that hold liquids and gases. Boilers supply steam to drive huge turbines in electric power plants and to provide heat and power in buildings, factories, and ships. Tanks and vats are used to process and store chemicals, oil, beer, and hundreds of other products. Boilers and other high-pressure vessels usually are made in sec tions, by casting each piece out of molten iron or steel. Manufac turers are increasingly automating this process to increase the quality of these vessels. Boiler sections are then welded together, often using automated orbital welding machines, which make more con sistent welds than are possible by hand. Small boilers may be as sembled in the manufacturing plant; larger boilers usually are assembled on site. Following blueprints, boilermakers locate and mark reference points on the boiler foundation, using straightedges, squares, tran sits, and tape measures. Boilermakers attach rigging and signal crane operators to lift heavy frame and plate sections and other parts into place. They align sections, using plumb bobs, levels, wedges, and tumbuckles. Boilermakers use hammers, files, grinders, and cutting torches to remove irregular edges, so that edges fit properly. They then bolt or weld edges together. Boilermakers align and at tach water tubes, stacks, valves, gauges, and other parts and test complete vessels for leaks or other defects. They also install re fractory brick and other heat-resistant materials in fireboxes or pres sure vessels. Usually, they assemble large vessels temporarily in a Boilermakers maintain and repair boilers and similar vessels. 434 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis fabrication shop to ensure a proper fit before final assembly on the permanent site. Because boilers last a long time—35 years or more—boilermak ers regularly maintain them and update components, such as burn ers and boiler tubes, to increase efficiency. Boilermaker mechanics maintain and repair boilers and similar vessels. They inspect tubes, fittings, valves, controls, and auxiliary machinery and clean or su pervise the cleaning of boilers using scrapers, wire brushes, and cleaning solvents. They repair or replace defective parts, using hand and power tools, gas torches, and welding equipment, and may op erate metalworking machinery to repair or make parts. They also dismantle leaky boilers, patch weak spots with metal stock, replace defective sections, and strengthen joints. Working Conditions Boilermakers often use potentially dangerous equipment, such as acetylene torches and power grinders, handle heavy parts, and work on ladders or on top of large vessels. Work may be done in cramped quarters inside boilers, vats, or tanks that are often damp and poorly ventilated. To reduce the chance of injuries, boilermakers may wear hardhats, harnesses, protective clothing, safety glasses and shoes, and respirators. Boilermakers usually work a 40-hour week, but may experience extended periods of overtime when equipment is shut down for maintenance. Overtime work also may be necessary to meet construction or production deadlines. Employment Boilermakers held about 27,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly 6 out of 10 worked in the construction industry, assembling and erecting boil ers and other vessels. About one-fifth worked in manufacturing, primarily in boiler manufacturing shops, iron and steel plants, pe troleum refineries, chemical plants, and shipyards. Some also worked for boiler repair firms, railroads, or in Navy shipyards and Federal power facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many boilermakers leam this trade through a formal apprentice ship. Others become boilermakers through a combination of trade or technical school training and employer-provided training. Ap prenticeship programs usually consist of 4 years of on-the-job train ing, supplemented by 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as set-up and assembly rigging, welding of all types, blueprint reading, and layout. Experienced boilermakers often at tend apprenticeship classes to keep their knowledge current. Also, the American Boiler Manufacturers Association, in conjunction with the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Operators, offers seminars on boiler equipment, operation, maintenance, and safety. When an apprenticeship becomes available, the local union publi cizes the opportunity by notifying local vocational schools and high school vocational programs. When hiring helpers, employers prefer high school or vocational school graduates. Courses in shop, mathematics, drafting, blue print reading, welding, and machine metalworking are useful. Me chanical aptitude and the manual dexterity needed to handle tools also are important. Some boilermakers advance to supervisory positions. Because of their broader training, apprentices usually have an advantage in promotion. Construction Trades and Related Workers 435 Job Outlook Employment of boilermakers is expected to show little or no change through the year 2010. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave this small occupation. Growth should be limited by the trend toward repairing and retro fitting, rather than replacing, existing boilers; the use of small boil ers, which require less on-site assembly; and automation of production technologies. Most industries that purchase boilers are sensitive to economic conditions. Therefore, during economic downturns, construction boilermakers may be laid off. However, because maintenance and repairs of boilers must continue even during economic downturns, boilermaker mechanics generally have stable employment. Earnings In 2000, the median hourly earnings of boilermakers were about $17.80. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.06 and $23.19. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.60 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.81. Apprentices generally start at about 60 percent of journey wages, with wages gradually increas ing to the journey wage as progress is made in the apprenticeship. Almost one-half of all boilermakers belong to labor unions. The principal union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers. Other boilermakers are members of the International Association of Machinists, the United Automobile Workers, or the United Steel workers of America. Related Occupations Workers in a number of other occupations assemble, install, or repair metal equipment or machines. These occupations include assem blers and fabricators; machinists; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; sheet metal workers; tool and die makers; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding boilermaking apprenticeships or other training opportunities, contact local offices of the unions pre viously mentioned, local construction companies and boiler manu facturers, or the local office of your State Employment Service. For information on apprenticeships and the boilermaking occu pation, contact: >- International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Black smiths, Forgers, and Helpers, 753 State Ave., Suite 570, Kansas City, KS 66101. Internet: http://www.boilermakers.org Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons (0**NET 47-2021.00, 47-2022.00) Significant Points • Job prospects are expected to be excellent. • Most entrants learn informally on the job, but apprenticeship programs provide the most thorough training. • Work is usually outdoors and involves lifting heavy bricks and blocks and working on scaffolds. Digitized for • FRASER Nearly 3 out of 10 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are self-employed. Nature of the Work Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons work in closely re lated trades creating attractive, durable surfaces and structures. The work varies in complexity, from laying a simple masonry walkway to installing an ornate exterior on a high-rise building. Brickmasons and blockmasons—who often are referred to simply as bricklay ers—build and repair walls, floors, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures with brick, precast masonry panels, concrete block, and other masonry materials. Additionally, brickmasons spe cialize in installing firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stone masons build stone walls, as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone—natural cut, such as marble, granite, and limestone; and artificial stone made from concrete, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Stonemasons usually work on nonresidential structures, such as houses of worship, hotels, and office buildings. When building a structure, brickmasons use one of two meth ods, the comer lead or the comer pole. Using the comer lead method, they begin by constructing a pyramid of bricks at each comer— called a lead. After the comer leads are complete, less experienced brickmasons fill in the wall between the comers, using a line from comer to comer to guide each course, or layer, of brick. Due to the precision needed, comer leads are time-consuming to erect and re quire the skills of experienced bricklayers. Because of the expense associated with building comer leads, most brickmasons use comer poles, also called masonry guides, that enable them to build an entire wall at the same time. They fasten the comer poles (posts) in a plumb position to define the wall line and stretch a line between them. This line serves as a guide for each course of brick. Brickmasons then spread a bed of mortar (a cement, sand, and water mixture) with a trowel (a flat, bladed metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and press and tap the brick into place. Depending on blueprint specifications, brickmasons either cut bricks with a hammer and chisel or saw them to fit around windows, doors, and other open ings. Mortar joints are then finished with jointing tools for a sealed, neat, uniform appearance. Although brickmasons usually use steel supports, or lintels, at window and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches instead, which support and enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings, in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and carry these prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick opera tor using a hoist may be needed to lift large stone pieces into place. When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They then align the stones with wedges, plumblines, and levels, and adjust them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons continue to build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and courses of stone. As the work progresses, masons remove the wedges, fill the joints between stones, and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt these brackets to anchors in the wall. Finally, masons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first use a trowel to spread a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. Masons use a special hammer and chisel to cut stone. They cut stone along the grain to make various shapes and sizes, and valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some 436 Occupational Outlook Handbook ■ Job opportunities for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are expected to be excellent. masons specialize in setting marble which, in many respects, is simi lar to setting large pieces of stone. Brickmasons and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks, and replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Most nonresidential buildings now are built with walls made of concrete block, brick veneer, stone, granite, marble, tile, or glass. In the past, brickmasons and blockmasons doing nonresidential in terior work mostly built block partition walls and elevator shafts. Now, these workers must be more versatile and work with many materials. For example, some brickmasons and blockmasons now install structural insulated wall panels and masonry accessories used in many high-rise buildings. Refractory masons are brickmasons who specialize in installing firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establishments. Most of these workers work in steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines. Working Conditions Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons usually work outdoors and are exposed to the elements. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and often have to lift heavy materials. Common haz ards include injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds, but these can often be avoided when proper safety practices are followed. Employment Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons held about 158,000 jobs in 2000. The vast majority were brickmasons. Workers in these crafts are employed primarily by building, special trade, or general contractors. Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons work throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas. Nearly 3 out of 10 brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are self-employed. Many of the self-employed specialize in con tracting small jobs, such as patios, walkways, and fireplaces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons pick up their skills informally, observing and learning from experienced work ers. Many others receive training in vocational education schools or from industry-based programs that are common throughout the country. Another way to learn these skills is through an apprentice ship program, which generally provides a thorough training. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Individuals who learn the trade on the job usually start as help ers, laborers, or mason tenders. These workers carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity arises, they learn from experienced craftworkers how to spread mortar, lay brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experience, they make the transi tion to full-fledged craftworkers. The learning period on the job normally lasts longer than an apprenticeship program. Industrybased programs offered through companies usually last between 2 and 4 years. Apprenticeships for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonema sons usually are sponsored by local contractors or by local unionmanagement committees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to a minimum 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint read ing, mathematics, layout work, and sketching. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, carrying mate rials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes the apprentice with job rou tines and materials. Next, they learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. Apprentices also learn to work with stone and concrete, which enables them to be certified to work with more than one masonry material. Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education is preferable; and courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are help ful. The International Masonry Institute (IMI), a joint trust of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers and the contractors who employ its members, operates training centers in several large cities that help jobseekers develop the skills needed to successfully complete the formal apprenticeship program. In view of the shortage of entrants, IMI has expanded these centers in recent years to recruit and train workers before they enter appren ticeship programs. In addition, the IMI has a national training and education center at Fort Ritchie, MD. The national center’s pro grams teach basic job skills for brick, stone, tile, terrazzo, refrac tory, and restoration work, as well as safety and scaffolding training. Bricklayers who work in nonresidential construction usually work for large contractors and receive well-rounded training—normally through apprenticeship in all phases of brick or stone work. Those who work in residential construction usually work primarily for small contractors and specialize in only one or two aspects of the job. Often, experienced workers can advance to supervisory posi tions or become estimators. They also can open contracting busi nesses of their own. Job Outlook Job opportunities for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are expected to be excellent through 2010—largely due to the nu merous openings arising each year as experienced workers leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers prefer to work under less strenuous, more comfortable conditions. Well trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment of brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions over the 2000-10 period as population and business growth create a need for new houses, industrial facilities, schools, hospi tals, offices, and other structures. Also stimulating demand will be the need to restore a growing stock of old masonry buildings, as well as the increasing use of brick and stone for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Brick exteriors should continue to be very popular, as the trend continues toward durable exterior materials requiring little maintenance. However, employ ment of bricklayers who specialize in refractory repair will decline, along with employment in other occupations in the primary metal Construction Trades and Related Workers 437 industries. In addition, many openings will result from the need to replace brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave these trades for other reasons. Employment of brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, work ers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment. Carpenters (0*NET 47-2031.01, 47-2031.02, 47-2031.03, 47-2031.04, 47-2031.05, 47-2031.06) Significant Points • Earnings Median hourly earnings of brickmasons and blockmasons in 2000 were $19.37. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.00 and $24.48. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.20, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.02. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest number of brickmasons in 2000 are shown below: Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... Masonry, stonework, and plastering.................................................. Nonresidential building construction............................................... Residential building construction...................................................... $22.87 19.55 19.02 18.10 Median hourly earnings of stonemasons in 2000 were $14.98. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.78 and $19.24. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.09, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $23.03. Earnings for workers in these trades can be reduced on occasion because poor weather and downturns in construction activity limit the time they can work. Apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. Pay increases as appren tices gain experience and learn new skills. Some brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are mem bers of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers. Related Occupations Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons combine a thorough knowledge of brick, concrete block, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect attractive, yet highly durable, structures. Workers in other occupations with similar skills include carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble-setting contractors; a local of the union listed above; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of brickmasons, blockmasons, or stonemasons, contact: >- International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers, 17761 St. NW., Washington, DC. 20006. Internet: http://www.bacweb.org ► International Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, 837 Buena VistaAve., Cascade, MD 21719. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org Information about the work of bricklayers also can be obtained from: ► Associated General Contractors ofAmerica, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.agc.org >• Brick Industry Association, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1525. Internet: http://www.brickinfo.org ► National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St, NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.com Concrete Masonry Association, 2302 Horse Pen Rd., Herndon, Digitized>-forNational FRASER VA 20171-3499. Internet: http://www.ncma.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • More than one-fourth of all carpenters—the largest construction trade in 2000—were self-employed. Job opportunities should be excellent, in part because of the large number of job openings created by carpenters who leave the occupation each year. Many builders use specialty carpentry subcontractors who do one or two work activities, so versatile carpenters able to switch specialties should have the best opportunities for steady work. Nature of the Work Carpenters are involved in many different kinds of construction activity. They cut, fit, and assemble wood and other materials for the construction of buildings, highways, bridges, docks, industrial plants, boats, ships, and many other structures. Carpenters also build doors or brattices (ventilation walls or partitions) in under ground passageways to control the proper circulation of air through these passageways and to worksites. Carpenters’ duties vary by type of employer. Builders increasingly are using specialty trade contractors who, in turn, hire carpenters who specialize in just one or two activities. Some of these activities are setting forms for concrete construction; erecting scaffolding; or doing finishing work, such as installing interior and exterior trim. However, a carpenter directly employed by a general building contractor often must per form a variety of the tasks associated with new construction, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, build ing stairs, laying hardwood floors, and hanging kitchen cabinets. Because local building codes often dictate where certain materi als can be used, carpenters must know these regulations. Each car pentry task is somewhat different, but most involve the same basic steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, carpenters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging materials. They cut and shape wood, plastic, fiberglass, or drywall, using hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, drills, and sanders. They then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or adhesives. In the final step, carpenters check the accuracy of their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, and framing squares, and make any necessary adjustments. When working with prefabricated components, such as stairs or wall panels, the carpenter’s task is somewhat simpler than above, because it does not require as much layout work or the cutting and assembly of as many pieces. Prefab ricated components are designed for easy and fast installation and generally can be installed in a single operation. Carpenters who remodel homes and other structures must be able to do all aspects of a job—not just one task. Thus, individuals with good basic overall training are at a distinct advantage, be cause they can switch from residential building to commercial con struction or remodeling work, depending on which offers the best work opportunities. Carpenters employed outside the construction industry perform a variety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabinets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, carpen ters install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken furniture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in 438 Occupational Outlook Handbook §fsar li i ' ' ■ Some carpenters specialize in framing walls and partitions. moving or installing machinery. (For more information on work ers who install machinery, see the section on industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions As in other building trades, carpentry work is sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing, climbing, bending, and kneeling often are nec essary. Carpenters risk injury working with sharp or rough materi als, using sharp tools and power equipment, and working in situations where they might slip or fall. Additionally, many carpenters work outdoors, which can be uncomfortable. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a con struction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs. Employment Carpenters, the largest group of building trades workers, held about 1.2 million jobs in 2000. One-third worked for general building contractors, 20 percent worked for special trade contractors, and 12 percent worked in heavy construction. Most of the remainder worked for manufacturing firms, government agencies, wholesale and re tail establishments, or schools. More than one-fourth of all carpen ters were self-employed. Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job training, as well as formal training programs. Most pick up skills informally by work ing under the supervision of experienced workers. Many acquire skills through vocational education. Others participate in employer training programs or apprenticeships. Most employers recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn carpentry. Apprenticeship programs are administered by local joint union-management committees of the United Brother hood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, the Associated General Contractors, Inc., and the National Association of Home Builders. In addition, training programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and by local chapters of the Associated General Contractors, Inc. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction. On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and become familiar with common carpentry jobs, such as layout, form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading, freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be at least 17 years old and meet local requirements. For example, some union locals test an applicant’s aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usu ally about 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs. Informal on-the-job training is normally less thorough than an apprenticeship. The degree of training and supervision often de pends on the size of the employing firm. A small contractor spe cializing in homebuilding may provide training only in rough framing. In contrast, a large general contractor may provide train ing in several carpentry skills. Although specialization is becom ing increasingly common, it is important to try to acquire skills in all aspects of carpentry and to have the flexibility to perform any kind of work. A high school education is desirable, including courses in car pentry, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is helpful. Employers and apprentice ship committees generally view favorably any training and work experience obtained in the Armed Services or Job Corps. Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisor or general con struction supervisor positions. Carpenters usually have greater op portunities than most other construction workers to become general construction supervisors, because carpenters are exposed to the en tire construction process. Some carpenters become independent contractors. To advance, these workers should be able to estimate the nature and quantity of materials needed to properly complete a job. In addition, they must be able to accurately estimate how long a job should take to complete and what it will cost. Job Outlook Job opportunities for carpenters are expected to be excellent over the 2000-10 period, largely due to the numerous openings arising each year from experienced carpenters who leave this large occu pation each year. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and that has more comfortable working conditions. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but Construction Trades and Related Workers 439 eventually leave the occupation because they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment of carpenters is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations. Construction activity should increase in response to demand for new housing and commercial and industrial plants and the need to renovate and modernize exist ing structures. The demand for larger homes with more amenities and for second homes will continue to rise, especially as the baby boomers reach their peak earning years and can afford to spend more on housing. At the same time, as the number of immigrants increase and as the echo boomers (the children of the baby boomers) replace the smaller baby bust generation in the young adult age groups, the demand for manufactured housing, starter homes, and rental apartments also is expected to increase. However, some of the demand for carpenters will be offset by expected productivity gains resulting from the increasing use of pre fabricated components, such as pre-hung doors and windows and prefabricated wall panels and stairs, which can be installed very quickly. Prefabricated walls, partitions, and stairs can be lifted into place in one operation; beams—and in some cases entire roof assem blies—can be lifted into place using a crane. As prefabricated com ponents become more standardized, builders will use them more often. In addition, improved adhesives will reduce the time needed to join materials, and lightweight, cordless pneumatic and combustion tools—such as nailers and drills—all make carpenters more efficient. Carpenters can experience periods of unemployment because of the short-term nature of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many factors—interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, the season, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, the number ofjob openings for carpenters declines. New and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials have vastly increased carpenter versatility. Therefore, carpenters with all-round skills will have better opportunities than those who can do only a few rela tively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and busi nesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. There fore, the number of job opportunities and apprenticeship opportunities in a given year may vary widely from area to area. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of carpenters were $15.69. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.99 and $20.86. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.48, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.73. Median hourly earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of carpenters in 2000 are shown below: Masonry, stonework, and plastering.................................................. Nonresidential building construction............................................... Heavy construction, except highway................................................ Carpentry and floor work.................................................................... Residential building construction...................................................... $19.27 17.43 16.74 15.51 15.26 Earnings can be reduced on occasion, because carpenters lose worktime in bad weather and during recessions when jobs are un available. Some carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occupations include brickmasons, blockmasons, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis stonemasons; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pav ers, and terrazzo workers; electricians; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, locals of the union mentioned above, local joint union-contractor appren ticeship committees, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information on training opportunities and carpentry in gen eral, contact: ► Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St., Suite 800, Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.abc.org > Associated General Contractors ofAmerica, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.agc.org >• National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.com >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.necarpenters.org/ubc.htm Carpet, Floor, and Tile Installers and Finishers (0**NET 47-2041.00, 47-2042.00, 47-2043.00, 47-2044.00) Significant Points • • • • Almost half of all carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are self-employed, compared with fewer than 1 in 5 of all construction trades and related workers. Most workers learn on the job. Carpet installers, the largest specialty, should have the best job opportunities. Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are less sensitive to fluctuations in construction activity than are other construction trades workers. Nature of the Work Carpet, tile, and other types of floor coverings not only serve an important basic function in buildings, but their decorative qualities also contribute to the appeal of the buildings. Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers lay these floor coverings in homes, offices, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and many other types of buildings. Tile also is installed on walls and ceilings. Before installing carpet, carpet installers first inspect the sur face to be covered to determine its condition and, if necessary, cor rect any imperfections that could show through the carpet or cause the carpet to wear unevenly. They must measure the area to be car peted and plan the layout, keeping in mind expected traffic patterns and placement of seams for best appearance and maximum wear. When installing wall-to-wall carpet without tacks, installers first fasten a tackless strip to the floor, next to the wall. They then install the padded cushion or underlay. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 2 to 3 inches of extra carpet for the final fitting. Using a device called a “knee kicker,” they position the carpet, stretching it to fit evenly on the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold. They then rough cut the excess car pet. Finally, using a power stretcher, they stretch the carpet, hook ing it to the tackless strip to hold it in place. The installer then finishes the edges using a wall trimmer. 440 Occupational Outlook Handbook Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall in stallations require installers to tape or sew sections together for large rooms. They join the seams by sewing them with a large needle and special thread or by using heat-taped seams—a special plastic tape made to join seams when activated by heat. On special upholstery work, such as stairs, carpet may be held in place with staples. Also, in commercial installations, carpet often is glued directly to the floor or to padding that has been glued to the floor. Carpet installers use handtools such as hammers, drills, staple guns, carpet knives, and rubber mallets. They also may use carpet laying tools, such as carpet shears, knee kickers, wall trimmers, loop pile cutters, heat irons, and power stretchers. Floor installers, or floor layers, apply blocks, strips, or sheets of shock-absorbing, sound-deadening, or decorative coverings to floors and cabinets using rollers, knives, trowels, sanding machines, and other tools. Some floor covering materials are designed to be purely decorative. Others have more-specialized purposes, such as to deaden sound, to absorb shocks, or to create air-tight environments. Before installing the floor, floor layers inspect the surface to be covered and, if necessary, correct any imperfections in order to start with a smooth, clean foundation. They measure and cut floor covering materials, such as mbber, vinyl, linoleum, or cork, and any foundation mate rial, such as felt, according to designated blueprints. Next, they may nail or staple a wood underlayment to the surface or may use an adhesive to cement the foundation material to the floor; the founda tion helps to deaden sound and prevents the top floor covering from wearing at board joints. Finally, floor layers install the top covering. They join sections of sheet covering by overlapping adjoining edges and cutting through both layers with a knife to form a tight joint. Floor sanders and finishers scrape and sand wooden floors to smooth surfaces using floor-scrapers and floor-sanding machines. They then inspect the floor for smoothness and remove excess glue from joints using knife or scraper or wood chisel and may sand wood surfaces by hand, using sandpaper. Finally, they apply coats of finish. Tile installers, tilesetters, and marble setters apply hard tile and marble to floors, walls, ceilings and roof decks. Tile is durable, impervious to water, and easy to clean, making it a popular build ing material in hospitals, tunnels, lobbies of buildings, bathrooms, and kitchens. To set tile, which generally ranges in size from 1 inch to 12 or more inches square, tilesetters use cement or “mastic,” a very sticky paste. When using cement, tilesetters nail a support of metal mesh to the wall or ceiling to be tiled. They use a trowel to apply a cement mortar—called a “scratch coat”—onto the metal screen, and scratch the surface of the soft mortar with a small tool, similar to a rake. After the scratch coat has dried, tilesetters apply another coat of mortar to level the surface, and then apply mortar to the back of the tile and place it onto the surface. To set tile in mastic or a cement adhesive, called “thin set,” tilesetters need a flat, solid surface such as drywall, concrete, plaster, or wood. They use a tooth-edged trowel to spread mastic on the surface or apply cement adhesive, and then properly position the tile. Because tile varies in color, shape, and size, workers sometimes prearrange tiles on a dry floor according to a specified design. This allows workers to examine the pattern and make changes. In order to cover all exposed areas, including comers, and around pipes, tubs, and wash basins, tilesetters cut tiles to fit with a machine saw or a special cutting tool. Once the tile is placed, they gently tap the surface with their trowel handle or a small block of wood to seat the tiles evenly. When the cement or mastic has set, tilesetters fill the joints with “grout,” which is very fine cement. They then scrape the surface Digitized foraFRASER with rubber-edged device called a grout float or a grouting trowel https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sum* - mta,. IBB***-: ■ I - H ; " • ssm Almost halfof all carpet, floor, and tile installers andfinishers are self-employed. to dress the joints and remove excess grout. Before the grout sets, they finish the joints with a damp sponge for a uniform appearance. Tile finishers help some tilesetters by supplying and mixing con struction materials and doing other tasks such as applying grout and cleaning installed tile. Marble setters cut and set marble slabs in floors and walls of buildings. They trim and cut marble to specified size using a power wet saw, other cutting equipment, or handtools. After setting the marble in place, they polish the marble to high luster using power tools or by hand. Working Conditions Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers generally work indoors and have regular daytime hours. However, when floor covering installers work in occupied stores or offices, they may work eve nings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Installers and finishers usually work under better conditions than most other constmction workers. By the time workers install car pets, flooring, or tile in a new structure, most construction has been completed and the work area is relatively clean and uncluttered. Installing these materials is labor intensive; workers spend much of their time bending, kneeling, and reaching—activities that require endurance. Carpet installers frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet and may move heavy furniture. Safety regulations may require that they wear kneepads or safety goggles when using certain tools. Carpet and floor layers may be exposed to fumes from various kinds of glue and to fibers of certain types of carpet. Construction Trades and Related Workers 441 Although workers are subject to cuts from tools or materials, falls from ladders, and strained muscles, the occupation is not as hazardous as some other construction occupations. Employment Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers held about 167,000 jobs in 2000. Almost half of all carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers were self-employed, compared with fewer than 1 in 5 of all construction trades workers. The following tabulation shows 2000 employment by specialty. Carpet installers..................................................................................... Tile and marble setters.......................................................................... Floor layers, except carpet, wood, and hard tiles........................... Floor sanders and finishers.................................................................. 76,000 54,000 23,000 14,000 Many carpet installers worked for flooring contractors or floor covering retailers. Most salaried tilesetters were employed by tilesetting contractors who work mainly on nonresidential construc tion projects, such as schools, hospitals, and office buildings. Most self-employed tilesetters work on residential projects. Although carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are em ployed throughout the Nation, they tend to be concentrated in popu lated areas where there are high levels of construction activity. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The vast majority of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers learn their trade informally, on the job, as helpers to experienced workers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction. Informal training for carpet installers often is sponsored by indi vidual contractors, and generally lasts from about 1-1/2 to 2 years. Workers start as helpers, and begin with simple assignments, such as installing stripping and padding, or helping to stretch newly in stalled carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult as signments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting. Persons who wish to begin a career in carpet installation as a helper or apprentice should be at least 18 years old and have good manual dexterity. Many employers prefer applicants with a high school diploma; courses in general mathematics and shop are help ful. Some employers may require a driver’s license and a criminal background check. Because carpet installers frequently deal di rectly with customers, they should be courteous and tactful. Many tile and floor layers leam their job through on-the-job train ing and begin by learning about the tools of the trade. They next leam to prepare surfaces to receive flooring. As they progress, tilesetters, marble setters, and resilient floor layers leam to cut and install tile, marble, and floor coverings. Tile and marble setters also leam to apply grout and to do finishing work. Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored pro grams provide comprehensive training in all phases of the tilesetting and floor layer trade. Most apprenticeship programs are unionsponsored and consist of weekly classes and on-the-job training usually lasting 3 to 4 years. When hiring apprentices or helpers for floor layer and tilesetter jobs, employers usually prefer high school graduates who have had courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop. Good physical condition, manual dexterity, and a good sense of color harmony also are important assets. Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers may advance to positions as supervisors or become salespersons or estimators. Some carpet installers may become managers for large installation firms. Many carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers who https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis begin working for a large contractor eventually go into business for themselves as independent subcontractors. Job Outlook Employment of carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment growth stems primarily from the continued need to renovate and refurbish existing structures. Carpet installers, the largest specialty, should have the best job opportunities. Carpet as a floor covering continues to be popular and its use is expected to grow in structures such as schools, offices, hospitals, and industrial plants. Demand for carpet also will be stimulated by new, more durable fibers that are stain and crush resistant, and come in a wider variety of colors. More resilient carpet needs to be re placed less often, but these attractive new products may induce more people to replace their old carpeting, contributing further to the demand for carpet installers. Employment also is expected to grow because wall-to-wall carpeting is a necessity in the many houses built with plywood, rather than hardwood floors. Similarly, offices, hotels, and stores often cover concrete floors with wall-to-wall car pet, which must be periodically replaced. Demand for tile and marble setters will stem from population and business growth, which should result in more construction of shopping malls, hospitals, schools, restaurants, and other structures in which tile is used extensively. Tile is expected to continue to increase in popularity as a building material and to be used more extensively, particularly in more expensive homes, whose construc tion is expected to increase. In more modestly priced homes, how ever, the use of tile substitutes, such as plastic or fiberglass tub and shower enclosures, is expected to increase, slowing the growth in demand for tile and marble setters. Demand for floor layers and sanders and finishers will increase as a result of an increase in con struction activity, particularly of residential homes and commercial buildings, and as some people decide to replace their plywood floors with hardwood floors. Job opportunities for tile and marble setters and floor layers and sanders, relatively small specialties, will not be as plentiful as those for carpet installers. Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers are less sensitive to changes in construction activity than are most other construction occupations because much of their work involves replacing carpet and other flooring in existing buildings. As a result these workers tend to be sheltered from the business fluctuations that often occur in new construction activity. Earnings In 2000, the median hourly earnings of carpet installers were $ 14.46. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.41 and $20.47. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.97, and the top 10 percent earned more than $26.22. Median hourly earnings of carpet install ers in 2000 in carpentry and floor work were $15.25 and in furni ture and home furnishings stores, $13.31. Carpet installers are paid either on an hourly basis, or by the number of yards of carpet installed. The rates vary widely depend ing on the geographic location and whether the installer is affiliated with a union. Median hourly earnings of floor layers were $14.81 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.53 and $20.21. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.06, and the top 10 percent earned more than $26.01. Median hourly earnings of floor sanders and finishers were $13.17 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.51 and $17.80. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.75, and the top 10 percent earned more than $24.72. 442 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median hourly earnings of tile- and marble setters were $16.49 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.54 and $21.93. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.58, and the top 10 per cent earned more than $26.61. Earnings of tile- and marble setters also vary greatly by geographic location and by union membership. Apprentices and other trainees usually start out earning about half of what an experienced worker earns, although their wage rate increases as they advance through the training program. Some carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Some tilesetters also belong to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, while some carpet installers belong to the Inter national Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers measure, cut, and fit materials to cover a space. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills, but using different materials, include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; carpenters; cement masons, con crete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; drywall in stallers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; painters and paperhangers; roofers; and sheet metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local flooring or tilesetting contractors or retailers, locals of the unions previously mentioned, or the nearest office of the State apprentice ship agency or employment service. For general information about the work of carpet installers and floor layers, contact: >- Floor Covering Installation Contractors Association, 7439 Milwood Dr., West Bloomfield, MI 48322. Additional information on training for carpet installers and floor layers is available from: >- International Union ofPainters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iupat.org For general information about the work of tilesetters and finish ers, contact: > International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Crafts Workers, Interna tional Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.bacweb.org >• National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.com For information concerning training of carpet, floor, and tile in stallers and finishers contact: >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://necarpenters.org/ubc.htm Cement Masons, Concrete Finishers, Segmental Pavers, and Terrazzo Workers _____________ (0*NET 47-2051.00, 47-2053.00, 47-4091.00) Significant Points • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. • Most learn on the job, either through formal 3-year apprenticeship programs or by working as helpers. • Like many other construction trades workers, layoffs may occur during downturns in construction activity. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Cement masons, concrete finishers, and terrazzo workers all work with concrete, one of the most common and durable materials used in construction. Once set, concrete—a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water—becomes the foundation for everything from decorative patios and floors to huge dams or miles of road ways. Cement masons and concrete finishers place and finish the con crete. They also may color concrete surfaces; expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks; or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. In preparing a site for placing concrete, ce ment masons first set the forms for holding the concrete and prop erly align them. They then direct the casting of the concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread it. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to “screed,” or level, the freshly placed concrete. Imme diately after leveling the concrete, masons carefully smooth the concrete surface with a “bull float,” a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches that covers the coarser materials in the concrete and brings a rich mixture of fine cement paste to the surface. After the concrete has been leveled and floated, concrete finish ers press an edger between the forms and the concrete and guide it along the edge and the surface. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. They use a special tool called a “groover” to make joints or grooves at specific inter vals that help control cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface using either a powered or hand trowel, a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. Sometimes, cement masons perform all the steps of laying con crete, including the finishing. As the final step, masons retrowel the concrete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the surface with a broom or stiff-bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they use colored premixed concrete. On con crete surfaces that will remain exposed after the forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, cement masons cut away high spots and loose concrete with hammer and chisel, fill any large indentations with a Portland cement paste, and smooth the surface with a carborundum stone. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich Portland cement mixture, using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish. Throughout the entire process, cement masons must monitor how the wind, heat, or cold affects the curing of the concrete. They must have a thorough knowledge of concrete characteristics so that, by using sight and touch, they can determine what is happening to the concrete and take measures to prevent defects. Segmental pavers lay out, cut, and install pavers, which are flat pieces of masonry usually made from compacted concrete or brick. Pavers are used to pave paths, patios, playgrounds, driveways, and steps. They are manufactured in various textures and often inter lock together to form an attractive pattern. Segmental pavers first prepare the site by removing the existing pavement or existing soil. They grade the soil to the proper depth and determine the amount of base material that is needed, which depends on the local soil conditions. They then install and compact the base material, a granular material that compacts easily, and lay the pavers from the center out, so that any trimmed pieces will be on the outside rather than in the center. Then they install edging materials to prevent the pavers from shifting and fill the spaces between the pavers with dry sand. Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the Construction Trades and Related Workers 443 proportion than in other building trades. Most self-employed masons specialized in small jobs, such as driveways, sidewalks, and patios. If TI'III ItMM MM■ I i n ii m. mt f "V'K'- msm -—" Concrete finishers use hand trowels to smooth the surface. surface of finished concrete. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of cement masons. Attractive, marble-chip terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, ce ment masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foun dation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers add a 1-inch layer of sandy concrete. Be fore this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips in the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place into each of the panels a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss addi tional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a light weight roller over the entire surface. When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a ter razzo grinder, which is somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier. Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand-troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry sur face for a lustrous finish. Working Conditions Concrete, segmental paving, or terrazzo work is fast-paced and strenuous, and requires continuous physical effort. Because most finishing is done at floor level, workers must bend and kneel often. Many jobs are outdoors, and work is generally halted during in clement weather. The work, either indoors or outdoors, may be in areas that are muddy, dusty, and dirty. To avoid chemical bums from uncured concrete and sore knees from frequent kneeling, many workers wear kneepads. Workers also usually wear water-repellent boots while working in wet concrete. Employment Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers held about 166,000 jobs in 2000; segmental pavers and terrazzo workers accounted for only a small portion of the total. Most cement masons and concrete finishers worked for concrete contractors or for general contractors on projects such as highways; bridges; shopping malls; or large buildings such as factories, schools, and hospitals. A small number were employed by firms that manu facture concrete products. Most segmental pavers and terrazzo workers worked for special trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels. Only about 1 out of 20 cement masons, concrete finishers, seg mental pavers, and terrazzo workers were self-employed, a smaller https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job train ing as helpers, or through 3-year apprenticeship programs. Many masons and finishers first gain experience as construction labor ers. (See the statement on construction laborers elsewhere in the Handbook.) When hiring helpers and apprentices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old and in good physical condition, and who have a driver’s license. The ability to get along with others also is important because cement masons frequently work in teams. Fligh school courses in general science, shop, math ematics, blueprint reading, or mechanical drawing provide a help ful background. On-the-job training programs consist of informal instruction, in which experienced workers teach helpers to use the tools, equip ment, machines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging, jointing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As training progresses, assignments become more com plex, and trainees can usually do finishing work within a short time. Three-year apprenticeship programs, usually jointly sponsored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in ad dition to a recommended minimum of 144 hours of classroom in struction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the classroom, apprentices learn applied mathematics, blueprint reading, and safety. Apprentices generally receive spe cial instruction in layout work and cost estimation. Some workers learn their jobs by attending trade or vocational/technical schools. Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and ter razzo workers should enjoy doing demanding work. They should take pride in craftsmanship and be able to work without close supervision. Experienced cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pav ers, or terrazzo workers may advance to become supervisors or con tract estimators. Some open their own concrete businesses. Job Outlook Despite expected slow job growth, opportunities for skilled cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers are expected to be excellent as the increase in demand outpaces the supply of workers trained in this craft. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more com fortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have espe cially favorable opportunities. Employment of cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. These workers will be needed to build highways, bridges, subways, factories, office buildings, hotels, shopping centers, schools, hospitals, and other structures. In addition, the increasing use of concrete as a building material—particularly in nonresidential construction—will add to the demand. More cement masons also will be needed to repair and renovate existing highways, bridges, and other structures. Employment growth, however, will not keep pace with the growth of these construction projects. Worker productivity will be increased through use of improved concrete pumping systems, continuous concrete mixers, quicker-setting cement, troweling machines, pre fabricated masonry systems, and other improved materials, equip ment, and tools. In addition to job growth, other openings will 444 Occupational Outlook Handbook become available as experienced workers transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Employment of cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to the fluctuations of the economy. Workers in these trades may experience periods of unemployment when the level of nonresidential construction falls. On the other hand, shortages of these workers may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity. Earnings In 2000, the median hourly earnings of cement masons and con crete finishers were $13.50. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.55 and $18.41. The top 10 percent earned over $24.22, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $8.31. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cement masons and concrete finishers in 2000 are shown below: Masonry, stonework, and plastering.................................................. Highway and street construction........................................................ Concrete work........................................................................................ Nonresidential building construction................................................ Residential building construction...................................................... $ 15.48 14.88 13.90 13.80 11.31 In 2000, the median hourly earnings of terrazzo workers and finishers were $15.06 and median annual earnings of segmental pavers were $12.46. Like those of other construction trades workers, earnings of ce ment masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers may be reduced on occasion because poor weather and downturns in construction activity limit the time they can work. Cement masons often work overtime, with premium pay, because once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed. Many cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers belong to the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, or to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers. Some terrazzo workers belong to the United Brotherhood of Car penters and Joiners of the United States. Nonunion workers gener ally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. Related Occupations Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers combine skill with knowledge of building materials to con struct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, con tact local concrete or terrazzo contractors, locals of unions previ ously mentioned, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about cement masons, concrete finish ers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers, contact: >- Associated General Contractors ofAmerica, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.agc.org >- International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, International Masonry Institute, 815 15th St. NW., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.bacweb.org >- Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of theforUnited States and Canada, 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300, Laurel, MD Digitized FRASER 20707. Internet: http://www.concrete-plaster.com https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ► National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 101 E. Market St., Suite 200 A, Leesburg, VA 20176-3122. Internet: http://www.ntma.com >- Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077. Internet: http ://www.portcement.org/inde.asp >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.necarpenters.org/UBC.htm Construction and Building Inspectors (0**NET 47-4011.00) Significant Points • • About half of all inspectors worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments. Opportunities should be best for experienced construction supervisors and craftworkers who have some college education, engineering or architectural training, or certification as construction inspectors or plan examiners. Nature of the Work Constmction and building inspectors examine the construction, alteration, or repair of buildings, highways and streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, and other structures to ensure com pliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Building codes and standards are the pri mary means by which building constmction is regulated in the United States to assure the health and safety of the general public. Inspec tors make an initial inspection during the first phase of constmc tion, and follow-up inspections throughout the constmction project to monitor compliance with regulations. However, no inspection is ever exactly the same. In areas where certain types of severe weather or natural disasters are more common, inspectors monitor compli ance with additional safety regulations designed to protect struc tures and occupants during these events. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality and general safety of buildings. Some specialize in such areas as stmctural steel or reinforced concrete structures. Before constmction begins, plan examiners determine whether the plans for the building or other structure comply with building code regulations and if they are suited to the engineering and environmental demands of the building site. Inspectors visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to in spect the soil condition and positioning and depth of the footings. Later, they return to the site to inspect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure, as well as the rate of completion, determine the number of other site visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they make a final compre hensive inspection. In addition to stmctural characteristics, a primary concern of build ing inspectors is fire safety. They inspect structures’ fire sprinklers, alarms, and smoke control systems, as well as fire exits. Inspectors assess the type of constmction, building contents, adequacy of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by adjoining buildings. In the past, most localities based their building codes on regional model codes established by the Building Officials and Code Ad ministration (BOCA), the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), or the Southern Building Code Congress Interna tional (SBCCI). Therefore, building inspectors in one region who were experts in one code found it difficult to move to an area of the country using another code. To eliminate differences among the three sets of codes, these organizations jointly created the Interna tional Code Council (ICC), which released the Nation’s first set of uniform building code regulations. This makes it much easier for construction and building inspectors to move to different regions within the United States. There are many types of inspectors. Electrical inspectors exam ine the installation of electrical systems and equipment to ensure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and stan dards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing sound and security systems, wiring, lighting, motors, and generating equipment. They also inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, appliances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and conveying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and amusement rides. Mechanical inspectors inspect the installation of the mechani cal components of commercial kitchen appliances, heating and air conditioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas and oil piping, and gas-fired and oil-fired appliances. Some specialize in boilers or ventilating equipment as well. Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing systems, including pri vate disposal systems, water supply and distribution systems, plumb ing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines. Public works inspectors ensure that Federal, State, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifica tions. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works inspec tors may specialize in highways, structural steel, reinforced con crete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors. Home inspectors generally conduct inspections of newly built or previously owned homes. Increasingly, prospective home buyers hire home inspectors to inspect and report the condition of a home’s systems, components, and structure. They typically are hired either immediately prior to a purchase offer on a home, or as a contingency to a sales contract. In addition to structural quality, home inspectors must be able to inspect all home systems and features, from plumb ing, electrical, and heating or cooling systems to roofing. The owner of a building or structure under construction employs specification inspectors to ensure that work is done according to design specifications. They represent the owner’s interests, not those of the general public. Insurance companies and financial institu tions also may use specification inspectors. Details concerning construction projects, building and occupancy permits, and other documentation generally are stored on comput ers so that they can easily be retrieved, kept accurate, and updated. For example, inspectors may use laptop computers to record their findings while inspecting a site. Most inspectors use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and keep track of issued permits. Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors may use tape measures, survey instruments, metering devices, and test equip ment such as concrete strength measurers. They keep a log of their work, take photographs, file reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction inspectors notify the construc tion contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they discover a code or ordinance violation or something that does not comply with the contract specifications or approved plans. If the problem is not within a reasonable or specified period, government Digitized corrected for FRASER inspectors have authority to issue a “stop-work” order. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction Trades and Related Workers 445 Some construction and building inspectors check for compliance with electrical codes. Many inspectors also investigate construction or alterations be ing done without proper permits. Inspectors who are employees of municipalities enforce laws pertaining to the proper design, con struction, and use of buildings. They direct violators of permit laws to obtain permits and submit to inspection. Working Conditions Construction and building inspectors usually work alone. How ever, several may be assigned to large, complex projects, particu larly because inspectors tend to specialize in different areas of construction. Though they spend considerable time inspecting con struction worksites, inspectors also spend time in a field office re viewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections. Inspection sites are dirty and may be cluttered with tools, mate rials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or many flights of stairs, or crawl around in tight spaces. Although their work gen erally is not considered hazardous, inspectors, like other construc tion workers, wear hard hats and adhere to other safety requirements while at a construction site. Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, they may work additional hours during periods when a lot of construction is taking place. Also, if an accident occurs at a construction site, inspectors must respond immediately and may work additional hours to complete their report. Employment Construction and building inspectors held about 75,000 jobs in 2000. Local governments, primarily municipal or county building depart ments, employed 49 percent. Employment of local government inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas under going rapid growth. Local governments employ large inspection staffs, including many plan examiners or inspectors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, electrical, and eleva tor inspection. Another 17 percent of construction and building inspectors worked for engineering and architectural services firms, conduct ing inspections for a fee or on a contract basis. Many of these are home inspectors working on the behalf of potential real estate pur chasers. Most of the remaining inspectors were employed in other services industries or by State governments. 446 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although requirements vary considerably depending upon where one is employed, individuals who want to become construction and building inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of construc tion materials and practices in either a general area, such as struc tural or heavy construction, or in a specialized area, such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. Appli cants for construction or building inspection jobs need several years of experience as a construction manager, supervisor, or craftworker. Many inspectors previously worked as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters. Because inspectors must possess the right mix oftechnical knowl edge, experience, and education, employers prefer applicants who have formal training as well as experience. Most employers require at least a high school diploma or equivalent, even for workers with considerable experience. More often, employers look for persons who have studied engineering or architecture, or who have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in building in spection, home inspection, construction technology, drafting, and mathematics. Many community colleges offer certificate or associ ate degree programs in building inspection technology. Courses in blueprint reading, algebra, geometry, and English also are useful. Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They must also have a driver’s license. In addition, Federal, State, and many local governments may require that inspectors pass a civil service exam. Construction and building inspectors usually receive much of their training on the job, although they must learn building codes and standards on their own. Working with an experienced inspec tor, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regulations; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and report ing duties. They may begin by inspecting less complex types of construction, such as residential buildings, and then progress to more difficult assignments. An engineering or architectural degree is often required for advancement to supervisory positions. Because they advise builders and the general public on building codes, construction practices, and technical developments, construc tion and building inspectors must keep abreast of changes in these areas. Continuing education is imperative in this field. Many employ ers provide formal training programs to broaden inspectors’ knowl edge of construction materials, practices, and techniques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do not conduct training programs can expand their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending State-sponsored training programs, by taking college or correspondence courses, or by attending seminars sponsored by vari ous related organizations, such as model code organizations. Most States and cities require some type of certification for employment; even if not required, certification can enhance an inspector’s opportunities for employment and advancement to more responsible positions. To become certified, inspectors with substan tial experience and education must pass stringent examinations on code requirements, construction techniques, and materials. The three major model code organizations offer voluntary certification, as do other professional membership associations. In most cases, there are no education or experience prerequisites, and certification con sists of passing an examination in a designated field. Many catego ries of certification are awarded for inspectors and plan examiners in a variety of disciplines, including the designation “CBO,” Certi fied Building Official, offered by the International Code Council. Job Outlook DigitizedEmployment for FRASER of construction and building inspectors is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Growing concern for public safety and improvements in the qual ity of construction should continue to stimulate demand for con struction and building inspectors. In addition to the expected employment growth, some job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Well-trained workers will have especially favor able opportunities. Opportunities should be best for highly experienced supervisors and craftworkers who have some college education, engineering or architectural training, or certification as inspectors or plan examin ers. Thorough knowledge of construction practices and skills in areas such as reading and evaluating blueprints and plans are essential. Inspectors are involved in all phases of construction, including maintenance and repair work, and are therefore less likely to lose jobs when new construction slows during recessions. As the popu lation grows and the volume of real estate transactions increases, greater emphasis on home inspections should result in rapid growth in employment of home inspectors. In addition, there should be good opportunities in engineering, architectural, and management services firms due to the tendency of governments—particularly Federal and State—to contract out inspection work, and due to ex pected growth in private inspection services. Earnings Median annual earnings of construction and building inspectors were $38,750 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,640 and $47,860. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,370, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,570. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of con struction and building inspectors in 2000 were: Local government.................................................................................. $39,410 State government................................................................................... Engineering and architectural services............................................. jo,j/o IS 370 37,810 Generally, building inspectors, including plan examiners, earn the highest salaries. Salaries in large metropolitan areas are sub stantially higher than those in small local jurisdictions. Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors combine knowledge of con struction principles and law with an ability to coordinate data, diag nose problems, and communicate with people. Workers in other occupations using a similar combination of skills include architects, except landscape and naval; construction managers; civil engineers, cost estimators; drafters; engineering technicians; and surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information about certification and a career as a construction or building inspector is available from the following model code or ganizations: >■ International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 Workman Mill Rd„ Whittier, CA90601-2298. Internet: http://www.icbo.org ► Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc., 4051 West Flossmoor Rd., Country Club Hills, IL 60478. Internet: http://www.bocai.org >• Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Rd., Birmingham, AL 35213. Internet: http://sbcci.org Information about training for construction inspectors is avail able from: ► Association of Construction Inspectors, 1224 North Nokomis NE., Al exandria, MN 56308. Internet: http://www.iami.org General information about electrical inspection is available from: ► International Association of Electrical Inspectors, 901 Waterfall Way, Suite 602, Richardson, TX 75080. Internet: http://www.iaei.com Construction Trades and Related Workers 447 Information about a career as a home inspector is available from: >■ American Society of Home Inspectors, Inc., 932 Lee St., Suite 101, Des Plaines, IL 60016. Internet: http://www.ashi.com For information about a career as a State or local government construction or building inspector, contact your State or local employment service. Construction Equipment Operators (0*NET 47-2071.00, 47-2072.00, 47-2073.01, 47-2073.02) • • • Significant Points Most construction equipment operators acquire their skills on the job, but formal apprenticeship programs provide more comprehensive training. Job opportunities are expected to be good, despite slower-than-average employment growth. Hourly pay is relatively high but, because construction equipment operators cannot work in inclement weather, total earnings may be reduced. Nature of the Work Constmction equipment operators use machinery to move construc tion materials, earth, and other heavy materials and to apply asphalt and concrete to roads and other structures. Operators control equip ment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turn ing dials. The operation of much of this equipment is becoming more complex as a result of computerized controls. Constmction equipment operators may also set up and inspect equipment, make adjustments, and perform minor repairs. Constmction equipment operators include operating engineers and other constmction equipment operators; paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators; and pile driver operators. Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators operate one or several types of power constmction equipment. They may oper ate excavation and loading machines equipped with scoops, shov els, or buckets that dig sand, gravel, earth, or similar materials and load it into tmcks or onto conveyors. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road graders, and simi lar equipment. Sometimes, they may drive and control industrial tmcks or tractors equipped with a forklift or boom for lifting mate rials, or hitches for pulling trailers. They also may operate and maintain air compressors, pumps, and other power equipment at constmction sites. Constmction equipment operators who are clas sified as operating engineers have the capability of operating sev eral different types of constmction equipment. Paving and surfacing equipment operators use levers and other controls to operate machines that spread and level asphalt or spread and smooth concrete for roadways or other structures. Asphalt pav ing machine operators turn valves to regulate the temperature and flow of asphalt onto the roadbed. They must take care that the ma chine distributes the paving material evenly and without voids, and make sure that there is a constant flow of asphalt going into the hopper. Concrete paving machine operators move levers and turn handwheels to lower an attachment that spreads, vibrates, and lev els wet concrete within forms. They must observe the surface of concrete to identify low spots into which workers must add con crete. They use other attachments to the machine to smooth the surface of the concrete, spray on a curing compound, and cut expan sion joints. Tamping equipment operators operate tamping machines that compact earth and other fill materials for roadbeds. They also https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Air hammer operators use machines with interchangeable hammers to cut or break up old pavement. may operate machines with interchangeable hammers to cut or break up old pavement and drive guardrail posts into the earth. Pile driver operators operate pile drivers—large machines mounted on skids, barges, or cranes, which hammer piles into the ground. Piles are long heavy beams of wood or steel that are driven into the ground to support retaining walls, bulkheads, bridges, piers, or building foundations. Some pile driver operators work on off shore oil rigs. Pile driver operators move hand and foot levers and turn valves to activate, position, and control the pile-driving equipment. Working Conditions Many construction equipment operators work outdoors, in nearly every type of climate and weather condition. Some machines, in cluding bulldozers, scrapers, and especially tampers and pile driv ers, are noisy and shake or jolt the operator. Operating heavy construction equipment can be dangerous. As with most machin ery, accidents generally can be avoided by observing proper operat ing procedures and safety practices. Construction equipment operators can expect to be cold in the winter and hot in the summer, and often get dirty, greasy, muddy, or dusty. Operators may have irregular hours because work on some con struction proj ects continues around the clock. Some operators work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as high ways and dams, or in factory or mining operations. 448 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Construction equipment operators held about 416,000 jobs in 2000. Jobs were found in every section of the country and were distrib uted among various types of operators as follows: Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators............................................................................ Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators .. Pile-driver operators............................................................ 357,000 55,000 4,400 About 3 out of every 5 construction equipment operators worked in the construction industry. Many equipment operators worked in heavy construction, building highways, bridges, or railroads. About 81,000 of all construction equipment operators worked in State and local government. Others—mostly grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators—worked in mining. Some also worked in manufactur ing and for utility companies. About 1 in 20 construction equip ment operators were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Construction equipment operators usually learn their skills on the job. However, it is generally accepted that formal training provides more comprehensive skills. Some construction equipment opera tors train in formal 3-year operating engineer apprenticeship pro grams administered by union-management committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Because apprentices learn to oper ate a wider variety of machines than do other beginners, they usu ally have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years, or 6,000 hours, of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Employers of construction equipment operators generally prefer to hire high school graduates, although some employers may train persons having less education to operate some types of equipment. The more technologically advanced construction equipment has computerized controls and improved hydraulics and electronics, requiring more skill to operate than previously was necessary. Oper ators of such equipment may need more training and some under standing of electronics. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their machines. Also, high school courses in science and mechanical drawing are useful. Experience operating related mobile equipment, such as farm tractors or heavy equip ment, in the Armed Forces or elsewhere is an asset. Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a pro gram may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. How ever, persons considering such training should check the reputation of the school among employers in the area. Beginning construction equipment operators handle light equip ment under the guidance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Oper ators need to be in good physical condition and have a good sense of balance, the ability to judge distance, and eye-hand-foot coordina tion. Some operator positions require the ability to work at heights. Job Outlook Job opportunities for construction equipment operators are expected to be good through 2010—due, in part, to the shortage of adequate training programs. In addition, many potential workers may pre fer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment of construction equipment operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the year 2010 because equipment improvements are expected to continue to raise worker productivity and to moderate demand for skilled construction equipment operators. Employment is expected to increase as population and business growth create a need for new houses, industrial facilities, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures. Also stimulating demand is the expected growth in high way, bridge, and street construction. Bridge construction is expected to grow the fastest, due to the need to repair or replace structures before they become unsafe. Poor highway conditions also will spur demand for highway maintenance and repair. In the last several years, Congress has passed substantial public works bills designed to provide money for such construction projects, including mass transit systems. In addition to employment growth in this occupa tion, many job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of construction equipment operators is sensitive to fluctuations in the economy. Workers may experience periods of unemployment when the level of construction activity falls. Earnings Earnings for construction equipment operators vary. In 2000, me dian hourly earnings of operating engineers and other construction equipment operators were $15.99. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.21 and $21.68. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.00, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.29. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of operating engineers in 2000 were: Highway and street construction............ Miscellaneous special trade contractors Heavy construction, except highway.... Local government...................................... State government....................................... $18.68 16.68 16.63 13.95 12.83 Median hourly earnings of paving, surfacing, and tamping equip ment operators were $ 12.88 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 10.04 and $ 17.57. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.51, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.57. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators in 2000 were: Highway and street construction........................................................ Concrete work........................................................................................ Local government.................................................................................. $13.45 12.91 12.57 In 2000, median hourly earnings of pile driver operators were $19.85. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.36 and $26.03. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.99, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31.04. Pay scales generally are higher in metropolitan areas. Annual earnings of some workers may be lower than hourly rates would indicate because worktime may be limited by bad weather. Related Occupations Other workers who operate heavy mechanical equipment include bus drivers; truck drivers and driver/sales workers; farmers, ranch ers, and agricultural managers; agricultural workers; and forest, conservation, and logging workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprenticeships or work opportuni ties for construction equipment operators, contact a local of the In ternational Union of Operating Engineers, a local apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency Construction Trades and Related Workers 449 or employment service. For general information about the work of construction equipment operators, contact: ► National Center for Construction Education and Research, University of Florida, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org >• Associated General Contractors of America, 333 John Carlyle St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.agc.org ► International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.iuoe.org tin* Mm HaSI Construction Laborers (0*NET 47-2061.00) • • • Significant Points Job opportunities should be good. The work can be physically demanding and sometimes dangerous. Most construction laborers learn through informal onthe-job training; some complete formal apprenticeship programs. Nature of the Work Construction laborers perform a wide range of physically demand ing tasks involving building and highway construction, tunnel and shaft excavation, hazardous waste removal, and demolition. Although the term “laborer” implies work that requires relatively low skill or training, many tasks that these workers perform require a fairly high level of training and experience. Construction labor ers clean and prepare construction sites to eliminate possible haz ards, dig trenches, mix and place concrete, and set braces to support the sides of excavations. They load, unload, identify, and distribute building materials to the appropriate location according to project plans and specifications on building construction projects. They also tend machines; for example, they may mix concrete using a portable mixer or tend a machine that pumps concrete, grout, ce ment, sand, plaster, or stucco through a spray gun for application to ceilings and walls. Construction laborers may sometimes help other craft workers including carpenters, plasterers, and masons. At heavy and highway construction sites, construction laborers clear and prepare highway work zones and rights of way; install traffic barricades, cones, and markers; and control traffic passing near, in, and around work zones. They also install sewer, water, and storm drain pipes, build manholes, and lay cement and asphalt on roads. At hazardous waste removal sites, construction laborers prepare the site and safely remove asbestos, lead, radioactive waste, and other hazardous materials. They operate, read, and maintain air monitoring and other sampling devices in confined and/or hazard ous environments. They also safely sample, identify, handle, pack, and transport hazardous and/or radioactive materials and clean and decontaminate equipment, buildings, and enclosed structures. Other highly specialized tasks include operating laser guidance equipment to place pipes, operating air and pneumatic drills, and transporting and setting explosives for tunnel, shaft, and road construction. Construction laborers operate a variety of equipment including pavement breakers; jackhammers; earth tampers; concrete, mortar, and plaster mixers; electric and hydraulic boring machines; torches; small mechanical hoists; laser beam equipment; and surveying and measuring equipment. They operate pipe-laying machinery and use https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction laborers do much of the physically demanding labor at construction sites. computers and other high-tech input devices to control robotic pipe cutters and cleaners. To perform their jobs effectively, construction laborers must be familiar with the duties of other craft workers and with the materials, tools, and machinery they use. Construction laborers often work as part of a team with other skilled craft workers, jointly carrying out assigned construction tasks. At other times, construction laborers may work alone, reading and interpreting instructions, plans, and specifications with little or no supervision. While most construction laborers tend to specialize in a type of construction such as highway or tunnel construction, they are skilled generalists who perform many different tasks during all stages of construction. However, construction laborers who work in under ground construction (such as in tunnels) or in demolition are more likely to specialize in only those areas. Working Conditions Most laborers do physically demanding work. They may lift and carry heavy objects, and stoop, kneel, crouch, or crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights, or outdoors in all weather conditions. Some jobs expose workers to harmful materials or chemicals, fumes, odors, loud noise, or dangerous machinery. To avoid injury, workers in these jobs wear safety clothing, such as gloves, hard hats, protective chemical suits, and devices to protect their eyes, respiratory system, or hearing. While working in under ground construction, construction laborers must be especially alert to safely follow procedures and must deal with a variety of hazards. Construction laborers generally work 8-hour shifts, although longer shifts also are common. They may work only during certain seasons, when the weather permits construction activity. Employment Construction laborers held about 791,000jobs in 2000. They worked throughout the country but, like the general population, are concen trated in metropolitan areas. Almost all construction laborers work in the construction industry and almost 38 percent work for special trade contractors. Only about 8 percent worked part time in 2000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For some construction laborer jobs, employers hire people without experience or specific training in the occupation. However, the work requires more strength and stamina than most occupations, as 450 Occupational Outlook Handbook well as a basic education. Basic literacy is a must if a worker is to read and comprehend warning signs and labels and understand in structions and specifications. Most construction laborers learn their skills informally, observ ing and learning from experienced workers. Individuals who leam the trade on the job usually start as helpers. These workers perform routine tasks, such as cleaning and preparing the worksite and un loading materials. When the opportunity arises, they leam how to do more difficult tasks, such as operating tools and equipment, from experienced craft workers. Becoming a fully skilled construction laborer by training on the job normally takes longer than the 2 to 4 years required to complete an apprenticeship program. Formal apprenticeship programs provide more thorough prepa ration for jobs as construction laborers than does on-the-job train ing. Local apprenticeship programs are operated under guidelines established by the Laborers-Associated General Contractors of America Education and Training Fund. These programs typically require at least 4,000 hours of supervised on-the-job training and approximately 400 hours of classroom training. Depending on the availability of work and on local training schedules, it can take an individual from 2 to 4 years to complete the apprenticeship. A core curriculum consisting of basic construction skills such as blueprint reading, the correct use of tools and equipment, and knowledge of safety procedures comprises the first 200 hours. The remainder of the curriculum consists of specialized skills training in three of the largest segments of the construction industry: building construc tion, heavy/highway constmction, and environmental remediation (cleaning up debris, landscaping, and restoring the environment to its original state). Workers who use dangerous equipment or handle toxic chemicals usually receive specialized training in safety aware ness and procedures. Apprentices must complete at least 144 hours of classroom work each year. Most apprenticeship programs require workers to be at least 18 years old (17 years of age or older in the case of some school-towork and career preparation programs) and physically able to per form the work. Many apprenticeship programs require a high school diploma or equivalent. High school and junior college courses in science, physics, chemistry, and mathematics are helpful. Voca tional classes in welding, construction, and other general building skills can give anyone wishing to become a construction laborer a significant head start. Experience is helpiul but usually is not necessary to obtain a job. Relevant work experience that provides construction-related job skills can often reduce or eliminate a wide range of training and apprenticeship requirements. Finally, most apprenticeship programs, local unions, and employers look very favorably on military service and/or service in the Job Corps, as veterans and Job Corps gradu ates have already demonstrated a high level of responsibility and reliability and may have gained many valuable job skills. Construction laborers need good manual dexterity, hand-eye coordination, and balance. They also need the ability to read and comprehend all warning signs and labels on a construction site and the reading skills sufficient to understand and interpret plans, draw ings, and written instructions and specifications. They should be capable of working as a member of a team and have basic problem solving and math skills. Employers want workers who are hard working, reliable, and diligent about being on time. Additionally, construction laborers who wish to work in environmental remediation must pass a physical test that measures the ability to wear a respirator. Computer skills also are important as construc tion becomes increasingly mechanized and computerized. Experience in many construction laborer jobs may allow some workers to advance to positions such as supervisor or construction superintendent. A few become independent contractors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities for construction laborers are expected to be good due to the numerous openings arising each year from laborers who leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may pre fer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Employment of construction laborers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Opportunities will be best for well-trained workers who are willing to relocate to different worksites. Growth of construction laborer employment will be spurred by continuing emphasis on environmental remediation and on rebuild ing infrastructure—roads, airports, bridges, tunnels, and commu nications facilities, for example. However, employment growth will be adversely affected by automation as some jobs are replaced by new machines and equipment that improve productivity and quality. Employment of construction laborers, like that of many other construction workers, can be variable or intermittent due to the lim ited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for construction laborers decrease as the level of construction ac tivity declines. Earnings Median hourly earnings of construction laborers in 2000 were $11.15. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.79 and $16.23. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.22 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.88. Median hourly earnings in the largest industries employing construction laborers in 2000 were as follows: Nonresidential building construction................................................ Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... $11.85 11.71 Concrete work........................................................................................ Heavy construction, except highway................................................. Residential building construction...................................................... 11 77' 11 10.90 10 62 Earnings for construction laborers can be reduced by poor weather or by downturns in construction activity, which sometimes result in layoffs. Apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. Pay increases as appren tices gain experience and leam new skills. Almost 1 in 5 construction laborers are members of a union. Many belong to the Laborers’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations The work of constmction laborers is closely related to other con stmction occupations. Other workers who perform similar physi cal work include persons in material moving occupations; forest, conservation, and logging workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs as constmction laborers, contact local building or constmction contractors, local joint labor-management apprenticeship committees, apprenticeship agencies, or the local office of your State Employment Service. For general information about the work of constmction labor ers, contact: ► Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.liuna.org Construction Trades and Related Workers 451 Drywall Installers, Ceiling Tile Installers, and Tapers (0*NET 47-2081.01, 47-2081.02, 47-2082.00) • • • Significant Points Most workers learn the trade on the job, either by working as helpers or through a formal apprenticeship. Job prospects are expected to be excellent. Inclement weather seldom interrupts work, but workers may be idled when downturns in the economy slow new construction activity. Nature of the Work Drywall consists of a thin layer of gypsum between two layers of heavy paper. It is used for walls and ceilings in most buildings today because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster. There are two kinds of drywall workers—installers and tapers— although many workers do both types of work. Installers, also called applicators, fasten drywall panels to the inside framework of residential houses and other buildings. Tapers, orfinishers, pre pare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes— usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—drywall installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally as sists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. A lift often is used when placing ceiling panels. After the drywall is installed, tapers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the compound into and along each side of the joint with brush-like strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a pa per tape—used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfections— into the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound, as are imperfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. On large commercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools that apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Tapers apply second and third coats of the compound, sanding the treated areas after each coat to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. This results in a very smooth and al most perfect surface. Some tapers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns. Ceiling tile installers, or acoustical carpenters, apply or mount acoustical tiles or blocks, strips, or sheets of shock-absorbing mate rials to ceilings and walls of buildings to reduce reflection of sound or to decorate rooms. First, they measure and mark the surface according to blueprints and drawings. Then, they nail or screw moldings to the wall to support and seal the joint between the ceil ing tile and the wall. Finally, they mount the tile, either by applying a cement adhesive to the back of the tile and then pressing the tile into place or by nailing, screwing, stapling, or wire-tying the lath directly to the structural framework. Also included in this occupation are lathers. Lathers fasten metal or rockboard lath to walls, ceilings, and partitions of buildings. Lath forms the support base for plaster, fireproofing, or acoustical mate Digitizedrials. for FRASER At one time, lath was made of wooden strips. Now, lathers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis illiS WSm ■ I mu 111! Drywall installers patch drywall prior to sanding and painting. work mostly with wire, metal mesh, or rockboard lath. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or water or for curved or irregular surfaces for which drywall is not a practical material. Using hand tools and portable power tools, lath ers nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the structural framework. Working Conditions As in many other construction trades, this work sometimes is strenu ous. Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some tapers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Install ers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds and injuries from power tools and from working with sharp materials. Because sanding a joint compound to a smooth finish creates a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection. Employment Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers held about 188,000 jobs in 2000. Most worked for contractors specializing in drywall and ceiling tile installation; others worked for contractors doing many kinds of construction. About 38,000 were self-em ployed independent contractors. Most installers and tapers are employed in populous areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall 452 Occupational Outlook Handbook or a ceiling tile installer employed full time, carpenters and painters usually do the work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers start as helpers and leam their skills on the job. Installer helpers start by carrying materials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they leam to measure, cut, and install materi als. Eventually, they become fully experienced workers. Taper ap prentices begin by taping joints and touching up nail holes, scrapes, and other imperfections. They soon leam to install comer guards and to conceal openings around pipes. At the end of their training, drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers leam to estimate the cost of installing and finishing drywall. Some drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers leam their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brother hood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an apprenticeship program in both drywall installation and finishing and acoustical carpentry. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years, or 6,000 hours, of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related class room instmction. In addition, local affiliates of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders conduct training programs for nonunion workers. The International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades conducts an apprenticeship program in drywall finishing that lasts 2 to 3 years. Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physi cal condition, but they frequently hire applicants with less educa tion. High school or vocational school courses in carpentry provide a helpful background for drywall work. Regardless of educational background, installers must be good at simple arithmetic. Other useful high school courses include English, wood shop, metal shop, blueprint reading, and mechanical drawing. Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers with a few years’ experience and with leadership ability may become supervi sors. Some workers start their own contracting businesses. Job Outlook Job opportunities for drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers are expected to be excellent through 2010, partly due to a shortage of adequate training programs. In addition, many poten tial workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period, reflecting increases in new construction and remodeling. In addition to traditional inte rior work, the growing acceptance of insulated exterior wall sys tems will provide additional jobs for drywall workers. In addition to those resulting from job growth, many jobs will open up each year because of the need to replace workers who trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because of their relatively weak attachment to the occupation, many drywall install ers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers with limited skills leave the occupation when they find that they dislike the work or fail to find steady employment. Despite the growing use of exterior panels, most drywall instal lation and finishing is done indoors. Therefore, drywall workers lose less worktime because of inclement weather than do some other construction workers. Nevertheless, they may be unemployed be tween construction projects and during downturns in construction activity. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings In 2000, the median hourly earnings of drywall and ceiling tile in stallers were $15.80. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.27 and $20.81. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.86. The median hourly earnings in the largest industries employing drywall and ceiling tile installers in 2000 were: Nonresidential building construction................................................ Residential building construction....................................................... Masonry, stonework, and plastering.................................................. $16.18 15.96 15.93 In 2000, the median hourly earnings of tapers were $17.81. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.99 and $23.34. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 11.06, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.62. The median hourly earnings of tapers in 2000 in masonry, stonework, and plastering were $17.67. Trainees usually started at about half the rate paid to experi enced workers, and received wage increases as they became more highly skilled. Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40-hour week is standard, but the workweek may sometimes be longer. Workers who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime. Related Occupations Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit ac cording to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; insulation workers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing and ceiling tile installation, contact local drywall installation and ceiling tile installation contractors, a local of the unions previously mentioned, a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee, a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors, or the nearest office of the State employ ment service or apprenticeship agency. For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall application and finishing and ceiling tile installation, write to: >- Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 1300 N. 17th St., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.abc.org >- National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.com >- International Brotherhood ofPainters and Allied Trades, 1750NewYork Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.ibpat.org ► United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Consti tution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Electricians (0*NET 47-2111.00) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for qualified electricians. Most electricians acquire their skills by completing a formal 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program. About one-third of all electricians work in industries other than construction. Construction Trades and Related Workers 453 Nature of the Work Electricity is essential for light, power, air conditioning, and refrig eration. Electricians install, connect, test, and maintain electrical systems for a variety of purposes, including climate control, secu rity, and communications. They also may install and maintain the electronic controls for machines in business and industry. Although most electricians specialize in either construction or maintenance, a growing number do both. Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical systems in factories, office buildings, homes, and other structures. Blueprints indicate the locations of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must follow the National Electric Code and comply with State and local building codes when they install these systems. In factories and offices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside designated partitions, walls, or other concealed areas. They also fasten to the wall small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to complete circuits between these boxes. In lighter construction, such as resi dential, plastic-covered wire usually is used instead of conduit. Regardless of the type of wire used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, transformers, or other components. They join the wires in boxes with various specially designed connectors. After they finish the wiring, they use testing equipment, such as ohmmeters, voltmeters, and oscilloscopes, to check the circuits for proper connections, ensuring electrical compatibility and safety of components. In addition to wiring a building’s electrical system, electricians may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other tele communications equipment. A growing number of electricians in stall telephone systems, computer wiring and equipment, street lights, intercom systems, and fire alarm and security systems. They also may connect motors to electrical power and install electronic con trols for industrial equipment. Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the elec trician is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker to accommodate additional appliances. Those who work in large factories may repair motors, transformers, generators, and elec tronic controllers on machine tools and industrial robots. Those in office buildings and small plants may repair all types of electrical equipment. Maintenance electricians spend much of their time in preventive maintenance. They periodically inspect equipment, and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. Electricians may also 'HP' St :.....ra* i-1 dSlilii % : .... : ' r':~ • SSw--- wmSfmm Digitized Electricians for FRASER lay out conduitfor electric wires. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ... •; advise management on whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous. When needed, they install new electrical equip ment. When breakdowns occur, they must make the necessary re pairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize inconvenience. Electricians may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. When working with complex electronic devices, they may work with en gineers, engineering technicians, or industrial machinery installa tion, repair, and maintenance workers. (For information about each of these occupations, see the statements located elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools and testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, ammeters, and test lamps. Working Conditions Electricians’ work is sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods and frequently work on ladders and scaffolds. Their working environment varies, depending on the type of job. Some may work in dusty, dirty, hot, or wet conditions, or in confined ar eas, ditches, or other uncomfortable places. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must follow strict safety procedures. Some electricians may have to travel to jobsites, which may be up to 100 miles away. Most electricians work a standard 40-hour week, although over time may be required. Those in maintenance work may work nights or weekends, and be on call. Companies that operate 24 hours a day may employ three shifts of electricians. Employment Electricians held about 698,000 jobs in 2000. About two-thirds were employed in the construction industry. About one-third worked as maintenance electricians and were employed outside the con struction industry. In addition, about 8 percent of electricians were self-employed. Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people learn the electrical trade by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade and generally improves their ability to find a job. Although more electricians are trained through apprenticeship than are workers in other construction trades, some still leam their skills informally, on the job. Apprenticeship programs may be sponsored by joint training committees made up of local unions of the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers and local chapters of the National Elec trical Contractors Association; company management committees of individual electrical contracting companies; or by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Independent Electrical Contractors Association. Training also may be provided by company management committees of individual electrical con tracting companies and by local chapters of the Associated Build ers and Contractors and the Independent Electrical Contractors. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who com plete apprenticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work. The typical large apprenticeship program provides at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year, and 8,000 hours of onthe-job training over the course of the apprenticeship. In the class room, apprentices learn blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. They also may receive specialized training 454 Occupational Outlook Handbook in welding, communications, fire alarm systems, and cranes and elevators. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electri cians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of the electrician’s work. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, fabricate, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems. Those who do not enter a formal apprenticeship program can begin to leam the trade informally by working as helpers for expe rienced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also leam safety practices. Many helpers supplement this training with trade school or correspondence courses. Regardless of how one learns the trade, previous training is very helpful. High school courses in mathematics, electricity, electron ics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good back ground. Special training offered in the Armed Forces and by postsecondary technical schools also is beneficial. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dexterity also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers must frequently identify electrical wires by color. Most apprenticeship sponsors require applicants for apprentice positions to be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or its equivalent. For those interested in becoming maintenance electricians, a background in electronics is increasingly important because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manu facturing equipment. Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although licen sing requirements vary from area to area, electricians usually must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes. Electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code, materials, or methods of installation. Experienced electricians can become supervisors and then super intendents. Those with sufficient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business, although this may require an electrical contractor’s license. Job Outlook Job opportunities for skilled electricians are expected to be excel lent, largely due to the numerous openings arising each year from experienced electricians who leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment of electricians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. As the population and economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, facto ries, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. Increasingly, buildings will be prewired during construction to ac commodate use of computers and telecommunications equipment. More factories will be using robots and automated manufacturing systems. Installation of this equipment, which is expected to increase, should also stimulate demand for electricians. Additional jobs will be created by rehabilitation and retrofitting of existing structures. In addition to jobs created by increased demand for electrical work, many openings will occur each year as electricians transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Because of their lengthy training and relatively high earnings, a smaller proportion of electricians than of other craftworkers leave https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their occupation each year. The number of retirements is expected to rise, however, as more electricians reach retirement age. Employment of construction electricians, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. This results from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic down turns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of con struction activity declines. Apprenticeship opportunities also are less plentiful during these periods. Although employment of maintenance electricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the automotive and other manufacturing industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, efforts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity, through the increased use of contracting out for electrical services, may limit opportunities for maintenance electricians in many industries. How ever, this should be partially offset by increased demand by electri cal contracting firms. Job opportunities for electricians also vary by area. Employ ment opportunities follow the movement of people and businesses among States and local areas, and reflect differences in local eco nomic conditions. The number ofjob opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of electricians were $19.29. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.49 and $25.41. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 11.31, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31.71. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electricians in 2000 are shown below: Motor vehicles and equipment................................................. Local government................................................................... Electrical work....................................................................... Heavy construction, except highway........................................ Plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning.................................. $26.71 19.88 19.22 17.92 17.26 Depending on experience, apprentices usually start at between 30 and 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced electricians. As they become more skilled, they receive periodic increases through out the course of the apprenticeship program. Many employers also provide training opportunities for experienced electricians to im prove their skills. Many construction electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions organizing main tenance electricians are the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations To install and maintain electrical systems, electricians combine manual skill and knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include heat ing, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; line installers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and re pairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and re pairers; and elevator installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact the offices of the State employment service, the State Construction Trades and Related Workers 455 apprenticeship agency, local electrical contractors or firms that employ maintenance electricians, or local union-management elec trician apprenticeship committees. This information may also be available from local chapters of the Independent Electrical Con tractors, Inc.; the National Electrical Contractors Association; the Home Builders Institute; the Associated Builders and Contractors; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: > Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 20I0-A Eisenhower Ave., Al exandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ieci.org ► National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA), 3 Metro Center, Suite 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.necanet.org ► International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ibew.org > Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.abc.org >- National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.org Elevator Installers and Repairers (0**NET 47-4021.00) • • • Significant Points Workers learn the trade through 4 to 5 years of on-thejob training and classroom instruction. Elevator installers and repairers have one of the highest rates of union membership. Job opportunities are expected to be limited in this small occupation; prospects should be best for those with postsecondary education in electronics. Nature of the Work Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or elevator mechanics—assemble, install, and replace elevators, escalators, dumbwaiters, moving walkways, and similar equipment in new and old buildings. Once the equipment is in service, they maintain and repair it as well. They also are responsible for mod ernizing older equipment. To install, repair, and maintain modem elevators, which are al most all electronically controlled, elevator installers and repairers must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydraulics. Many elevators are controlled with microprocessors, which are programmed to analyze traffic conditions in order to dis patch elevators in the most efficient manner. With these computer controls, it is possible to get the greatest amount of service with the least number of cars. When installing a new elevator, installers and repairers begin by studying blueprints to determine the equipment needed to install rails, machinery, car enclosures, motors, pumps, cylinders, and plunger foundations. Once this has been done, they begin equip ment installation. Working on scaffolding or platforms, installers bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator. Elevator installers put in electrical wires and controls by run ning tubing, called conduit, along a shaft’s walls from floor to floor. Once it is in place, mechanics pull plastic-covered electrical wires through the conduit. They then install electrical components and related devices required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room. Installers bolt or weld together the steel frame of an elevator car Digitized atfor theFRASER bottom of the shaft; install the car’s platform, walls, and doors; https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and attach guide shoes and rollers to minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. They also install the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cabled elevators, these workers install geared or gearless machines with a traction drive wheel that guides and moves heavy steel cables connected to the elevator car and counterweight. (The counterweight moves in the opposite direction from the car and balances most of the weight of the car to reduce the weight that the elevator’s motor must lift.) Elevator installers also install elevators in which a car sits on a hydraulic plunger that is driven by a pump. The plunger pushes the elevator car up from underneath, similar to a lift in an auto service station. Installers and repairers also install escalators. They put in place the steel framework, the electrically powered stairs, and the tracks and install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, they also may install devices such as dumbwaiters and material lifts—which are similar to elevators in design—as well as moving walkways, stair lifts, and wheelchair lifts. The most highly skilled elevator installers and repairers, called “adjusters,” specialize in fine-tuning all the equipment after instal lation. Adjusters make sure that an elevator is working according to specifications, such as stopping correctly at each floor within a specified time. Once an elevator is operating properly, it must be maintained and serviced regularly to keep it in safe working condi tion. Elevator installers and repairers generally do preventive main tenance—such as oiling and greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equipment for optimal performance. They also troubleshoot and may be called in to do emergency repairs. A service crew usually handles major repairs—for example, re placing cables, elevator doors, or machine bearings. This may re quire the use of cutting torches or rigging equipment—tools an elevator repairer normally would not carry. Service crews also do major modernization and alteration work, such as moving and re placing electrical motors, hydraulic pumps, and control panels. Elevator installers and repairers usually specialize in installa tion, maintenance, or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers generally need more knowledge of electricity and electronics than installers do, because a large part of maintenance and repair work is troubleshooting. Similarly, adjusters need a thorough knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers to ensure that newly in stalled elevators operate properly. Sum t Elevator installers need a working knowledge of electricity, electronics, and hydraulics. 456 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Most elevator installers and repairers work a 40-hour week. How ever, overtime is required when essential elevator equipment must be repaired, and some workers are on 24-hour call. Unlike most elevator installers, workers who specialize in elevator maintenance are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically. Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equipment and parts, and may work in cramped spaces or awkward positions. Potential haz ards include falls, electrical shock, muscle strains, and other inju ries related to handling heavy equipment. Because most of their work is performed indoors in buildings under construction or in existing buildings, elevator installers and repairers lose less worktime due to inclement weather than do other construction trades workers. Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 23,000 jobs in 2000. Most were employed by special trade contractors. Others were employed by field offices of elevator manufacturers, wholesale dis tributors, small-elevator maintenance and repair contractors, gov ernment agencies, or businesses that do their own elevator maintenance and repair. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most elevator installers and repairers apply for their jobs through a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Appli cants for trainee positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or equivalent, and pass an aptitude test. Good physi cal condition and mechanical aptitude also are important. Elevator installers and repairers learn their trade in a program administered by local joint educational committees representing the employers and the union. These programs, through which the trainee leams everything from installation to repair, combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction in blueprint reading, electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of physics, and safety. In nonunion shops, workers may complete training programs sponsored by independent contractors. Generally, trainees or helpers must complete a 6-month proba tionary period. After successful completion, they work toward be coming fully qualified within 4 to 5 years. To be classified as a fully qualified elevator installer or repairer, union trainees must pass a standard examination administered by the National Elevator In dustry Educational Program. Most States and cities also require elevator installers and repairers to pass a licensing examination. Most trainees or helpers assist experienced elevator installers and repairers. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, trainees learn more diffi cult tasks such as wiring, which requires knowledge of local and national electrical codes. High school courses in electricity, mathematics, and physics pro vide a useful background. As elevators become increasingly so phisticated, workers may find it necessary to acquire more advanced formal education—for example, in postsecondary technical school or junior college—with an emphasis on electronics. Workers with more formal education usually advance more quickly than their counterparts. Many elevator installers and repairers also receive training from their employers or through manufacturers to become familiar with a company’s particular equipment. Retraining is very important to keep abreast of technological developments in elevator repair. In fact, union elevator installers and repairers typically receive continual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training throughout their careers, through either correspondence courses, seminars, or formal classes. Although voluntary, this train ing greatly improves one’s chances for promotion. Some installers may receive further training in specialized areas and advance to mechanic-in-charge, adjuster, supervisor, or eleva tor inspector. Adjusters, for example, may be picked for their posi tion because they possess particular skills or are electronically inclined. Other workers may move into management, sales, or prod uct design jobs. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be somewhat limited in this small occupation. A large proportion of elevator installer and repairer jobs are unionized and involve a significant investment in training. As a result, workers tend to stay in this occupation for a long time. This investment in training, as well as good benefits and relatively high wages, results in fewer openings due to turnover, thus reduc ing job opportunities. Job prospects should be best for those with postsecondary education in electronics. Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Job growth is related to the growth of nonresidential construction, such as commercial office buildings and stores that have elevators and escalators, which is expected to increase about as fast as the average over the 2000-10 period. The need to con tinually update and modernize old equipment, including improve ments in appearance and the installation of increasingly sophisticated equipment and computerized controls, also should add to the de mand for elevator installers and repairers. Because it is desirable that equipment always be kept in good working condition, economic downturns will have less of an effect on employment of elevator installers and repairers than on other construction trades. Earnings Median hourly earnings of elevator installers and repairers were $22.78 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.38 and $27.38. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.19, and the top 10 percent earned more than $33.23. In 2000, median hourly earn ings in the miscellaneous special trade contractors industry were $23.29. In addition to free continuing education, elevator installers and repairers receive basic benefits enjoyed by most other workers. Elevator installers and repairers have one of the highest rates of union membership, about 9 out of 10. Most elevator installers and repairers belong to the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Related Occupations Elevator installers and repairers combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills, such as welding, rigging, measuring, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that require many of these skills are boilermakers; electricians; electrical and electronics in stallers and repairers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; sheet metal workers; and structural and rein forcing iron and metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For further details about opportunities as an elevator installer and repairer, contact elevator manufacturers, elevator repair and main tenance contractors, a local of the International Union of Eleva tor Constructors, or the nearest local public employment service office. Construction Trades and Related Workers 457 Glaziers (Q*NET 47-2121.00) • Significant Points Glaziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, falls from scaffolds, or from improperly lifting heavy glass panels. • Many glaziers learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced glaziers; however, employers recommend a 3- to 4-year apprenticeship program. • Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. Nature of the Work Glass serves many uses in modem buildings. Insulated and spe cially treated glass keeps in warmed or cooled air and provides good condensation and sound control qualities; tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure. In large commercial buildings, glass panels give office buildings a distinctive look while reducing the need for artificial lighting. The creative use of large windows, glass doors, skylights, and sun-room additions makes homes bright, airy, and inviting. Glaziers are responsible for selecting, cutting, installing, replac ing, and removing all types of glass. They generally work on one of several types of projects. Residential glazing involves work such as replacing glass in home windows; installing glass mirrors, shower doors, and bathtub enclosures; and fitting glass for table tops and display cases. On commercial interior projects, glaziers install items such as heavy, often etched, decorative room dividers or security windows. Glazing projects also may involve replacement of store front windows for establishments such as supermarkets, auto dealerships, or banks. In the construction of large commercial build ings, glaziers build metal framework extrusions and install glass panels or curtain walls. Besides working with glass, glaziers also may work with plastics, granite, marble, and similar materials used as glass substitutes. They may mount steel and aluminum sashes or frames and attach locks and hinges to glass doors. For most jobs, the glass is precut and mounted in frames at a factory or a contractor’s shop. It arrives at the jobsite ready for glaziers to position and secure it in place. They may use a crane or hoist with suction cups to lift large, heavy pieces of glass. They then gently guide the glass into position by hand. Once glaziers have the glass in place, they secure it with mastic, putty, or other pastelike cement, or with bolts, rubber gaskets, glaz ing compound, metal clips, or metal or wood moldings. When they secure glass using a rubber gasket—a thick, molded rubber half tube with a split running its length—they first secure the gasket around the perimeter within the opening, then set the glass into the split side of the gasket, causing it to clamp to the edges and hold the glass firmly in place. When they use metal clips and wood moldings, glaziers first secure the molding to the opening, place the glass in the molding, and then force springlike metal clips between the glass and the molding. The clips exert pressure and keep the glass firmly in place. When a glazing compound is used, glaziers first spread it neatly against and around the edges of the molding on the inside of the opening. Next, they install the glass. Pressing it against the com pound on the inside molding, workers screw or nail outside mold ing that loosely holds the glass in place. To hold it firmly, they pack the space between the molding and the glass with glazing com pound and then trim any excess material with a glazing knife. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis - ____ ' Many glaziers learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced workers. For some jobs, the glazier must cut the glass manually at the jobsite. To prepare the glass for cutting, glaziers rest it either on edge on a rack, or “A-frame,” or flat against a cutting table. They then measure and mark the glass for the cut. Glaziers cut glass with a special tool that has a small, very hard metal wheel. Using a straightedge as a guide, the glazier presses the cutter’s wheel firmly on the glass, guiding and rolling it care fully to make a score just below the surface. To help the cutting tool move smoothly across the glass, workers brush a thin layer of oil along the line of the intended cut or dip the cutting tool in oil. Immediately after cutting, the glazier presses on the shorter end of the glass to break it cleanly along the cut. Glaziers also replace or repair broken or pitted windshields and window glass on automobiles and other vehicles. They first re move the broken glass, which may involve cutting it free from the adhesive holding it down. They then install the glass in the vehicle, often using a special adhesive. They also may weatherproof the window or windshield and prevent it from rattling by installing rub ber strips around the sides of the glass. In addition to handtools such as glass cutters, suction cups, and glazing knives, glaziers use power tools such as saws, drills, cut ters, and grinders. An increasing number of glaziers use computers in the shop or at the jobsite to improve their layout work and reduce the amount of glass that is wasted. Working Conditions Glaziers often work outdoors, sometimes in inclement weather. At times, they work on scaffolds at great heights. They do a consider able amount of bending, kneeling, lifting, and standing. Glaziers may be injured by broken glass or cutting tools, by falls from scaf folds, or by improperly lifting heavy glass panels. Employment Glaziers held about 49,000 jobs in 2000. About 3 out of every 5 glaziers worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construc tion, alteration, and repair. About 1 out of 5 worked in retail glass shops that install or replace glass and for wholesale distributors of products containing glass. Others worked in automotive repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many glaziers leam the trade informally on the job. They usually start as helpers, carrying glass and cleaning up debris in glass shops. 458 Occupational Outlook Handbook They often practice cutting on discarded glass. After a while, they are given an opportunity to cut glass for a job. Eventually, helpers assist experienced workers on simple installation jobs. By working with experienced glaziers, they eventually acquire the skills of a fully qualified glazier. Employers recommend that glaziers learn the trade through a formal apprenticeship program that lasts 3 to 4 years. Apprentice ship programs, which are administered by the National Glass Asso ciation and local union-management committees or local contractors’ associations, consist of on-the-job training, as well as 144 hours of classroom instruction or home study each year. On the job, appren tices leam to use the tools and equipment of the trade; handle, mea sure, cut, and install glass and metal framing; cut and fit moldings; and install and balance glass doors. In the classroom, they are taught basic mathematics, blueprint reading and sketching, general con struction techniques, safety practices, and first aid. Learning the trade through an apprenticeship program usually takes less time and provides more complete training than acquiring skills informally on the job, but opportunities for apprenticeships are declining. Local apprenticeship administrators determine the physical, age, and educational requirements needed by applicants for apprentice ships and for helper positions. In general, applicants must be in good physical condition and be at least 17 years old. High school or vocational school graduates are preferred. In some areas, appli cants must take mechanical-aptitude tests. Courses in general math ematics, blueprint reading or mechanical drawing, general construction, and shop provide a good background. Standards for acceptance into apprenticeship programs are ris ing to reflect changing requirements associated with new products and equipment. In addition, the growing use of computers in glass layout requires that glaziers be familiar with personal computers. Because many glaziers do not leam the trade through a formal apprenticeship program, the National Glass Association (NGA) offers a series of written examinations that certify an individual’s competency to perform glazier work at three progressively more difficult levels of proficiency. These levels include Level I, Gla zier; Level II, Commercial Interior/Residential Glazier or Storefront/ Curtainwall Glazier; and Level III, Master Glazier. Recently, the NGA has added a new certification program for auto-glass repair. Advancement generally consists of increases in pay for most glaziers; some advance to supervisory jobs or become contractors or estimators. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for glaziers, largely due to the numerous openings arising each year as experienced gla ziers leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially fa vorable opportunities. Employment of glaziers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, as a result of growth in residential and nonresidential construction. Demand for glaziers will be spurred by the continuing need to modernize and repair existing structures and the popularity of glass in bathroom and kitchen design. Improved glass performance in the areas of insulation, privacy, safety, condensation control, and noise reduc tion also are expected to contribute to the demand for glaziers in both residential and nonresidential remodeling. A continuing em phasis on energy management, which encourages people to replace their old windows and doors with high-efficiency products, also will spur the demand for glaziers. Similar to other construction-trades workers, construction glaziers should expect to experience periods of unemployment resulting from https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During bad economic times, job open ings for glaziers are reduced as the level of construction declines. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job open ings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. Employment and apprenticeship opportuni ties should be greatest in metropolitan areas, where most glazing contractors and glass shops are located. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of glaziers were $14.32. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.88 and $19.35. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $8.50, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.78. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of glaziers in 2000 are shown below: Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... Paint, glass, and wallpaper stores....................................................... $15.39 12.60 Glaziers covered by union contracts generally earn more than their nonunion counterparts. Apprentice wage rates usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced glaziers and in crease every 6 months. Because glaziers can lose time due to weather conditions and fluctuations in construction activity, their overall earnings may be lower than their hourly wages suggest. Many glaziers employed in construction are members of the In ternational Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Glaziers use their knowledge of construction materials and tech niques to install glass. Other construction workers whose jobs also involve skilled, custom work are brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and fin ishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and painters and paperhangers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about glazier apprenticeships or work oppor tunities, contact local glazing or general contractors, a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, a local joint union-management apprenticeship agency, or the nearest of fice of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of glaziers, contact: >■ International Brotherhood ofPainters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006. For information concerning training for glaziers, contact: >■ National Glass Association, Education and Training Department, 8200 Greensboro Dr., Suite 302, McLean, VA22102-3881. Internet: http:// www.glass.org Hazardous Materials Removal Workers (0**NET 47-4041.00) Significant Points • • • Working conditions can be difficult, and the use of protective clothing is often required. Formal education beyond high school is not required, but a training program leading to a Federal license is mandatory. Excellent job opportunities are expected. Nature of the Work Increased public awareness and Federal and State regulations are resulting in the removal of hazardous materials from buildings, fa cilities, and the environment to prevent further contamination of natural resources and to promote public health and safety. Hazard ous-materials removal workers identify, remove, package, transport, and dispose of various hazardous materials, including asbestos, lead, and radioactive and nuclear materials. The removal of hazardous materials, or “hazmats,” from public places and the environment also is called abatement, remediation, and decontamination. Hazardous-materials removal workers use a variety of tools and equipment, depending on the work at hand. Equipment ranges from brooms to personal protective suits that completely isolate workers from the hazardous material. Depending on the threat of contami nation, equipment required can include disposable or reusable cov eralls, gloves, hard hats, shoe covers, safety glasses or goggles, chemical-resistant clothing, face shields, and hearing protection. Most workers also are required to wear respirators while working to protect them from airborne particles. These respirators range from simple versions that cover only the mouth and nose to selfcontained suits with their own air supply. Asbestos is a material used in the past for fireproofing roofing and flooring, for heat insulation, and for a variety of other uses. While materials containing asbestos rarely are used in buildings anymore, there still are structures containing the material. When embedded in materials, asbestos is fairly harmless; when airborne, however, asbestos can cause several lung diseases, including lung cancer and asbestosis. Lead was a common building component found in paint and plumbing fixtures and pipes until the late 1970’s. Because lead is easily absorbed into the bloodstream, it can travel to vital organs and build up there. The health risks associated with lead poisoning include fatigue, loss of appetite, miscarriage, and learning disabili ties and decreased IQ in children. Due to these risks, it has become necessary to remove lead-based products and asbestos from build ings and structures. Asbestos-abatement and lead-abatement workers remove these and other materials from buildings scheduled to be renovated or demolished. They use a variety of hand and power tools, such as vacuums and scrapers, to remove asbestos and lead from surfaces. The vacuums used by asbestos-abatement workers have special, highly efficient filters designed to trap the asbestos, which is later disposed of or stored. During the abatement, special monitors for asbestos and lead content sample the air to protect the workers; lead-abatement workers also wear a personal air monitor that indi cates how much lead the worker has been exposed to. Workers also use monitoring devices to identify the asbestos, lead, and other materials that need to be removed from the surfaces of walls and structures. A typical residential lead-abatement project involves using a chemical to strip the lead-based paint from the walls of the home. Lead-abatement workers apply the compound with a putty knife and allow it to dry. Then, they scrape the hazardous material into an impregnable container for transport and storage. They also use sandblasters and high-pressure water sprayers to remove lead from large structures. Radioactive materials are classified as either high- or low-level wastes. High-level wastes primarily are nuclear-reactor fuels used to produce electricity. Low-level wastes include any radioactively contaminated protective clothing, tools, filters, medical equipment, and other items. Decontamination technicians perform duties similar to janitors and cleaners. They use brooms, mops, and other tools to clean exposed areas and remove exposed items for decontamina Digitized tion for FRASER or disposal. With experience, these workers can advance to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction Trades and Related Workers 459 radiation-protection technician jobs and use radiation survey meters to locate and evaluate materials, operate high-pressure cleaning equipment for decontamination, and package radioactive materials for transportation or disposal. Decommissioning and decontamination (D&D) workers remove and treat radioactive materials generated by nuclear facilities and power plants. They use a variety of handtools to break down con taminated items such as “gloveboxes,” which are used to process radioactive materials. At decommissioning sites, the workers clean and decontaminate the facility, as well as remove any radioactive or contaminated materials. Treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) workers transport and prepare materials for treatment or disposal. To ensure proper treat ment of materials, laws require workers in this field to be able to verify shipping manifests. At incinerator facilities, these workers transport materials from the customer or service center to the incin erator. At landfills, they follow a strict procedure for the process ing and storage of hazardous materials. They organize and track the location of items in the fill and may help change the state of a material from liquid to solid in preparation for its storage. These workers typically operate heavy machinery such as forklifts, earthmoving machinery, and large trucks and rigs. Hazardous-materials removal workers also may be required to construct scaffolding or erect containment areas prior to the abate ment or decontamination. Government regulation, in most cases, dictates that hazardous-materials removal workers are closely super vised on the worksite. The standard usually is 1 supervisor to every —♦a Hazardous materials removal workers use chemicals to remove leadbased paint. 460 Occupational Outlook Handbook 10 workers. The work is very structured, planned out sometimes years in advance, and team-oriented. There is a great deal of coop eration among supervisors and coworkers. Due to the nature of the materials being removed, work areas are restricted to licensed haz ardous-materials removal workers, thus minimizing exposure to the public. Working Conditions Hazardous-materials removal workers face different working con ditions depending on their area of expertise. Although many work a standard 40-hour week, overtime and shiftwork is not uncom mon, especially in asbestos and lead abatement. Asbestos- and leadabatement workers tend to work primarily in buildings and other structures, such as office buildings and schools. Because they are under pressure to complete their work within certain deadlines, workers may experience fatigue. Completing projects frequently requires night and weekend work, because hazardous-materials removal workers often work around the schedules of others. Treat ment, storage, and disposal workers are employed primarily at facilities such as landfills, incinerators, boilers, and industrial fur naces. These facilities often are located in remote areas due to the kinds of work being done. As a result, workers employed by treat ment, storage, or disposal facilities may commute long distances to work. Decommissioning and decontamination workers, decontamina tion technicians, and radiation protection technicians work at nuclear facilities and electrical power plants. These sites, like treatment, storage, and disposal facilities, often are far from urban areas. Workers, who often perform jobs in cramped conditions, may need to use sharp tools to dismantle contaminated objects. A hazardousmaterials removal worker must have great self-control and a level head to cope with the daily stress associated with working with hazardous materials. Hazardous-materials removal employees work in a highly struc tured environment to minimize danger. Each phase of an operation is planned in advance, and workers are trained to deal with safety breaches and hazardous situations. Crews and supervisors take every precaution to ensure that the worksite is safe. Hazardous-materials removal workers, whether working in asbestos and lead abatement or in radioactive decontamination, must stand, stoop, and kneel for long periods. Some hazardous-materials removal workers must wear fully enclosed personal protective suits for several hours at a time; these suits may be hot and uncomfortable and cause some individu als to experience claustrophobia. Hazardous-materials removal workers may be required to travel outside their normal working area in order to respond to emergency situations. These emergency cleanups sometimes take several days or weeks to complete, and workers usually are away from home for the duration of the project. Employment Hazardous-materials removal workers held about 37,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly half were employed by special trade contractors, pri marily in asbestos and lead abatement. Almost a quarter worked in water supply and sanitary services. A small number worked in elec tric services at nuclear and electric plants as decommissioning and decontamination workers and radiation safety and decontamination technicians. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal education beyond a high school diploma is not required to become a hazardous materials removal worker. However, work ers must be able to perform basic mathematical conversions and calculations, manipulating readings for consideration during the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis abatement. To perform the job duties, workers also should have good physical strength and manual dexterity. Because of the nature of the work to be done and the time con straints sometimes involved, employers prefer people who are de pendable, prompt, and detail-oriented. Because much of the work is done in buildings, a background in construction is helpful. Federal regulations require a license to work as a hazardousmaterials removal worker. Most employers provide technical train ing on the job, but a formal 32- to 40-hour training program must be completed to be licensed to work as an asbestos- and lead-abate ment worker or a treatment, storage, and disposal worker. The pro gram covers health hazards, personal protective equipment and clothing, site safety, hazard recognition and identification, and de contamination. In some cases, workers will discover one hazard ous material while abating another. If the workers are not licensed to work with the newly discovered material, they cannot continue to work. Many experienced workers opt to take courses in addi tional disciplines to avoid this situation. Some employers prefer to hire workers licensed in multiple disciplines. For decommissioning and decontamination workers employed at nuclear facilities, training is more extensive. In addition to the standard 40-hour training course in asbestos, lead, and hazardous waste, workers must take courses on regulations governing nuclear materials and radiation safety. These courses add up to approxi mately 3 months of training, although most are not taken consecu tively. Many agencies, organizations, and companies throughout the country provide training programs that are approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Energy, and other regulatory bodies. Workers in all fields are required to take refresher courses every year to maintain their license. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for hazardous-mate rials removal workers, largely due to the numerous openings aris ing each year as experienced workers leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenu ous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. The overall employment in this occupation is expected to grow faster than average for all occupations through the year 2010. Em ployment of the largest group of workers, asbestos- and lead-abate ment workers, is expected to grow as fast as other occupations in special trade contractors, but opportunities will be best in lead abate ment. Compared with other construction trades occupations, em ployment of lead-abatement workers is much less affected by slowdowns in the economy. Employment of decontamination technicians, radiation safety technicians, and decommissioning and decontamination workers is expected to grow in response to increased pressure for safer and cleaner nuclear and electric generator facilities. In addition, the number of closed facilities that need decommissioning may con tinue to grow due to Federal legislation. These workers also are less affected by fluctuations in the economy because the facilities they work in must operate regardless of the state of the economy. Opportunities will be best in the private sector as more State and local governments contract out hazardous-materials removal work to private companies. Earnings Median hourly earnings of hazardous materials removal workers were $ 13.71 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 11.34 and $18.56 per hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.33 per hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.01 per hour. Construction Trades and Related Workers 461 The median hourly earnings in the largest industries employing haz ardous materials removal workers in 2000 are shown below. Miscellaneous special trade contractors.......................................... Sanitary services.................................................................................... $13.78 13.30 According to the limited data available, treatment, storage, and disposal workers usually earn slightly more than asbestos- and leadabatement workers or decontamination technicians. Decontamina tion and decommissioning workers and radiation protection technicians, though constituting the smallest group, tend to earn the highest wages. Related Occupations Asbestos- and lead-abatement workers share skills with other con struction trades workers, including brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pav ers, and terrazzo workers; insulation workers; and sheet-metal work ers. Treatment, storage, and disposal workers, decommissioning and decontamination workers, and decontamination and radiation safety technicians work closely with plant and system operators, such as power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers and water and wastewater treatment plant operators. Sources of Additional Information For more information on hazardous-materials removal workers, in cluding training information, contact: > Laborers-AGC Education and Training Fund, 37 Deerfield Rd., P.O. Box 37, Promfret, CT 06259. Insulation Workers (0*NET 47-2131.00, 47-2132.00) Significant Points • • • Workers must follow strict safety guidelines to protect themselves from the dangers of insulating irritants. Most insulation workers leam informally on the job; others complete formal apprenticeship programs. Excellent employment opportunities are expected, resulting largely from job turnover. Nature of the Work Properly insulated buildings reduce energy consumption by keep ing heat in during the winter and out in the summer. Refrigerated storage rooms, vats, tanks, vessels, boilers, and steam and hot water pipes also are insulated to prevent the wasteful transfer of heat. Insulation workers install the materials used to insulate buildings and equipment. Insulation workers cement, staple, wire, tape, or spray insula tion. When covering a steam pipe, for example, insulation workers measure and cut sections of insulation to the proper length, stretch it open along a cut that runs the length of the material, and slip it over the pipe. They fasten the insulation with adhesive, staples, tape, or wire bands. Sometimes, they wrap a cover of aluminum, plastic, or canvas over it and cement or band the cover in place. Insulation workers may screw on sheet metal around insulated pipes to protect the insulation from weather conditions or physical abuse. When covering a wall or other flat surface, workers may use a hose to spray foam insulation onto a wire mesh. The wire mesh provides a rough surface to which the foam can cling and adds strength to the finished surface. Workers may then install drywall Digitized FRASER orfor apply a final coat of plaster for a finished appearance. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Insulation workers install insulation around pipes and within walls and floors. In attics or exterior walls of uninsulated buildings, workers blow in loose-fill insulation. A helper feeds a machine with fiberglass, cellulose, or rock wool insulation while another worker blows the insulation with a compressor hose into the space being filled. In new construction or major renovations, insulation workers staple fiberglass or rockwool batts to exterior walls and ceilings before drywall, paneling, or plaster walls are put in place. In mak ing major renovations to old buildings or when putting new insula tion around pipes and industrial machinery, insulation workers often must first remove the old insulation. In the past, asbestos—now known to cause cancer in humans—was used extensively in walls and ceilings and for covering pipes, boilers, and various industrial equipment. Because of this danger, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations require that asbestos be removed before a build ing undergoes major renovations or is demolished. When asbestos is present, specially trained workers must remove the asbestos be fore insulation workers can install the new insulating materials. (See the statement on hazardous-materials removal workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Insulation workers use common handtools—trowels, brushes, knives, scissors, saws, pliers, and stapling guns. They use power saws to cut insulating materials, welding machines to join sheet metal or secure clamps, and compressors to blow or spray insulation. Working Conditions Insulation workers generally work indoors. They spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some times, they work from ladders or in tight spaces. The work requires more coordination than strength. Insulation work often is dusty and dirty, and the summer heat can make the insulation worker very uncomfortable. Minute particles from insulation materials, espe cially when blown, can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory sys tem. Workers must follow strict safety guidelines to protect themselves from the dangers of insulating irritants. They keep work areas well-ventilated; wear protective suits, masks, and respirators; and take decontamination showers when necessary. Employment Insulation workers held about 53,000 jobs in 2000. The construc tion industry employed 9 out of 10 of these workers; most worked for insulation or other construction trades contractors. Small num bers of insulation workers held jobs in the Federal Government, in wholesale trade, and in shipbuilding and other manufacturing 462 Occupational Outlook Handbook industries that have extensive installations for power, heating, and cooling. Most worked in urban areas. In less populated areas, car penters, heating and air-conditioning installers, or drywall install ers may do insulation work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most insulation workers learn their trade informally on the job, al though some workers complete formal apprenticeship programs. For entry jobs, insulation contractors prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition and licensed to drive. High school courses in blueprint reading, shop math, science, sheet-metal layout, woodworking, and general construction provide a helpful background. Applicants seeking apprenticeship positions must have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and be at least 18 years old. Trainees who leam on the job receive instruction and supervi sion from experienced insulation workers. Trainees begin with simple tasks, such as carrying insulation or holding material while it is fastened in place. On-the-job training can take up to 2 years, depending on the nature of the work. Learning to install insulation in homes generally requires less training than does insulation appli cation in commercial and industrial settings. As they gain experi ence, trainees receive less supervision, more responsibility, and higher pay. In contrast, trainees in formal apprenticeship programs receive indepth instruction in all phases of insulation. Apprenticeship pro grams may be provided by a joint committee of local insulation contractors and the local union of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, to which many insulation workers belong. Programs normally consist of 4 years of on-the-job training coupled with classroom instruction, and train ees must pass practical and written tests to demonstrate knowledge of the trade. Skilled insulation workers may advance to supervisor, shop su perintendent, or insulation contract estimator, or they may set up their own insulation business. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for insulation work ers, largely due to the numerous openings arising each year as experienced insulation workers move to other occupations. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as insulation workers for a short time and then move on to other types of work, creating many job openings. Other opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the labor force. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. In addition to replacement needs, new jobs will arise as employ ment of insulation workers increases about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010 as a result of growth in residential and nonresidential construction. Demand for insulation workers will be spurred by the continuing concerns about the effi cient use of energy to heat and cool buildings, resulting in increased demand for insulation workers in the construction of new residen tial, industrial, and commercial buildings. In addition, renovation and efforts to improve insulation in existing structures also will increase demand. Insulation workers in the construction industry may experience periods of unemployment because of the short duration of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of construction activ ity. Workers employed in industrial plants generally have more stable employment because maintenance and repair must be done on a continuing basis. Most insulation is applied after buildings https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are enclosed, so weather conditions have less effect on the employ ment of insulation workers than on that of some other construction occupations. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of insulation workers were $ 13.05. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.99 and $17.00. The low est 10 percent earned less than $7.96, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.75. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of insulation workers in 2000 are shown below: Miscellaneous special trade contractors................................... Masonry, stonework, and plastering......................................... $13.91 12.24 Union workers tend to earn more than nonunion workers. Ap prentices start at about one-half of the joumeyworker’s wage. In sulation workers doing commercial and industrial work earn substantially more than those working in residential construction, which does not require as much skill. Related Occupations Insulation workers combine their knowledge of insulation materi als with the skills of cutting, fitting, and installing materials. Work ers in occupations involving similar skills include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; roofers; and sheet metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about training programs or other work opportuni ties in this trade, contact a local insulation contractor, a local chap ter of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, the nearest office of the State employment ser vice or apprenticeship agency, or: >- International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, 1776 Massachusetts Ave.NW., Suite 301, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.insulators.org >- National Insulation and Abatement Contractors Association, 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 222, Alexandria, VA 22314. ► Insulation Contractors Association of America, 1321 Duke St., Suite 303, Alexandria, VA 22314. Painters and Paperhangers (Q**NET 47-2141.00, 47-2142.00) Significant Points • • • Working conditions can be hazardous. Most workers leam informally on the job as helpers; however, training authorities recommend completion of an apprenticeship program. Due to worker turnover, employment prospects should be good. Nature of the Work Paint and wall coverings make surfaces clean, attractive, and bright. In addition, paints and other sealers protect outside walls from wear caused by exposure to the weather. Although some people do both painting and paperhanging, each requires different skills. Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to build ings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account durability, ease of Construction Trades and Related Workers 463 handling, method of application, and customers’ wishes. Painters first prepare the surfaces to be covered, so that the paint will adhere properly. This may require removing the old coat of paint by strip ping, sanding, wire brushing, burning, or water and abrasive blast ing. Painters also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to prepare the sur face for the finish coat. Painters also mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint composition and color harmony. In large paint shops or hardware stores, these functions are automated. There are several ways to apply paint and similar coverings. Painters must be able to choose the right paint applicator for each job, depending on the surface to be covered, the characteristics of the finish, and other factors. Some jobs need only a good bristle brush with a soft, tapered edge; others require a dip or fountain pressure roller; still others can best be done using a paint sprayer. Many jobs need several types of applicators. The right tools for each job not only expedite the painter’s work but also produce the most attractive surface. When working on tall buildings, painters erect scaffolding, in cluding “swing stages,” scaffolds suspended by ropes, or cables attached to roof hooks. When painting steeples and other conical structures, they use a bosun’s chair, a swing-like device. Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall cov erings made of paper, vinyl, or fabric. They first prepare the sur face to be covered by applying “sizing,” which seals the surface and makes the covering stick better. When redecorating, they may first remove the old covering by soaking, steaming, or applying sol vents. When necessary, they patch holes and take care of other imperfections before hanging the new wall covering. After the surface has been prepared, paperhangers must prepare the paste or other adhesive. Then, they measure the area to be cov ered, check the covering for flaws, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, and closely examine the pattern to match it when the strips are hung. The next step is to brush or roll the adhesive onto the back of the covering and to then place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure the pattern is matched, the strips are hung straight, and the edges are butted together to make tight, closed seams. Finally, pa perhangers smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles, trim the top and bottom with a razor knife, and wipe off any excess adhesive. Working Conditions Most painters and paperhangers work 40 hours a week or less; about 1 out of 10 works part time. Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These workers must have stamina, because much of the work is done with their arms raised overhead. Painters often work outdoors but seldom in wet, cold, or inclement weather. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off lad ders and scaffolds. They sometimes may work with materials that can be hazardous if masks are not worn or if ventilation is poor. Some painting jobs can leave a worker covered with paint. Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 518,000 jobs in 2000; most were painters. More than 1 out of every 3 painters and paperhang ers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, resto ration, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings—such as apartment complexes—employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, factories, and government agencies. Self-employed independent painting contractors accounted for 47 percent of all painters and paperhangers. This is significantly greater than the corresponding proportion of building trades work ers in general. Painting and paperhangers require considerable stamina while Digitized bending, for FRASER stooping, and climbing. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruction. Although training authorities rec ommend completion of an apprenticeship program as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger, most painters leam the trade informally on the job as a helper to an experienced painter. Few opportunities for informal training exist for paperhangers because few paperhangers have a need for helpers. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in color harmony, use and care of tools and equipment, surface prepa ration, application techniques, paint mixing and matching, charac teristics of different finishes, blueprint reading, wood finishing, and safety. Whether a painter leams the trade through a formal apprentice ship or informally as a helper, on-the-job instruction covers similar skill areas. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do simple painting and surface preparation tasks while they leam about paint and painting equip ment. As they gain experience, trainees leam to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint 464 Occupational Outlook Handbook and wall coverings efficiently and neatly. Near the end of their training, they may leam decorating concepts, color coordination, and cost-estimating techniques. In addition to learning craft skills, painters must become familiar with safety and health regulations so that their work is in compliance with the law. Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 16 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent, with courses in mathematics, usually is required to en ter an apprenticeship program. Applicants should have good manual dexterity and color sense. Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or esti mating jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many estab lish their own painting and decorating businesses. Job Outlook Job prospects should be good, as thousands of painters and paperhangers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force each year. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as painters or paperhangers for a short time and then move on to other types of work. Many fewer openings will occur for paperhangers because the number of these jobs is comparatively small. In addition to the need to replace experienced workers, new jobs will be created. Employment of painters and paperhangers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, reflecting increases in the level of new con struction and in the stock of buildings and other structures that re quire maintenance and renovation. Painting is very labor-intensive and not suitable to the kinds of technological changes that might make workers more productive and thus restrict employment growth. Jobseekers considering these occupations should expect some periods of unemployment, especially until they become fully skilled. Many construction projects are of short duration, and construction activity is cyclical and seasonal in nature. Remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects, however, often provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new construction activity declines. The most versatile painters and skilled paperhangers gen erally are best able to keep working steadily during downturns in the economy. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of painters, construction and main tenance, were $13.10. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 10.36 and $16.81. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.56, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.39. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of painters in 2000 are shown below: Painting and paper hanging................................................................. Residential building construction...................................................... Real estate operators and lessors........................................................ Real estate agents and managers....................................................... Personnel supply services.................................................................... $13.03 12.79 10.95 10.77 10.63 In 2000, median earnings for paperhangers were 15.33. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.89 and $19.91. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.04, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.16. Earnings for painters may be reduced on occa sion because of bad weather and the short-term nature of many construction jobs. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate for experienced workers and increase periodically. Some painters and paperhangers are members of the Interna tional Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Some mainte nance painters are members of other unions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Painters and paperhangers apply various coverings to decorate and protect wood, drywall, metal, and other surfaces. Other construc tion occupations in which workers do finishing work include car penters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contractors, a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or an office of the State apprenticeship agency or employment service. For general information about the work of painters and paperhangers, contact: > International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006. For information on training programs, contact: > Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.abc.org >- Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, 3913 Old Lee High way, Suite 33B, Fairfax, VA, 22030. Pipelayers, Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters (0**NET 47-2151.00, 47-2152.01, 47-2152.02, 47-2152.03) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities should be excellent because not enough people are seeking training. Most workers leam the trade through 4 or 5 years of formal apprenticeship training. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters make up one of the largest and highest paid construction occupations. Nature of the Work Most people are familiar with plumbers, who come to their home to unclog a drain or install an appliance. In addition to these activities, however, pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters install, maintain, and repair many different types of pipe systems. For ex ample, some systems move water to a municipal water treatment plant and then to residential, commercial, and public buildings. Other systems dispose of waste, provide gas to stoves and furnaces, or supply air-conditioning. Pipe systems in powerplants carry the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move material through the production process. Although pipelaying, plumbing, pipefitting, and steamfitting sometimes are considered a single trade, workers generally spe cialize in one of the four areas. Pipelayers lay clay, concrete, plas tic, or cast-iron pipe for drains, sewers, water mains, and oil or gas lines. Before laying the pipe, pipelayers prepare and grade the trenches either manually or with machines. Plumbers install and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and commercial and industrial buildings. Plumbers also install plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, showers, sinks, and toilets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters in stall and repair both high- and low-pressure pipe systems used in Construction Trades and Related Workers 465 manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in heating and cooling buildings. They also install automatic controls that are increasingly being used to regulate these systems. Some pipefitters specialize in only one type of system. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pres sure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters use many dif ferent materials and construction techniques, depending on the type of project. Residential water systems, for example, incorporate cop per, steel, and plastic pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast-iron pipes; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters must be able to follow building plans or blueprints and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. Comput ers often are used to create blueprints and plan layouts. When construction plumbers install piping in a house, for ex ample, they work from blueprints or drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appliances. They first lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material and within the confines of the structure. They then measure and mark areas in which pipes will be installed and connected. Construction plumbers also check for obstructions such as electrical wiring and, if necessary, plan the pipe installation around the problem. mam SflSliii ini liliil , Plumbers install plumbingfixtures such asfaucets, sinks, and toilets. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sometimes, plumbers have to cut holes in walls, ceilings, and floors of a house. For some systems, they may hang steel supports from ceiling joists to hold the pipe in place. To assemble a system, plumbers—using saws, pipe cutters, and pipe-bending machines— cut and bend lengths of pipe. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings, using methods that depend on the type of pipe used. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections and fittings with adhe sives. For copper pipe, they slide a fitting over the end of the pipe and solder it in place with a torch. After the piping is in place in the house, plumbers install the fixtures and appliances and connect the system to the outside water or sewer lines. Finally, using pressure gauges, they check the sys tem to ensure that the plumbing works properly. Working Conditions Because pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters frequently must lift heavy pipes, stand for long periods, and sometimes work in uncomfortable or cramped positions, they need physical strength as well as stamina. They also may have to work outdoors in incle ment weather. In addition, they are subject to possible falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and bums from hot pipes or solder ing equipment. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters engaged in construction generally work a standard 40-hour week; those involved in maintaining pipe systems, including those who provide mainte nance services under contract, may have to work evening or week end shifts, as well as be on call. These maintenance workers may spend quite a bit of time traveling to and from worksites. Employment Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters constitute one of the largest construction occupations, holding about 568,000 jobs in 2000. About 52 percent worked for plumbing, heating, and air con ditioning contractors engaged in new construction, repair, modern ization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, commercial, and government employers. For example, pipefitters were employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum and chemical industries, where manufacturing op erations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. About 1 of every 7 pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters was self-employed. Jobs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are distributed across the country in about the same proportion as the general population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Virtually all pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters undergo some type of apprenticeship training. Many programs are administered by local union-management committees made up of members of the United Association of Journeymen and Appren tices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada, and local employers who are members of either the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Association. Nonunion training and apprenticeship programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, the American Fire Sprinkler Association, or the Home Builders Insti tute of the National Association of Home Builders. Apprenticeships—both union and nonunion—consist of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours per year of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and 466 Occupational Outlook Handbook chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills, such as identifying grades and types of pipe, using the tools of the trade, and safely unloading materials. As apprentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and how to install different piping sys tems and plumbing fixtures. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thor ough knowledge of all aspects of the trade. Although most pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are trained through appren ticeship, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Applicants for union or nonunion apprentice jobs must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship committees may require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Armed Forces training in pipelaying, plumbing, and pipefitting is considered very good preparation. In fact, per sons with this background may be given credit for previous experi ence when entering a civilian apprenticeship program. Secondary or postsecondary courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, computers, and physics also are good preparation. Although there are no uniform national licensing requirements, most communities require plumbers to be licensed. Licensing re quirements vary from area to area, but most localities require work ers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes. Some pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters may become supervisors for mechanical and plumbing contractors; others go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent, as increased demand for skilled pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters is ex pected to outpace the supply of workers trained in this craft. Em ployment of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable work ing conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favor able opportunities. Demand for plumbers will stem from building renovation, in cluding the increasing installation of sprinkler systems; repair and maintenance of existing residential systems; and maintenance ac tivities for places having extensive systems of pipes, such as power plants, water and wastewater treatment plants, pipelines, office build ings, and factories. However, the growing use of plastic pipe and fittings, which are much easier to install and repair than other types; increasingly efficient sprinkler systems; and other new technolo gies will restrict the number of new jobs. In addition to those re sulting from employment growth, many positions will become available each year from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. Traditionally, many organizations with extensive pipe systems have employed their own plumbers or pipefitters to maintain equip ment and keep systems running smoothly. But, to reduce labor costs, many of these firms no longer employ a full-time, in-house plumber or pipefitter. Instead, when they need a plumber, they rely on work ers provided under service contracts by plumbing and pipefitting contractors. Constmction projects provide only temporary employment. So, when a project ends, pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters working on the project may experience bouts of unem ployment. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. However, employment of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters generally is less sensitive to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis changes in economic conditions than is that of some other construc tion trades. Even when constmction activity declines, maintenance, rehabilitation, and replacement of existing piping systems, as well as the increasing installation of fire sprinkler systems, provide many jobs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Earnings Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are among the highest paid constmction occupations; in 2000, median hourly earn ings of plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters were $18.19. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.00 and $24.24. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.71, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.06. Median hourly earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers ofplumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters in 2000 are shown below. Plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning.......................................... Nonresidential building constmction................................................ $18.20 17.80 Heavy constmction, except highway........................................ 17.26 Local government.................................................................................. Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... 17.12 16.92 In 2000, median hourly earnings of pipelayers were $ 13.20. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.17 and $17.71. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.61, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.16. Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Wages increase periodically as skills improve. After an initial waiting period, apprentices receive the same benefits as do experienced pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Many pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are mem bers of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers; electricians; elevator install ers and repairers; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration me chanics and installers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; sheet-metal workers; and stationary engineers and boiler operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in pipelaying, plumbing, pipefitting, and steamfitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; a local or State chapter of the National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cool ing Contractors; a local chapter ofthe Mechanical Contractors Asso ciation; a local chapter of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada; or the nearest office of your State employ ment service or apprenticeship agency. For information about apprenticeship opportunities for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, contact: >• United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry, 901 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. For more information about training programs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, contact: > Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.abc.org ► National Association of Home Builders, 15th and M St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org Construction Tracies and Related Workers 467 For general information about the work of pipelayers, plumbers, and pipefitters, contact: > Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850. Internet: http://www.mcaa.org >■ National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, 180 S. Washington St., P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22040. For general information about the work of sprinklerfitters, contact: ► American Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc., 12959 Jupiter Rd., Suite 142, Dallas, TX 75238-3200. Internet: http://www.firesprinkler.org >• National Fire Sprinkler Association, Robin Hill Corporate Park, Rt. 22, Box 1000, Patterson, NY 12563. Internet: http://www.nfsa.org ■IIS Plasterers and Stucco Masons (0**NET 47-2161.00) Significant Points • Plastering is physically demanding. • Plastering is learned on the job, either through a formal apprenticeship program or by working as a helper. • Job opportunities are expected to be good, particularly in the South and Southwest. Nature of the Work Plastering—one of the oldest crafts in the building trades—is enjoy ing resurgence in popularity because of the introduction of newer, less costly materials and techniques. Plasterers apply plaster to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces. They also apply plaster veneer over drywall to create smooth or textured abrasion-resistant finishes. In addi tion, plasterers install prefabricated exterior insulation systems over existing walls—for good insulation and interesting architectural effects—and cast ornamental designs in plaster. Stucco masons apply durable plasters, such as polymer-based acrylic finishes and stucco, to exterior surfaces. Drywall installers, ceiling tile install ers, and tapers—who are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook— use drywall instead of plaster when erecting interior walls and ceilings. When plasterers work with interior surfaces such as concrete block and concrete, they first apply a brown coat of gypsum plaster that provides a base, followed by a second, or finish, coat—also called “white coat”—which is a lime-based plaster. When plaster ing metal lath (supportive wire mesh) foundations, they apply a pre paratory, or “scratch,” coat with a trowel. They spread this rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, plasterers scratch its surface with a rake-like tool to produce ridges, so that the subsequent brown coat will bond tightly. Laborers prepare a thick, smooth plaster for the brown coat. Plasterers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface, then finish by smoothing it to an even, level surface. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mixture of lime, plaster of Paris, and water. They quickly apply this to the brown coat using a “hawk”—a light, metal plate with a handle—trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, durable finish. Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. This “thin-coat” or gypsum veneer plaster is made of lime and plaster of Paris and is mixed with water at the jobsite. This plaster provides a smooth, durable, abrasion-resistant finish https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis illll Plasterers repair oldplaster and install plaster in new construction. on interior masonry surfaces, special gypsum baseboard, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent. Plasterers create decorative interior surfaces as well. They do this by pressing a brush or trowel firmly against a wet plaster sur face and using a circular hand motion to create decorative swirls. For exterior work, stucco masons usually apply stucco—a mix ture of Portland cement, lime, and sand—over cement, concrete, masonry, or lath. Stucco may also be applied directly to a wire lath with a scratch coat, followed by a brown coat and then a finish coat. Stucco masons may also embed marble or gravel chips into the fin ish coat to achieve a pebblelike, decorative finish. Increasingly, plasterers apply insulation to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with rigid foam insu lation board and reinforcing mesh, and then trowel on a polymerbased or polymer-modified base coat. They may apply an additional coat of this material with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they may mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an architect’s blueprint, plasterers pour or spray a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and put it in place, according to the plan. Working Conditions Most plastering jobs are indoors; however, plasterers and stucco ma sons work outside when applying stucco or exterior wall insulation 468 Occupational Outlook Handbook and decorative finish systems. Sometimes, plasterers work on scaf folds high above the ground. Plastering is physically demanding, requiring considerable stand ing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty, soiling shoes and clothing, and can irritate the skin and eyes. Employment Plasterers and stucco masons held about 54,000 jobs in 2000. Most plasterers and stucco masons work on new construction sites, par ticularly where special architectural and lighting effects are part of the work. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plaster ers and stucco masons are employed in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plasters with decorative finishes are very popular. Most plasterers and stucco masons work for independent con tractors. About 1 out of every 6 plasterers and stucco masons is self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering, many people learn the trade by working as helpers to experienced plasterers and stucco masons. Those who learn the trade informally as helpers usually start by carrying mate rials, setting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Later, they learn to apply the scratch, brown, and finish coats. Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by local joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of 2 or 3 years of onthe-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of class room instruction in drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout work. In the classroom, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster designs. On the job, they learn about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plaster ing, blueprint reading, and safety. They also learn how to use vari ous tools, such as hand and powered trowels, floats, brushes, straightedges, power tools, plaster-mixing machines, and pistontype pumps. Some apprenticeship programs allow individuals to obtain training in related occupations, such as cement masonry and bricklaying. Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs normally must be at least 17 years old, in good physical condition, and have good manual dexterity. Applicants who have a high school education are pre ferred. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background. Plasterers and stucco masons may advance to supervisors, super intendents, or estimators for plastering contractors or may become self-employed contractors. Job Outlook Job opportunities for plasterers and stucco masons are expected to be good through 2010 because many potential workers may pre fer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Well-trained workers will have especially favorable opportunities. Employment of plasterers and stucco masons is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addition to job openings due to rising demand for plastering and stuccowork, jobs will become available as plasterers and stucco masons transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In past years, employment of plasterers declined as more build ers switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plasterers is expected to continue growing as a result of the appreciation for the durability and at tractiveness that troweled finishes provide. Thin-coat plastering— or veneering- in particular is gaining wide acceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durability, quality of fin ish, and fire-retarding qualities. Prefabricated wall systems and new polymer-based or polymer-modified acrylic exterior insulat ing finishes also are gaining popularity, particularly in the South and Southwest regions of the country. This is not only because of their durability, attractiveness, and insulating properties but also because of their relatively low cost. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plasterwork in old structures and to create spe cial architectural effects, such as curved surfaces, which are not practical with drywall materials. Most plasterers and stucco masons work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construc tion trades because most work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers and stucco masons may lose time because materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions. Best employment opportunities should continue to be in Florida, Cali fornia, and the Southwest, where exterior plaster and decorative finishes are expected to remain popular. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of plasterers and stucco masons were $16.00. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.41 and $20.83. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.72, and the top 10 percent earned more than $26.08. The median hourly earnings in the largest industries employing plasterers and stucco masons in 2000 were $ 16.03 in masonry, stone work, and plastering and $14.51 in concrete work. Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experi enced plasterers and stucco masons. Annual earnings for plasterers and stucco masons and apprentices can be less than the hourly rate would indicate, because poor weather and periodic declines in con struction activity can limit worktime. Many plasterers and stucco masons are members of unions. They are represented by the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, or by the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Related Occupations Other construction workers who use a trowel as their primary tool include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; cement ma sons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors, locals of the unions previously mentioned, a local joint union-management apprenticeship com mittee, or the nearest office of your State apprenticeship agency or employment service. For general information about the work of plasterers and stucco masons, contact: >- International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.bacweb.org >- Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300, Laurel, MD 20707. Construction Trades and Related Workers 469 Roofers (0*NET 47-2181.00) • • • Significant Points Most roofers acquire their skills informally on the job; some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs. Jobs for roofers should be plentiful because the work is hot, strenuous, and dirty, resulting in high job turnover. Demand for roofers is less susceptible to downturns in the economy than that for other construction trades because most roofing work consists of repair and reroofing. Nature of the Work A leaky roof can damage ceilings, walls, and furnishings. To pro tect buildings and their contents from water damage, roofers repair and install roofs made of tar or asphalt and gravel; rubber or ther moplastic; metal; or shingles made of asphalt, slate, fiberglass, wood, tile, or other material. Repair and reroofmg—replacing old roofs on existing buildings—provide many job opportunities for these workers. Roofers also may waterproof foundation walls and floors. There are two types of roofs—flat and pitched (sloped). Most commercial, industrial, and apartment buildings have flat or slightly sloping roofs. Most houses have pitched roofs. Some roofers work on both types; others specialize. Most flat roofs are covered with several layers of materials. Roofers first put a layer of insulation on the roof deck. Over the insulation, they then spread a coat of molten bitumen, a tarlike sub stance. Next, they install partially overlapping layers of roofing felt—a fabric saturated in bitumen—over the surface. Roofers use a mop to spread hot bitumen over the surface and under the next layer. This seals the seams and makes the surface watertight. Roofers repeat these steps to build up the desired number of layers, called “plies.” The top layer cither is glazed to make a smooth finish or has gravel embedded in the hot bitumen to create a rough surface. An increasing number of flat roofs are covered with a singleply membrane of waterproof rubber or thermoplastic compounds. Roofers roll these sheets over the roof’s insulation and seal the seams. Adhesive, mechanical fasteners, or stone ballasts hold the sheets in place. The building must be of sufficient strength to hold the ballast. Most residential roofs are covered with shingles. To apply shingles, roofers first lay, cut, and tack 3-foot strips of roofing felt lengthwise over the entire roof. Then, starting from the bottom edge, they staple or nail overlapping rows of shingles to the roof. Work ers measure and cut the felt and shingles to fit intersecting roof sur faces and to fit around vent pipes and chimneys. Wherever two roof surfaces intersect, or shingles reach a vent pipe or chimney, roofers cement or nail flashing-strips of metal or shingle over the joints to make them watertight. Finally, roofers cover exposed nailheads with roofing cement or caulking to prevent water leakage. Some roofers also waterproof and dampproof masonry and con crete walls and floors. To prepare surfaces for waterproofing, they hammer and chisel away rough spots, or remove them with a rub bing brick, before applying a coat of liquid waterproofing com pound. They also may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproofing material, or attach waterproofing membrane to surfaces. When dampproofing, they usually spray a bitumen-based coating on inte rior or exterior surfaces. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis §ses - t ^Z \ . sRoofing work is strenuous, involving heavy lifting, climbing, bending, and kneeling. Working Conditions Roofing work is strenuous. It involves heavy lifting, as well as climbing, bending, and kneeling. Roofers work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when making repairs. These workers risk slips or falls from scaffolds, ladders, or roofs, or bums from hot bitumen. In addition, roofs become extremely hot during the summer. Employment Roofers held about 158,000 jobs in 2000. Almost all wage and salary roofers worked for roofing contractors. About 1 out of every 4 roofers was self-employed. Many self-employed roofers special ized in residential work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most roofers acquire their skills informally by working as helpers for experienced roofers. They start by carrying equipment and material, and erecting scaffolds and hoists. Within 2 or 3 months, trainees are taught to measure, cut, and fit roofing materials and, later, to lay asphalt or fiberglass shingles. Because some roofing materials are used infrequently, it can take several years to get experience working on all the various types of roofing applications. Some roofers train through 3-year apprenticeship programs ad ministered by local union-management committees representing roofing contractors and locals of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers. The apprenticeship program generally consists of a minimum of2,000 hours of on-the-job train ing annually, plus 144 hours of classroom instruction a year in sub jects such as tools and their use, arithmetic, and safety. On-the-job training for apprentices is similar to that for helpers, except that the apprenticeship program is more structured. Apprentices also learn to dampproof and waterproof walls. Good physical condition and good balance are essential for roof ers. A high school education, or its equivalent, is helpful, as are courses in mechanical drawing and basic mathematics. Most ap prentices are at least 18 years old. Roofers may advance to supervisor or estimator for a roofing contractor, or become contractors themselves. Job Outlook Jobs for roofers should be plentiful through the year 2010, prima rily because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover is high—roofing 470 Occupational Outlook Handbook work is hot, strenuous, and dirty, and a significant number of work ers treat roofing as a temporary job until something better comes along. Some roofers leave the occupation to go into other con struction trades. Employment of roofers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Roofs deterio rate faster than most other parts of buildings and periodically need to be repaired or replaced. About three-fourths of roofing work is repair and replacement, a higher proportion than in most other con struction work. As a result, demand for roofers is less susceptible to downturns in the economy than that for other construction trades. In addition to repair and reroofing work on the growing stock of buildings, new construction of industrial, commercial, and residen tial buildings will add to the demand for roofers. Jobs should be easiest to find during spring and summer, when most roofing is done. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of roofers were $13.95. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.72 and $18.86. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $8.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.47. The median hourly earnings in 2000 of roofers in the roofing, siding, and sheet metal work industry were $14.00. Some roofers are members of the United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers. Apprentices usually start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced roofers and receive periodic raises as they acquire the skills of the trade. Earnings for roofers are reduced on occasion because poor weather often limits the time they can work. Related Occupations Roofers use shingles, bitumen and gravel, single-ply plastic or rub ber sheets, or other materials to waterproof building surfaces. Work ers in other occupations who cover surfaces with special materials for protection and decoration include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, seg mental pavers, and terrazzo workers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; and plasterers and stucco masons. Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or job opportunities in roof ing, contact local roofing contractors, a local chapter of the roofers union, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of your State employment service or apprentice Nature of the Work Sheet metal workers make, install, and maintain air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and pollution control duct systems; roofs; sid ing; rain gutters; downspouts; skylights; restaurant equipment; out door signs; and many other products made from metal sheets. They also may work with fiberglass and plastic materials. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installation, or maintenance, most do all three jobs. In addition to construction-related sheet metal work, some sheet metal workers are employed in the mass produc tion of sheet metal products in manufacturing. Sheet metal workers first study plans and specifications to de termine the kind and quantity of materials they will need. They then measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make ductwork, counter tops, and other custom products. In an increasing number of shops, sheet metal workers use computerized metalworking equipment. This enables them to experiment with different layouts and to select the one that results in the least waste of material. They cut or form parts with computer-controlled saws, lasers, shears, and presses. In shops without computerized equipment, and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheet metal workers use hand calculators to make the required calculations and use tapes, rulers, and other measuring devices for layout work. They then cut or stamp the parts on machine tools. Before assembling pieces, sheet metal workers check each part for accuracy using measuring instruments such as calipers and micrometers and, if necessary, finish it by using hand, rotary, or squaring shears and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, workers fasten seams and joints together with welds, bolts, ce ment, rivets, solder, specially formed sheet metal drive clips, or other connecting devices. They then take the parts to the con struction site where they further assemble the pieces as they in stall them. These workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. They also use shears, hammers, punches, and drills to make parts at the worksite or to alter parts made in the shop. Some jobs are done completely at the jobsite. When installing a metal roof, for example, sheet metal workers measure and cut the roofing panels that are needed to complete the job. They secure the first panel in place and interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of the first. Then, they nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, the workers ship agency. For information about the work of roofers, contact: ► National Roofing Contractors Association, 10255 W. Higgins Rd., Rosemont,IL 60018-5607. Internet: http://www.nrca.net >. United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers, and Allied Workers, 1660 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Sheet Metal Workers (0**NET 47-2211.00) Significant Points • Two out of 3 jobs are found in the construction industry; about 1 out of 3 is in manufacturing. • Apprenticeship programs lasting 4 or 5 years are considered the best training. Digitized• for Job FRASER opportunities should be excellent in construction. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sheet metal workers usuallyfabricate their products at a shop away from the construction site. Construction Trades and Related Workers 471 fasten machine-made molding at joints, along comers, and around windows and doors for a neat, finished effect. In addition to installation, some sheet metal workers specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing air-condi tioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Sheet metal workers in manufacturing plants make sheet metal parts for products such as aircraft or industrial equipment. Although some of the fabrication techniques used in large-scale manufactur ing are similar to those used in smaller shops, the work may be highly automated and repetitive. Working Conditions Sheet metal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabricate sheet metal products work in shops that are well-lighted and well-ventilated. However, they stand for long periods and lift heavy materials and finished pieces. Sheet metal workers must follow safety practices because working around high-speed machines can be dangerous. They also are subject to cuts from sharp metal, bums from soldering and welding, and falls from lad ders and scaffolds. They usually wear safety glasses but must not wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could easily be caught in a machine. Those performing installation work do considerable bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quar ters or in awkward positions. Although duct systems and kitchen equipment are installed indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gutters involves much outdoor work, requiring sheet metal workers to work in various kinds of weather. Employment Sheet metal workers held about 224,000 jobs in 2000. Two-thirds of all sheet metal workers were found in the construction industry. Of those employed in constmction, three-fourths worked for plumb ing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; most of the rest worked for roofing and sheet metal contractors. Some worked for other special trade contractors and for general contractors engaged in residential and commercial building. Most of the sheet metal workers outside of constmction are found in manufacturing indus tries, such as the fabricated structural metal products, industrial machinery equipment, and aircraft and parts industries. Some work for the Federal government. Compared with workers in most constmction craft occupations, relatively few sheet metal workers are self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Apprenticeship generally is considered to be the best way to learn this trade. The apprenticeship program consists of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training and a minimum of 144 hours per year of class room instruction. Apprenticeship programs provide comprehen sive instruction in both sheet metal fabrication and installation. They are administered by local joint committees composed of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association and local chap ters of the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association. On the job, apprentices learn the basics of pattern layout and how to cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin with basic ductwork and gradually advance to more difficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, fittings, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and other nonmetallic materials. the classroom, apprentices leam drafting, plan and specifi Digitized for In FRASER cation reading, trigonometry and geometry applicable to layout https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis work, the use of computerized equipment, welding, and the prin ciples ofheating, air-conditioning, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the program. In addition, apprentices leam the relationship between sheet metal work and other constmction work. Some persons pick up the trade informally, usually by work ing as helpers to experienced sheet metal workers. Most begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they learn about materials and tools and their uses. Later, they leam to operate machines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the jobsite to leam installation. Those who acquire their skills this way often take vocational school courses in mathematics or sheet metal fabrication to supplement their work experience. To be promoted to the journey level, helpers usually must pass the same written examination as apprentices. Most sheet metal workers in large-scale manufacturing receive on-the-job training. Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical and mathematical aptitude. Good eye-hand coordination, spatial and form perception, and manual dexterity also are important. Local apprenticeship commit tees require a high school education or its equivalent. Courses in algebra, trigonometry, geometry, mechanical drawing, and shop pro vide a helpful background for learning the trade, as does related work experience obtained in the Armed Services. It is important for experienced sheet metal workers to keep abreast of new technological developments, such as the growing use of computerized layout and laser cutting machines. Workers often take additional training provided by the union or by their employer, to improve existing skills or to acquire new ones. Sheet metal workers may advance to supervisory jobs. Some of these workers take additional training in welding and do work that is more specialized. Others go into the contracting business for themselves. Because a sheet metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting busi ness is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent for sheet metal work ers in the construction industry and in constmction-related sheet metal fabrication, reflecting both rapid employment growth and openings arising each year as experienced sheet metal workers leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and that has more comfortable working conditions, thus limiting the number of applicants for sheet metal jobs. Opportunities should be particularly good for individuals who acquire apprenticeship training. Prospects are expected to be better for sheet metal workers in the construction industry than for those in manufacturing because construction is expected to grow faster than the manufacturing industries that employ sheet metal workers. Employment of sheet metal workers in construction is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, reflecting growth in the demand for sheet metal installations as more industrial, commercial, and residential structures are built. The need to install energy-efficient air-conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems in the increasing stock of old buildings and to perform other types of renovation and maintenance work also should boost employment. In addition, the popularity of decorative sheet metal products and increased architectural restoration are expected to add to the demand for sheet metal workers. On the other hand, average job growth is projected for sheet metal workers in manu facturing. 472 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sheet metal workers in construction may experience periods of unemployment, particularly when construction projects end and eco nomic conditions dampen construction activity. Nevertheless, em ployment of sheet metal workers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than is the employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment— which is less affected by economic fluctuations than is new con struction—makes up a large part of the work done by sheet metal workers. Installation of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings continues during construction slumps, as indi viduals and businesses adopt more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. In addition, a large proportion of sheet metal instal lation and maintenance is done indoors, so sheet metal workers usu ally lose less worktime due to bad weather than other construction workers do. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of sheet metal workers employed in all industries were $15.31. The lowest 10 percent of all sheet metal workers earned less than $8.90, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.54. The median hourly earnings of the largest industries employing sheet metal workers in 2000 are shown below. Federal Government............................................................................. Plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning.......................................... Roofing, siding, and sheet metal work............................................. Fabricated structural metal products................................................ Aircraft and parts.................................................................................. $18.85 16-06 15.37 14.11 13.47 Apprentices normally start at about 40 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. As apprentices acquire more skills through out the course of their training, they receive periodic increases until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. In addition, union workers in some areas receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or shortened workweeks. Many sheet metal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association. Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheet metal products, sheet metal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction mate rials and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include assemblers and fabricators; machinists; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plas tic; and tool and die makers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowledge include glaziers and heating, air-con ditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about apprenticeships or other work opportu nities, contact local sheet metal contractors or heating, refrigera tion, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers; a local of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contrac tors National Association; a local joint union-management appren ticeship committee; or the nearest office of your State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about sheet metal workers, contact: ► International Training Institute for the Sheet Metal and Air-Condition ing Industry, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. >• Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 20151 -1209. Internet: http://www.smacna.org ► Sheet Metal Workers International Association, 1750 New York Ave. Digitized for Washington, FRASER DC 20006. Internet: http://www.smwia.org NW., https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Structural and Reinforcing Iron and Metal Workers _____ ______ (0*NET 47-2171.00, 47-2221.00) Significant Points • • • Most employers recommend a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship. During economic downturns, workers can experience high rates of unemployment. The danger of injuries due to falls is great; therefore, those who work at great heights do not work during wet, icy, or extremely windy conditions. Nature of the Work Builders use materials made from iron, steel, aluminum, fiberglass, or precast concrete to construct highways, bridges, office and other large buildings, and power transmission towers. These structures have frames made of steel columns, beams, and girders. In addi tion, reinforced concrete—concrete containing steel bars or wire fabric—is an important material in buildings, bridges, and other structures, as the steel gives the concrete additional strength. More over, metal stairways, catwalks, floor gratings, ladders, window frames, lampposts, railings, fences, and decorative ironwork increase the functionality and attractiveness of these structures. Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers fabricate, assemble, and install these products. They also repair, renovate, and maintain older buildings and structures, such as manufacturing plants, highways, and bridges. Even though the primary metal involved in this work is steel, workers often are known as ironworkers. Before constmction can begin, ironworkers must erect steel frames and assemble the cranes and derricks that move structural steel, reinforcing bars, buckets of concrete, lumber, and other materials and equipment around the con struction site. The structural metal arrives at the construction site in sections. There, it is lifted into position by a crane. Ironworkers then connect the sections and set the cables to do the hoisting. Once this job has been completed, workers begin to connect steel columns, beams, and girders according to blueprints and in structions from supervisors and superintendents. Structural steel, reinforcing rods, and ornamental iron generally come to the con struction site ready for erection—cut to the proper size, with holes drilled for bolts and numbered for assembly. Ironworkers at the construction site unload and stack the prefab ricated steel so that it can be hoisted easily when needed. To hoist the steel, metal workers attach cables from a crane or derrick. One worker directs the hoist operator with hand signals. Another worker holds a rope (tag line) attached to the steel to prevent it from swing ing. The crane or derrick hoists steel into place in the framework, where several workers, using spud wrenches, position the steel with connecting bars and jacks. Workers using drift pins or the handle of a spud wrench—a long wrench with a pointed handle—align the holes in the steel with the holes in the framework. Then, they tem porarily bolt the piece in place; check vertical and horizontal align ment with plumb bobs, laser equipment, transits, or levels; and bolt or weld the piece permanently in place. Reinforcing iron and rebar workers set the bars in the forms that hold concrete, following blueprints showing the location, size, and number of reinforcing bars (rebar). They then fasten the bars to gether by tying wire around them with pliers. When reinforcing floors, workers place blocks under the rebar to hold the bars off the Construction Trades and Related Workers 473 Some ironworkers fabricate structural metal in fabricating shops, which usually are located away from the construction site. They are covered in the statement on assemblers and fabricators found elsewhere in the Handbook. Employment Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers held about 111,000 jobs in 2000. About half worked for structural steel erection con tractors. Most of the remainder worked for contractors specializing in the construction of homes; factories; commercial buildings; churches; schools; bridges and tunnels; and water, sewer, commu nications, and power lines. Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers are employed in all parts of the country, but most work in metropolitan areas, where most commercial and industrial construction takes place. Ironworkers connect sections ofstructural steel. deck. Although these materials usually arrive ready to use, iron workers occasionally must cut bars with metal shears or acetylene torches, bend them by hand or machine, or weld them with arc welding equipment. Some concrete is reinforced with welded wire fabric. Using hooked rods, workers cut and fit the fabric and, while a concrete crew places the concrete, metal workers properly posi tion the fabric in the concrete. Post-tensioning is another technique used in reinforcing concrete; workers substitute cables for reinforc ing bars. When the concrete is poured, the ends of the cables are left exposed. After the concrete dries, ironworkers tighten the cable. Post-tensioning allows designers to create larger open areas in a building because supports can be placed further apart. This tech nique is commonly employed in parking garages and arenas. Ornamental ironworkers install elevator shafts, stairs, curtain walls (the nonstructural walls and window frames of many large buildings), and other ornamentation pieces after the structure of the building has been completed. As they hoist pieces into position, ornamental ironworkers check that the pieces are properly fitted and aligned before bolting, brazing, or welding them for a secure fit. Working Conditions Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers usually work out side in all kinds of weather. However, those who work at great heights do not work during wet, icy, or extremely windy conditions. Because the danger of injuries due to falls is great, ironworkers use safety devices such as safety belts, scaffolding, and nets to reduce Digitizedrisk. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers recommend a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship, consist ing of on-the-job training and evening classroom instruction, as the best way to learn this trade. Apprenticeship programs usually are administered by committees made up of representatives of local unions of the International Association of Bridge, Structural, Orna mental and Reinforcing Iron Workers or the local chapters of con tractors’ associations. Ironworkers must be at least 18 years old. A high school di ploma may be preferred by employers and may be required by some local apprenticeship committees. High school courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. Because materials used in iron working are heavy and bulky, metal workers must be in good physical condition. They also need good agility, balance, eyesight, and depth perception to safely work at great heights on narrow beams and girders. Ironworkers should not be afraid of heights or suffer from dizziness. In the classroom, apprentices study blueprint reading; mathemat ics for layout work; the basics of structural erecting, rigging, rein forcing, welding, and burning; ornamental erection; and assembling. Apprentices also study the care and safe use of tools and materials. On the job, apprentices work in all aspects of the trade, such as unloading and storing materials at the job site, rigging materials for movement by crane or derrick, connecting structural steel, and welding. Some ironworkers learn the trade informally on the job without completing an apprenticeship. These workers generally do not re ceive classroom training, although some large contractors have ex tensive training programs. On-the-job trainees usually begin by assisting experienced ironworkers by doing simple jobs, such as carrying various materials. With experience, trainees perform more difficult tasks like cutting and fitting different parts; however, learn ing through work experience alone may not provide training as com plete as an apprenticeship program and usually takes longer. Some experienced workers are promoted to supervisor. Others may go into the contracting business for themselves. Job Outlook Employment of structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, largely based on the continued growth in industrial and commercial construction. The rehabilitation, main tenance, and replacement of a growing number of older buildings, factories, power plants, and highways and bridges is expected to create employment opportunities. While some new jobs will arise, most openings will result from the need to replace experienced ironworkers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. 474 Occupational Outlook Handbook The number ofjob openings fluctuates from year to year as eco nomic conditions and the level of construction activity change. During economic downturns, ironworkers can experience high rates of unemployment. Similarlyjob opportunities for ironworkers may vary widely by geographic area. Job openings for ironworkers usu ally are more abundant during the spring and summer months, when the level of construction activity increases. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of structural iron and steel work ers in all industries were SI7.92. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.34 and $24.16. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.05, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.62. In 2000, median hourly earnings of reinforcing iron and rebar work ers in all industries were $16.78. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.57 and $23.64. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.90, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.86. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num ber of structural iron and steel workers in 2000 were: Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... Heavy construction, except highway................................................. Nonresidential building construction............................................... Fabricated structural metal products................................................. $19.59 17.55 15.86 13.71 Many workers in this trade are members of the International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers. According to the union, average hourly earnings, includ ing benefits, for structural and reinforcing metal workers who be longed to a union and worked full time ranged between $18 and $50 in 2000. Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers in New York, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, Phila delphia, and other large cities received the highest wages. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Apprentices generally start at about 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced journey workers. They receive periodic in creases throughout the course of the apprenticeship program, as they acquire the skills of the trade, until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. Earnings for ironworkers may be reduced on occasion because work can be limited by bad weather, the short-term nature of con struction jobs, and economic downturns. Related Occupations Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers play an essential role in erecting buildings, bridges, highways, powerlines, and other structures. Others who also work on these construction jobs include assemblers and fabricators; boilermakers; civil engineers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; construction managers; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information on apprenticeships or other work opportuni ties, contact local general contractors; a local of the International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers Union; a local ironworkers’ joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; a local or State chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of your State em ployment service or apprenticeship agency For apprenticeship information, contact: >- International Association of Bridge, Structural, Ornamental, and Rein forcing Iron Workers, Apprenticeship Department, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20006. For general information about ironworkers, contact: >- The Associated General Contractors of America, 333 John Carlyle St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Installation, Maintenance, and _______ Repair Occupations Electrical and Electronic Equipment Mechanics, ____ Installers, and Repairers Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers (0**NET 49-2011.01, 49-2011.02, 49-2011.03) Significant Points • Workers receive training in electronics from associate degree programs, the military, vocational schools, equipment manufacturers, or employers. • Job growth reflects the increasing dependence of business and residential customers on computers and other sophisticated office machines. • Job prospects will be best for applicants with knowledge of electronics, as well as repair experience; opportunities for computer repairers should be excellent, as employers report difficulty finding qualified applicants. Nature of the Work Computer repairers, also known as data processing equipment repairers, service mainframe, server, and personal computers; print ers; and disc drives. These repairers primarily perform hands-on repair, maintenance, and installation of computers and related equip ment. Workers who provide technical assistance, in person or by telephone, to computer system users are known as computer sup port specialists. (See the statement on computer support specialists and systems administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Automated teller machines (ATMs) allow customers to carry out bank transactions without the assistance of a teller. ATMs now provide a growing variety of other services, including stamp, phone card, and ticket sales. Automated teller machine servicers repair and service these machines. Office machine and cash register servicers work on photocopi ers, cash registers, mail processing equipment, and fax machines. Newer models of office machinery increasingly include computer ized components that allow them to function more effectively than earlier models. To install large equipment, such as mainframe computers and ATMs, repairers connect the equipment to power sources and com munication lines. These lines allow the transmission of information over computer networks. For example, when an ATM dispenses cash, it also transmits the withdrawal information to the customer’s bank. Workers also may install operating software and peripheral equip ment, checking that all components are configured to correctly fiinction together. The installation of personal computers and other small office machines is less complex and may be handled by the purchaser. When equipment breaks down, many repairers travel to custom ers workplaces or other locations to make the necessary repairs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis These workers, known as field technicians, often have assigned ar eas in which they perform preventive maintenance on a regular ba sis. Bench technicians work in repair shops located in stores, factories, or service centers. In small companies, repairers may work in both repair shops and at customer locations. Computer repairers usually replace defective components instead of repairing them. Replacement is common because components are inexpensive and businesses are reluctant to shut down their com puters for time-consuming repairs. Components commonly replaced by computer repairers include video cards, which transmit signals from the computer to the monitor; hard drives, which store data; and network cards, which allow communication over the network. Defective components may be given to bench technicians, who use software programs to diagnose the problem and who may repair the components, if possible. ismss <-*■* Hi ' . b........ C'..i MM Office machine repairers maintain and fix photocopiers. 475 476 Occupational Outlook Handbook When ATMs malfunction, computer networks recognize the prob lem and alert repairers. Common problems include worn magnetic heads on card readers, which prevent the equipment from recogniz ing customer bankcards; and “pick failures,” which prevent the equipment from dispensing the correct amount of cash. Field tech nicians travel to the locations of ATMs and usually repair equip ment by removing and replacing defective components. Broken components are brought to a repair shop where bench technicians perform the necessary repairs. Field technicians perform routine maintenance on a regular basis, replacing worn parts and running diagnostic tests to ensure that the equipment functions properly. Office machine repairers usually work on machinery at the customer’s workplace; customers also may bring small equipment to a repair shop for maintenance. Common malfunctions include paper misfeeds due to worn or dirty parts, and poor copy quality due to problems with lamps, lenses, or mirrors. These malfunc tions usually can be resolved simply by cleaning components. Break downs also may result from failure of commonly used parts. For example, heavy usage of a photocopier may wear down the printhead, which applies ink to the final copy. In such cases, the repairer usually replaces the part, instead of repairing it. Workers use a variety of tools for diagnostic tests and repair. To diagnose malfunctions, they use multimeters to measure voltage, current, resistance, and other electrical properties; signal genera tors to provide test signals; and oscilloscopes to monitor equipment signals. When diagnosing computerized equipment, repairers also use software programs. To repair or adjust equipment, workers use handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches. Working Conditions Repairers usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings. Because computers and office machines are sensitive to extreme tempera tures and to humidity, repair shops usually are air-conditioned and well-ventilated. Field repairers must travel frequently to various locations to install, maintain, or repair customer equipment. ATM repairers may have to perform their jobs in small, confined spaces that house the equipment. Because computers and ATMs are critical for many organiza tions to function efficiently, data processing equipment repairers and ATM field technicians often work around the clock. Their sched ules may include evening, weekend, and holiday shifts; shifts may be assigned on the basis of seniority. Office machine and cash reg ister servicers usually work regular business hours because the equip ment they repair is not as critical. Although their job is not strenuous, repairers must lift equip ment and work in a variety of postures. Repairers of computer monitors need to discharge voltage from the equipment to avoid electrocution. Workers may have to wear protective goggles. Employment Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers held about 172,000 jobs in 2000. Wholesale trade establishments employed slightly less than one-half of the workers in this occupation; most of these establishments were wholesalers of professional and com mercial equipment. Many workers were employed in computer and data processing services, as well as in appliance, radio, TV, and music stores. More than 1 in 7 computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers was self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of electronics is necessary for employment as a com puter, automated teller, or office machine repairer. Employers pre fer workers who are certified as repairers or who have training in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis electronics from associate degree programs, the military, vocational schools, or equipment manufacturers. Employers generally pro vide some training to new repairers on specific equipment; how ever, workers are expected to arrive on the job with a basic understanding of equipment repair. Employers may send experi enced workers to training sessions to keep up with changes in tech nology and service procedures. Most office machine and ATM repairer positions require an as sociate degree in electronics. A basic understanding of mechanical equipment also is important, as many of the parts that fail in office machines and ATMs are mechanical, such as paper loaders. Entrylevel employees at large companies normally receive on-the-job training lasting several months. This may include a week of class room instruction followed by a period of 2 weeks to several months assisting an experienced repairer. Field technicians work closely with customers and must have good communications skills and a neat appearance. Employers normally require that field technicians have a driver s license. Several organizations administer certification programs for elec tronic or computer equipment repairers. Numerous certifications, including A+, Net+, and Server+, are available through the Com puting Technology Industry Association (CompTIA). To receive the certifications, candidates must pass several tests that assess com puter repair skills. The International Society of Certified Electron ics Technicians (ISCET) and the Electronics Technicians Association (ETA) also administer certification programs. Repairers may spe cialize in computer repair or a variety of other skills. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying exams corresponding to their level of training and experience. Both programs offer asso ciate certifications to entry-level repairers. Newly hired computer repairers may work on personal comput ers or peripheral equipment. With experience, they can advance to positions maintaining more sophisticated systems, such as network ing equipment and servers. Field repairers of ATMs may advance to bench-technician positions responsible for more complex repairs. Experienced workers may become specialists who help other re pairers diagnose difficult problems or work with engineers in de signing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Experienced workers also may move into management positions responsible for supervising other repairers. Because of their familiarity with equipment, experienced repair ers also may move into customer service or sales positions. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops or become whole salers or retailers of electronic equipment. Job Outlook Employment of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Job growth will be driven by the increas ing dependence of business and residential customers on comput ers and other sophisticated office machines. The need to maintain this equipment in working order will create new jobs for repairers. In addition, openings will result from the need to replace repairers who retire or move into new occupations. Job prospects will be best for applicants with knowledge of elec tronics as well as repair experience; opportunities for computer re pairers should be excellent, as employers report difficulty finding qualified applicants and as reliance on computers continues to in crease. Although computer equipment continues to become less expensive and more reliable, malfunctions still occur and can cause severe problems for users, most of whom lack the knowledge to make repairs. Computers are critical to most businesses today and will become even more so to companies that do business on the Internet and to households that make purchases online. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 477 People also are becoming increasingly reliant on ATMs. Besides bank and retail transactions, ATMs provide an increasing number of other services, such as employee information processing and dis tribution of government payments. ATM design improvements have increased reliability and simplified repair tasks, reducing the num ber and extent of repairs. Opportunities for ATM repairers should be available, primarily arising from the need to replace workers who leave the specialty, rather than from employment growth. Conventional office machines, such as calculators, are inexpen sive, and often are replaced instead of repaired. However, digital copiers and other newer office machines are more costly and com plex. This equipment often is computerized, designed to work on a network, and able to perform multiple functions. The growing need for repairers to service such sophisticated equipment should result in job opportunities for office machine repairers. Earnings Median hourly earnings of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers were $15.08 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.80 and $19.20. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.50, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.42. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers in 2000 are shown below. Professional and commercial equipment......................................... Computer and data processing services............................................ Radio, television, and computer stores............................................. $ 15.28 15.05 13.16 Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; indus trial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on certification programs, contact: Computing Technology Industry Association, 450 East 22nd St., Suite 230, Lombard, IL 60148-6158. Internet: http://www.comptia.org International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107. Internet: http://www.iscet.org Electronics Technicians Association, 502 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. Internet: http://www.eta-sda.com Electrical and Electronics Installers and Repairers (0**NET 49-2092.01, 49-2092.02, 49.2092.03, 49-2092.04, 49-2092.05, 49-2092.06, 49-2093.00, 49-2094.00, 49-2095.00, 49-2096.00) Significant Points • Knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics is necessary for employment; many applicants complete 1 to 2 years at vocational schools and community colleges, although some less skilled repairers may have only a high school diploma. • Projected employment growth will be slower than average, but varies by occupational specialty. • Job opportunities will be best for applicants with a thorough knowledge of electrical and electronic equipment, as well as repair experience. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Businesses and other organizations depend on complex electronic equipment for a variety of functions. Industrial controls automati cally monitor and direct production processes on the factory floor. Transmitters and antennae provide communications links for many organizations. Electric power companies use electronic equipment to operate and control generating plants, substations, and monitor ing equipment. The Federal Government uses radar and missile control systems to provide for the national defense and to direct commercial air traffic. These complex pieces of electronic equip ment are installed, maintained, and repaired by electrical and elec tronics installers and repairers. Electrical equipment and electronics equipment are two distinct types of industrial equipment, although much equipment contains both electrical and electronic components. In general, electrical portions of equipment provide the power for the equipment while electronic components control the device, although many types of equipment still are controlled with electrical devices. Electronic sensors monitor the equipment and the manufacturing process, pro viding feedback to the programmable logic control (PLC) that con trols the equipment. The PLC processes the information provided by the sensors and makes adjustments to optimize output. To adjust the output the PLC sends signals to the electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic devices that power the machine—changing feed rates, pressures, and other variables in the manufacturing process. Many installers and repairers, known as field technicians, travel to facto ries or other locations to repair equipment. These workers often have assigned areas where they perform preventive maintenance on a regular basis. When equipment breaks down, field techni cians go to a customer’s site to repair the equipment. Bench tech nicians work in repair shops located in factories and service centers. They work on components that cannot be repaired on the factory floor. Some industrial electronic equipment is self-monitoring and alerts repairers to malfunctions. When equipment breaks down, repairers first check for common causes of trouble, such as loose connec tions or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to schematics and manufac turers specifications that show connections and provide instruc tions on how to locate problems. Automated electronic control systems are increasing in complexity, making diagnosing problems more challenging. Repairers use software programs and testing equipment to diagnose malfunctions. They use multimeters, which measure voltage, current, and resistance; advanced multimeters also measure capacitance, inductance, and current gain of transistors. They also use signal generators that provide test signals, and oscil loscopes that graphically display signals. Repairers use handtools such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches to replace faulty parts and to adjust equipment. Because component repair is complex and factories cannot allow production equipment to stand idle, repairers on the factory floor usu ally remove and replace defective units, such as circuit boards, instead of fixing them. Defective units are discarded or returned to the manu facturer or to a specialized shop for repair. Bench technicians at these locations have the training, tools, and parts to thoroughly diag nose and repair circuit boards or other complex components. These workers also locate and repair circuit defects, such as poorly sol dered joints, blown fuses, or malfunctioning transistors. Electrical and electronics installers often fit older manufactur ing equipment with new automated control devices. Older manu facturing machines are frequently in good working order, but are limited by inefficient control systems that lack replacement parts. Installers replace old electronic control units with new PLCs. Set ting up and installing a new PLC involves connecting it to different 478 Occupational Outlook Handbook ■m mEm* W'jl. & Hi Electrical and electronics repairers use multimeters to measure electrical current. sensors and electrically powered devices (electric motors, switches, pumps) and writing a computer program to operate the PLC. Elec tronics installers coordinate their efforts with other workers install ing and maintaining equipment. (See the statement on industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles have a significantly different job. They install, diagnose, and repair communications, sound, security, and navigation equipment in motor vehicles. Most installation work involves either new alarm or sound systems. New sound systems vary significantly in cost and com plexity of installation. Replacing a head unit (radio) with a new computer disc (CD) player is quite simple, requiring removing a few screws and connecting a few wires. Installing a new sound system with a subwoofer, amplifier, and fuses is far more compli cated. The installer builds a box, of fiberglass or wood, designed to hold the subwoofer and to fit in the unique dimensions of the auto mobile. Installing sound-deadening material, which often is neces sary with more powerful speakers, requires an installer to remove many parts of a car (seats, carpeting, interiors of doors), add sound absorbing material in empty spaces, and reinstall the interior parts. They also run new speaker and electrical cables. Additional elec trical power may require additional fuses; a new electrical line to be ran from the battery, through a newly drilled hole in the fire wall into the interior of the vehicle; or an additional or more powerful alternator and/or battery. Repairing automotive electronic equipment is similar to other electronic installation and repair work. Multimeters are used to diagnose the source of the problem. Many parts often are removed and replaced, rather than repaired. Many repairs are quite simple, only requiring a fuse to be replaced. Motor vehicle installers and repairs work with an increasingly complex range of electronic equip ment, including DVD players, VCRs, satellite navigation equip ment, passive security tracking systems, and active security systems. Working Conditions Many electrical and electronics installers and repairers work on fac tory floors where they are subject to noise, dirt, vibration, and heat. Bench technicians work primarily in repair shops where the sur roundings are relatively quiet, comfortable, and well-lighted. Field technicians spend much time on the road, traveling to different cus tomer locations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because electronic equipment is critical to industries and other organizations, repairers work around the clock. Their schedules may include evening, weekend, and holiday shifts; shifts may be assigned on the basis of seniority. Installers and repairers may have to do heavy lifting and work in a variety of positions. They must follow safety guidelines and of ten wear protective goggles and hardhats. When working on lad ders or on elevated equipment, repairers must wear harnesses to prevent falls. Before repairing a piece of machinery, these workers must follow procedures to insure that others cannot start the equip ment during the repair process. They also must take precautions against electric shock by locking off power to the unit under repair. Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles normally work indoors in well-ventilated and -lighted repair shops. Minor cuts and bruises are common, but serious accidents usually are avoided when safety practices are observed. Employment Electrical and electronics installers and repairers held about 171,000 jobs in 2000. The following tabulation breaks down employment by occupational specialty. Electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment.................................................................. 90,000 Electric motor, power tools, and related repairers........................ 37,000 Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay..................................................................................... ' 8,000 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transportation equipment.......................................................... 14,000 Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles..... 13,000 Many repairers worked for wholesale trade companies, general electrical work companies, the Federal Government, electrical repair shops, and manufacturers of electronic components and accesso ries and communications equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics is necessary for employment. Many applicants gain this training through programs lasting 1 to 2 years at vocational schools and community colleges, although some less skilled repairers may have only a high school diploma. Entry-level repairers may work closely with more experi enced technicians who provide technical guidance. Installers and repairers should have good eyesight and color per ception in order to work with the intricate components used in elec tronic equipment. Field technicians work closely with customers and should have good communications skills and a neat appear ance. Employers also may require that field technicians have a driver’s license. The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians (ISCET) and the Electronics Technicians Association (ETA) administer certification programs for electronics installation and repair technicians. Repairers may specialize—in industrial elec tronics, for example. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying exams corresponding to their level of training and experi ence. Both programs offer associate certifications to entry-level repairers. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become spe cialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose diffi cult problems. Workers with leadership ability may become supervisors of other repairers. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 479 Job Outlook Job opportunities should be best for applicants with a thorough knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics, as well as repair experience. Overall employment of electrical and electronics installers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period, but varies by occupational specialty. In addition to employment growth, many job openings should result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Average employment growth is projected for electrical and elec tronics installers and repairers of transportation equipment. Com mercial and industrial electronic equipment will become more sophisticated and used more frequently, as businesses strive to lower costs by increasing and improving automation. Companies will install electronic controls, robots, sensors, and other equipment to automate processes such as assembly and testing. As prices de cline, applications will be found across a number of industries, in cluding services, utilities, and construction, as well as manufacturing. Improved equipment reliability should not constrain employment growth, however; companies increasingly will rely on repairers, because any malfunction that idles commercial and industrial equip ment is costly. Employment of electronics installers and repairers of motor vehicles also is expected to grow about as fast as average. Motor vehicle manufacturers will install more and better sound, security, entertainment, and navigation systems in new vehicles, limiting employment growth for after-market electronic equipment install ers. However, repairing the new electronic systems should help drive employment growth. On the other hand, employment of electric motor, power tool, and related repairers is expected to grow more slowly than average. Improvements in electrical and electronic equipment design should limit job growth by simplifying repair tasks. More parts are being designed to be easily disposable, further reducing employment growth. Employment of electrical and electronics installers and repair ers, powerhouse, substation, and relay is expected to decline slightly. Consolidation and privatization in utilities industries should im prove productivity, reducing employment. Newer equipment will be more reliable and easier to repair, further limiting employment. Earnings Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, com mercial and industrial equipment were $17.75 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.92 and $21.32. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $10.90, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.78. Median hourly earnings of electric motor, power tool, and re lated repairers were $15.80 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.91 and $20.04. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.13, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.17. Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay were $23.34 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19.07 and $26.21. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $14.79, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.00. Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, transportation equipment were $16.93 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $12.25 and $21.54. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.60, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.76. Median hourly earnings of electronics installers and repairers, motor vehicles were $ 12.06 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.60 and $15.25. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.98, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.69. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who install and repair electronic equip ment include broadcast and sound technicians and radio operators; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Indus trial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers also install, maintain, and repair industrial machinery. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and certification, contact: ► International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107-4527. Internet: http://www.iscet.org ► Electronics Technicians Association, 502 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. Internet: http://www.eta-sda.com Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Installers and Repairers (Q**NET 49-2097.00) Significant Points • Employment is expected to decline because it often is cheaper to replace than to repair equipment. • Job opportunities will be best for applicants with knowledge of electronics and related hands-on experience. Nature of the Work Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers, also called service technicians, repair a variety of equipment, in cluding televisions and radios, stereo components, video and audio disc players, video cameras, and videocassette recorders. They also repair home security systems, intercom equipment, and home the ater equipment, which consist of large-screen televisions and sophis ticated, surround-sound systems. Customers usually bring small, portable equipment to repair shops for servicing. Repairers at these locations, known as bench techni cians, are equipped with a full array of electronic tools and parts. When larger, less mobile equipment breaks down, customers may pay repairers to come to their homes. These repairers, known as field technicians, travel with a limited set of tools and parts, and attempt to complete the repair at the customer’s location. If the repair is complex, technicians may bring defective components back to the repair shop for a thorough diagnosis and repair. When equipment breaks down, repairers check for common causes of trouble, such as dirty or defective components. Many repairs consist of simply cleaning and lubricating equipment. For example, cleaning the tape heads on a videocassette recorder will prevent tapes from sticking to the equipment. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to schematics and manu facturers’ specifications that provide instructions on how to locate problems. Repairers use a variety of test equipment to diagnose and identify malfunctions. They use multimeters to detect short circuits, failed capacitors, and blown fuses by measuring the volt age, current, and resistance. They use color bar and dot generators to provide onscreen test patterns, signal generators to test signals, and oscilloscopes and digital storage scopes to measure complex waveforms produced by electronic equipment. Repairs may involve removing and replacing a failed capacitor, transistor, or fuse. Repairers use handtools such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, 480 Occupational Outlook Handbook •'J —das/ Field technicians work closely with customers and must have good communications skills and a neat appearance. Employers also may require that field technicians have a driver’s license. The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians (1SCET) and the Electronics Technicians Association (ETA) admin ister certification programs for electronics technicians. Repairers may specialize in a variety of skill areas, including consumer elec tronics. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying exams corresponding to their level of training and experience. Both programs offer associate certifications to entry-level repairers. Experienced repairers with advanced training may become spe cialists or troubleshooters, who help other repairers diagnose diffi cult problems. Workers with leadership ability may become supervisors of other repairers. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops. Electronic home entertainment equipment repairers clean and lubricate mechanical components of VCRs. and wrenches to replace faulty parts. They also make adjustments to equipment, such as focusing and converging the picture of a tele vision set or balancing the audio on a surround-sound system. Improvements in technology have miniaturized and digitized many audio and video recording devices. Miniaturization has made repairwork significantly more difficult, as both the components and acceptable tolerances are smaller. For example, an analog video camera operates at 1800 revolutions per minute (rpm), while a digi tal video camera may operate at 9000 rpm. Components now are mounted on the surface of circuit boards, instead of plugged into slots, requiring more precise soldering when a new part is installed. Improved technologies also have lowered the price of electronic home entertainment equipment. As a result, customers often re place broken equipment instead of repairing it. Working Conditions Most repairers work in well-lighted electrical repair shops. Field technicians, however, spend much time traveling in service vehicles and working in customers’ residences. Repairers may have to work in a variety of positions and carry heavy equipment. Although the work of repairers is comparatively safe, they must take precautions against minor bums and electric shock. Because television monitors carry high voltage even when turned off, repairers need to discharge the voltage before servicing such equipment. Employment Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers held about 37,000 jobs in 2000. Most repairers work in stores that sell and service electronic home entertainment products, or in elec trical repair shops and service centers. About 1 in 6 electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers is self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants who have basic knowledge and skills in electronics. Applicants should be familiar with schematics and have some hands-on experience repairing electronic equipment. Many applicants gain these skills at vocational training programs and community colleges. Training programs should include both a hands-on and theoretical education in digital consumer electronics. Entry-level repairers may work closely with more experienced tech nicians, who provide technical guidance. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of electronic home entertainment equipment install ers and repairers is expected to decline through 2010, due to de creased demand for repair work. Some job openings will occur, however, as repairers retire or gain higher paying jobs in other occupations requiring electronics experience. Opportunities will be best for applicants with hands-on experience and knowledge of electronics. The need for repairers is declining because home entertainment equipment is less expensive than in the past. As technological developments have lowered equipment prices and improved reli ability, the demand for repair services has decreased. When mal functions do occur, it often is cheaper for consumers to replace equipment rather than to pay for repairs. Employment of repairers will continue to decline despite the introduction of sophisticated digital equipment, such as DVDs, digi tal televisions, and digital camcorders. So long as the price of such equipment remains high, purchasers will be willing to hire repair ers when malfunctions occur. Flowever, the need for repairers to maintain this costly equipment will not be great enough to offset the overall decline in demand for their services. Earnings Median hourly earnings of electronic home entertainment equip ment installers and repairers were $12.72 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.90 and $16.63. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.84, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.72. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electronic home entertainment equipment re pairers in 2000 are shown below: Electrical repair shops.......................................................................... Radio, television, and computer stores............................................. $12.30 11 -67 Related Occupations Other workers who repair and maintain electronic equipment in clude broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers, electrical and electronics installers and repairers; and radio and tele communications equipment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and certification, contact: >- The International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107. Internet: http://www.iscet.org ► Electronics Technicians Association, 502 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. Internet: http://www.eta-sda.com Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 481 Radio and Telecommunications Equipment Installers and Repairers (0*NET 49-2021.00, 49-2022.01, 49-2022.02, 49-2022.03, 49-2022.04, 49-2022.05) • • • Significant Points Employment is projected to decline. Applicants with electronics training and computer skills should have the best opportunities. Weekend and holiday hours are common; repairers may be on call around the clock in case of emergencies. Nature of the Work Telephones and radios depend on a variety of equipment to trans mit communications signals. Electronic switches route telephone signals to their destinations. Switchboards direct telephone calls within a single location or organization. Radio transmitters and receivers relay signals from wireless phones and radios to their des tinations. Newer telecommunications equipment is computerized and can communicate a variety of information, including data, graph ics, and video. The workers who set up and maintain this sophisti cated equipment are radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Central office installers set up switches, cables, and other equip ment in central offices. These locations are the hubs of a telecom munications network—they contain the switches and routers that direct packets of information to their destinations. PBX installers and repairers set up private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards, which relay incoming, outgoing, and interoffice calls within a single location or organization. To install switches and switchboards, in stallers first connect the equipment to power lines and communica tions cables and install frames and supports. They test the connections to ensure that adequate power is available and that the communication links function. They also install equipment such as power systems, alarms, and telephone sets. New switches and switchboards are computerized; workers install software or may program the equipment to provide specific features. For example, as a cost-cutting feature, an installer may program a PBX switch board to route calls over different lines at different times of the day. However, other workers, such as computer support specialists, rather than installers, generally handle complex programming. (The work of computer support specialists is described in the Handbook state ment on computer support specialists and systems administrators.) Finally, the installer performs tests to verify that the newly installed equipment functions properly. The increasing reliability of telephone switches and routers has simplified maintenance. New telephone switches are self-monitor ing and alert repairers to malfunctions. Some switches allow repair ers to diagnose and correct problems from remote locations. When faced with a malfunction, the repairer may refer to manufacturers’ manuals that provide maintenance instructions. PBX repairers deter mine if the problem is located within the PBX system, or if it origi nates in the telephone lines maintained by the local phone company. When problems with telecommunications equipment arise, tele communications equipment repairers diagnose the source of the problem by testing each of the different parts of the equipment, which requires an understanding of how the software and hardware interact. Repairers often use spectrum and/or network analyzers to locate the problem. A network analyzer sends a signal through the equipment to detect any distortion in the signal. The nature of the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis signal distortion often directs the repairer to the source of the prob lem. To fix the equipment, repairers may use small hand tools, including pliers and screwdrivers, to remove and replace defective components such as circuit boards or wiring. Newer equipment is easier to repair, since whole boards and parts are designed to be quickly removed and replaced. Repairers also may install updated software or programs that maintain existing software. Station installers and repairers, telephone—commonly known as telephone installers and repairers—install and repair telephone wiring and equipment on customers’ premises. They install tele phone service by connecting customers’ telephone wires to outside service lines. These lines run on telephone poles or in underground conduits. The installer may climb poles or ladders to make the connections. Once the telephone is connected, the line is tested to insure that it receives a dial tone. When a maintenance problem occurs, repairers test the customers’ lines to determine if the prob lem is located in the customers’ premises or in the outside service lines. When onsite procedures fail to resolve installation or main tenance problems, repairers may request support from their techni cal service center. Line installers and repairers, covered elsewhere in the Handbook, install the wires and cables that connect custom ers with central offices. Radio mechanics install and maintain radio transmitting and re ceiving equipment. This includes stationary equipment mounted on transmission towers and mobile equipment, such as radio commu nications systems in service and emergency vehicles. Their work .UBiliffV'*1" if’ T t Vs ^ Radio mechanics install and maintain radio transmitting and receiving equipment. 482 Occupational Outlook Handbook does not include cellular communications towers and equipment. Newer radio equipment is self-monitoring and may alert mechanics to potential malfunctions. When malfunctions occur, these mechanics examine equipment for damaged components and loose or broken wires. They use electrical measuring instruments to monitor signal strength, transmission capacity, interference, and signal delay, as well as hand tools to replace defective components and parts and to ad just equipment so it performs within required specifications. Working Conditions Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings, such as a telephone company’s central office, a customer’s PBX location, or an electronic repair shop or service center. Telephone installers and repairers work on rooftops, ladders, and telephone poles. Radio mechanics may maintain equipment located on the tops oftransmissions towers. While working outdoors, these workers are subject to a variety of weather conditions. Nearly all radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers work full time. Many work regular business hours to meet the demand for repair services during the workday. Schedules are more irregular at companies that need repair services 24 hours a day or where installation and maintenance must take place after business hours. At these locations, mechanics work a variety of shifts, including weekend and holiday hours. Repairers may be on call around the clock, in case of emergencies, and may have to work overtime. The work of most repairers involves lifting, reaching, stooping, crouching, and crawling. Adherence to safety precautions is impor tant to guard against work hazards. These hazards include falls, minor bums, electrical shock, and contact with hazardous materials. Employment Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers held about 196,000 jobs in 2000. About 189,000 were telecommu nications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers, and the rest were radio mechanics. Most worked for telephone communications companies but many radio mechanics worked in electrical repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers seek applicants with postsecondary training in elec tronics and a familiarity with computers. Training sources include 2- and 4-year college programs in electronics or communications, trade schools, and equipment and software manufacturers. Mili tary experience with communications equipment is highly valued by many employers. Newly hired repairers usually receive some training from their employers. This may include formal classroom training in elec tronics, communications systems, or software and informal, handson training with communications equipment. Large companies may send repairers to outside training sessions to keep these employees informed of new equipment and service procedures. As networks have become more sophisticated—often including equipment from a variety of companies—the knowledge needed for installation and maintenance also has increased. Repairers must be able to distinguish colors, because wires are color-coded, and they must be able to hear distinctions in the vari ous tones on a telephone system. For positions that require climb ing poles and towers, workers must be in good physical shape. Repairers who handle assignments alone at a customer’s site must be able to work without close supervision. For workers who fre quently contact customers, a pleasant personality, neat appearance, Digitizedand for FRASER good communications skills also are important. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Experienced repairers with advanced training may become spe cialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose diffi cult problems, or may work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Because of their famil iarity with equipment, repairers are particularly well qualified to become manufacturers’ sales workers. Workers with leadership ability also may become maintenance supervisors or service man agers. Some experienced workers open their own repair services or shops or become wholesalers or retailers of electronic equipment. Job Outlook Employment of radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers is expected to decline through 2010. Although the need for installation work will grow as companies seek to upgrade their telecommunications networks, there will be a declining need for maintenance work—performed by telecommunications equip ment installers and repairers, except line installers—because of in creasingly reliable self-monitoring and self-diagnosing equipment. The replacement of two-way radio systems by wireless systems, especially in service vehicles, has eliminated the need in many com panies for onsite radio mechanics. The increased reliability of wire less equipment and the use of self-monitoring systems also will continue to lessen the need for radio mechanics. Applicants with electronics training and computer skills should have the best op portunities for radio and telecommunications equipment installer and repairer jobs. Job opportunities will vary by specialty. For example, opportu nities should be available for central office and PBX installers and repairers as the growing popularity of the Internet, expanded multi media offerings such as video on demand, and other telecommuni cations services continue to place additional demand on telecommunications networks. These new services require high data transfer rates, which can only be achieved by installing new optical switching and routing equipment. Extending high speed communi cations from central offices to customers also will require the in stallation of more advanced switching and routing equipment. Whereas increased reliability and automation of switching equip ment will limit opportunities, these effects will be offset by the strong demand for installation and upgrading of switching equipment. Station installers and repairers, on the other hand, can expect keen competition. Pre-wired buildings and the increasing reliabil ity of telephone equipment will reduce the need for installation and maintenance of customers’ telephones. The number of pay phones is declining as cellular telephones have increased in popularity, which also will adversely affect employment in this specialty as pay phone installation and maintenance is one of their major functions. Earnings In 2000, median hourly earnings of telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers were $21.17. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.55 and $24.99. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $12.04, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $27.23. Median hourly earnings in the telephone com munications industry were $22.88 in 2000. Median hourly earnings of radio mechanics in 2000 were $15.86. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.57 and $20.60. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $9.39, whereas the top 10 per cent earned more than $25.62. Related Occupations Related occupations that work with electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and electrical Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 483 and electronics installers and repairers. Engineering technicians also may repair electronic equipment as part of their duties. ^Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.cwa-union.org Sources of Additional Information For information on career opportunities, contact: ► Electronics Technicians Association International, 502 North Jackson, Greencastle, IN 46135. Internet: http://www.eta-sda.com ► National Association of Radio and Telecommunications Engineers, P.O. Box 678, Medway, MA 02053. Internet: http://www.narte.org ► International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th St. NW„ Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. For information on careers and schools, contact: Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers Aircraft and Avionics Equipment Mechanics and Service Technicians (Q*NET 49-2091.00, 49-3011.01, 49-3011.02, 49-3011.03) Significant Points • The majority of these workers learn their job in 1 of about 200 trade schools certified by the Federal Aviation Administration. • Opportunities should be favorable, but keen competition is likely for the best paying airline jobs. Nature of the Work To keep aircraft in peak operating condition, aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians perform scheduled maintenance, make repairs, and complete inspections required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Many aircraft mechanics, also called airframe, powerplant, and avionics aviation maintenance technicians, specialize in preventive maintenance. They inspect engines, landing gear, instmments, pres surized sections, accessories—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-con ditioning systems, for example—and other parts of the aircraft, and do the necessary maintenance and replacement of parts. Inspec tions take place following a schedule based on the number of hours the aircraft has flown, calendar days since the last inspection, cycles of operation, or a combination of these factors. Large, sophisti cated planes are equipped with aircraft monitoring systems, con sisting of electronic boxes and consoles that monitor the aircraft’s basic operations and provide valuable diagnostic information to the mechanic. To examine an engine, aircraft mechanics work through specially designed openings while standing on ladders or scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After taking an engine apart, mechanics use precision instruments to measure parts for wear and use x-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or defective parts are repaired or replaced. Mechanics may also repair sheet metal or composite surfaces, measure the tension of control cables, and check for corrosion, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage, wings, and tail. After completing all repairs, they must test the equipment to ensure that it works properly. Mechanics specializing in repairwork rely on the pilot’s descrip tion of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft’s fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may troubleshoot the electrical system, using electrical test equipment sure that no wires are broken or shorted out, and replace Digitizedto formake FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis s Aircraft mechanics inspect, maintain, and replace engines and other parts of the aircraft. any defective electrical or electronic components. Mechanics work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly. Some mechanics work on one or many different types of air craft, such as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, and helicopters. Oth ers specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine, hydraulics, or electrical system. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and do limited work on propel lers. Airframe mechanics are authorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instruments, powerplants, and propellers. Com bination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics—called A & P me chanics—work on all parts of the plane, except instruments. The majority of mechanics working on civilian aircraft today are A & P mechanics. In small, independent repairshops, mechanics usually inspect and repair many different types of aircraft. Avionics systems are now an integral part of aircraft design and have vastly increased aircraft capability. Avionics technicians repair and maintain components used for aircraft navigation and radio communications, weather radar systems, and other instru ments and computers that control flight, engine, and other pri mary functions. These duties may require additional licenses, such as a radiotelephone license issued by the U.S. Federal Communi cations Commission (FCC). Because of technological advances, an increasing amount of time is spent repairing electronic sys tems, such as computerized controls. Technicians also may be required to analyze and develop solutions to complex electronic problems. 484 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Mechanics usually work in hangars or in other indoor areas, although they can work outdoors—sometimes in unpleasant weather—when hangars are full or when repairs must be made quickly. Mechanics often work under time pressure to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from inconveniencing customers. At the same time, mechanics have a tremendous responsibility to maintain safety standards, and this can cause the job to be stressful. Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull objects weighing as much as 70 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions and occasionally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibration are common when engines are being tested, so ear protection is necessary. Aircraft mechanics usually work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock. Overtime work is frequent. Employment Aircraft mechanics and service technicians held about 173,000 jobs in 2000; fewer than 10 percent were avionic technicians. About two-thirds of all salaried mechanics worked for airlines or airports and flying fields, about 12 percent worked for the Federal Govern ment, and about 9 percent worked for aircraft assembly firms. Most of the rest were general aviation mechanics, the majority of whom worked for independent repairshops or for companies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Few mechanics were self-employed. Most airline mechanics work at major airports near large cities. Civilian mechanics employed by the Armed Forces work at military installations. Large proportions of mechanics who work for aircraft assembly firms are located in California or in Washington State. Others work for the FAA, many at the facilities in Oklahoma City, Atlantic City, Wichita, or Washington, DC. Mechanics for indepen dent repairshops work at airports in every part of the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are certifi cated by the FAA as “airframe mechanic,” “powerplant mechanic,” or “avionics repair specialist.” Mechanics who also have an inspector’s authorization can certify work completed by other me chanics and perform required inspections. Uncertificated mechan ics are supervised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe, powerplant, or avionics repairer’s certificate. For a com bined A & P certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both engines and airframes is required. Completion of a pro gram at an FAA-certificated mechanic school can substitute for the work experience requirement. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certificate. To obtain an inspector’s authorization, a mechanic must have held an A & P certificate for at least 3 years. Most airlines require that mechanics have a high school diploma and an A & P certificate. Although a few people become mechanics through on-the-job training, most learn their job in 1 of about 200 trade schools certi fied by the FAA. About one-third of these schools award 2- and 4year degrees in avionics, aviation technology, or aviation maintenance management. FAA standards established by law require that certificated me chanic schools offer students a minimum of 1,900 actual class hours. Courses in these trade schools normally last from 24 to 30 months and provide training with the tools and equipment used on the job. Aircraft trade schools are placing more emphasis on tech nologies such as turbine engines, composite materials—including graphite, fiberglass, and boron—and aviation electronics, which https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are increasingly being used in the construction of new aircraft. Less emphasis is being placed on old technologies, such as woodwork ing and welding. Additionally, employers prefer mechanics who can perform a variety of tasks. Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the FAA certificate. With additional study, they may pass the certi fying exam. In general, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most Armed Forces mechanics have to complete the entire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military expe rience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school graduates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants. Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, com puter science, and mechanical drawing are helpful, because they demonstrate many of the principles involved in the operation of aircraft, and knowledge of these principles is often necessary to make repairs. Courses that develop writing skills also are impor tant because mechanics often are required to submit reports. FAA regulations require current experience to keep the A & P certificate valid. Applicants must have at least 1,000 hours of work experience in the previous 24 months or take a refresher course. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, more employers are requiring mechanics to take ongoing training to update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft maintenance necessitate a strong background in electronics—both for acquiring and retain ing jobs in this field. FAA certification standards also make ongo ing training mandatory. Every 24 months, mechanics are required to take at least 16 hours of training to keep their certificate. Many mechanics take courses offered by manufacturers or employers, usually through outside contractors. Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thorough work that re quires a high degree of mechanical aptitude. Employers seek appli cants who are self-motivated, hard-working, enthusiastic, and able to diagnose and solve complex mechanical problems. Agility is important for the reaching and climbing necessary to do the job. Because they may work on the tops of wings and fuselages on large jet planes, aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of heights. As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they may advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, or shop super visor positions. Opportunities are best for those who have an air craft inspector’s authorization. In the airlines, where promotion often is determined by examination, supervisors sometimes advance to executive positions. Those with broad experience in mainte nance and overhaul might become inspectors with the FAA. With additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance facilities. Mechanics leam many different skills in their training that can be applied to other jobs, and some transfer to other skilled repairer occupations or electronics technician jobs. Job Outlook The outlook for aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and ser vice technicians should be favorable over the next 10 years. The likelihood of fewer entrants from the military and a large number of retirements, point to good employment conditions for students just beginning training. Job opportunities are likely to be the best at small commuter and regional airlines, at FAA repair stations, and in general aviation. Wages in these companies tend to be relatively low, so there are fewer applicants for these jobs than for those with the major air lines. Also, some jobs will become available as experienced me chanics leave for higher paying jobs with airlines or transfer to Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 485 another occupation. At the same time, aircraft are becoming in creasingly sophisticated in general aviation and in regional carriers, boosting the demand for qualified mechanics. Mechanics will face competition for jobs with large airlines because the high wages and travel benefits that these jobs offer attract more qualified applicants than there are openings. Prospects will be best for applicants with significant experience. Mechanics who keep abreast of technologi cal advances in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. The number ofjob openings for aircraft mechanics in the Federal Government should decline as the size of the U.S. Armed Forces is reduced. Employment of aircraft mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. A growing population and rising incomes are expected to stimulate the demand for airline transportation, and the number of aircraft is expected to grow. However, employment growth will be somewhat restricted as consolidation within the air carrier industry continues and as productivity increases due to greater use of automated in ventory control and modular systems, which speeds repairs and parts replacement. Most job openings for aircraft mechanics through the year 2010 will stem from replacement needs. Each year, as mechanics trans fer to other occupations or retire, several thousand job openings will arise. Aircraft mechanics have a comparatively strong attach ment to the occupation, reflecting their significant investment in training and a love for aviation. However, because aircraft me chanics’ skills are transferable to other occupations, some mechan ics leave for work in related fields. During recessions, declines in air travel force airlines to curtail the number of flights, which results in less aircraft maintenance and, consequently, layoffs for aircraft mechanics. Earnings Median hourly earnings of aircraft mechanics and service techni cians were about $19.50 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.65 and $23.65. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.06, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.97. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of aircraft mechanics and service technicians in 2000 were: Air transportation, scheduled............................................................. Aircraft and parts.................................................................................. Air transportation, nonscheduled...................................................... Federal Government............................................................................. Airports, flying fields, and services .................................................. $21.57 19.77 19.16 19.11 16.26 Median hourly earnings of avionics technicians were about $19.86 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.31 and $24.01. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13.22, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.02. Mechanics who work on jets for the major airlines generally earn more than those working on other aircraft. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced-fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. Almost one-half of all aircraft mechanics, including those em ployed by some major airlines, are covered by union agreements. The principal unions are the International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers and the Transport Workers Union of America. Some mechanics are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are electricians, electrical and electronics Digitizedinstallers for FRASER and repairers, and elevator installers and repairers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs with a particular airline can be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. For general information about aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians, write to: >■ Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, 1707 H St. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20006. For infonnation on jobs in a particular area, contact employers at local airports or local offices of the State employment service. Automotive Body and Related Repairers (0**NET 49-3021.00, 49-3022.00) • • Significant Points To become a fully skilled automotive body repairer, formal training is desirable in addition to on-the-job training because advances in technology have greatly changed the structure, components, and materials used in automobiles. A fully skilled automotive body repairer must have good reading and basic mathematics and computer skills to follow instructions and diagrams in print and computer-based technical manuals. Nature of the Work Thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in traffic accidents every day. Although some of these vehicles are beyond repair, others can be made to look and drive like new. Automotive body repairers straighten bent bodies, remove dents, and replace crumpled parts that cannot be fixed. They repair all types of vehicles but work mostly on cars and small trucks, although some work on large trucks, buses, or tractor-trailers. Automotive body repairers use special equipment to restore dam aged metal frames and body sections. Repairers chain or clamp frames and sections to alignment machines that use hydraulic pres sure to align damaged components. “Unibody” vehicles, designs built without frames, must be restored to precise factory specifica tions for the vehicle to operate correctly. To do so, repairers use benchmark systems to make accurate measurements of how much each section is out of alignment and hydraulic machinery to return the vehicle to its original shape. Body repairers remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic metal-cutting gun or by other means, and weld in replacement sections. Repairers pull out less serious dents with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar or knock them out with handtools or pneumatic hammers. They smooth out small dents and creases in the metal by holding a small anvil against one side of the dam aged area, while hammering the opposite side. They also remove very small pits and dimples with pick hammers and punches in a process called metal finishing. Body repairers also repair or replace the plastic body parts in creasingly used on new model vehicles. They remove damaged panels and identify the family and properties of the plastic used on the vehicle. With most types of plastic, repairers can apply heat from a hot-air welding gun or by immersion in hot water and press the softened panel back into its original shape by hand. They replace plastic parts that are badly damaged or very difficult to repair. 486 Occupational Outlook Handbook worked for wholesalers of motor vehicles, parts, and supplies. About 1 automotive body repairer out of 8 was self-employed. TVS?-' ■ . . Automotive body repair work has variety and challenges. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents that cannot be worked out of the plastic or metal panel. On metal panels, they file or grind the hardened filler to the original shape and clean the surface with a media blaster before painting. In many shops, auto motive painters do the painting. (These workers are discussed in the Handbook statement on painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance.) In small shops, workers often do both body repairing and painting. A few body repairers specialize in repairing fiberglass car bodies. The advent of assembly-line repairs in large shops moves away from the one-vehicle, one-repairer method to a team approach and allows body repairers to specialize in one type of repair, such as frame straightening or door and fender repair. Some body repairers specialize in installing glass in automobiles and other vehicles. Automotive glass installers and repairers remove broken, cracked, or pitted windshields and window glass. Glass installers apply a moisture-proofing compound along the edges of the glass, place it in the vehicle, and install rubber strips around the sides of the wind shield or window to make it secure and weatherproof. Body repair work has variety and challenges—each damaged vehicle presents a different problem. Using their broad knowledge of automotive construction and repair techniques, repairers must develop appropriate methods for each job. They usually work alone, with only general directions from supervisors. In some shops, help ers or apprentices assist experienced repairers. Working Conditions Most automotive body repairers work a standard 40-hour week, al though some, including the self-employed, work more than 40 hours a week. Repairers work indoors in body shops that are noisy, be cause of hammering against metal and the use of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated to disperse dust and paint fumes. Body repairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, bums from torches and heated metal, injuries from power tools, and fumes from paint. However, serious acci dents usually are avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Automotive body and related repairers held about 221,000 jobs in 2000. Most repairers worked for automotive repair shops or motor vehicle dealers. Others worked for organizations that maintain their Digitizedown for FRASER motor vehicles, such as trucking companies. A small number https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire persons who have completed formal training programs in automotive body repair, but these programs supply only a portion of employers’ needs. Therefore, most new repairers get primarily on-the-job training, supplemented, when available, with short-term training sessions given by vehicle, parts, and equipment manufacturers. Some degree of training is neces sary because advances in technology have greatly changed the struc ture, components, and materials used in automobiles. As a result, these new technologies require proficiency in new repair techniques and skills. For example, bodies of many newer automobiles are a combination of materials—traditional steel, aluminum, and a grow ing variety of metal alloys and plastics. Each of these materials or composites requires the use of somewhat different techniques to reshape parts and smooth out dents and small pits. Many high schools, vocational schools, private trade schools, and community colleges offer automotive body repair training as part of their auto motive service programs. A fully skilled automotive body repairer must have good read ing and basic mathematics and computer skills. Restoring unibody automobiles to their original form requires such precision that body repairers must follow instructions and diagrams in technical manu als to make very precise three-dimensional measurements of the position of one body section relative to another. A new repairer begins by assisting seasoned body repairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts, sanding body panels, and installing repaired parts. They learn to remove small dents and to make other minor repairs. They then progress to more difficult tasks, such as straightening body parts and returning them to their correct alignment. Generally, to become skilled in all aspects of body repair requires 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. Certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), though voluntary, is the recognized standard of achievement for automotive body repairers. ASE offers a series of four exams for collision repair professionals twice a year. Repair ers may take from one to four ASE Master Collision Repair & Re finish Exams. Repairers who pass at least one exam and have 2 years of hands-on work experience earn ASE certification. Comple tion of a postsecondary program in automotive body repair may be substituted for 1 year of work experience. Those who pass all four exams become ASE Master Collision Repair and Refinish Techni cians. Automotive body repairers must retake the examination at least every 5 years to retain certification. Continuing education throughout a career in automotive body repair is required. Automotive parts, body materials, and electron ics continue to change and to become more complex and techno logically advanced. To keep up with these technological advances, repairers must continue to gain new skills, read technical manuals, and attend seminars and classes. As beginners increase their skills, learn new techniques, and com plete work more rapidly, their pay increases. An experienced auto motive body repairer with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Some workers open their own body repair shops. Oth ers become automobile damage appraisers for insurance companies. Job Outlook Employment of automotive body repairers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Opportunities should be best for persons with formal training in automotive body repair and mechanics. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 487 Demand for qualified body repairers will increase, as the num ber of motor vehicles in operation continues to grow in line with the Nation’s population. With an increase in the number of motor vehicles in use, the number of vehicles damaged in accidents also will grow. New automobile designs increasingly have body parts made of steel alloys, aluminum, and plastics—materials that are more difficult to work with than traditional steel body parts. In addition, new, lighter-weight automotive designs are prone to greater collision damage than older, heavier designs and, consequently, more time is consumed in repair. The need to replace experienced repair ers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons will account for the majority of job openings. Changes in body shop management have begun to increase some shops’ productivity, profits, and customer satisfaction. Employing a team approach to repairs decreases repair time, improves customer relations, and allows shops to increase their volume of work. By more efficiently managing inventory, shops also may be able to re place the large portion of their space occupied by parts inventory with additional work bays to service vehicles, requiring additional body repairers. The automotive repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, and experienced body repairers are rarely laid off. However, although major body damage must be repaired if a vehicle is to be restored to safe operating condition, repair of minor dents and crumpled fenders can often be deferred during an economic slowdown. During slowdowns, most employers will hire few new workers, some unprofitable body shops may go out of business, and some dealerships might consolidate body shops. Earnings Median hourly earnings of automotive body and related repairers, including incentive pay, were $15.00 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $11.12 and $20.02 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.49, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.06 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the indus tries employing the largest number of automotive body and related repairers in 2000 were as follows: New and used car dealers.................................................................... Automotive repair shops...................................................................... $15.76 15.05 Median hourly earnings of automotive glass installers and repair ers, including incentive pay, were $12.46 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.65 and $15.86 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.03, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 19.18 an hour. Median hourly earnings in 2000 in auto motive repair shops, the industry employing the largest numbers of automotive glass installers and repairers, were $12.51. The majority of body repairers employed by automotive dealers and repair shops are paid on an incentive basis. Under this method, body repairers are paid a predetermined amount for various tasks, and earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee work ers a minimum weekly salary. Body repairers who work for truck ing companies, bus lines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Helpers and trainees usually earn from 30 to 60 percent of the earnings of skilled workers. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate, until they are skilled enough to be paid on an incen tive basis. Some automotive body repairers are members of unions, includ ing the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers ofAmerica; the Sheet Metal Work ers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Teamsters. Most body repairers who are union members work for large automobile dealers, trucking companies, and bus lines. Related Occupations Repairing damaged motor vehicles often involves working on me chanical components, as well as vehicle bodies. Automotive body repairers often work closely with individuals in several related oc cupations, including automotive service technicians and mechan ics, diesel service technicians and mechanics, auto damage insurance appraisers, and painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance. Sources of Additional Information Additional details about work opportunities may be obtained from automotive body repair shops and motor vehicle dealers, locals of the unions previously mentioned, or local offices of your State em ployment service. State employment services also are a source of information about training programs. For general information about automotive body repairer careers, write to: >- Automotive Service Association, Inc., 1901 Airport Freeway, Bedford, TX 76021-5732. Internet: http://www.asashop.org > National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.nada.org >- Inter-Industry Conference On Auto Collision Repair Education Founda tion (I-CAR), 3701 Algonquin Rd., Suite 400, Rolling Meadow, IL 60008. Telephone (tollfree): 888-722-3787. Internet: http://www.i-car.com For information on how to become a certified automotive body repairer, write to: >- ASE, 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org For a directory of certified automotive body repairer programs, contact: > National Automotive Technician Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA20171-3421. Internet: http://www.natef.org For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer training programs in automotive body repair, contact: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technol ogy, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org For a list of public automotive body repair training programs, contact: >- SkillsUSA-VICA, P. O. Box 3000,1401 James Monroe Hwy., Leesburg, VA 22075. Internet: http://www.skillsusa.org Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics (0**NET 49-3023.01, 49-3023.02) • • • Significant Points Formal automotive technician training is the best preparation for these challenging technology-based jobs. Opportunities should be very good for automotive service technicians and mechanics with good diagnostic and problem-solving skills and knowledge of electronics and mathematics. Automotive service technicians and mechanics must continually adapt to changing technology and repair techniques as vehicle components and systems become increasingly sophisticated. 488 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the im portance of the jobs of automotive service technicians and mechan ics. The ability to diagnose the source of a problem quickly and accurately—a most valuable skill—requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automobiles. Many technicians con sider diagnosing hard-to-find troubles one of their most challeng ing and satisfying duties. The work of automotive service technicians and mechanics has evolved from simply mechanical to high technology. Today inte grated electronic systems and complex computers mn vehicles and measure their performance while on the road. Automotive service technicians have developed into diagnostic, high-tech problem solv ers. Technicians must have an increasingly broad base of knowl edge about how vehicles’ complex components work and interact, as well as the ability to work with electronic diagnostic equipment and computer-based technical reference materials. Automotive service technicians and mechanics use these hightech skills to inspect, maintain, and repair automobiles and light trucks with gasoline engines. The increasing sophistication of au tomotive technology now relies on workers who can use computer ized shop equipment and work with electronic components, while maintaining their skills with traditional handtools. Because of these changes in the occupation, workers are increasingly called “auto motive service technicians,” and the title “mechanic” is being used less and less frequently. (Service technicians and mechanics who work on diesel-powered trucks, buses, and equipment are discussed in the Handbook statement on diesel service technicians and me chanics. Motorcycle mechanics—who repair and service motor cycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and, occasionally, small all-terrain vehicles—are discussed in the Handbook statement on small engine mechanics.) When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, technicians first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a large shop, the repair service estimator who wrote the repair order. To locate the problem, technicians use a diagnostic approach. First, they test to see if components and systems are proper and secure, and then isolate those components or systems that could not logically be the cause of the problem. For example, if an air conditioner malfunctions, the technician’s diagnostic approach can pinpoint a problem as simple as a low coolant level or as complex as a bad drive-train connection that has shorted out the air condi tioner. Technicians may have to test drive the vehicle or use a variety of testing equipment, such as onboard and hand-held diag nostic computers or compression gauges, to identify the source of the problem. These tests may indicate whether a component is salvageable or if a new one is required to get the vehicle back in working order. During routine service inspections, technicians test and lubri cate engines and other major components. In some cases, the tech nician may repair or replace worn parts before they cause breakdowns that could damage critical components of the vehicle. Technicians usually follow a checklist to ensure that they examine every critical part. Belts, hoses, plugs, brake and fuel systems, and other potentially troublesome items are among those closely watched. Service technicians use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly, machine tools like lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes, welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems, and jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines. They also use common handtools like screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and in hard-to-reach places. In modem repair shops, service technicians compare the read https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis outs from diagnostic testing devices to the benchmarked standards given by the manufacturer of the components being tested. Devia tions outside of acceptable levels are an indication to the techni cian that further attention to an area is necessary. The testing devices diagnose problems and make precision adjustments with precise calculations downloaded from large computerized databases. The computerized systems provide automatic updates to technical manu als and unlimited access to manufacturers’ service information, technical service bulletins, and other information databases, which allow technicians to keep current on trouble spots and to leam new procedures. Automotive service technicians in large shops have increasingly become specialized. For example, transmission technicians and rebuilders work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of transmissions. Extensive knowledge of computer controls, diagnosis of electrical and hydraulic problems, and other specialized skills are needed to work on these complex components, which employ some of the most sophisticated technology used in vehicles. Tune-up technicians adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They often use electronic test equipment to isolate and adjust malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions con trol systems. Automotive air-conditioning repairers install and repair air con ditioners and service components, such as compressors, condens ers, and controls. These workers require special training in Federal ------ ,’S *40 Automotive service techniciansfrequently work with dirty and greasy parts. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 489 and State regulations governing the handling and disposal of refrigerants. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They fre quently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some technicians and mechanics specialize in both brake and front-end work. Working Conditions Almost half of automotive service technicians work a standard 40hour week, but over 30 percent work more than 40 hours a week. Many of those working extended hours are self-employed techni cians. To satisfy customer service needs, some service shops offer evening and weekend service. Generally, service technicians work indoors in well-ventilated and lighted repair shops. However, some shops are drafty and noisy. Although they fix some problems with simple computerized adjustments, technicians frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, bums, and bruises are common, but technicians usually avoid serious accidents when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Employment Automotive service technicians and mechanics held about 840,000 jobs in 2000. The majority worked for retail and wholesale auto motive dealers, independent automotive repair shops, or automo tive service facilities at department, automotive, and home supply stores. Others found employment in gasoline service stations; taxi cab and automobile leasing companies; Federal, State, and local governments; and other organizations. About 18 percent of service technicians were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities strongly recommend that persons seeking automotive service technician and mechanic jobs complete a for mal training program in high school or in a postsecondary voca tional school. However, some service technicians still leam the trade solely by assisting and learning from experienced workers. Many high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools offer automotive service techni cian training programs. The traditional postsecondary programs usually provide a thorough career preparation that expands upon the student’s high school repair experience. Postsecondary automotive technician training programs vary greatly in format, but normally provide intensive career preparation through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on prac tice. Some trade and technical school programs provide concen trated training for 6 months to a year, depending on how many hours the student attends each week. Community college programs nor mally spread the training over 2 years; supplement the automotive training with instruction in English, basic mathematics, computers, and other subjects; and award an associate degree or certificate. Some students earn repair certificates and opt to leave the program to begin their career before graduation. Recently, some programs have added to their curriculums training on employability skills such as customer service and stress management. Employers find that these skills help technicians handle the additional responsibilities of dealing with the customers and parts vendors. High school programs, while an asset, vary greatly in quality. The better programs, such as the Automotive Youth Education Ser vice (AYES), with 150 participating schools and more than 300 participating dealers, conclude with the students receiving their Digitizedtechnician’s for FRASERcertification and high school diploma. Other programs https://fraser.stlouisfed.org offer only an introduction to automotive technology and service for Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the future consumer or hobbyist. Still others aim to equip gradu ates with enough skills to get a job as a mechanic’s helper or trainee mechanic. The various automobile manufacturers and their participating dealers sponsor 2-year associate degree programs at postsecondary schools across the Nation. The Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT) currently certifies a number of automotive and diesel technology schools. Schools update their curriculums frequently to reflect changing technology and equipment. Students in these programs typically spend alter nate 6- to 12-week periods attending classes full time and working full time in the service departments of sponsoring dealers. At these dealerships, students get practical experience while assigned to an experienced worker who provides hands-on instruction and time saving tips. The National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF), an affiliate of the National Institute for Automotive Ser vice Excellence (ASE), establishes the standards by which training facilities become certified. Once the training facility achieves these minimal standards, NATEF recommends the facility to ASE for certification. The ASE certification is a nationally recognized stan dard for programs offered by high schools, postsecondary trade schools, technical institutes, and community colleges that train au tomobile service technicians, collision repair and refinish techni cians, engine machinists, and medium/heavy truck technicians. Automotive manufacturers provide ASE certified instruction, ser vice equipment, and current model cars on which students practice new skills and leam the latest automotive technology. While ASE certification is voluntary, it does signify that the program meets uniform standards for instructional facilities, equipment, staff cre dentials, and curriculum. To ensure that programs keep up with ever-changing technology, repair techniques, and ASE standards, the certified programs are subjected to periodic compliance reviews and mandatory recertification. NATEF program experts also re view and update program standards to match the level of training and skill-level achievement necessary for success in the occupa tion. In mid-2000, 1,491 high school and postsecondary automo tive service technician training programs had been certified by ASE, of which 1,200 trained automobile service technicians, 224 in structed collision specialists, and 62 trained diesel and medium/ heavy tmek specialists. For trainee automotive service technician jobs, employers look for people with strong communication and analytical skills. Tech nicians need good reading, mathematics, and computer skills to study technical manuals and to keep abreast of new technology and leam new service and repair procedures and specifications. Train ees also must possess mechanical aptitude and knowledge of how automobiles work. Most employers regard the successful comple tion of a vocational training program in automotive service tech nology as the best preparation for trainee positions. Experience working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby also is valuable. Because of the complexity of new vehicles, a growing number of employers require completion of high school and addi tional postsecondary training. Courses in automotive repair, elec tronics, physics, chemistry, English, computers, and mathematics provide a good educational background for a career as a service technician. There are more computers aboard a car today than aboard the first spacecraft. A new car has from 10 to 15 onboard computers, operating everything from the engine to the radio. Some of the more advanced vehicles have global positioning systems, Internet access, and other high-tech features integrated into the functions of the ve hicle. Therefore, knowledge of electronics and computers has grown increasingly important for service technicians. Engine 490 Occupational Outlook Handbook controls and dashboard instruments were among the first compo nents to use electronics, but now, everything from brakes to trans missions and air-conditioning systems to steering systems is run primarily by computers and electronic components. In the past, a specialist usually handled any problems involving electrical sys tems or electronics. Now that electronics are so common, it is es sential for service technicians to be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics. Electrical components or a series of re lated components account for nearly all malfunctions in modem vehicles. In addition to electronics and computers, automotive service tech nicians will have to leam and understand the science behind the alternate fuel vehicles that have begun to enter the market. The fuel for these vehicles will come from the dehydrogenization of water, electric fuel cells, natural gas, solar power, and other nonpetroleumbased sources. Some vehicles will even capture the energy from brakes and use it as fuel. As vehicles with these new technologies become more common, technicians will need additional training to leam the science and engineering that makes them possible. Beginners usually start as trainee technicians, mechanics’ help ers, lubrication workers, or gasoline service station attendants, and gradually acquire and practice their skills by working with experi enced mechanics and technicians. With a few months’ experience, beginners perform many routine service tasks and make simple re pairs. It usually takes 2 to 5 years of experience to become a jour ney-level service technician, who is expected to quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. However, some graduates of postsecondary automotive training programs are often able to earn promotion to the journey level after only a few months on the job. An additional 1- to 2- years’ experience famil iarizes mechanics and technicians with all types of repairs. Diffi cult specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training and experience. In contrast, brake specialists may leam their jobs in considerably less time because they do not need a complete knowledge of automotive repair. In the past, many persons became automotive service techni cians through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. How ever, apprenticeships have become rare, as formal vocational training programs in automotive service technology have become more common. At work, the most important possessions of technicians and mechanics are their handtools. Technicians and mechanics usually provide their own tools, and many experienced workers have thou sands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish ex pensive power tools, engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment, but technicians accumulate handtools with experience. Some formal training programs have alliances with tool manufac turers that help entry-level technicians accumulate tools during their training period. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive service technicians to manufacturer training centers to leam to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components, such as electronic fuel injection or air-conditioners. Motor vehicle dealers also may send promising beginners to manufacturer-spon sored mechanic training programs. Employers typically furnish this additional training to maintain or upgrade employee skills and in crease their value to the dealership. Factory representatives also visit many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) has become a standard credential for automotive service technicians. Certification is available in 1 or more of 8 different service areas, such as electrical systems, engine repair, brake systems, suspension and steering, and heating and air conditioning. For certification in each area, technicians must have at least 2 years of experience and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pass a written examination. Completion of an automotive training program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. In some cases, graduates of ASE-certified programs achieve certifica tion in up to three specialties. For certification as a master automo tive mechanic, technicians must be certified in all eight areas. Mechanics and technicians must retake each examination at least every 5 years to maintain their certifications. Experienced technicians who have leadership ability sometimes advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Those who work well with customers may become automotive repair service estima tors. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops. Job Outlook Job opportunities in this occupation are expected to be very good for persons who complete automotive training programs in high school, vocational and technical schools, or community colleges. Persons with good diagnostic and problem-solving skills, and whose training includes basic electronics skills, should have the best oppor tunities. For well-prepared people with a technical background, automotive service technician careers offer an excellent opportu nity for good pay and the satisfaction of highly skilled work with vehicles incorporating the latest in high technology. However, per sons without formal automotive training are likely to face competi tion for entry-level jobs. Employment of automotive service technicians and mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average through the year 2010. The growing complexity of automotive technology necessi tates service by skilled workers, contributing to the growth in demand for highly trained mechanics and technicians. Employment growth will continue to be concentrated in motor vehicle dealerships and independent automotive repair shops. Many new jobs will also be created in small retail operations that offer after-warranty repairs, such as oil changes, brake repair, air conditioner service, and other minor repairs generally taking less than 4 hours to complete. Fewer national department store chains will provide auto repair services in large shops. Employment of automotive service technicians and mechanics in gasoline service stations will continue to decline, as fewer stations offer repair services. In addition to job openings due to growth, a substantial number of openings will be created by the need to replace experienced tech nicians who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Most persons who enter the occupation can ex pect steady work, because changes in general economic conditions and developments in other industries have little effect on the auto motive repair business. Earnings Median hourly earnings of automotive service technicians and me chanics, including commission, were $13.70 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.86 and $18.67 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.59, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.67 an hour. Median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of service technicians in 2000 were as follows: Local government................................................................... New and used car dealers........................................................ Auto and home supply stores.................................................. Automotive repair shops.......................................................... Gasoline service stations......................................................... $16.90 16.87 12.35 12.15 11.86 Many experienced technicians employed by automotive dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 491 earnings depend on the amount of work completed. Employers fre quently guarantee commissioned mechanics and technicians a mini mum weekly salary. Many master technicians earn from $70,000 to $100,000 annually. Some automotive service technicians are members of labor unions such as the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair and service motor vehicles include auto motive body and related repairers, diesel service technicians and mechanics, and small engine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local automo tive dealers and repair shops or local offices of the State employ ment service. The State employment service also may have information about training programs. A list of certified automotive technician training programs can be obtained from: ► National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 20171-3421. Internet: http://www.natef.org For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer programs in automotive technician training, contact: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technol ogy, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201 Internet: http://www.accsct.org For a list of public automotive technician training programs, contact: ► SkillsUSA-VICA, P.O. Box 3000, 1401 James Monroe Hwy., Leesburg, VA 22075. Internet: http://www.skillsusa.org Information on automobile manufacturer-sponsored programs in automotive service technology can be obtained from: ► Automotive Youth Educational Systems (AYES), 2701 Troy Center Dr., Suite 450, Troy, MI 48084. Internet: http://www.ayes.org Information on how to become a certified automotive service technician is available from: >- ASE, 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org For general information about the work of automotive service technicians and mechanics, contact: >- National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.nada.org Nature of the Work The diesel engine is the workhorse powering the Nation’s trucks and buses, because it delivers more power and is more durable than its gasoline-burning counterpart. Diesel-powered engines also are becoming more prevalent in light vehicles, including pickups and other work trucks. Diesel service technicians and mechanics, also known as bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists, repair and main tain the diesel engines that power transportation equipment such as heavy tracks, buses, and locomotives. Some diesel technicians and mechanics also work on heavy vehicles and mobile equipment such as bulldozers, cranes, road graders, farm tractors, and combines. A small number of technicians repair diesel-powered passenger auto mobiles, light tracks, or boats. (For information on technicians and mechanics working primarily on automobiles, heavy vehicles, mo bile equipment, or boats, see the Handbook statements on automo tive, heavy vehicle and mobile equipment, and small engine service technicians and mechanics.) Technicians who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles spend most of their time doing preventive maintenance, to ensure that equipment will operate safely. These workers also elimi nate unnecessary wear on and damage to parts that could result in costly breakdowns. During a routine maintenance check on a ve hicle, technicians follow a checklist that includes inspection of brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. Following inspection, technicians repair or adjust parts that do not work properly or remove and replace parts that cannot be fixed. Increasingly, technicians must be flexible, in order to adapt to customer needs and new technologies. It is common for techni cians to handle all kinds of repairs, from working on a vehicle’s electrical system one day, to doing major engine repairs the next. Diesel maintenance is becoming increasingly complex, as more elec tronic components are used to control engine operation. For ex ample, microprocessors regulate and manage fuel timing, increasing engine efficiency. In modern shops, diesel service technicians use hand-held computers to diagnose problems and adjust engine func tions. Technicians must continually learn about new techniques and advanced materials. Diesel service technicians use a variety of tools in their work, including power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches, to remove bolts quickly; machine tools, such as lathes and grinding machines, to rebuild brakes; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Common handtools—screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches— Diesel Service Technicians and Mechanics ____ (C>*NET 49-3031.00) Pv Significant Points • A career as a diesel service technician or mechanic offers relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. • Opportunities are expected to be good for persons who complete formal training programs. • National certification is the recognized standard of achievement for diesel service technicians and mechanics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A diesel service technician works on a bus engine. 492 Occupational Outlook Handbook are used to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. Diesel service technicians and mechanics also use a variety of com puterized testing equipment to pinpoint and analyze malfunctions in electrical systems and engines. In large shops, technicians generally receive their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers. Most supervisors and managers are experienced technicians who also assist in diagnos ing problems and maintaining quality standards. Technicians may work as a team or be assisted by an apprentice or helper when doing heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions. Working Conditions Diesel technicians usually work indoors, although they occasion ally make repairs to vehicles on the road. Diesel technicians may lift heavy parts and tools, handle greasy and dirty parts, and stand or lie in awkward positions to repair vehicles and equipment. Minor cuts, bums, and braises are common, although serious accidents can usually be avoided if the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety procedures are followed. Technicians normally work in welllighted, heated, and ventilated areas; however, some shops are drafty and noisy. Many employers provide lockers and shower facilities. Employment Diesel service technicians and mechanics held about 285,000 jobs in 2000. About 25 percent serviced buses, tracks, and other dieselpowered equipment for customers of vehicle and equipment deal ers, automotive rental and leasing agencies, or independent automotive repair shops. About 20 percent worked for local and long-distance tracking companies, and another 19 percent main tained the buses, tracks, and other equipment of buslines, public transit companies, school systems, or Federal, State, and local gov ernments. The remaining technicians maintained vehicles and other equipment for manufacturing, construction, or other companies. A relatively small number were self-employed. Nearly every section of the country employs diesel service technicians and mechanics, although most work in towns and cities where tracking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many persons qualify for diesel service technician and mechanic jobs through years of on-the-job training, authorities rec ommend completion of a formal diesel engine training program. Employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs because these workers often have a head start in training and are able to quickly advance to the journey level. Many community colleges and trade and vocational schools of fer programs in diesel repair. These programs, lasting 6 months to 2 years, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. Programs vary in the degree of hands-on training they provide on equipment. Some offer about 30 hours per week on equipment, whereas others offer more lab or classroom instruction. Training provides a foundation in the latest diesel technology and instruc tion in the service and repair of the vehicles and equipment that technicians will encounter on the job. Training programs also im prove the skills needed to interpret technical manuals and to com municate with coworkers and customers. In addition to the hands-on aspects of the training, many institutions teach communication skills, customer service, basic understanding of physics, and logical thought. Increasingly, employers work closely with representatives of training programs, providing instructors with the latest equip ment, techniques, and tools and offering jobs to graduates. Whereas most employers prefer to hire persons who have com pleted formal training programs, some technicians and mechanics continue to learn their skills on the job. Unskilled beginners usually https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are assigned tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling and lubricating vehicles, and driving vehicles into and out of the shop. Beginners usually are promoted to trainee positions, as they gain experience and as vacancies become available. In some shops, beginners with experience in automobile service start as trainee technicians. Most trainees perform routine service tasks and make minor repairs after a few months’ experience. These workers advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability and compe tence. After technicians master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related components, such as brakes, transmissions, and electrical systems. Generally, technicians with at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience will qualify as jour ney-level diesel technicians. Completion of a formal training pro gram speeds advancement to the journey level. For unskilled entry-level jobs, employers usually look for appli cants who have mechanical aptitude and strong problem-solving skills, and who are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Nearly all employers require completion of high school. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, English, mathematics, and physics provide a strong educational background for a career as a diesel service technician or mechanic. Technicians need a State commercial driver’s license to test-drive tracks or buses on public roads. Practical experience in automobile repair at a gasoline ser vice station, in the Armed Forces, or as a hobby is also valuable. Employers often send experienced technicians and mechanics to special training classes conducted by manufacturers and vendors, in which workers learn the latest technology and repair techniques. Technicians constantly receive updated technical manuals and ser vice procedures outlining changes in techniques and standards for repair. It is essential for technicians to read, interpret, and compre hend service manuals, in order to keep abreast of engineering changes. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as the standard of achieve ment for diesel service technicians and mechanics. Technicians may be certified as Master Heavy-Duty Track technicians or in spe cific areas of heavy-duty track repair, such as gasoline engines, drive trains, brakes, suspension and steering, electrical and electronic systems, or preventive maintenance and inspection. For certification in each area, a technician must pass one or more of the ASE-administered exams and present proof of 2 years of relevant hands-on work experience. Two years of relevant formal training from a high school, vocational or trade school, or commu nity or junior college program may be substituted for up to 1 year of the work experience requirement. To remain certified, technicians must retest every 5 years. This ensures that service technicians and mechanics keep up with changing technology. Diesel service technicians and mechanics may opt for ASE certifi cation as schoolbus technicians. The certification identifies and recognizes technicians with the knowledge and skills required to diagnose, service, and repair different subsystems of schoolbuses. The ASE School Bus Technician Test Series includes seven certifi cation exams: Body Systems and Special Equipment (SI), Diesel Engines (S2), Drive Train (S3), Brakes (S4), Suspension and Steer ing (S5), Electrical/Electronic Systems (S6), and Air Conditioning Systems and Controls (S7). Whereas several of these tests parallel existing ASE track tests, each one is designed to test knowledge of systems specific to schoolbuses. In order to become ASE-certified in schoolbus repair, technicians must pass one or more of the ex ams and present proof of 2 years of relevant hands-on work experi ence. Technicians who pass tests SI through S6 become ASE-Certified Master School Bus Technicians. The most important work possessions of technicians and mechan ics are their handtools. Technicians and mechanics usually provide Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 493 their own tools, and many experienced workers have thousands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment; but individual workers ordinarily accumulate handtools with experience. Experienced technicians and mechanics with leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Technicians and mechanics with sales ability sometimes become sales represen tatives. Some open their own repair shops. and weekends. These technicians usually receive a higher rate of pay for working non-traditional hours. Many diesel service technicians and mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Job Outlook Employment of diesel service technicians and mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Besides openings resulting from employment growth, opportunities will be created by the need to replace workers who retire or transfer to other occupations. Employment of diesel service technicians and mechanics is ex pected to grow as freight transportation by truck increases. Addi tional trucks will be needed to keep pace with the increasing volume of freight shipped nationwide. Trucks also serve as intermediaries for other forms of transportation, such as rail and air. Due to the greater durability and economy of the diesel engine relative to the gasoline engine, buses and trucks of all sizes are expected to be increasingly powered by diesels. In addition, diesel service techni cians will be needed to maintain and repair the growing number of schoolbuses in operation. Careers as diesel service technicians attract many because of rela tively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. Oppor tunities should be good for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics at community and junior colleges and voca tional and technical schools. Applicants without formal training may face stiffer competition for entry-level jobs. Most persons entering this occupation can expect steady work, because changes in economic conditions have little effect on the diesel repair business. During a financial downturn, however, some employers may be reluctant to hire new workers. Related Occupations Diesel service technicians and mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equipment. Related technician and mechanic occupations include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians, automotive service technicians and mechanics, heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and me chanics, and small engine mechanics. Earnings Median hourly earnings of bus and truck mechanics and diesel en gine specialists, including incentive pay, were $15.55 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.33 and $ 19.30 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.88, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $22.63 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of bus and truck me chanics and diesel engine specialists in 2000 were as follows: >■ Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technol ogy, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org >- National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA20171-3421. Internet: http://www.natef.org Local government.................................................................................. Motor vehicles, parts, and supplies................................................... Automotive repair shops...................................................................... Trucking and courier services, except air........................................ Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... $17.93 15.48 14.74 14.65 14.63 Because many experienced technicians employed by truck fleet dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed. Beginners usually earn from 50 to 75 percent of the rate of skilled workers and receive increases, as they become more skilled, until they reach the rates of skilled ser vice technicians. The majority of service technicians work a standard 40-hour week, although some work longer hours, particularly if they are self-employed. A growing number of shops have expanded their hours to better perform repairs and routine service when needed, or as a convenience to customers. Those employed by truck and bus Digitized firms for FRASER providing service around the clock may work evenings, nights, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for diesel service technicians and mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as truck ing companies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of the unions pre viously mentioned; and local offices of your State employment service. Local State employment service offices also may have in formation about training programs. State boards of postsecondary career schools also have information on licensed schools with train ing programs for diesel service technicians and mechanics. For general information about a career as a diesel service techni cian or mechanic, write: >- Detroit Diesel, Personnel Director, MS B39,13400 West Outer Dr., De troit, MI 48239. Information on how to become a certified medium/heavy-duty diesel technician or bus technician is available from: >- ASE, 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel service technicians and mechan ics, contact: For a directory of public training programs for diesel service technicians and mechanics, contact: >• SkillsUSA-VICA, P.O. Box 3000,14001 James Monroe Hwy., Leesburg, VA 22075. Internet: http://www.skillsusa.org Heavy Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Service Technicians and Mechanics (0**NET 49-3041.00, 49-3042.00, 49-3043.00) Significant Points • • • Opportunities should be good for persons with formal postsecondary training in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics, especially if they also have training in basic electronics and hydraulics. This occupation offers relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. Skill in using computerized diagnostic equipment is becoming more important. 494 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Heavy vehicles and mobile equipment are indispensable to many industrial activities, from construction to railroads. Various types of equipment move materials, till land, lift beams, and dig earth to pave the way for development and production. Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics repair and maintain engines and hydraulic, transmission, and electrical sys tems powering farm equipment, cranes, bulldozers, and railcars. (For more detailed information on service technicians specializing in diesel engines, see the statement on diesel service technicians and mechanics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Service technicians perform routine maintenance checks on die sel engines and fuel, brake, and transmission systems to ensure peak performance, safety, and longevity of the equipment. Maintenance checks and comments from equipment operators usually alert tech nicians to problems. With many types of modem heavy and mobile equipment, technicians can plug hand-held diagnostic computers into onboard computers to diagnose any component needing ad justment or repair. After locating the problem, these technicians rely on their training and experience to use the best possible tech nique to solve the problem. If necessary, they may partially dis mantle the component to examine parts for damage or excessive wear. Then, using hand-held tools, they repair, replace, clean, and lubricate parts, as necessary. In some cases, technicians calibrate systems by typing codes into the onboard computer. After reassem bling the component and testing it for safety, they put it back into the equipment and return the equipment to the field. Many types of heavy and mobile equipment use hydraulics to raise and lower movable parts, such as scoops, shovels, log forks, and scraper blades. When hydraulic components malfunction, tech nicians examine them for hydraulic fluid leaks, ruptured hoses, or worn gaskets on fluid reservoirs. Occasionally, the equipment requires extensive repairs, such as replacing a defective hydraulic pump. In addition to routine maintenance checks, service technicians perform a variety of other repairs. They diagnose electrical prob lems and adjust or replace defective components. They also disas semble and repair undercarriages and track assemblies. Occasionally, technicians weld broken equipment frames and struc tural parts, using electric or gas welders. It is common for technicians in large shops to specialize in one or two types of repair. For example, a shop may have individual specialists in major engine repair, transmission work, electrical sys tems, and suspension or brake systems. The technology used in heavy equipment is becoming more sophisticated with the increased use of electronic and computer-controlled components. Training in electronics is essential for these technicians to make engine ad justments and diagnose problems. Training in the use of hand-held computers also is necessary, because computers help technicians diagnose problems and adjust component functions. Service technicians use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly, machine tools like lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes, welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems, and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. They also use common handtools—screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches—to work on small parts and to get at hard-to-reach places. Service technicians may use a variety of computerized testing equip ment to pinpoint and analyze malfunctions in electrical systems and other essential systems. For example, they use tachometers and dynamometers to locate engine malfunctions. Service technicians also use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters when working on electrical systems. Mobile heavy equipment mechanics and service technicians keep construction and surface mining equipment such bulldozer, cranes, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Due to the growing complexity of farm equipment, farmers increasingly turn to specialists for service and repairs. crawlers, draglines, graders, excavators, and other equipment in working order. They typically work for equipment wholesale dis tribution and leasing firms, large construction and mining compa nies, local and Federal governments, or other organizations operating and maintaining heavy machinery and equipment fleets. Service technicians employed by the Federal Government may work on tanks and other armored equipment. Farm equipment mechanics service, maintain, and repair farm equipment as well as smaller lawn and garden tractors sold to sub urban homeowners. What typically was a general repairer’s job around the farm has evolved into a specialized technical career. Farmers have increasingly turned to farm equipment dealers to ser vice and repair their equipment because the machinery has grown in complexity. Modem equipment uses more electronics and hy draulics making it difficult to perform repairs without some spe cialized training. Farm equipment mechanics work mostly on equipment brought into the shop for repair and adjustment. During planting and har vesting seasons, they may travel to farms to make emergency repairs to minimize delays in farm operations. Railcar repairers specialize in servicing railroad locomotives and other rolling stock, streetcars and subway cars, or mine cars. Most work for railroads, public and private transit companies, and underground mine operators. Working Conditions Service technicians usually work indoors, although many make re pairs at the work site. Technicians often lift heavy parts and tools, handle greasy and dirty parts, and stand or lie in awkward posi tions, to repair vehicles and equipment. Minor cuts, bums, and bruises are common; but serious accidents are normally avoided when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed. Technicians usually work in well-lighted, heated, and ventilated areas. However, some shops are drafty and noisy. Many employers provide uniforms, locker rooms, and shower facilities. When heavy and mobile equipment breaks down at a construc tion site, it may be too difficult or expensive to bring it into a repair shop, so the shop often sends a field service technician to the jobsite to make repairs. Field service technicians work outdoors and spend much of their time away from the shop. Generally more experi enced service technicians specialize in field service. They usually drive trucks specially equipped with replacement parts and tools. On occasion, they must travel many miles to reach disabled Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 495 machinery. Field technicians normally earn a higher wage than their counterparts, because they are required to make on-the-spot decisions necessary to serve their customers. The hours of work for farm equipment mechanics vary accord ing to the season of the year. During the busy planting and harvest ing seasons, mechanics often work 6 or 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In slow winter months, however, mechanics may work fewer than 40 hours a week. Employment Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics held about 185,000 jobs in 2000. About 130,000 were mobile heavy equipment mechanics; 41,000 were farm equipment mechanics; and 14,000 were railcar repairers. More than 40 per cent were employed by heavy and mobile equipment dealers and distributors. About 11 percent were employed by Federal, State, and local governments; and nearly 9 percent worked for construc tion contractors. Other service technicians worked for agricultural production and services, mine operators, public utilities, or heavy equipment rental and leasing companies. Still others repaired equip ment for machinery manufacturers, airlines, railroads, steel mills, or oil and gas field companies. Less than 4 percent of service tech nicians were self-employed. Nearly every section of the country employs heavy and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics, though most work in towns and cities where equipment dealers, equipment rental and leasing companies, and construction companies have repair facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many persons qualify for service technician jobs through years of on-the-job training, most employers prefer that applicants complete a formal diesel or heavy equipment mechanic training program after graduating from high school. They seek persons with mechanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamen tals of diesel engines, transmissions, electrical systems, and hydrau lics. Additionally, the constant change in equipment technology makes it necessary for technicians to be flexible and have the capacity to leam new skills quickly. Many community colleges and vocational schools offer programs in diesel technology. Some tailor programs to heavy equipment mechanics. These programs educate the student in the basics of analysis and diagnostic techniques, electronics, and hydraulics. The increased use of electronics and computers makes training in the fundamentals of electronics essential for new heavy and mobile equipment mechanics. Some 1- to 2-year programs lead to a cer tificate of completion, whereas others lead to an associate degree in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. These programs provide a foundation in the components of diesel and heavy equipment tech nology. These programs also enable trainee technicians to advance more rapidly to the journey, or experienced worker, level. A combination of formal and on-the-job training prepares trainee technicians with the knowledge to efficiently service and repair equipment handled by a shop. Most beginners perform routine ser vice tasks and make minor repairs, after a few months’ experience. They advance to harder jobs, as they prove their ability and compe tence. After trainees master the repair and service of diesel engines, they leam to work on related components, such as brakes, transmis sions, and electrical systems. Generally, a service technician with at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience is accepted as fully qualified. Many employers send trainee technicians to training sessions conducted by heavy equipment manufacturers. These sessions, which typically last up to 1 week, provide intensive instruction in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the repair of a manufacturer’s equipment. Some sessions focus on particular components found in the manufacturer’s equipment, such as diesel engines, transmissions, axles, and electrical systems. Other sessions focus on particular types of equipment, such as crawlerloaders and crawler-dozers. As they progress, trainees may peri odically attend additional training sessions. When appropriate, experienced technicians attend training sessions to gain familiarity with new technology or equipment. High school courses in automobile repair, physics, chemistry, and mathematics provide a strong foundation for a career as a ser vice technician or mechanic. It is also essential for technicians to be able to read and interpret service manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Experience working on diesel engines and heavy equipment acquired in the Armed Forces also is valuable. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as the standard of achieve ment for heavy and mobile equipment diesel service technicians. Technicians may be certified as a Master Heavy-Duty Diesel Tech nician or in 1 or more of 6 different areas of heavy-duty equipment repair: Brakes, gasoline engines, diesel engines, drive trains, elec trical systems, and suspension and steering. For certification in each area, technicians must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years’ experience. High school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college training in gasoline or diesel engine repair may substitute for up to 1 year’s experience. To remain cer tified, technicians must retest every 5 years. This ensures that ser vice technicians keep up with changing technology. However, there are currently no certification programs for other heavy vehicle and mobile equipment repair specialties. The most important work possessions of technicians are their handtools. Service technicians typically buy their own handtools, and many experienced technicians have thousands of dollars in vested in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment; but handtools are normally accumulated with experience. Experienced technicians may advance to field service jobs, where they have a greater opportunity to tackle problems independently and earn additional pay. Technicians with leadership ability may become shop supervisors or service managers. Some technicians open their own repair shops or invest in a franchise. Job Outlook Opportunities for heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service tech nicians and mechanics should be good for persons who have com pleted formal training programs in diesel or heavy equipment mechanics. Persons without formal training are expected to en counter growing difficulty entering these jobs. Employment of heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service tech nicians and mechanics is expected to grow slower than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced repairers who retire. Employers report difficulty finding candidates with formal postsecondary training to fill available service technician positions because many young people with mechanic training prefer to take jobs as automotive service technicians, diesel service technicians, or industrial machinery repairers—jobs that offer relatively higher earnings and a wider variety of locations in which to work. Increasing numbers of service technicians will be required to support growth in the construction industry, equipment dealers, and rental and leasing companies. Because of the nature of construc tion activity, demand for service technicians follows the Nation’s economic cycle. As the economy expands, construction activity increases, resulting in the use of more mobile heavy equipment. More equipment is needed to grade construction sites, excavate 496 Occupational Outlook Handbook basements, and lay water and sewer lines, increasing the need for periodic service and repair. In addition, the construction and repair of highways and bridges also requires more technicians to service equipment. Also, as equipment becomes more complex, repairs increasingly must be made by specially trained technicians. Job openings for farm equipment mechanics and railcar repairers are mostly expected to arise due to replacement needs. Construction and mining are particularly sensitive to changes in the level of economic activity; therefore, heavy and mobile equip ment may be idled during downturns. In addition, winter is tradi tionally the slow season for construction and farming activity, particularly in cold regions. Few technicians may be needed during periods when equipment is used less; however, employers usually try to retain experienced workers. Employers may be reluctant to hire inexperienced workers during slow periods though. Earnings Median hourly earnings of mobile heavy equipment mechanics were $16.32 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.32 and $19.86. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.93, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.29. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of mobile heavy equipment mechanics in 2000 were as follows: Federal Government............................................................................. Local government.................................................................................. Machinery, equipment, and supplies................................................. Miscellaneous equipment rental and leasing................................... Heavy construction, except highway................................................ $18.67 17.09 16.05 15.95 15.54 Median hourly earnings of farm equipment mechanics were $12.38 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.99 and $15.29. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $8.15, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.23. Median hourly earnings of railcar repairers were $ 16.19 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.31 and $19.34. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.78, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $21.19. About one-fourth of all service technicians and mechanics are members of unions including the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers, the International Union of Oper ating Engineers, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Workers in related repair occupations include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians; automotive service technicians and mechanics; diesel service technicians and mechan ics; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and in stallers; and small engine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about job openings for heavy vehicle and mobile equip ment service technicians and mechanics may be obtained from lo cal heavy and mobile equipment dealers and distributors, construction contractors, and government agencies. Local offices of the State employment service also may have information on job openings and training programs. For general information about a career as a heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technician or mechanic, contact: >- The Equipment Maintenance Counsel, P.O. Box 1368, Glenwood Springs, CO 81602. Internet: http://www.equipment.org ►Specialized Carriers and Rigging Association, 2750 Prosperity Ave., Suite 620,for Fairfax, VA 22031 -4312. Digitized FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ►The AED Foundation (Associated Equipment Dealers affiliate), 615 W. 22nd St., Oak Brook, IL 60523. Internet: http://www.aednet.org/aed_foundation For a directory of public training programs in heavy and mobile equipment mechanics, contact: ► SkillsUSA-VICA, P.O. Box 3000, 1401 James Monroe Hwy., Leesburg, http://www.skillsusa.org A list of certified diesel service technician training programs can be obtained from: VA 22075. Internet: ► National Automotive Technician Education Foundation (NATEF), 13505 Dulles Technology Dr., Herndon, VA 20171-3421. Internet: http://www.natef.org Information on certification as a heavy-duty diesel service techni cian is available from: ► ASE, 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org Small Engine Mechanics (0**NET 49-3051.00, 49-3052.00, 49-3053.00) Significant Points • • Employment is expected to grow slowly, but persons with formal mechanic training should enjoy good job prospects. Because the use of motorcycles, motorboats, and outdoor power equipment is seasonal in many areas, mechanics may service other types of equipment or work reduced hours in the winter. Nature of the Work Though smaller, engines powering motorcycles, motorboats, and outdoor power equipment share many characteristics with their larger counterparts, including breakdowns. Small engine mechanics re pair and service power equipment ranging from racing motorcycles to chain saws. Small engines, like large engines, require periodic service to minimize the chance of breakdowns and to keep them operating at peak performance. During routine equipment maintenance, me chanics follow a checklist including the inspection and cleaning of brakes, electrical systems, fuel injection systems, plugs, carbure tors, and other parts. Following inspection, mechanics usually re pair or adjust parts that do not work properly, or replace unfixable parts. Routine maintenance is normally a major part of the mechanic’s work. When equipment breakdowns occur, mechanics use various tech niques to diagnose the source and extent of the problem. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the ability to diagnose mechanical, fuel, and electrical problems, and to make repairs in a minimal amount of time. Quick and accurate diagnosis requires problem-solving ability and a thorough knowledge of the equipment’s operation. In larger repair shops, mechanics may use special computerized diagnostic testing equipment as a preliminary tool in analyzing equipment. These computers provide a systematic performance report of various components to compare them to normal ratings. After pinpointing the problem, the mechanic makes the needed ad justments, repairs, or replacements. Some jobs require minor ad justments or the replacement of a single item, such as a carburetor or fuel pump. In contrast, a complete engine overhaul requires a number of hours to disassemble the engine and replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Some highly skilled Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 497 mechanics use highly specialized components and the latest com puterized equipment to customize and tune motorcycles and motor boats for racing. Small engine mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers. They also use power tools, such as drills and grinders when customized repairs warrant. Computer ized engine analyzers, compression gauges, ammeters and volt meters, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts and tune engines. Hoists may be used to lift heavy equipment such as motorcycles, snowmobiles, or motorboats. Mechanics often refer to service manuals for detailed directions and specifications while performing repairs. Motorcycle mechanics repair and overhaul motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, dirt bikes, and all-terrain vehicles. Besides en gines, they may work on transmissions, brakes, and ignition sys tems, and make minor body repairs. Mechanics usually specialize in the service and repair of one type of equipment, although they may work on closely related products. Mechanics may only service a few makes and models of motorcycles because usually the dealers only service the products they sell. Motorboat mechanics, or marine equipment mechanics, repair and adjust the electrical and mechanical equipment of inboard and outboard boat engines. Most small boats have portable outboard engines that are removed and brought into the repair shop. Larger craft, such as cabin cruisers and commercial fishing boats, are pow ered by diesel or gasoline inboard or inboard-outboard engines, . Motorcycle mechanics may schedule time-consuming engine overhauls during winter downtime. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis which are only removed for major overhauls. Most of these repairs are performed at the docks or marinas. Motorboat mechanics may also work on propellers, steering mechanisms, marine plumbing, and other boat equipment. Outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics service and repair outdoor power equipment such as lawnmowers, garden tractors, edge trimmers, and chain saws. They may also occasionally work on portable generators and go-carts. In addition, small engine mechanics in northern parts of the country may work on snowblowers and snowmobiles, but demand for this type of repair is seasonal. Working Conditions Small engine mechanics usually work in repair shops that are welllighted and ventilated, but are sometimes noisy when testing en gines. Motorboat mechanics may work outdoors at docks or marinas, as well as in all weather conditions when making repairs aboard boats. They may work in cramped or awkward positions to reach a boat’s engine. During the winter months in the northern United States, mechan ics may work fewer than 40 hours a week because the amount of repair and service work declines when lawnmowers, motorboats, and motorcycles are not in use. Many mechanics only work during the busy spring and summer seasons. However, many mechanics schedule time-consuming engine overhauls or work on snowmo biles and snowblowers during winter downtime. Mechanics may work considerably more than 40 hours a week when demand is strong. Employment Small-engine mechanics held about 73,000 jobs in 2000. Motor cycle mechanics held about 14,000jobs; motorboat mechanics held about 25,000; and outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics held about 33,000. About one-third worked for retail hardware and garden stores, or retail dealers of motorboats, motor cycles, and miscellaneous vehicles. Most of the remainder were employed by independent repair shops, marinas and boat yards, equipment rental companies, wholesale distributors, and landscap ing services. About 1 in 4 were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Due to the increasing complexity of motorcycles and motorboats, most employers prefer to hire mechanics who graduate from formal training programs for small engine mechanics. Because the num ber of these specialized postsecondary programs is limited, most mechanics learn their skills on the job or while working in related occupations. For trainee jobs, employers hire persons with me chanical aptitude who are knowledgeable about the fundamentals of small 2- and 4-stroke engines. Many trainees develop an interest in mechanics and acquire some basic skills through working on automobiles, motorcycles, motorboats, or outdoor power equipment as a hobby. Others may be introduced to mechanics through voca tional automotive training in high school, or one of many postsecondary institutions. Trainees learn routine service tasks under the guidance of expe rienced mechanics by replacing ignition points and spark plugs or by taking apart, assembling, and testing new equipment. As train ees gain experience and proficiency, they progress to more difficult tasks such as advanced computerized diagnosis and engine over hauls. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be necessary before a novice worker becomes competent in all aspects of the repair of motorcycle and motorboat engines. Employers often send mechanics and trainees to special training courses conducted by motorcycle, motorboat, and outdoor power 498 Occupational Outlook Handbook equipment manufacturers or distributors. These courses, which can last as long as 2 weeks, upgrade the worker’s skills and provide information on repairing new models. They are usually a prerequi site for any mechanic who performs warranty work for manufactur ers or insurance companies. Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for trainee mechanic positions, but will accept applicants with less education if they possess adequate reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Many equipment dealers employ students part time and during the sum mer to help assemble new equipment and perform minor repairs. Helpful high school courses include small engine repair, automo bile mechanics, science, and business arithmetic. Knowledge of basic electronics is essential for small engine mechanics. Electronic components control engine performance, instrument displays, and a variety of other functions of motorcycles, motorboats, and outdoor power equipment. To recognize and fix potential problems, mechanics should be familiar with the basic principles of electronics. The most important work possessions of mechanics are their hand tools. Mechanics usually provide their own tools and many experi enced mechanics have invested thousands of dollars in them. Employers typically furnish expensive powertools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment, but mechanics accumulate hand tools with experience. The skills used as a small engine mechanic generally transfer to other occupations such as automobile, diesel, or heavy vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics. Experienced mechanics with lead ership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager jobs. Mechanics with sales ability sometimes become sales repre sentatives or open their own repair shops. result in an increase in the lawn and garden equipment in operation, increasing the need for mechanics. However, equipment growth will be slowed by trends toward smaller lawns and contracting out their maintenance to lawn service firms. Growth also will be tem pered by the tendency of many consumers to dispose of and replace relatively inexpensive items rather than have them repaired. Job Outlook Employment of small engine mechanics is expected to grow slower than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. The majority ofjob openings are expected to be replacement jobs because many experienced small engine mechanics leave each year to trans fer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Job prospects should be especially favorable for persons who com plete mechanic training programs. Growth of personal disposable income over the 2000-10 period should provide consumers with more discretionary dollars to buy motorboats, lawn and garden power equipment, and motorcycles. This will require more mechanics to keep the growing amount of equipment in operation. In addition, routine service will always be a significant source of work for mechanics. While advance ments in technology will lengthen the interval between checkups, the need for qualified mechanics to perform this service will increase. Employment of motorcycle mechanics should increase slowly as the popularity of motorcycles rebounds. Motorcycle usage should continue to be popular with persons between the ages of 18 and 24, an age group which historically has had the greatest proportion of motorcycle enthusiasts. Motorcycles also are increasingly popular with persons over the age of 40. Traditionally, this group has dis posable income to spend on recreational equipment such as motor cycles and motorboats. Over the next decade, more people will be entering the 40 and over age group; this group is responsible for the largest segment of marine craft purchases. These potential buyers will help expand the market for motorboats, while helping to maintain the demand for qualified mechanics. Construction of new single-family houses will Related Occupations Mechanics and repairers who work on other types of mobile equip ment include automotive service technicians and mechanics, diesel service technicians and mechanics, and heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of motorcycle mechanics were $25,100 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 19,660 and $32,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 15,980, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,180. Median annual earnings in 2000 in motorcycle dealers, the industry employing the largest numbers of motorcycle mechanics, were $25,650. Median annual earnings of motorboat mechanics were $26,660 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,760 and $33,680. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,320, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,490. Median annual earn ings in 2000 in boat dealers, the industry employing the largest num bers of motorboat mechanics, were $26,350. Median annual earnings of outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics were $23,780 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $18,930 and $29,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,830, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,250. Small engine mechanics tend to receive few benefits in small shops, but those employed in larger shops often receive paid vaca tions, sick leave, and health insurance. Some employers also pay for work-related training and provide uniforms. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local motorcycle, motorboat, and lawn and garden equipment dealers, boat yards, and marinas. Local offices of the State employment service may also have information about employment and training opportunities. General information about motorcycle mechanic careers may be obtained from: >■ American Motorcycle Institute, 3042 West International Speedway Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32124. Telephone (tollfree): 800-874-0645. Internet: http://www.amiwrench.org > Motorcycle Mechanics Institute, 2844 West Deer Valley Rd., Phoenix, AZ 85027. Telephone (tollfree): 800-582-7995. Internet: http://www.uticorp.com/techtraining General information about motorboat mechanic careers is avail able from: > American Marine Institute, 3042 West International Speedway Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32124. Telephone (tollfree): 800-874-0645. Internet: http://www.amiwrench.org > American Watercraft Institute, 3042 West International Speedway Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32124. Telephone (tollfree): 800-342-9253. Internet: http://www.amiwrench.org >- Marine Mechanics Institute, 9751 Delegates Dr., Orlando, FL 32827. Telephone (tollfree): 800-342-9253. Internet: http://www.uticorp.com/techtraining Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 499 Other Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Coin, Vending, and Amusement Machine Servicers and Repairers (0*NET 49-9091.00) Significant Points • Most workers learn their skills on the job. • Opportunities should be good for persons with some knowledge of electronics. Nature of the Work Coin, vending, and amusement machines are a familiar sight in offices, convenience stores, arcades, or casinos. These coin-oper ated machines give out change, dispense refreshments, test our senses, and spit out lottery tickets nearly everywhere we turn. Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers install, service, and stock these machines and keep them in good working order. Vending machine servicers, often called route drivers, visit ma chines that dispense soft drinks, candy and snacks, and other items. They collect money from the machines, restock merchandise, and change labels to indicate new selections. They also keep the ma chines clean and appealing. Vending machine repairers, often called mechanics or techni cians, make sure machines operate correctly. When checking com plicated electrical and electronic machines, such as beverage dispensers, they make sure that the machines mix drinks properly and that refrigeration and heating units work correctly. On the rela tively simple gravity-operated machines, servicers check keypads, motors, and merchandise chutes. They also test coin, bill, and change-making mechanisms. When installing machines, vending machine repairers make the necessary water and electrical connections and check the machines for proper operation. They also make sure installation complies with local plumbing and electrical codes. Because many vending machines dispense food, these workers, along with vending ma chine servicers, must comply with State and local public health and sanitation standards. Amusement machine servicers and repairers work on jukeboxes, video games, pinball machines, and slot machines. They make sure that the various levers, joysticks, and mechanisms function prop erly, so that the games remain fair and the jukebox selections are accurate. They update selections, repair or replace malfunctioning parts, and rebuild existing equipment. Those who work in the gam ing industry must adhere to strict guidelines, because Federal and State agencies regulate many gaming machines. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is a major job of repairers. For example, they periodically clean refrig eration condensers, lubricate mechanical parts, and adjust machines to perform properly. If a machine breaks down, vending and amusement machine repairers inspect it for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism or bill validator, and leaks. When servicing electronic machines, repairers test them with hand-held diagnostic computers that determine the extent and location of any problem. Repairers may only have to replace a circuit board or other component to fix the problem. However, if https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the problem cannot be readily located, these workers refer to tech nical manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices, such as electrical circuit testers, to find defective parts. Repairers decide if they must replace a part and whether they can fix the malfunction onsite, or if they have to send the machine to the repair shop. In the repair shop, vending and amusement machine repairers use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills, as well as voltmeters, ohmmeters, oscilloscopes, and other testing equip ment. They also use ordinary repair tools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches. Vending machine servicers and repairers employed by small companies may both fill and fix machines on a regular basis. These combination servicers-repairers stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and repair machines when necessary. Servicers and repairers also do some paperwork, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, ordering parts, and keep ing daily records of merchandise distributed and money collected. However, new machines with computerized inventory controls reduce the paperwork that a servicer must complete. MsSvii An amusement machine repairer adjusts a pinball machine for an arcade. 500 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Some vending and amusement machine repairers work primarily in company repair shops, but many spend substantial time on the road visiting machines wherever they have been placed. Repairers gen erally work a total of 40 hours a week. However, vending and amuse ment machines operate around the clock, so repairers may be on call to work at night and on weekends and holidays. Vending and amusement machine repair shops generally are quiet, well-lighted, and have adequate workspace. However, when ser vicing machines on location, the work may be done where pedes trian traffic is heavy, such as in busy supermarkets, industrial complexes, offices, casinos, or arcades. Repair work is relatively safe, although servicers and repairers must take care to avoid haz ards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and other metal objects. They also must follow safe work procedures, espe cially when moving heavy vending and amusement machines. Employment . Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers held about 37,000 jobs in 2000. Most repairers work for vending com panies that sell food and other items through machines. Others work for soft drink bottling companies that have their own coinoperated machines. A growing number of servicers and repairers work for amusement establishments that own video games, pinball machines, jukeboxes, slot machines, and similar types of amuse ment equipment. Although vending and amusement machine servicers and repairers are employed throughout the country, most are located in areas with large populations and, thus, many vending and amusement machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers learn their skills on the job. New workers are trained to fill and fix machines informally on the job by observing, work ing with, and receiving instruction from experienced repairers. Employers normally prefer to hire high school graduates; high school or vocational school courses in electricity, refrigeration, and machine repair are an advantage in qualifying for entry-level jobs. Employ ers usually require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. Because coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers sometimes handle thousands of dollars in merchandise and cash, employers hire persons who seem to have a record of honesty. Also, the ability to deal tactfully with people is important because the servicers and repairers play a significant role in relaying cus tomer requests and concerns. A driver s license and a good driving record are essential for most vending and amusement machine servicer and repairer jobs. Some employers require their servicers to be bonded. As electronics become more prevalent in vending and amuse ment machines, employers will increasingly prefer applicants who have some training in electronics. Technologically advanced ma chines with features such as multilevel pricing, inventory control, and scrolling messages use electronics and microchip computers extensively. Some vocational high schools and junior colleges of fer 1- to 2-year training programs in basic electronics. Beginners start training with simple jobs, such as cleaning or stocking machines. They then learn to rebuild machines by remov ing defective parts, and repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines. Next, they accompany an experienced repairer on ser vice calls, and finally make visits on their own. This learning pro cess takes from 6 months to 2 years, depending on the individual’s abilities, previous education, types of machines serviced, and qual ity of instruction. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The National Automatic Merchandising Association has a self study technicians training program for vending machine repairers. Repairers use manuals for instruction in subjects such as customer relations, safety, electronics, and schematic reading. Upon comple tion of the program, repairers must pass a written test to become certified as a technician or journeyman. To learn about new machines, repairers and servicers sometimes attend training sessions sponsored by manufacturers and machine distributors that may last from a few days to several weeks. Both trainees and experienced workers sometimes take evening courses in basic electricity, electronics, microwave ovens, refrigeration, and other related subjects to stay on top of new techniques and equip ment. Skilled servicers and repairers may be promoted to supervi sory jobs or go into business for themselves. Job Outlook Job openings for coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers will arise from employment growth and from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities should be good for persons with some knowledge of electronics, because electronic circuitry is an important component of vending and amusement machines. If firms cannot find trained or experienced workers for these jobs, they are likely to train qualified route drivers or hire inexperienced people who have acquired some mechanical, electrical, or electron ics training by taking high school or vocational courses. Employment of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010 because of the increasing num ber of vending and amusement machines in operation. Establish ments are likely to install additional vending machines in industrial plants, hospitals, stores, and schools to meet the public demand for inexpensive snacks and other food items. Also, there is an increased need for vending machines in businesses with few employees. The range of products dispensed by the machines is expected to increase, as vending machines continue to become increasingly automated and begin to incorporate microwave ovens, mini refrigerators, and freezers. In addition, casinos, arcades, and other amusement estab lishments are an increasing source of entertainment. Also, State and multistate lotteries are increasingly using coin-operated machines to sell scratch-off tickets in grocery stores and other pub lic places. Furthermore, circuit boards in many vending machines must be either replaced or reprogrammed so that the machines can accept the new $5 and $10 bills, increasing the need for servicers and repairers. Improved technology in newer machines will moderate employ ment growth because these machines require maintenance less fre quently than do older ones. These new machines will need repairing and restocking less often, and contain computers that record sales and inventory data, reducing the amount of time-consuming paper work. The Internet is beginning to play a large role in the monitoring of vending machines from remote locations. Additionally, some new machines use wireless data transmitters to signal the vending machine company when the machine needs restocking or repairing. This allows servicers and repairers to be dispatched only when needed, instead of having to check each machine on a regular schedule. Earnings . Median hourly earnings of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers were $12.33 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $9.18 and $15.78 an hour. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $7.06 an hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.51 an hour. Median hourly earnings of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers were Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 501 $ 11.24 and $ 10.49 in miscellaneous amusement and recreation ser vices and nonstore retailers, respectively, in 2000. Typically, States with some form of legalized gaming have the highest wages. Most coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repair ers work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for nightwork and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays than for regular hours. Some vending machine repairers and servicers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who repair equipment with electrical and electronic components include electrical and electronics installers and repair ers; electronic home-entertainment equipment installers and repair ers; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; and home appliance repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities in this field can be obtained from local vending machine firms and local offices of your State employ ment service. For general information on vending machine repair, write to: >- National Automatic Merchandising Association, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 3500, Chicago, IL 60606-3102. Internet: http://www.vending.org > Automatic Merchandiser Vending Group, Cygnus Business Media, P.O. Box 803, 1233 Janesville Ave., Fort Atkinson, WI 53538-0803. Internet: http://www.amonline.com Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers (0**NET 49-9021.01, 49-9021.02) Significant Points • • Opportunities should be very good for mechanics and installers with technical school or formal apprenticeship training. Mechanics and installers need a basic understanding of microelectronics because they increasingly install and service equipment with electronic controls. Nature of the Work What would those living in Chicago do without heating, those in Miami do without air-conditioning, or blood banks all over the coun try do without refrigeration? Heating and air-conditioning systems control the temperature, humidity, and the total air quality in resi dential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings. Refrigeration systems make it possible to store and transport food, medicine, and other perishable items. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion mechanics and installers—also called technicians—install, maintain, and repair such systems. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems consist of many mechanical, electrical, and electronic components such as motors, compressors, pumps, fans, ducts, pipes, thermostats, and switches. In central heating systems, for example, a furnace heats air that is distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Technicians must be able to maintain, diag nose, and correct problems throughout the entire system. To do this, they adjust system controls to recommended settings and test https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the performance of the entire system using special tools and test equipment. Although they are trained to do both, technicians often special ize in either installation or maintenance and repair. Some special ize in one type of equipment—for example, oil burners, solar panels, or commercial refrigerators. Technicians may work for large or small contracting companies or directly for a manufacturer or whole saler. Those working for smaller operations tend to do both instal lation and servicing, and work with heating, cooling, and refrigeration equipment. Heating and air-conditioning mechanics install, service, and re pair heating and air-conditioning systems in both residences and commercial establishments. Furnace installers, also called heat ing equipment technicians, follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multiple-fuel heating sys tems. Air-conditioning mechanics install and service central air conditioning systems. After putting the equipment in place, they install fuel and water supply lines, air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They may connect electrical wiring and con trols and check the unit for proper operation. To ensure the proper functioning of the system, furnace installers often use combustion test equipment such as carbon dioxide and oxygen testers. After a furnace has been installed, heating equipment techni cians often perform routine maintenance and repairwork to keep the system operating efficiently. During the fall and winter, for example, when the system is used most, they service and adjust burners and blowers. If the system is not operating properly, they check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, or other parts to di agnose and then correct the problem. During the summer, when the heating system is not being used, heating equipment technicians do maintenance work, such as re placing filters, ducts, and other parts of the system that may accu mulate dust and impurities during the operating season. During the winter, air-conditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do re quired maintenance, such as overhauling compressors. Refrigeration mechanics install, service, and repair industrial and commercial refrigerating systems and a variety of refrigeration equip ment. They follow blueprints, design specifications, and manufac turers’ instructions to install motors, compressors, condensing units, evaporators, piping, and other components. They connect this equip ment to the ductwork, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refriger ant, check it for proper operation, and program control systems. When heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics service equipment, they must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants used in air-conditioning and refrigeration sys tems. The release of CFCs and HCFCs contributes to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects plant and animal life from ultraviolet radiation. Technicians conserve the refrigerant by making sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover it by venting the refrigerant into proper cylinders; and they recycle it for reuse with special filter-dryers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are adept at using a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, measurement gauges, and acetylene torches, to work with refri gerant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check air flow, refrigerant pressure, electrical circuits, burners, and other components. New technology, in the form of cellular “Web” phones that allow technicians to tap into the Internet, may soon affect the way techni cians diagnose problems. Computer hardware and software have 502 Occupational Outlook Handbook Technicians may work outside in cold or hot weather or in build ings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equipment is broken. In addition, technicians might have to work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, bums, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Appro priate safety equipment is necessary when handling refrigerants because contact can cause skin damage, frostbite, or blindness. In halation of refrigerants when working in confined spaces is also a possible hazard The majority of mechanics and installers work more than a 40hour week, particularly during peak seasons when they often work overtime or irregular hours. Maintenance workers, including those who provide maintenance services under contract, often work evening or weekend shifts, and are on call. Most employers try to provide a full workweek the year round by scheduling both instal lation and maintenance work, and many manufacturers and con tractors now provide or even require service contracts. In most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment, employment is very stable throughout the year. 49 ■ m Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics use electronic diagnostic tools to identify problems. been developed that allows heating, venting, and refrigeration units to automatically contact the maintenance establishment when prob lems arise. The maintenance establishment can then notify the mechanic in the field via cellular phone. The mechanic can then access the Internet to “talk” with the unit needing maintenance. While this technology is cutting-edge and not yet widespread, its potential for cost-savings may spur its acceptance. Other craft workers sometimes install or repair cooling and heat ing systems. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, ductwork might be done by sheet metal workers and duct installers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condens ers, and other components by pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Home appliance repairers usually service room air con ditioners and household refrigerators. (Additional information about each of these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and install ers work in homes, stores of all kinds, hospitals, office buildings, and factories—anywhere there is climate-control equipment. They may be assigned to specific job sites at the beginning of each day, or if they are making service calls, they may be dispatched to jobs by radio, telephone, or pagers. Increasingly, employers are using cell phones to coordinate technicians’ schedules. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and install ers held about 243,000 jobs in 2000; approximately one third of these worked for cooling and heating contractors. The remainder were employed in a variety of industries throughout the country, reflecting a widespread dependence on climate-control systems. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, refrigeration and air-condition ing service and repair shops, schools, and department stores that sell heating and air-conditioning systems. Local governments, the Federal Government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organi zations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems employed others. Approximately 1 of every 5 mechanics and installers was self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the increasing sophistication of heating, air-condition ing, and refrigeration systems, employers prefer to hire those with technical school or apprenticeship training. A sizable number of mechanics and installers, however, still learn the trade informally on the job. Many secondary and postsecondary technical and trade schools, junior and community colleges, and the Armed Forces offer 6-month to 2-year programs in heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Students study theory, design, and equipment construction, as well as electronics. They also learn the basics of installation, mainte nance, and repair. Apprenticeship programs are frequently run by joint commit tees representing local chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contrac tors of America, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contrac tors, and locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa tion or the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Other apprenticeship programs are sponsored by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Na tional Association of Home Builders. Formal apprenticeship pro grams normally last 3 to 5 years and combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Classes include subjects such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and the theory and design of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and re frigeration systems. Applicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or equivalent. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 503 Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by assist ing experienced technicians. They may begin performing simple tasks such as carrying materials, insulating refrigerant lines, or clean ing furnaces. In time, they move on to more difficult tasks, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, applied physics and chemistry, electronics, blueprint reading, and computer applications provide a good background for those interested in entering this oc cupation. Some knowledge of plumbing or electrical work is also helpful. A basic understanding of microelectronics is becoming more important because of the increasing use of this technology in solid-state equipment controls. Because technicians frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, espe cially when dealing with an aggravated customer. They also should be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. All technicians who purchase or work with refrigerants must be certified in their proper handling. To become certified to purchase and handle refrigerants, technicians must pass a written examina tion specific to the type of work in which they specialize. The three possible areas of certification are: Type I—servicing small appli ances, Type II—high pressure refrigerants, and Type III—low pres sure refrigerants. Exams are administered by organizations approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, such as trade schools, unions, contractor associations, or building groups. Several organizations have begun to offer basic self-study, class room, and Internet courses for individuals with limited experience. In addition to understanding how systems work, technicians must be knowledgeable about refrigerant products, and legislation and regulation that govern their use. The industry recently announced the adoption of one standard for certification of experienced tech nicians: the Air-Conditioning Excellence program, which is offered through North American Technician Excellence, Inc. (NATE). Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some technicians, however, may advance to positions as supervisor or service manager. Others may move into areas such as sales and marketing. Still others may become building superintendents, cost estimators, or, with the necessary certification, teachers. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contract ing business. Job Outlook Job prospects for highly skilled heating, air-conditioning, and refri geration mechanics and installers are expected to be very good, par ticularly for those with technical school or formal apprenticeship training to install, remodel, and service new and existing systems. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, thou sands of openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration me chanics and installers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. As the population and economy grow, so does the demand for new residential, commer cial, and industrial climate-control systems. Technicians who spe cialize in installation work may experience periods of unemployment when the level of new construction activity declines, but mainte nance and repair work usually remains relatively stable. People and businesses depend on their climate control systems and must keep them in good working order, regardless of economic conditions. Renewed concern for energy conservation should continue to prompt the development of new energy-saving heating and air-con ditioning systems. An emphasis on better energy management Digitized forshould FRASER lead to the replacement of older systems and the installation https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of newer, more efficient systems in existing homes and buildings. Also, demand for maintenance and service work should increase as businesses and home owners strive to keep systems operating at peak efficiency. Regulations prohibiting the discharge of CFC and HCFC refrigerants took effect in 1993, and regulations banning CFC production became effective in 2000. Consequently, these regula tions should continue to result in demand for technicians to replace many existing systems, or modify them to use new environmentally safe refrigerants. In addition, the continuing focus on improving indoor air quality should contribute to the growth of jobs for heat ing, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians. Also, growth of business establishments that use refrigerated equipment—such as supermarkets and convenience stores—will contribute to a grow ing need for technicians. Earnings Median hourly earnings of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigera tion mechanics and installers were $15.76 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.25 and $19.92 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.71, and the top 10 percent earned more than $24.58. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers in 2000 were as follows: Hardware, plumbing, and heating equipment................................. Elementary and secondary schools................................................... Fuel dealers............................................................................................. Colleges and universities..................................................................... Electrical repair shops......................................................................... Plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning......................................... $ 16.83 16.45 16.40 16.12 15,16 15.08 Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and in stallers enjoy a variety of employer-sponsored benefits. In addition to typical benefits like health insurance and pension plans, some employers pay for work-related training and provide uniforms, com pany vans, and tools. More than 1 out of every 5 heating, air-conditioning, and refrig eration mechanics and installers is a member of a union. The unions to which the greatest numbers of mechanics and installers belong are the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association and the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumb ing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and install ers work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical motors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boilermakers; home appliance repairers; elec tricians; sheet metal workers; and pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Sources of Additional Information For more information about opportunities for training, certification, and employment in this trade, contact local vocational and techni cal schools; local heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration con tractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information on career opportunities, training, and techni cian certification, contact: 504 Occupational Outlook Handbook ► Air-Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA), Suite 300, 2800 Shirlington Rd„ Arlington, VA 22206. Internet: http://www.acca.org >- Refrigeration Service Engineers Society (RSES), 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016-3552. >- National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors (PHCC), 180 S. Washington St., P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.naphcc.org ► Northamerican Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-conditioning Wholesal ers Association (NHRAW),1389 Dublin Road, PO Box 16790, Columbus, OH 43216-6790. Internet: http://www.nhraw.org mm V r{«* For information on technician testing and certification, contact: >- North American Technician Excellence (NATE), Suite 300,8201 Greens boro Dr., McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.natex.org CO©®* For information on career opportunities and training, write to: ► Associated Builders and Contractors, Suite 800, 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn,VA 22209. Internet: http://www.abc.org >- Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org >■ Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850-4329. Internet: http://www.mcca.org ► Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 4301 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 425, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.coolcareers.org Home ApplianceJ^epairers (0*NET 49-9031.01,49-9032.02) Significant Points • Although employment of home appliance repairers is expected to grow slowly, opportunities should be good for skilled repairers. • Many repairers are high school graduates who are trained on the job. • Knowledge of basic electronics is becoming increasingly important. Nature of the Work Anyone whose washer, dryer, or refrigerator has ever broken knows the importance of a dependable repair person. Home appliance repairers, often called service technicians, keep home appliances working and help prevent unwanted breakdowns. Some repairers work specifically on small appliances such as microwaves and vacuum cleaners; others specialize in major appliances such as re frigerators, dishwashers, washers, and dryers. Home appliance repairers visually inspect appliances and check for unusual noises, excessive vibration, fluid leaks, or loose parts to determine why they fail to operate properly. They use service manuals, troubleshooting guides, and experience to diagnose par ticularly difficult problems. They disassemble the appliance to ex amine its internal parts for signs of wear or corrosion. Repairers follow wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters to check electrical systems for shorts and faulty connections. After identifying problems, they replace or repair defective belts, motors, heating elements, switches, gears, or other items. They tighten, align, clean, and lubricate parts as necessary. Repairers use common hand tools, including screwdrivers, wrenches, files, and pliers, as well as soldering guns and special tools designed for par ticular appliances. When repairing appliances with electronic parts, they may replace circuit boards or other electronic components. Many manufacturers incorporate “fuzzy logic” technology into their newer and more expensive appliances. Fuzzy logic technology involves sensors, or inputs, strategically placed inside an appliance to transmit information to an on-board computer. The computer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Gas appliance repairers check the heating units ofstoves and may replace defective parts. processes this information and adjusts variables such as water and electricity, to optimize appliance performance and reduce wasted resources. Fuzzy logic uses 1 input; “neurofuzzy logic” uses up to 5 inputs; and “chaos logic” uses up to 10 inputs. Dishwashers, wash ers, and dryers commonly use neurofuzzy logic in their components. When repairing refrigerators and window air-conditioners, re pairers must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluo rocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants used in their cooling systems as required by law. Repairers con serve the refrigerant by making sure there are no leaks in the sys tem; they recover the refrigerant by venting it into proper cylinders; and they recycle the refrigerant for reuse with special filter-dryers. Federal regulations also require that home appliance repairers docu ment the capture and disposal of refrigerants. ^ Home appliance installers generally install ’’white goods such as refrigerators, washing machines and stoves. They may have to install pipes in a customer’s home to connect the appliances to the gas line. They measure, lay out, cut, and thread pipe and connect it to a feeder line and to the appliance. They may have to saw holes in walls or floors and hang steel supports from beams or joists to hold gas pipes in place. Once the gas line is in place, they turn on the gas and check for leaks. Gas appliance repairers check the heating unit and replace tubing, thermocouples, thermostats, valves, and indicator spindles. They also answer emergency calls for gas leaks. Repairers also answer customers’ questions about the care and use of appliances. For example, they demonstrate how to load au tomatic washing machines, arrange dishes in dishwashers, or sharpen chain saws to maximize performance. Repairers write up estimates of the cost of repairs for customers, keep records of parts used and hours worked, prepare bills, and collect payments. Self-employed repairers also deal with the origi nal appliance manufacturers to recoup monetary claims for work performed on appliances still under warranty. Working Conditions Home appliance repairers who handle portable appliances usually work in repair shops that are generally quiet, well lighted, and ad equately ventilated. Those who repair major appliances usually make service calls to customers’ homes. They carry their tools and a number of commonly used parts with them in a truck or van for use on their service calls. A repairer may spend several hours a day driving to and from appointments and emergency calls. They may work in clean comfortable rooms such as kitchens, or in damp, dirty, or dusty areas of a home. Repairers sometimes work in cramped Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 505 and uncomfortable positions when they’re replacing parts in hardto-reach areas of appliances. Repairer jobs generally are not hazardous, but they must exer cise care and follow safety precautions to avoid electrical shocks and injuries when lifting and moving large appliances. When re pairing gas appliances and microwave ovens, they must be aware of the dangers of gas and radiation leaks. Many home appliance repairers work a standard 40-hour week. Some repairers work early morning, evening, and weekend shifts. Many repairers remain on-call in case of emergency. Many repair ers work overtime and weekend hours in the summer months, when they are in high demand to fix air-conditioners and refrigerators. Home appliance repairers usually work with little or no direct supervision, a feature of the job that appeals to many people. Employment Home appliance repairers held nearly 43,000 jobs in 2000. More than 20 percent of repairers are self-employed. About 40 percent of salaried repairers worked in retail establishments such as depart ment stores, household appliance stores, and fuel dealers. Others worked for gas and electric utility companies, electrical repair shops, and wholesalers. Almost every community in the country employs appliance re pairers; a high concentration of jobs are found in more populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally require a high school diploma for home appli ance repairer jobs. Repairers of small appliances commonly learn the trade on the job; repairers of large household appliances often receive their training in a formal trade school, community college, or directly from the appliance manufacturer. Mechanical aptitude is desirable, and those who work in customers’ homes must be cour teous and tactful. Employers prefer to hire people with formal training in appli ance repair and electronics. Many repairers complete 1- or 2-year formal training programs in appliance repair and related subjects in high schools, private vocational schools, and community colleges. Courses in basic electricity and electronics are becoming increas ingly necessary as more manufacturers install circuit boards and other electronic control systems in home appliances. Whether their basic skills are developed through formal training or on the job, trainees usually receive additional training from their employer and manufacturers. In shops that fix portable appliances, they work on a single type of appliance, such as a vacuum cleaner, until they master its repair. Then they move on to others, until they can repair all those handled by the shop. In companies that repair major appliances, beginners assist experienced repairers on service visits. They may also study on their own. They learn to read sche matic drawings, analyze problems, determine whether to repair or replace parts, and follow proper safety procedures. Up to 3 years of on-the-job training may be needed for a technician to become skilled in all aspects of repair. Some appliance manufacturers and department store chains have formal training programs that include home study and shop classes, in which trainees work with demonstration appliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemental instruc tion through 2- or 3-week seminars conducted by appliance manu facturers. Experienced repairers also often attend training classes and study service manuals. Repairers authorized for warranty work by manufacturers are required to attend periodic training sessions. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has mandated that all repairers who buy or work with refrigerants must be certified in their proper handling; a technician must pass a written examination https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to become certified to buy and handle refrigerants. Exams are ad ministered by organizations approved by the EPA, such as trade schools, unions, and employer associations. There are even EPAapproved take-home certification exams. Though no formal train ing is required for certification, many of these organizations offer training programs designed to prepare workers for the certification examination. To protect consumers and recognize highly skilled home appli ance repairers, the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers has instituted the National Appliance Service Technician Certifica tion Program (NASTeC). Together, manufacturers, schools, and field experts write questions that measure the skills of their trade. To become certified, technicians must pass a comprehensive exam ination testing their competence in the diagnosis, repair, and main tenance of major home appliances. The examination is given on demand at locations throughout the country. While there has not previously been standardized certification, growing numbers of employers now encourage repairers to become certified. The Professional Service Association (PSA) has a certification program with similar goals to the NASTeC program—to recognize skilled repairers. To become certified, technicians must pass an exam ination. The PSA certification is valid for 4 years. If certified tech nicians complete at least 15 credit hours of instruction every year during the 4 years, then the technicians need not sit for the examina tion for recertification. Otherwise, they must retake the examination. Repairers in large shops or service centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service manager. A few repairers advance to managerial positions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance or tool manufacturers. Pref erence is given to those who demonstrate technical competence and show an ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Expe rienced repairers who have sufficient funds and knowledge of small business management may open their own repair shop. Job Outlook Employment of home appliance repairers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Prospects should continue to be good for well-trained repairers, par ticularly those with a strong background in electronics. The number of home appliances in use is expected to increase with growth in the number of households and businesses. In the past, employment growth of home appliance repairers has been limited because of the need for less frequent repairs due to solid-state circuitry, micropro cessors, and sensing devices in appliances. Also, many consumers tended to purchase new appliances when existing warranties expired rather than invest in repairs on old appliances, further reducing the need for home appliance repairers. These employment limitations could be somewhat offset over the next decade as more consumers purchase higher priced appliances designed to have much longer lives, making consumers more likely to use repair service than to purchase new appliances. Moreover, as home appliance repairers retire or transfer to other occupations, additional job openings will arise. The availability of manufacturer-sponsored training programs could limit employment growth. Manufacturers often make these programs available only to large equipment dealers, thereby dis couraging repairers from becoming self-employed or working for small shops. Many self-employed repairers are forced to join larger shops so that they can stay abreast of developments in the industry. Jobs are expected to be increasingly concentrated in larger compa nies as the number of smaller shops and family-owned businesses declines. However, those repairers that maintain strong industry relationships may still go into business for themselves. Employment is relatively steady because the demand for appli ance repair services continues even during economic downturns. 506 Occupational Outlook Handbook However, during economic slowdowns some repair shops may lay off repairers. Earnings Median annual earnings, including commission, of home appliance repairers were $28,860 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $21,840 and $38,040 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,750 a year. Median annual earnings in the two industries em ploying the largest numbers of home appliance repairers in 2000 were $27,560 in electrical repair shops and $24,860 in household appliance stores. . Earnings of home appliance repairers vary according to the skill level required to fix equipment, geographic location, and the type of equipment repaired. Because many repairers receive commis sion along with their salary, earnings increase along with the num ber of jobs a repairer can complete in a day. Many larger dealers, manufacturers and service stores offer ben efits such as health insurance coverage, sick leave, and retirement and pension programs. Some home appliance repairers belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other workers who repair electrical and electronic equipment in clude heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; small-engine mechanics; office machine and cash regis ter servicers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information about jobs in the home appliance repair field, con tact local appliance repair shops, manufacturers, vocational trade schools, appliance dealers, and utility companies, or the local of fice of the State employment service. For general information about the work of home appliance repair ers, contact: >• Appliance Service News, P.O. Box 809, St. Charles, IL 60174. >- North American Retail Dealers Association, 10 E. 22nd St., Suite 310, Lombard, IL 60148-4915. Internet: http://www.narda.com ► National Appliance Service Association, 9247 N. Meridian, Suite 105, Indianapolis, IN 46260. For information on technician certification, as well as general information about the work of home appliance repairers, contact. ► National Appliance Service Technician Certification Program (NASTeC), 10 E. 22nd St., Suite 310, Lombard, IL 60148. Internet: http://www.nastecnet.org ► Professional Service Association, 71 Columbia St., Cohoes, NY 12047. Industrial Machinery Installation, Repair, and Maintenance Workers (Q*NET 49-9041.00, 49-9042.00, 49-9043.00, 49-9044.00) Significant Points • Workers learn their trade through a 4-year apprenticeship program, or through informal on-thejob training supplemented by classroom instruction. • Despite slower-than-average employment growth resulting from technological advancements in machinery, applicants with broad skills in machine https://fraser.stlouisfed.org repair should have favorable job prospects. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work When production workers encounter problems with the machines they operate, they call industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers. These workers include industrial machinery mechanics, millwrights, and general maintenance and repair and machinery maintenance workers. Their work is important not only because an idle machine will delay production, but also because a machine that is not properly repaired and maintained may damage the final product or injure the operator. Industrial machinery mechanics repair, install, adjust, or main tain industrial production and processing machinery or refinery and pipeline distribution systems. Millwrights install, dismantle, or move machinery and heavy equipment according to layout plans, blue prints, or other drawings. General maintenance and repair work ers perform work involving the skills of two or more maintenance or craft occupations to keep machines, mechanical equipment, or the structure of an establishment in repair. Machinery maintenance workers lubricate machinery, change parts, or perform other rou tine machinery maintenance. Much of the work begins when machinery arrives at the job site. New equipment must be unloaded, inspected, and moved into posi tion. To lift and move light machinery, industrial machinery instal lation, repair, and maintenance workers use rigging and hoisting devices, such as pulleys and cables. In other cases, they require the assistance of hydraulic lift-truck or crane operators to position the machinery. Because industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers often decide which device to use for moving machinery, they must know the load-bearing properties of ropes, cables, hoists, and cranes. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers consult with production managers and others to determine the opti mal placement of machines in a plant. In some instances, this place ment requires building a new foundation. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers either prepare the foun dation themselves or supervise its construction, so they must know how to read blueprints and work with building materials, such as concrete, wood, and steel. When assembling machinery, industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers fit bearings, align gears and wheels, attach motors, and connect belts, according to the manufacturer’s blueprints and drawings. Precision leveling and alignment are important in the assembly process; industrial ma chinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers must have good mathematical skills, so that they can measure angles, mate rial thickness, and small distances with tools such as squares, cali pers, and micrometers. When a high level of precision is required, devices such as lasers and ultrasonic measuring tools may be used. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers also work with hand and power tools, such as cutting torches, weld ing machines, and soldering guns. Some of these workers use metalworking equipment, such as lathes or grinders, to modify parts to specifications. Maintenance mechanics must be able to detect and diagnose minor problems and correct them before they become major ones. For example, after hearing a vibration from a machine, the me chanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or some other problem. Computerized maintenance, vi bration analysis techniques, and self-diagnostic systems are mak ing this task easier. Self-diagnostic features on new industrial machinery can determine the cause of a malfunction and, in some cases, alert the mechanic to potential trouble spots before symp toms develop. After diagnosing the problem, the mechanic disassembles the equipment and repairs or replaces the necessary parts. Once the Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 507 conditions. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and mainte nance workers may work independently or as part of a team. They must work quickly and precisely, because disabled machinery costs a company time and money. Because factories and other facilities cannot afford breakdowns of industrial machinery, repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs. Overtime is common among industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers— more than a third work over 40 hours a week. During power out ages, industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers may be assigned overtime and be required to work in shifts to deal with the emergency. Industrial machinery mechanics repair, install, adjust, or maintain machinery. Employment Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers held about 1.6 million jobs in 2000. Employment was distributed among the following occupations: Maintenance and repair workers, general...................................... 1,251,000 machine is reassembled, the final step is to test it to ensure that it is running smoothly. When repairing electronically controlled ma chinery, maintenance mechanics may work closely with electronic repairers or electricians who maintain the machine’s electronic parts. However, industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers increasingly need electronic and computer skills to repair sophisticated equipment on their own. (Statements on electrical and electronics installers and repairers as well as electricians ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although repairing machines is the most important job of indus trial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, they also perform preventive maintenance. This includes keeping ma chines and their parts well oiled, greased, and cleaned. Repairers regularly inspect machinery and check performance. For example, they adjust and calibrate automated manufacturing equipment such as industrial robots, and rebuild components of other industrial machinery. By keeping complete and up-to-date records, mechan ics try to anticipate trouble and service equipment before factory production is interrupted. A wide range of tools may be used when performing repairs or preventive maintenance. Repairers may use a screwdriver and wrench to adjust a motor, or a hoist to lift a printing press off the ground. When replacements for broken or defective parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, repairers may sketch a part that can be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Repairers use catalogs to order replacement parts and often follow blueprints and engineering specifications to maintain and fix equipment. Installation of new machinery is another responsibility of indus trial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers. As plants retool and invest in new equipment, they increasingly rely on these workers to properly situate and install the machinery. As employers increasingly seek workers who have a variety of skills, industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers are taking on new responsibilities. Working Conditions Working conditions for repairers who work in manufacturing are similar to those of production workers. These workers are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises, and use protec tive equipment such as hardhats, protective glasses, and safety belts. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers also may face additional hazards because they often work on top ofFRASER a ladder or underneath or above large machinery in cramped Digitized for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Industrial machinery mechanics....................................................... Maintenance workers, machinery..................................................... Millwrights............................................................................................ 198,000 ] 14 000 72000 About 1 of every 3 worked in manufacturing industries, prima rily food processing, textile mill products, chemicals, fabricated metal products, and primary metals. Others worked for govern ment agencies, public utilities, mining companies, and other estab lishments in which industrial machinery is used. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers are found in a wide variety of plants and in every part of the coun try. However, employment is concentrated in heavily industrial ized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, including millwrights, Ieam their trade through a 4-year apprenticeship program combining classroom instruction with onthe-job-training. These programs usually are sponsored by a local trade union. Other machinery maintenance workers start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally and by taking courses offered by machinery manufacturers and community colleges. Trainee repairers learn from experienced repairers how to oper ate, disassemble, repair, and assemble machinery. Trainees also may work with concrete and receive instruction in related skills, such as carpentry, welding, and sheet metal work. Classroom in struction focuses on subjects such as shop mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, electronics, and computer training. Most employers prefer to hire those who have completed high school or its equivalency, and who have some vocational training or experience. High school courses in mechanical drawing, math ematics, blueprint reading, physics, computers, and electronics are especially useful. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important charac teristics for workers in this trade. Good physical conditioning and agility also are necessary because repairers sometimes have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equipment located high above the floor. Opportunities for advancement are limited. Industrial machin ery installation, repair, and maintenance workers advance either by working with more complicated equipment or by becoming supervisors. The most highly skilled repairers can be promoted to master mechanic or can become machinists or tool and die makers. 508 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Overall employment of industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Nevertheless, applicants with broad skills in machine repair should have favorable job pros pects. As more firms introduce automated production equipment, industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers will be needed to ensure that these machines are properly main tained and consistently in operation. However, many new machines are capable of self-diagnosis, increasing their reliability and, thus, reducing the need for repairers. As a result, the majority of job openings will stem from the need to replace repairers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As automation of machinery becomes more widespread, there is a greater need for repair work than for the installation of new ma chinery. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers are becoming more productive through the use of tech nologies such as hydraulic torque wrenches, ultrasonic measuring tools, and laser shaft alignment, as these technologies allow fewer workers to perform more work. In addition, the demand for indus trial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers will be adversely affected as lower-paid workers, such as electronics technicians, increasingly assume some installation and maintenance duties. Unlike many other occupations concentrated in manufacturing industries, industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers usually are not affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repair ers often are retained to do major overhaul jobs. Although these workers may face layoff or a reduced workweek when economic conditions are particularly severe, they usually are less affected than are other workers because machines have to be maintained regard less of production level. Earnings Earnings of industrial machinery installation, repair, and mainte nance workers vary by industry and geographic region. Median hourly earnings of industrial machinery mechanics were $17.30 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.73 and $21.93. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.31, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.26. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of industrial machinery mechanics in 2000 are shown below: Motor vehicles and equipment......... Electric services.................................. Plastics materials and synthetics..... Machinery, equipment, and supplies Meat products...................................... $24.28 24.12 20.14 15.01 13.06 Median hourly earnings of general maintenance and repair workers were $13.39 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $10.05 and $17.47. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.84, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.43. Me dian hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of general maintenance and repair workers in 2000 are shown lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.02, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $27.07. Median hourly earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of millwrights in 2000 are shown below: Motor vehicles and equipment........................................................... Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... Blast furnace and basic steel products............................................. $25.73 19.64 I8-85 Median hourly earnings of machinery maintenance workers were $14.89 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.54 and $18.79. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.20, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.74. Median hourly earn ings in miscellaneous plastics products, the industry employing the largest numbers of machinery maintenance workers, were $15.28 in 2000. More than 25 percent of industrial machinery mechanics are union members. More than 67 percent of millwrights belong to labor unions, one of the highest rates of unionization in the economy. Labor unions that represent industrial machinery installation, re pair, and maintenance workers include the United Steelworkers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers ofAmerica; the International Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; and the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations that involve repairing machinery include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians; electri cal and electronics installers and repairers; coin, vending, and amuse ment machine servicers and repairers; automotive body and related repairers; automotive service technicians and mechanics; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers, heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and apprenticeship opportunities for industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers may be obtained from local offices of the State employment service or from: >- United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Consti tution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001. >■ The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org >- Precision Machined Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org > Associated General Contractors of America, 1957 E St. NW., Washing ton, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.agc.org Line Installers and Repairers_______ (0**NET 49-9051.00,49-9052.00) ____________________ ___ below: Local government............................ Elementary and secondary schools Real estate agents and managers ... Real estate operators and lessors ... Hotels and motels............................ $13.99 13.17 10.85 10.71 10.07 © • Median hourly earnings of millwrights were $19.33 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.19 and $23.98. The https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • Significant Points Projected employment growth reflects the expansion of telecommunications and cable networks. Line installers and repairers work outdoors; the work can be hazardous. Earnings are relatively high. Nature of the Work Vast networks of wires and cables provide customers with electrical power and communications services. Networks of electrical power lines deliver electricity from generating plants to customers. Commu nications networks of telephone and cable television lines provide voice, video, and other communications services. These networks are constructed and maintained by line installers and repairers. Line installers, or line erectors, install new lines by constructing utility poles, towers, and underground trenches to carry the wires and cables. Line erectors use a variety of construction equipment including digger derricks, trenchers, cable plows, and borers. Dig ger derricks are trucks equipped with augers and cranes; augers dig holes in the ground, and cranes set utility poles in place. Trenchers, cable plows, and borers cut openings in the earth for laying under ground cables. When construction is complete, line installers string cable along the poles, towers, tunnels, and trenches. While working on poles and towers, installers first use truck-mounted buckets to reach the top of the structure or, less often, climb the pole or tower. Next, they pull up cable by hand from large reels mounted on trucks. The line is then set in place and pulled so that it has the correct amount of tension. Finally, line installers attach the cable to the structure using hand and hydraulic tools. When working with electrical powerlines, installers bolt or clamp insulators onto the poles before attaching the cable. Underground cable is laid directly in the trench, pulled through a tunnel, or strung through a conduit running through the trench. Other installation duties include setting up service for custom ers and installing network equipment. To set up service, line in stallers string cable between the customers’ premises and the lines running on poles or towers or in trenches. They place wiring in houses and check that transmission signals are strong. Line install ers may also install a variety of equipment. Workers on telephone and cable television lines install amplifiers and repeaters that main tain the strength of communications transmissions. Workers on elec trical powerlines install and replace transformers, circuit breakers, switches, fuses, and other equipment to control and direct the elec trical current. In addition to installation, line installers and repairers also are responsible for maintenance of electrical, telephone, and cable tele vision lines. Workers periodically travel in trucks, helicopters, and airplanes to visually inspect the wires and cables. Sensitive moni toring equipment can automatically detect malfunctions on the net work, such as loss of current flow. When line repairers identify a problem, they travel to the location of the malfunction and repair or replace defective cables or equipment. Bad weather or natural di sasters can cause extensive damage to networks. Line installers and repairers must respond quickly to these emergencies to restore critical utility and communications services. This can often involve working outdoors in adverse weather conditions. Installation and repair work may require splicing, or joining to gether, separate pieces of cable. Each cable contains numerous in dividual wires; splicing the cables together requires that each wire in one piece of cable be joined to another wire in the matching piece. Line installers splice cables using small hand tools, epoxy, or mechanical equipment. At each splice, they place insulation over the conductor and seal the splice with moisture-proof covering. Many communications networks now use fiber optic cables in stead of conventional wire or metal cables. Fiber optic cables are made of hair-thin strands of glass, which convey pulses of light. These cables can carry much more information at higher speeds than conventional cables. The higher transmission capacity of fi ber optic cable has allowed communication networks to offer up graded services, such as high speed Internet access. Splicing fiber https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 509 ft m —mm Line installers use truck-mounted buckets to reach the tops of telephone poles. optic cable requires specialized equipment that carefully slices, matches, and aligns individual glass fibers. The fibers are joined by either electrical fusion (welding) or a mechanical fixture and gel (glue). Working Conditions Line installers and repairers must climb and maintain their balance while working on poles and towers. They lift equipment and work in a variety of positions, such as stooping or kneeling. Their work often requires that they drive utility vehicles, travel long distances, and work outdoors under a variety of weather conditions. Many line installers and repairers work a 40-hour week; however, emergencies may require overtime work. For example, when severe weather dam ages electrical and communications lines, line installers and repair ers may work long and irregular hours to restore service. Line installers and repairers encounter serious hazards on their jobs and must follow safety procedures to minimize potential dan ger. They wear safety equipment when entering utility holes and test for the presence of gas before going underground. Electric powerline workers have the most hazardous jobs. High voltage powerlines can cause electrocution, and line installers and repairers must consequently use electrically insulated protective devices and tools when working with live cables. Powerlines are typically higher than telephone and cable television lines, increasing the risk of severe injury due to falls. To prevent these injuries, line installers and repairers must use fallprotection equipment when working on poles or towers. Employment Line installers and repairers held about 263,000 jobs in 2000. Ap proximately 164,000 were telecommunications line installers and repairers; the remainder were electrical power-line installers and repairers. Nearly all line installers and repairers worked for tele phone, cable television, electric power, or construction companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Line installers and repairers are trained on the job, and most employ ers generally require at least a high school diploma. However, employers prefer a technical knowledge of electricity and electron ics obtained through vocational programs, community colleges, or experience in the Armed Forces. Prospective employees should possess a basic knowledge of algebra and trigonometry, and mechan ical ability. Customer service and interpersonal skills also are im portant. Because the work entails lifting heavy objects (many 510 Occupational Outlook Handbook employers require applicants to be able to lift at least 60 pounds), climbing, and other physical activity, applicants should have stamina, strength, and coordination, and must be unafraid of heights. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires and cables may be color-coded. Line installers and repairers working for electric power compa nies generally complete formal apprenticeship or employer training programs. These are sometimes administered jointly by the em ployer and the union representing the workers. The unions include the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Commu nications Workers of America, and the Utility Workers Union of America. Apprenticeship programs last up to 5 years and combine formal instruction with on-the-job training. Line installers and repairers in telephone and cable television companies receive several years of on-the-job training. They may also attend training or take online courses provided by equipment manufacturers, schools, unions, or industry training organizations. The Society of Cable Television Engineers (SCTE) provides certi fication programs for line installers and repairers. Applicants for certification must be employed in the cable television industry, and attend training sessions at local SCTE chapters. Entry-level line installers may be hired as ground workers, help ers, or tree trimmers, who clear branches from telephone and power lines. These workers may advance to positions stringing cable and performing service installations. With experience, they may ad vance to more sophisticated maintenance and repair positions re sponsible for increasingly larger portions of the network. Promotion to supervisory or training positions also is possible, but more ad vanced supervisory positions often require a college diploma. Job Outlook Overall employment of line installers and repairers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Much of this increase will result from growth in the telecommunications industry. The introduction of new technologies, especially fiber optic cable, has increased the transmission capacity of telephone and cable television networks. This higher capacity has allowed the creation of new and extremely popular services, such as high speed Internet access. At the same time, deregulation of the tele communications industry has reduced barriers to competition. As a result, numerous companies are installing high-capacity networks in order to compete for the increasing demand for telecommunica tions services. Competition for local phone service and demand for high-speed Internet access is forcing former local telephone com panies to update and modernize their networks. In some regions, underground telephone lines may be 50 years old, and are inca pable of providing advanced services. Strong job growth is ex pected due to the expansion, maintenance, and modernization of telecommunications networks. Besides employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace the large number of older workers reaching retirement age. Employment of telecommunications line installers and repairers is expected to grow faster than average. Telephone and cable tele vision companies will create new networks and improve existing ones to provide customers with high-speed access to data, video, and graphics. Line installers and repairers will be needed not only to construct and install networks, but also to maintain the ever-grow ing systems of wires and cables. Businesses will install extensive private networks as they increasingly use telecommunications lines for access to suppliers and customers. The average residential cus tomer already has more than two telephone lines. Increased demand for high-speed Internet access, fax lines, and multiple phone lines will require the improvement and expansion of local phone line https://fraser.stlouisfed.org networks. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of electrical powerline installers and repairers, on the other hand, should grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. The demand for electricity has been consistently rising, driving the expansion of powerline networks, which tends to increase employment. However, industry deregula tion is pushing companies to cut costs and maintenance, which tends to reduce employment. Also, many power companies are using their existing networks of towers and rights-of-way to expand into the telecommunications industry. Because electrical power com panies have reduced hiring and training in recent years, opportuni ties should be best for workers who possess experience and training. Earnings Earnings for line installers and repairers are higher than in most other occupations that do not require postsecondary education. Median hourly earnings for electrical powerline installers and repair ers were $22.01 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.99 and $26.09. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.36, and the highest lOpercent earned more than $30.35. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electri cal powerline installers and repairers in 2000 are shown below. Combination utility services.............. Telephone communication................. Electric services.................................... Heavy construction, except highway Electrical work..................................... $25.86 22.80 22.70 16.86 16.84 Median hourly earnings for telecommunications line installers and repairers were $18.32 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.82 and $23.82. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.79, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.68. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of telephone and cable television line installers and repairers in 2000 are shown below. Telephone communication................. Electrical work..................................... Cable and other pay TV services...... Heavy construction, except highway $22.88 14.88 14.86 12.26 Most line installers and repairers belong to unions, principally the Communications Workers ofAmerica, the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers, and the Utility Workers Union ofAmerica. For these workers, union contracts set wage rates, wage increases, and the time needed to advance from one job level to the next. Related Occupations Other workers who install and repair electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators, electricians, and radio and telecommunications equipment install ers and repairers. Sources of Additional Information For more details about employment opportunities, contact the tele phone, cable television, or electrical power companies in your com munity. For general information on line installer and repairer jobs, write to: > Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.cwa-union.org > International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Utility Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. For information on training and certification programs in the cable industry, contact: > Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers, Certification Depart ment, 140 Phillips Rd., Exton, PA 19341. Internet: http://www.scte.org Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 511 Precision Instrument and Equipment Repairers (0*NET 49-9061.00, 49.9062.00, 49-9063.01, 49-9063.02, 49-9063.03, 49-9063.04, 49-9064.00, 49-9069.99) Significant Points • Training requirements include a high school diploma and, in some cases, postsecondary education, coupled with significant on-the-job training. • Good opportunities are expected for most types of jobs. • Overall employment is expected to grow about as fast as average, but projected growth varies by detailed occupation. • About 1 out of 4 are self-employed. Nature of the Work Repairing and maintaining watches, cameras, musical instruments, medical equipment, and other precision instruments requires a high level of skill and attention to detail. For example, some devices contain tiny gears that must be manufactured to within one onehundredth of a millimeter of design specifications, and other de vices contain sophisticated electronic controls. Camera and photographic equipment repairers work through a series of steps in fixing a camera. The first step is determining whether a repair would be profitable. Many inexpensive cameras cost more to repair than to replace. The most complicated or expen sive problems are referred back to the manufacturer. If the repairers decide to proceed, they diagnose the problem, often by disassem bling numerous small parts in order to reach the source. They then make needed adjustments or replace a defective part. Many prob lems are caused by the electronic circuits used in many cameras, which require an understanding of electronics. Camera repairers also maintain cameras by removing and replacing broken or worn parts and cleaning and lubricating gears and springs. Many of the components and parts involved are extremely small, requiring a great deal of manual dexterity. Frequently, older camera parts are no longer available, requiring repairers to build replacement parts or strip junked cameras. When machining new parts, workers often use a small lathe, a grinding wheel, and other metalworking tools. Camera repairers also repair the increasingly popular digital cam eras. Repairs on such cameras are similar to those for most modem cameras, but, because digital cameras have no film to wind, they employ fewer moving parts. Watch and clock repairers work almost exclusively on expen sive timepieces, as moderately priced timepieces are cheaper to re place than to repair. Electrically powered quartz watches and clocks function with almost no moving parts, limiting necessary mainte nance to replacing the battery. Many expensive timepieces still employ old-style mechanical movements and a manual winding mechanism or spring. This type of timepiece requires regular ad justment and maintenance. Any repair or maintenance work on a mechanical timepiece requires the disassembly of many fine gears and components. Each part is inspected for signs of significant wear. Some gears or springs may need to be replaced or machined. All of the parts are cleaned and oiled. As for older cameras, replacement parts are frequently unavail able for antique watches or clocks. In such cases, watch repairers must machine their own parts. They employ small lathes and other machines in creating tiny parts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Musical instrument repairers and tuners combine their love of music with a highly skilled craft. Musical instrument repairers and tuners, often referred to as technicians, work in four specialties: band instruments, pianos and organs, violins, and guitars. (Repair ers and tuners who work on electronic organs are discussed in the Handbook statement on electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers.) Band instrument repairers, brass and wind instrument repairers, and percussion instmment repairers focus on woodwind, brass, reed, and percussion instruments damaged through deterioration or by accident. They move mechanical parts or play scales to find prob lems. They may unscrew and remove rod pins, keys, worn cork pads, and pistons and remove soldered parts using gas torches. They repair dents in metal and wood using filling techniques or a mallet. Drums often need new drumheads, which are cut from animal skin. These repairers use gas torches, grinding wheels, shears, mallets, and small hand tools. Piano repairers use similar techniques, skills, and tools. Re pairers often earn additional income by tuning pianos, which in volves tightening and loosening different strings to achieve the proper tone or pitch. Pipe-organ repairers do work similar to that of piano repairers on a larger scale. Additionally, they assemble new organs. Because pipe organs are too large to transport, they must be assembled on site. Even with repairers working in teams or with assistants, the organ assembly process can take several weeks or even months, depending upon the size of the organ. \< ME® ■: Siiitl iSiSJI Musical instrument repairers often learn the trade through apprenticeships. 512 Occupational Outlook Handbook Violin repairers and guitar repairers adjust and repair string instru ments. Initially, repairers play and inspect the instrument to find any defects. They replace or repair cracked or broken sections and damaged parts. They also restring the instruments and repair dam age to their finish. The work of medical equipment repairers differs significantly from other precision instrument and equipment repair work. Al though medical equipment repairers work on fine mechanical sys tems, the larger scale of their tasks requires less precision. The machines that they repair include electric wheelchairs, mechanical lifts, hospital beds, and customized vehicles. Medical equipment repairers use various tools, including am meters, voltmeters, and other measuring devices to diagnose prob lems. They use handtools and machining equipment, such as small lathes and other metalworking equipment, to make repairs. Other precision instrument and equipment repairers service, repair, and replace a wide range of equipment associated with auto mated or instrument-controlled manufacturing processes. A preci sion instrument repairer working at an electric power plant, for example, would repair and maintain instruments that monitor the operation of the plant, such as pressure and temperature gauges. These workers use many of the same tools that medical equipment repairers use. Malfunctioning parts are often replaced, but some times repair is necessary. Replacement parts are not always avail able, so repairers sometimes machine or fabricate a new part. Preventive maintenance involves regular lubrication, cleaning, and adjustment of many measuring devices. Working Conditions Camera, watch, and musical instrument repairers work under fairly similar solitary, low-stress conditions with minimal supervision. A quiet, well-lighted workshop or repair shop is typical, while a few of these repairers travel to the instrument being repaired, such as a piano, organ, or grandfather clock. Medical equipment and precision instrument and equipment re pairers normally work daytime hours. But, like other hospital and factory employees, some repairers work irregular hours. Precision instrument repairers work under a wide array of conditions, from hot, dirty, noisy factories to air-conditioned workshops to outdoor fieldwork. Attention to safety is essential, as the work sometimes involves dangerous machinery or toxic chemicals. Due to the indi vidual nature of the work, supervision is fairly minimal. Employment Precision instrument and equipment repairers held 63,000 jobs in 2000. The overwhelming majority of medical equipment repairers and other precision instrument and equipment repairers were wage and salary workers. Medical equipment repairers often work for hospitals or wholesale equipment suppliers, while most precision instrument repairers work in manufacturing. On the other hand, about 1 out of 4 watch, camera and photographic equipment, and musical instrument repairers were self-employed. The following tabulation presents employment by occupation: Medical equipment repairers............................................... All other precision instrument and equipment repairers Camera and photographic equipment repairers.............. Musical instrument repairers and tuners......................... Watch repairers...................................................................... 28,000 15,000 7.200 7,100 5.200 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers require at least a high school diploma for beginning Digitizedprecision for FRASER instrument and equipment repairers. Many employers prefer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis applicants with some postsecondary education. Much training takes place on the job. The ability to read and understand technical manu als is important. Necessary physical qualities include good fine motor skills and vision. Also, precision equipment repairers must be able to pay close attention to details, enjoy problem solving, and have the desire to disassemble machines to see how they work. Most precision equipment repairers must be able to work alone with mini mal supervision. The educational background required for camera and photo graphic equipment repairers varies, but some background in elec tronics is necessary. Some workers complete postsecondary training, such as an associate degree, in this field. The job requires the abil ity to read an electronic schematic diagram and comprehend other technical information, in addition to good manual dexterity. New employees are trained on the job in two stages over about a year. First, they assist a senior repairer for about 6 months. Then, they refine their skills by performing repairs on their own for an addi tional 6 months. Finally, repairers continually hone and improve their skills by attending manufacturer-sponsored seminars on the specifics of particular models. Medical equipment repairers are trained in a similar manner. A background in electronics is helpful, but not required. Like camera repairers, they often specialize in a model or brand. Medical equip ment repair requires less training than other precision equipment repair specialties. There are no schools to train these repairers, in stead, they leam through hands-on experience and observation. New repairers begin by observing and assisting an experienced worker over a period of 3 to 6 months. Gradually, they begin working independently, while still under close supervision. Training also varies for watch and clock repairers. Several asso ciations, including the American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Insti tute (AWI) and the National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors, offer certifications. Some certifications can be com pleted in a few months; some require simply passing an examina tion; and the most demanding certifications require 3,000 hours, over 2 years, of classroom time in technical institutes or colleges. (Clock repairers generally require less training than watch repairers because watches have smaller components and require greater pre cision.) Some repairers opt to leam through assisting a master watch repairer. Nevertheless, developing proficiency in watch or clock repair requires several years of education and experience. For musical instrument repairers and tuners, employers prefer people with post-high school training in music repair technology. According to a 1997 Piano Technicians Guild membership sur vey, more than 85 percent of respondents had completed at least some college work; at least 50 percent had a bachelor’s or higher degree, although not always in music repair technology. A few technical schools and colleges offer courses in instrument repair. Graduates of these programs normally receive additional training on the job, working with an experienced repairer. A few musical instrument repairers and tuners begin learning their trade on the job as assistants, but employers strongly prefer those with techni cal school training. Trainees perform a variety of tasks around the shop. Full qualification usually requires 2 to 5 years of training and practice. Educational requirements for other precision instrument and equipment repair jobs also vary, but include a high school diploma, with a focus on mathematics and science courses. Most employers require postsecondary courses, as repairers need to understand blue prints, electrical schematic diagrams, and electrical, hydraulic, and electromechanical systems. In addition to formal education, a year or two of on-the-job training is required before a repairer is consid ered fully qualified. Some advancement opportunities exist, but many supervisory positions require more formal education. Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 513 Job Outlook Good opportunities are expected for most types of precision instru ment and equipment repairer jobs. Overall employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period. However, projected growth varies by detailed occupation. Job growth among medical equipment repairers should grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the projected period. The expanding elderly population should spark strong de mand for medical equipment and, in turn, create good employment opportunities in this occupation. On the other hand, employment of musical instrument repairers is expected to increase more slowly than average. Replacement needs will provide the most job opportunities as many repairers and tuners near retirement. While the expected increase in the number of school-age children involved with music should spur demand for repairers, music must compete with other extracurricular activi ties and interests. Without new musicians, there will be a slump in instrument rentals, purchases, and repairs. Because training in the repair of musical instruments is difficult to obtain—there are only a few schools that offer training programs, and few experienced work ers are willing to take on apprentices—opportunities should be good for those who receive training. Employment of camera and photographic equipment repairers is expected to decline. The camera repair business is fairly immune to downturns in the business cycle, as consumers are more likely to repair an expensive camera than to buy a new one. However, the popularity of inexpensive cameras adversely affects employment in this occupation, as most point-and-shoot cameras are cheaper to replace than repair. Employment of watch repairers is expected to grow more slowly than average. However, applicants should have very good opportu nities because a large proportion of watch and clock repairers are approaching retirement age and because of trends in watch fash ions. Over the past few decades, changes in technology, including the invention of digital and quartz watches that need few repairs, caused a significant decline in the demand for watch repairers. In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing demand for antique and expensive mechanical watches, resulting in increased need for watch repairers. The projected slower than average employment growth of other precision instrument and equipment repairers reflects the expected lack of employment growth in manufacturing and other industries in which they are employed. Nevertheless, good employment opportunities are expected for other precision instrument and equipment repairers due to the relatively small number of peo ple entering the occupation and the need to replace repairers who retire. Medical equipment repairers.............................................................. Musical instrument repairers and tuners......................................... Camera and photographic equipment repairers.............................. Watch repairers...................................................................................... All other precision instrument and equipment repairers.............. $ 16.99 15,10 13.94 12 08 19.87 Earnings within the different occupations vary significantly, de pending upon skill levels. For example, a watch and clock repairer may simply change batteries and replace worn wrist straps, while highly skilled watch and clock repairers, with years of training and experience, may rebuild and replace worn parts. According to a survey by the American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute, the median annual earnings of highly skilled watch and clock repairers were about $40,000 in 2000. Related Occupations Many precision instrument and equipment repairers work with pre cision mechanical and electronic equipment. Other workers who repair precision mechanical and electronic equipment include com puter, automated teller, and office machine repairers and coin, vend ing, and amusement machine servicers and repairers. Other workers who make precision items include dental laboratory technicians and ophthalmic laboratory technicians. Some precision instrument and equipment repairers work with a wide array of industrial equip ment. Their work environment and responsibilities are similar to those of industrial machinery installation, maintenance, and repair workers. Much of the work of watch repairers is similar to that of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers. Camera repairers’ work is similar to that of electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers. Both occupations work with consumer elec tronics that are based around a circuit board, but that also involve numerous moving mechanical parts. Sources of Additional Information For more information about camera repair careers, contact: >- The National Association of Photo Equipment Technicians (NAPET), 3000 Picture PL, Jackson, MI 49201. For additional information on medical equipment repair, con tact your local medical equipment repair shop or hospital. For information on musical instrument repair, including schools offering training, contact: ► National Association of Professional Band Instrument Repair Technicians (NAPBIRT), P.O. Box 51, Normal, IL 61761. Internet: http://www.napbirt.org For additional information on piano repair work, contact: ► Piano Technicians Guild, 3930 Washington St., Kansas City, MO 64111 2963. Internet: http://www.ptg.org For information about training, mentoring programs, and schools with programs in precision instrument repair, contact: Earnings The following tabulation shows median hourly earnings for vari ous precision instrument and equipment repairers in 2000. Earn ings ranged from less than $6.48 for the lowest 10 percent of watch repairers, to more than $31.47 for the highest 10 percent of musical instrument repairers and tuners. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ► ISA-The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, 67 Alexander Dr., P.O. Box 12277, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. Internet: http://www.isa.org For information about watch and clock repair and a list of schools with related programs of study, contact: ► American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute (AWI), 701 Enterprise Dr., Harrison, OH 45030-1696. Internet: http://www.awi-net.org Production Occupations Assemblers and Fabricators (0*NET 51-2011.01, 51.2011.02, 51-2011.03, 51-2021.00, 51-2022.00, 51-2023.00, 51-2031.00, 51-2041.01, 51-2041.02, 51-2091.00, 51 2092.00, 51-2093.00, 51-2099.99) _____________ -x * Significant Points • Virtually all assemblers and fabricators work in plants that manufacture durable goods, such as computers and automobile engines. A high school diploma is preferred for most positions; applicants need specialized training for some assembly • jobs. Projected slower-than-average employment growth reflects increasing automation and the shift of assembly to countries with lower labor costs. • Electrical and electronics assemblers work on circuit boards Nature of the Work Assemblers and fabricators produce a wide range of finished goods from manufactured parts or subassemblies. They produce intricate manufactured products, such as aircraft, automobile engines, com puters, and electrical and electronic components. Assemblers may work on subassemblies or the final assembly of an array of finished products or components. For example, elec trical and electronic equipment assemblers put together or modify missile control systems, radio or test equipment, computers, ma chine-tool numerical controls, radar, or sonar, and prototypes of these and other products. Electromechanical equipment assem blers prepare and test equipment or devices such as appliances, dynamometers, or ejection-seat mechanisms. Coil winders, tapers, and finishers wind wire coil used in resistors, transformers, gen erators, and electric motors. Engine and other machine assemblers construct, assemble, or rebuild engines and turbines, and office, agricultural, construction, oilfield, rolling mill, textile, woodwork ing, paper, and food wrapping machinery. Aircraft structure, sur faces, rigging, and systems assemblers put together and install parts of airplanes, space vehicles, or missiles, such as wings or landing gear. Structural metal fabricators and fitters align and fit structural metal parts according to detailed specifications prior to welding or riveting. Assemblers and fabricators involved in product development read and interpret engineering specifications from text, drawings, and computer-aided drafting systems. They also may use a variety of tools and precision measuring instruments. Some experienced as semblers work with engineers and technicians, assembling proto types or test products. As technology changes, so too does the manufacturing process. For example, flexible manufacturing systems include the manu facturing applications of robotics, computers, programmable mo tion control, and various sensing technologies. These systems change the way in which goods are made, and affect the jobs of those who make them. The concept of cellular manufacturing, for example, places a greater premium on the teamwork of and com munication within “cells” of workers than it does on the old as sembly line process. Team assemblers perform all of the assembly tasks assigned to their teams, rotating through the different tasks, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis rather than specializing in a single task. They also may decide how the work is to be assigned and how different tasks are to be performed. Some aspects of team assembly, such as rotating tasks, are becoming more common to all assembly and fabrication occu pations. As the U.S. manufacturing sector continues to evolve in the face of growing international competition and changing tech nology, the nature of assembly and fabrication will change along with it. Working Conditions The working conditions for assemblers and fabricators vary from plant to plant and from industry to industry. Conditions may be noisy and many assemblers may have to sit or stand for long peri ods. Both electronic and electromechanical equipment assemblers, for example, sit at tables in rooms that are clean, well-lit, and free from dust. Some electrical and electronics assemblers come in con tact with soldering fumes, but ventilation systems and fans nor mally minimize this problem. Aircraft assemblers, however, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They also may have to lift and fit heavy objects. In many cases, developments in ergonomics have improved working conditions through changes in workstation design and the increased use of robots or other pneumatically powered machinery to lift heavy objects. Most full-time assemblers work a 40-hour week, although over time and shiftwork is fairly common in some industries. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift. Employment Virtually all of the 2.7 million assembler and fabricator jobs in 2000 were in plants that manufacture durable goods. Team assemblers, the largest specialty, accounted for 55 percent of assembler and fab ricator jobs. The distribution of employment among the various types of assemblers was as follows: Production Occupations 515 Team assemblers............................................................................. 1,458 000 All other assemblers and fabricators............................................ 439,000 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers.......................... 379,000 Structural metal fabricators and fitters........................................ 101,000 Electromechanical equipment assemblers................................... 73,000 Engine and other machine assemblers.......................................... 67,000 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers............................................... 56,000 Fiberglass laminators and fabricators........................................... 48,000 Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers.... 20,000 Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators................. 12,000 Durable goods manufacturing industries employ 72 percent of assemblers and fabricators. Assembly of electronic and electri cal equipment, including electrical switches, welding equipment, electric motors, lighting equipment, household appliances, and elec tronic devices accounted for 19 percent of all jobs. Assembly of transportation equipment, such as aircraft, autos, trucks, and buses accounted for 15 percent of all jobs. Other industries that employ many assemblers and fabricators were industrial machinery (diesel engines, steam turbine generators, farm tractors, and office machines), fabricated metal products, and instruments manufac turing. The following tabulation shows the wage and salary employ ment of assemblers and fabricators in durable goods manufacturing in 2000 by industry. Electronic and other electrical equipment.................................... Transportation equipment............................................................... Industrial machinery and equipment............................................. Fabricated metal products.............................................................. Instruments and related products................................................... 502,000 403,000 319,000 197,000 165,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New assemblers and fabricators are normally entry-level employ ees. The ability to do accurate work at a rapid pace and to follow detailed instructions are key job requirements. A high school di ploma is preferred for most positions. Applicants need specialized training for some assembly jobs. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical or electronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Other positions require only on-thejob training, sometimes including employer-sponsored classroom instruction, in the broad range of assembly duties that employees may be required to perform. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, is required for assem blers and fabricators who work with small parts. Plants that make electrical and electronic products may test applicants for color vi sion, because many of their products contain many differently col ored wires. Manual dexterity and the ability to carry out complex, repetitive tasks quickly and methodically also are important. As assemblers and fabricators become more experienced, they may progress to jobs that require more skill and be given more responsibility. Experienced assemblers may become product repair ers if they have learned the many assembly operations and under stand the construction of a product. These workers fix assembled articles that operators or inspectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also can advance to quality control jobs or be pro moted to supervisor. Experienced assemblers and fabricators also may become members of research and development teams, work ing with engineers and other project designers to design, develop, build prototypes, and test new product models. In some compa nies, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades. Those with a background in math, science, and computers may advance to programmers or operators of more highly automated equipment. production https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of assemblers and fabricators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010, reflecting increasing automation and the shift of assembly to coun tries with lower labor costs. As manufacturers strive for greater precision and productivity, automated machinery increasingly will be used to perform work more economically or more efficiently. Recent advancements have made robotics more applicable and more affordable in manufacturing. Advances in automation should con tinue raising the productivity of assembly workers and adversely affecting their employment. In addition to those stemming from growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers leaving this large occupational group. The effects of automation will be felt more acutely among some types of assemblers and fabricators than among others. Flexible manufacturing systems are expensive, and a large volume of repeti tive work is required to justify their purchase. Also, where the as sembly parts involved are irregular in size or location, new technology only now is beginning to make inroads. For example, much assembly in the aerospace industry is done in hard-to-reach locations unsuited for robots—inside airplane fuselages or gear boxes, for example—and replacement of aircraft assemblers by au tomated processes will be slower and less comprehensive than re placement of other workers such as welders and painters. On the other hand, automation increasingly will be used in the precision assembly of electronic goods, in which a significant number of elec tronics assemblers are employed. Many producers send their assembly functions to countries where labor costs are lower. This trend in assembly, promoted by more liberal trade and investment policies, results in shifts in the compo sition of America’s manufacturing workforce. Decisions by Ameri can corporations to move assembly to other nations should limit employment growth for assemblers in some industries, such as elec tronics assembly, but a freer trade environment also may lead to growth in the export of goods assembled in the United States, re sulting in the creation of additional jobs in other industries, such as aircraft assembly. Earnings Earnings vary by industry, geographic region, skill, educational level, and complexity of the machinery operated. In 2000, median hourly earnings were $19.64 for aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers; $13.47 for engine and other machine assem blers; $9.77 for coil winders, tapers, and finishers; $10.82 for fiber glass laminators and finishers; $10.11 for all other assemblers; $10.78 for timing device assemblers, calibrators, and adjusters; and $11.16 for electromechanical equipment assemblers. Median hourly earnings of team assemblers were $ 10.32 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.39 and $13.11. The low est 10 percent earned less than $7.05, and the highest 10 percent earned $16.95. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing in dustries employing the largest numbers of team assemblers in 2000 are shown below: Motor vehicles and equipment...................................................... Medical instruments and supplies................................................. Fabricated structural metal products............................................ Miscellaneous plastics products, not elsewhere classified......... Personnel supply services............................................................... $13.15 10.30 10.05 9.49 7.93 Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronic equipment assemblers were $10.31 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.44 and $12.97. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.10, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 16.28. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest 516 Occupational Outlook Handbook numbers of electrical and electronic equipment assemblers in 2000 are shown below: Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. Computer and office equipment..................................................... Measuring and controlling devices................................................ Electrical industrial apparatus........................................................ $ 11.68 11.43 10.61 Related Occupations Communications equipment................................................................ 10.23 Electronic components and accessories............................................. 9.93 Many assemblers and fabricators are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Other occupations that involve operating machines and tools and assembling products include welding, soldering, and brazing work ers; ophthalmic laboratory technicians; and machine setters, opera tors, and tenders—metal and plastic. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is avail able from local offices of the State employment service and from locals of the unions mentioned earlier. Food Processing Occupations (0**NET 51-3011.01, 51-3011.02, 51.3021.00, 51-3022.00, 51-3023.00, 51-3091.00, 51-3092.00, 51-3093.00) Significant Points • • • Workers in meatpacking plants have among the highest incidences of injury and illness of all workers. Most employees in manual food processing jobs require little or no training prior to being hired. Job growth will be concentrated among lower skilled workers. Nature of the Work Food processing occupations include many different types of work ers involved in processing raw food products into finished goods ready for sale by grocers or wholesalers, restaurants, or institutional food services. These workers perform a variety of tasks and are responsible for producing many of the food products found in every household. Butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers are employed at different stages in the process by which animal car casses are converted into manageable pieces of meat suitable for sale to wholesales or consumers. Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers commonly work in meatpacking or fish and poultry processing plants, while butchers and meatcutters usually are em ployed at the retail level. As a result of this distinction, the nature of these jobs varies significantly. In meatpacking plants, slaughterers and meatpackers slaughter cattle, hogs, goats, and sheep and cut the carcasses into large whole sale cuts, such as rounds, loins, ribs, and chucks, to facilitate the handling, distribution, and marketing of meat. In some of these plants, slaughterers and meatpackers also further process these primal parts into cuts that are ready for retail use. These workers also produce hamburger meat and meat trimmings, which are used to prepare sau sages, luncheon meats, and other fabricated meat products. Slaughterers and meatpackers usually work on assembly lines, with each individual responsible for only a few of the many cuts needed to process a carcass. Depending on the type of cut, they use knives, cleavers, meat saws, bandsaws, or other, often dangerous, equipment. In grocery stores, wholesale establishments that supply meat to restaurants, and institutional food service facilities, butchers and meatcutters separate wholesale cuts of meat into retail cuts or indi Digitizedvidual for FRASER size servings. They cut meat into steaks and chops, shape https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and tie roasts, and grind beef for sale as chopped meat. Boneless cuts are prepared using knives, slicers, or power cutters, while bandsaws are required to carve bone-in pieces. Butchers and meatcutters in retail food stores may also weigh, wrap, and label the cuts of meat, arrange them in refrigerated cases for display, and prepare special cuts of meat to fill unique orders. Poultry cutters and trimmers slaughter and cut up chickens, tur keys, and other types of poultry. Although the poultry processing industry is becoming increasingly automated, many jobs such as trimming, packing, and deboning are still done manually. As in the meatpacking industry, most poultry cutters and trimmers perform routine cuts on poultry as it moves along production lines. Unlike some of the occupations listed above, fish cutters and trimmers, also called fish cleaners, are likely to be employed in both manufacturing and retail establishments. These workers pri marily cut, scale, and dress fish by removing the head, scales, and other inedible portions and cutting the fish into steaks or boneless fillets. In retail markets, they may also wait on customers and clean fish to order. Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers also prepare readyto-heat foods. This often entails filleting meat or fish or cutting it into bite-sized pieces, preparing and adding vegetables, or applying sauces or breading. Bakers mix and bake ingredients in accordance with recipes to produce varying quantities of breads, pastries, and other baked goods for consumption. Bakers commonly are employed in grocery stores and specialty shops and produce small quantities of breads, past ries, and other baked goods for consumption on premises or for sale as specialty baked goods. In manufacturing, bakers produce goods in large quantities, using high-volume mixing machines, ovens, and other equipment. Goods produced in large quantities usually are for sale through establishments such as grocery stores. Other food processing occupations include food batchmakers, who set up and operate equipment that mixes, blends, or cooks in gredients used in the manufacturing of food products, according to formulas or recipes; food cooking machine operators and tenders, who operate or tend cooking equipment, such as steam cooking vats, deep-fry cookers, pressure cookers, kettles, and boilers, to pre pare food products, such as meats, sugar, cheese, and grain; and food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators, who utilize equipment to reduce moisture content of food or to bacco products or to process food in preparation for canning. Some of the machines used include hearth ovens, kiln driers, roasters, char kilns, steam ovens, and vacuum drying equipment. Production Occupations 517 assembly-line production facilities. Because this work involves food, work areas must be sanitary and governmental regulations must be met. The ovens, as well as the motors of other equipment, often make work areas very warm. There are some hazards, such as bums, created by the equipment that these workers use. Food batchmakers, food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators, and food cooking machine operators and tenders workers spend a great deal of time on their feet and generally work a regular 40-hour week that may include evening and night shifts. Employment Food processing workers held 760,000 jobs in 2000. Employment among the various types of food processing occupations was dis tributed as follows: Food processing workers are responsible for many of the food products found in every household. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by type and size of establishment. In meatpacking plants and large retail food establishments, butchers and meatcutters work in large meatcutting rooms equipped with power machines and conveyors. In small retail markets, the butcher or fish cleaner may work in a space behind the meat counter. To prevent viral and bacterial infections, work areas must be kept clean and sanitary. Butchers and meatcutters, poultry and fish cutters and trimmers, and slaughterer and meatpackers often work in cold, damp rooms, which are refrigerated to prevent meat from spoiling and are damp because meatcutting generates large amounts of blood, condensa tion, and fat. Cool damp floors increase the likelihood of slips and falls. In addition, the low temperature, combined with the need to stand for long periods and perform physical tasks, makes the work tiring. As a result, butchers and meat, poultry, and fish cutters are more susceptible to injury than are most other workers. In fact, meatpacking plants had the highest incidence of work-related injury and illness of any industry in 1999. More than 1 in 4 employees experienced a work-related injury or illness during that year. Injuries include cuts, and even amputations, that occur when knives, cleavers, and power tools are used improperly. Also, repe titive slicing and lifting often lead to cumulative trauma injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. To reduce the incidence of cumu lative trauma disorders, some employers have reduced workloads, redesigned jobs and tools, and increased awareness of early warn ing signs. Nevertheless, workers in this occupation still face the serious threat of disabling injuries. Most traditional bakers work in bakeries, cakeshops, hot breadshops, hotels, restaurants, cafeterias, and factories. They also may work in the bakery department of supermarkets and on cruise ships. Conditions for bakers may be hot and noisy. Stress is an other potential factor in the bakery world, as bakers often work to strict deadlines. Bakers usually work in shifts, and may work early mornings, evenings, weekends, and holidays. While many bakers often work as part of a team, they also may work alone when bak ing particular items. They may supervise assistants and teach appren tices and trainees. Bakers also may be required to serve customers. Other food processing workers such as food batchmakers, food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators, and food cooking machine operators and tenders typically work in pro duction areas that are specially designed for food preservation or processing. Food batchmakers in particular work in kitchen-type, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bakers............................................................................................... Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers................................ Butchers and meatcutters............................................................... Slaughterers and meatpackers....................................................... Food batchmakers.............................................................................. Food cooking machine operators and tenders................................. Food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders.................................................................. All other food processing workers................................................... 160,000 148,000 141,000 122,000 66,000 37,000 18,000 69,000 About 33 percent of all food processing workers were employed in meatpacking or poultry and fish processing plants. Many others in this occupation were employed at the retail level in grocery stores, meat and fish markets, restaurants, or hotels. Highly skilled butch ers and meatcutters, and slaughterers and meatpackers, are employed in almost every city and town in the Nation, while lower skilled meat, poultry, and fish cutter and trimmer jobs arc concentrated in communities with food processing plants. Bakers and food machine operators are more commonly employed in retail establishments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training varies widely among food processing occupations. How ever, most manual food processing workers require little or no train ing prior to being hired. Most butchers, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers acquire their skills on the job through formal and informal training pro grams. The length of training varies significantly. Simple cutting operations requiring a few days to learn, while more complex tasks, like eviscerating, generally require about a month to learn. On the other hand, the training period for a highly skilled butcher at the retail level may be 1 or 2 years. Generally, on-the-job trainees begin by doing less difficult jobs, such as simple cuts or removing bones. Under the guidance of experienced workers, trainees learn the proper use of tools and equip ment and how to prepare various cuts of meat. After demonstrating skill with various meatcutting tools, they learn to divide carcasses into wholesale cuts and wholesale cuts into retail and individual portions. Trainees also may learn to roll and tie roasts, prepare sausage, and cure meat. Those employed in retail food establish ments often are taught operations such as inventory control, meat buying, and record keeping. In addition, growing concern about the safety of meats has led employers to offer extensive training in food safety to employees. Skills important to meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers include manual dexterity, good depth perception, color discrimina tion, and good hand-eye coordination. Physical strength often is needed to lift and move heavy pieces of meat. Butchers and fish cleaners who wait on customers should have a pleasant personality, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. In some States, a health certificate is required for employment. 518 Occupational Outlook Handbook Bakers often start off as apprentices or trainees. Apprentice bak ers usually start in craft bakeries, while in store bakeries such as supermarkets often employ trainees. Bakers need to be skilled in baking, icing, cake decorating and making calculations. They also need to be able to follow instructions, organize others, have an eye for detail, and communicate well with others. Knowledge of bak ery products and ingredients, as well as mechanical mixing and bak ing equipment, is important. Many apprentice bakers participate in correspondence study and may work towards a certificate in bak ing. Working as a baker’s assistant or at other activities involving handling food also is a useful tool for training. The complexity of the skills required for baker certification often is underestimated. Creating and marketing bakery products requires knowledge of applied chemistry, ingredients and nutrition, government regulations, business concepts, and production processes, including the opera tion and maintenance of machinery. Modem food plants utilize high speed, automated machinery that often is operated by computers. Food machine operators and tenders usually are trained on the job. They leam to ran the different types of equipment by watching and helping other workers. Training can last anywhere from 1 month to a year, depending on the complexity of the tasks and the number of products involved. A degree in the appropriate area—dairy pro cessing for those working in diary product operations, for example is helpful for advancement to a lead worker or supervisory role. Most food batchmakers participate in on-the-job training. The train ing period usually is moderate in length, ranging from about a month to a year. Some food batchmakers leam their trade through an ap proved apprenticeship program. Food processing workers in retail or wholesale establishments may progress to supervisory jobs, such as department managers in supermarkets. A few of these workers may become buyers for whole salers or supermarket chains. Some open their own markets or bak eries. In processing plants, workers may advance to supervisory positions or become team leaders. Employment of more highly skilled butchers and meatcutters, who work primarily in retail stores, is expected to gradually de cline. New automation and the consolidation of the meatpacking and poultry processing industries are enabling employers to trans fer employment from higher paid butchers to lower wage slaughterers and meatpackers in meatpacking plants. At present, most red meat arrives at grocery stores partially cut up, but a grow ing share of meat is being delivered prepackaged, with additional fat removed, to wholesalers and retailers. This trend is resulting in less work and, thus, fewer jobs for retail butchers. While high-volume production equipment limits the demand for bakers in manufacturing, overall employment of bakers is expected to increase due to growing numbers of large wholesale bakers, in store and specialty shops, and traditional bakeries. In addition to those of cookie, muffin, and cinnamon roll bakeries, the numbers of specialty bread and bagel shops also have been growing, spur ring demand for bread and pastry bakers. Employment of food batchmakers, food and tobacco cooking and roasting machine operators and tenders, and all other food pro cessing workers is expected to show little or no change or decline. Although more of this work is being done at the manufacturing level rather than at the retail level, increasingly automated cooking and roasting equipment appears to be leading to reductions in em ployment levels. Earnings Earnings vary by industry, skill, geographic region, and educational level. Median annual earnings of butchers and meatcutters were $24,120 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,170 and $32,440. The highest paid 10 percent earned more than $40,240 annually, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,340. Butchers and meatcutters employed at the retail level typically earn more than do those in manufacturing. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of butchers and meatcutters in 2000 were: Job Outlook Overall employment of the food processing occupations is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Job growth will be concentrated among lower skilled work ers, as more meat cutting and processing shifts from retail stores to food processing plants. Nevertheless, job opportunities should be available at all levels of the occupation due to the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As the Nation’s population grows, the demand for meat, poultry, and seafood should continue to increase. Successful marketing by the poultry industry is likely to increase demand for rotisserie chicken and ready-to-heat products. Similarly, the development of lower fat and ready-to-heat products promises to stimulate the consump tion of red meat. Although per capita consumption of fish and other seafood has been constant over the last decade, population growth is expected to push consumption to record levels in coming years. Employment growth of lower skilled meat, poultry, and fish cut ters—who work primarily in meatpacking, poultry, and fish pro cessing plants—is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations in coming years. Although the growing popu larity of labor-intensive, ready-to-heat goods promises to spur de mand for poultry workers, much of the production of poultry and fabricated poultry products is performed by machines. Meat and fish cutters also will be in demand, as the task of preparing readyto-heat meat and fish goods slowly shifts from retail stores to pro cessing plants. Also, advances in fish farming, or “aquaculture,” should help meet the growing demand for fish and produce ample for fish cutters. opportunities https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Grocery stores........................... Groceries and related products Meat and fish markets............. Meat products.......................... $25,680 22,090 20,820 17,980 Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers typically earn less than butchers and meat cutters. In 2000, median annual earnings for these lower skilled workers were $16,760. The middle 50 per cent earned between $14,920 and $19,900. The highest 10 percent earned more than $23,490, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,310 Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers in 2000 are shown below: Grocery stores............................................. Groceries and related products................. Meat products............................................. Miscellaneous food and kindred products $18,540 18,060 16,750 14,370 Median annual earnings of bakers were $19,710 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 15,630 and $25,570. The highest 10 percent earned more than $31,720, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,170. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of bakers in 2000 are shown below: Bakery products................. Department stores.............. Grocery stores................... Eating and drinking places Retail bakeries.................. $23,010 21,320 19,220 18,710 18,060 Production Occupations 519 Median annual earnings of food batchmakers were $20,990 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 15,980 and $27,600. The highest 10 percent earned more than $33,660, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,250. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of food batchmakers in 2000 are shown below: Bakery products............................................................................... Preserved fruits and vegetables..................................................... Sugar and confectionary products................................................. Meat products.................................................................................. Miscellaneous food and kindred products.................................... $24,660 21,070 20,510 20,100 19,170 In 2000, median annual earnings for slaughterers and meatpackers were $19,4 IQ. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,620 and $21,790. The highest 10 percent earned more than $24,690, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,690. Median annual earnings in meat products, the industry employing the largest number of slaughters and meatpackers, were $19,460 in 2000. Median annual earnings for food cooking machine operators and tenders were $20,630 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $16,000 and $26,750. The highest 10 percent earned more than $32,780 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,420. Median annual earnings in preserved fruits and vegetables, the in dustry employing the largest number of food cooking machine op erators and tenders, were $21,700 in 2000. In 2000, median annual earnings for food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders were $22,690, and for all other food processing workers, $18,170. Food processing workers generally received typical benefits, including pension plans for union members or those employed by grocery stores. However, poultry workers rarely earned substantial benefits. In 2000, more than a third of all butchers and meatcutters were union members or covered by a union contract. Fifteen per cent of all bakers and 19 percent of all food batchmakers also were union members or were covered by a union contract. Many food processing workers are members of the United Food and Commer cial Workers International Union. Related Occupations Food processing workers must be skilled at both hand- and machinework and must have some knowledge of processes and techniques involved in handling and preparing food. Other occupations that require similar skills and knowledge include chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about work opportunities can be obtained from local employers or local offices of the State employment service. For information on training and other aspects of this trade, contact: >- United Food and Commercial Workers International Union, 1775 K St. NW., Washington, DC 20006. Metal Workers and Plastic Workers Computer-Control Programmers and Operators (0**NET 51-4011.01, 51-4012.00) • • Significant Points Workers learn in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in secondary, vocational, or postsecondary schools; many entrants have previously worked as machinists or machine setters, operators, and tenders. Job opportunities will be excellent, as employers are expected to continue to have difficulty finding qualified workers. Nature of the Work Computer-control programmers and operators use computer nu merically controlled (CNC) machines to cut and shape precision products, such as automobile parts, machine parts, and compres sors. CNC machines include metal-machining tools such as lathes, multi-axis spindles, and milling machines, but the functions for merly performed by human operators are performed by a computercontrol module. CNC machines cut away material from a solid block of metal, plastic, or glass—known as a workpiece—to form a finished part. Computer-control programmers and operators nor mally produce large quantities of one part, although they may pro duce small batches or one-of-a-kind items. They use their Digitizedknowledge for FRASERof the working properties of metals and their skill with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis CNC programming to design and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Before CNC programmers—also referred to as numerical tool and process control programmers—machine a part, they must care fully plan and prepare the operation. First, these workers review three-dimensional computerized engineering diagrams (blueprints) of the part. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job and plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations. Next, computer-control programmers turn the planned machin ing operations into a set of instructions. These instructions are trans lated into a computer program containing a set of commands for the machine to follow. The program is then saved onto a computer, which functions as a server. Computer-control programmers and operators check new programs to ensure that the machinery will function properly and that the output will meet specifications. Be cause a problem with the program could damage costly machinery and cutting tools, computer simulations may be used to check the program instead of a trial run. If errors are found, the program must be changed and retested until the problem is resolved. In addition, growing connectivity between computer-aided design (CAD) soft ware and CNC machine tools is raising productivity by automati cally translating designs into instructions for the computer controller on the machine tool. These new computer-automated manufactur ing (CAM) technologies enable programs to be easily modified for use on other jobs with similar specifications, thereby reducing time and effort. After the programming work is completed, computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic (CNC operators), perform the necessary machining operations. The CNC operators transfer 520 Occupational Outlook Handbook operators stand most of the day and, at times, may need to lift mod erately heavy workpieces. Numerical tool and process control programmers work in offices that typically are near, but separate from, the shop floor. These work areas usually are clean, well lit, and free of machine noise. Numerical tool and process control programmers occasionally need to enter the shop floor to monitor CNC machining operations. On the shop floor, CNC programmers encounter the same hazards and exercise the same safety precautions as CNC operators. Most computer-control programmers and operators work a 40hour week. CNC operators increasingly work evening and week end shifts as companies justify investments in more expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. Overtime is common during peak production periods. Employment Computer-control programmers and operators use CNC machines to cut and shape precision products. the commands from the server to the CNC control module using a computer network link. Many advanced control modules are con versational, meaning they ask the operator a series of questions about the nature of the task. Computer-control operators position the metal stock on the CNC machine tool—spindle, lathe, milling machine, or other—set the controls, and let the computer make the cuts. Heavier objects may be loaded with the assistance of other work ers, a crane, or a forklift. During the machining process, computercontrol operators constantly monitor the readouts from the CNC control module, checking to see if any problems exist. Machine tools have unique characteristics, which can be problematic. Dur ing a machining operation, the operator modifies the cutting pro gram to account for any problems encountered. Unique, modified CNC programs are saved for every different machine that performs a task. CNC operators detect some problems by listening for specific sounds—for example, a dull cutting tool or excessive vibration. Dull cutting tools are removed and replaced. Machine tools rotate at high speeds, which can create problems with harmonic vibrations in the workpiece. Vibrations cause the machine tools to make mi nor cutting errors, hurting the quality of the product. Computercontrol operators listen for vibrations and then adjust the cutting speed to compensate. In older, slower machine tools, the cutting speed would be reduced to eliminate the vibrations, but the amount of time needed to finish the product would increase as a result. In newer, high-speed CNC machines, increasing the cutting speed normally eliminates the vibrations and reduces production time. CNC operators also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled, because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat. Working Conditions Most machine shops are clean, well lit, and ventilated. Many com puter-controlled machines are totally enclosed, minimizing the ex posure of workers to noise, dust, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Nevertheless, working around high speed machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must fol low safety precautions. Computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, wear protective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to dampen ma chinery noise. They also must exercise caution when handling haz Digitizedardous for FRASER coolants and lubricants. The job requires stamina because https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer-control programmers and operators held about 186,000 jobs in 2000, mostly working in small machining shops or in manu facturing firms that produce durable goods, such as metalworking and industrial machinery, aircraft, or motor vehicles. Although com puter-control programmers and operators work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Northeast, Midwest, and West, where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer-control programmers and operators train in various ways—in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in secondary, vocational, or postsecondary schools. Due to a shortage of qualified applicants, many employers teach introductory courses, which provide a basic understanding of metalworking machines, safety, and blueprint reading. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics also is helpful. Experience with machine tools is ex tremely important. In fact, many entrants to these occupations have previously worked as machinists or machine setters, operators, and tenders. Persons interested in becoming computer-control program mers or operators should be mechanically inclined and able to work independently and do highly accurate work. High school or vocational school courses in mathematics, blue print reading, computer programming, metalworking, and drafting are recommended. Apprenticeship programs consist of shop train ing and related classroom instruction. In shop training, appren tices learn filing, handtapping, and dowel fitting, as well as the operation of various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, programming, blueprint reading, CAD software, safety, and shop practices. Skilled computer-control programmers and operators need an understanding of the machining process, in cluding the complex physics that occur at the cutting point. Thus, most training programs teach CNC operators and programmers to perform operations on manual machines prior to operating CNC machines. A growing number of computer-control programmers and operators receive most of their formal training from commu nity or technical colleges. Less skilled CNC operators may have only 12 weeks of classroom training prior to working on the shop floor. To boost the skill level of all metalworkers and to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges have recently begun implementing curriculums incorpo rating national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curricu lum and passing a performance requirement and written exam, a NIMS credential is granted to trainees, providing formal recogni tion of competency in a metalworking field. Completion of a for mal certification program provides expanded career opportunities. Production Occupations 521 Qualifications for computer-control programmers vary widely depending upon the complexity of the job. Employers often prefer skilled machinists or those with technical school training. For some specialized types of programming, such as that needed to produce complex parts for the aerospace or shipbuilding industries, employers may prefer individuals with a degree in engineering. For those entering CNC programming directly, a basic knowl edge of computers and electronics is necessary, and experience with machine tools is extremely helpful. Classroom training includes an introduction to computer numerical control, the basics of program ming, and more complex topics, such as computer-aided manufac turing. Trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of an experienced programmer. Although machinery manufactur ers are trying to standardize programming languages, there are nu merous languages in use. Because of this, computer-control programmers and operators should be able to learn new program ming languages. As new automation is introduced, computer-control program mers and operators normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training usually is provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local technical school. Many employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses. Computer-control programmers and operators can advance in several ways. Experienced CNC operators may become CNC pro grammers, and some are promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops. between $13.81 and $21.74. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.39, while the top 10 percent earned more than $26.66. Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to computer-control programmers and operators are other metal worker occupations. These include machinists; tool and die makers; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Numerical tool and process control programmers apply their knowledge of machining operations, metals, blueprints, and ma chine programming to write programs that run machine tools. Com puter programmers also write detailed programs to meet precise specifications. Sources of Additional Information For general information about computer-control programmers and operators, contact: > Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org For a list of training centers and apprenticeship programs, contact: >- National Tooling and Metalworking Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org For general occupational information, including a list of train ing programs, contact: > PMA Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org Job Outlook Computer-control programmers and operators should have excel lent job opportunities. Due to the limited number of people enter ing training programs, employers are expected to continue to have difficulty finding workers with the necessary skills and knowledge. Employment of computer-control programmers and operators is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Job growth will be driven by the increasing use of CNC machine tools, but advances in CNC machine tool technol ogy will further simplify minor adjustments, enabling machinists and tool and die makers to perform tasks that previously required computer-control operators. In addition, the demand for computercontrol programmers will be negatively affected by the increasing use of software that automatically translates part and product de signs into CNC machine tool instructions. Employment levels of computer-control programmers and op erators are influenced by economic cycles—as the demand for ma chined goods falls, programmers and operators involved in production may be laid off or forced to work fewer hours. Earnings Median hourly earnings of computer-controlled machine tool op erators, metal and plastic, were about $ 13.17 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.48 and $16.55. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $8.80, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $20.25. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing indus tries employing the largest number of computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, in 2000 were: Metalworking machinery................................................................ General industrial machinery......................................................... Industrial machinery, not elsewhere classified............................. Motor vehicles and equipment...................................................... Miscellaneous plastics products, not elsewhere classified.......... $15.20 15.06 13.05 12.05 11.35 Median hourly earnings of numerical tool and process control were $ 17.70 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned programmers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Machinists (0**NET 51-4041.00) Significant Points • Machinists learn in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in high schools, vocational schools, or community or technical colleges. • Many entrants previously have worked as machine setters, operators, or tenders. Job opportunities are expected to be excellent. • Nature of the Work Machinists use machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and spindles, to produce precision metal parts. Although they may produce large quantities of one part, precision machinists often pro duce small batches or one-of-a-kind items. They use their knowl edge of the working properties of metals and their skill with machine tools to plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications. Before they machine a part, machinists must carefully plan and prepare the operation. These workers first review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece (the piece of metal that is being shaped), how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job, plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations, and mark the metal stock to show where cuts should be made. After this layout work is completed, machinists perform the nec essary machining operations. They position the metal stock on the machine tool—spindle, drill press, lathe, milling machine, or other— set the controls, and make the cuts. During the machining process, 522 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most machinists work a 40-hour week. Evening and weekend shifts are becoming more common as companies justify investments in more expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. Overtime is common during peak production periods. Employment Machinists held about 430,000 jobs in 2000. Most machinists work in small machining shops or in manufacturing firms that produce durable goods, such as metalworking and industrial machinery, aircraft, or motor vehicles. Maintenance machinists work in most industries that use production machinery. Although machinists work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Northeast, Midwest, and West, where manufacturing is concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machinists cut and shape metal products using machine tools. they must constantly monitor the feed and speed of the machine. Machinists also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubri cated and cooled, because the machining of metal products gener ates a significant amount of heat. The temperature of the workpiece is a key concern because most metals expand when heated; machin ists must adjust the size of their cuts relative to the temperature. Some rarer, but increasingly popular, metals, such as titanium, are machined at extremely high temperatures. Machinists also adjust cutting speeds to compensate for harmonic vibrations, which can decrease the accuracy of cuts, particularly on newer high-speed spindles and lathes. Some machinists, often called production machinists, may pro duce large quantities of one part, especially parts requiring the use of complex operations and great precision. Production machin ists work with complex computer numerically controlled (CNC) cutting machines. Frequently, machinists work with computercontrol programmers to determine how the automated equipment will cut a part. (See the statement on computer-control program mers and operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) The programmer determines the path of the cut, and the machinist determines the type of cutting tool, the speed of the cutting tool, and the feed rate. After the production process is designed, relatively simple and repetitive operations normally are performed by machine setters, operators, and tenders. (See the statement on machine setters, op erators, and tenders—metal and plastic elsewhere in the Hand book.) Other machinists do maintenance work—repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. To repair a broken part, maintenance machinists may refer to blueprints and perform the same machining operations that were needed to create the original part. Working Conditions Most machine shops of today are relatively clean, well lit, and ventilated. Many computer-controlled machines are totally en closed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, dust, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Neverthe less, working around machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Machinists wear protec tive equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of fly ing metal and earplugs to dampen machinery noise. They also must exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lu bricants. The job requires stamina, because machinists stand most of the day and, at times, may need to lift moderately heavy workpieces. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Machinists train in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in high schools, vocational schools, or community or techni cal colleges. Experience with machine tools is helpful. In fact, many entrants previously have worked as machine setters, opera tors, or tenders. Persons interested in becoming machinists should be mechanically inclined, able to work independently, and able to do highly accurate work that requires concentration and physical effort. High school or vocational school courses in mathematics, blue print reading, metalworking, and drafting are highly recommended. Apprenticeship programs consist of shop training and related class room instruction. In shop training, apprentices work almost full time, and are supervised by an experienced machinist while learn ing to operate various machine tools. Classroom instruction in cludes math, physics, blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, and quality and safety practices. In addition, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, training in the operation and programming of CNC machine tools has become essential. Apprenticeship classes are taught in cooperation with local community or vocational colleges. A growing number of machinists learn the trade through 2-year associate degree programs at community or technical colleges. Graduates of these programs still need significant on-the-job experience before they are fully qualified. To boost the skill level of machinists and to create a more uni form standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges have recently begun implementing curriculums incorpo rating national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curricu lum and passing a performance requirement and written exam, a NIMS credential is granted to trainees, providing formal recogni tion of competency in a metalworking field. Completing a recog nized certification program provides a machinist with better career opportunities. As new automation is introduced, machinists normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training usually is provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local technical school. Some employers offer tuition reimburse ment for job-related courses. Machinists can advance in several ways. Experienced machin ists may become computer-control programmers and operators, and some are promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops. Job Outlook Despite projected slower-than-average employment growth, job opportunities for machinists should continue to be excellent. Many Production Occupations 523 young people with the necessary educational and personal qualifi cations needed to obtain machining skills may prefer to attend col lege or may not wish to enter production-related occupations. Therefore, the number of workers obtaining the skills and knowl edge necessary to fill machinist jobs is expected to be less than the number ofjob openings arising each year from employment growth and from the need to replace experienced machinists who transfer to other occupations or retire. Employment of machinists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period because of rising productivity among machinists. Productivity gains are result ing from the expanded use of computer-controlled machine tools and new technologies, such as high-speed machining, which reduce the time required for machining operations. This allows fewer machinists to accomplish the same amount of work previously per formed by more workers. Technology is not expected to affect the employment of machinists as significantly as that of most other pro duction occupations, however, because many of the unique opera tions performed by machinists cannot be efficiently automated. Due to modem production techniques, employers prefer workers, such as machinists, who have a wide range of skills and are capable of performing almost any task in a machine shop. In addition, firms are likely to retain their most skilled workers to operate and main tain expensive new machinery. Employment levels in this occupation are influenced by eco nomic cycles—as the demand for machined goods falls, machinists involved in production may be laid off or forced to work fewer hours. Employment of machinists involved in plant maintenance, however, often is more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equipment remain vital concerns, even when production levels fall. Earnings Median hourly earnings of machinists were $14.78 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.43 and $18.39. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.01, while the top 10 percent earned more than $21.84. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest number of machinists in 2000 were: Aircraft and parts ............................................................................ Metalworking machinery................................................................ Industrial machinery, not elsewhere classified............................. Motor vehicles and equipment...................................................... Personnel supply services............................................................... $16.86 15.89 14.66 14.24 8.80 Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to that of machinist are other ma chining occupations. These include tool and die makers; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and computercontrol programmers and operators. Another occupation that re quires precision and skill in working with metal is welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about machinists, contact: >- Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org For a list of training centers and apprenticeship programs, contact: > National Tooling and Metalworking Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org For general occupational information and a list of training pro grams, contact: >- PMA Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders—Metal and Plastic (0**NET 51-4021.00, 51-4022.00, 51-4023.00, 51-4031.01, 51-4031.02, 51-4031.03, 51-4031.04, 51-4032.00, 51-4033.01, 51-4033.02, 51 4034.00, 51-4035.00, 51-4051.00, 51-4052.00, 51-4061.00, 51-4062.00, 51-4071.00, 51-4072.01, 51-4072.02, 51-4072.03, 51-4072.04, 51 4072.05, 51-4081.01, 51-4081.02, 51-4191.01, 51-4191.02, 51-4191.03, 51-4192.00, 51-4193.01, 51-4193.02, 51-4193.03, 51-4193.04, 51 4194.00, 51-4199.99) Significant Points • A few weeks of on-the-job training is sufficient for most workers to learn basic machine operations, but several years are required to become a skilled operator. • Employment of most operators is expected to decline, while employment of multiple machine tool operators is projected to grow. Nature of the Work Consider the parts of a toaster, such as the metal or plastic hous ing or the lever that lowers the toast. These parts, and many other metal and plastic products, are produced by metalworking and plastics-working machine operators. In fact, machine tool opera tors in the metalworking and plastics industries play a major part in producing most of the consumer products on which we rely daily. In general, these workers can be separated into two groups— those who set up machines for operation and those who tend the machines during production. Setup workers prepare the machines prior to production and may adjust the machinery during operation. Operators and tenders, on the other hand, primarily monitor the machinery during operation, sometimes loading or unloading the machine or making minor adjustments to the controls. Many work ers both set up and operate equipment. Because the setup process requires an understanding of the entire production process, setters usually have more training and are more highly skilled than those who simply operate or tend machinery. As new automation simpli fies the setup process, however, less skilled workers also are in creasingly able to set up machines for operation. Setters, operators, tenders, and setup operators usually are iden tified by the type of machine with which they work. Some ex amples of specific titles are drilling and boring machine toolsetters, milling and planing machine tenders, and lathe and turning-machine tool operators. Job duties usually vary based on the size of the firm and on the type of machine being operated. Although some work ers specialize in one or two types of machinery, many are trained to set up or operate a variety of machines. Newer production tech niques require machine operators to rotate between, and be profi cient with, different machines. The rotating of assignments allows workers more varied work, but also requires them to have a wider range of skills. Metalworking-machine setters and operators set up and tend ma chines that cut and form all types of metal parts. Traditionally, setup workers plan and set up the sequence of operations according to blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. They adjust speed, feed, and other controls; choose the proper coolants and lubricants; and select the instruments or tools for each operation. Using microme ters, gauges, and other precision measuring instruments, they also may compare the completed work with the tolerance limits stated in the specifications. 524 Occupational Outlook Handbook maintain quality. A typical injection-molding machine may have 25 different controls that can be adjusted. Setters or technicians set up the machines prior to operations. They are responsible for re pairing any major problem. anry; Working Conditions mm l pi ; Machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, operate machines that bend, cut, and shape metal and plastic material. Although there are many different types of metalworking machine tools that require specific knowledge and skills, most opera tors perform similar tasks. Whether tending grinding machines that remove excess material from the surface of machined products or presses that extrude metal through a die to form wire, operators usually perform simple, repetitive operations that can be learned quickly. Typically, these workers place metal stock in a machine on which the operating specifications have already been set. They may watch one or more machines and make minor adjustments according to their instructions. Regardless of the type of machine they operate, machine tenders usually depend on skilled setup work ers for major adjustments when the machines are not functioning properly. Plastics-working machine operators set up and tend machines that transform plastic compounds—chemical-based products that can be produced in powder, pellet, or syrup form—into a wide vari ety of consumer goods such as toys, tubing, and auto parts. These products are manufactured using various methods, of which injec tion molding is the most common. The injection-molding machine heats and liquefies a plastic compound and forces it into a mold. After the part has cooled and hardened, the mold opens and the part is released. Many common kitchen products are produced using this method. To produce long parts such as pipes or window frames, an extruding machine usually is employed. These machines force a plastic compound through a die that contains an opening of the desired shape of the final product. Blow molding is another com mon plastics-working technique. Blow-molding machines force hot air into a mold that contains a plastic tube. As the air moves into the mold, the plastic tube is inflated to the shape of the mold, and a plastic container is formed. The familiar 2-liter soft drink bottles are produced using this method. Workers in three different specialized occupations operate in jection-molding machines: tenders, operators, and setters. Most other types of plastic machines function in a similar manner. Ten ders remove the cooled plastic from the mold, loading the product into boxes. Operators monitor the many gauges on injection-mold ing machines, adjusting different inputs, pressures, and speeds to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic work in areas that are clean, well lit, and well ventilated. Never theless, many operators require stamina because they are on their feet much of the day and may do moderately heavy lifting. Also, these workers operate powerful, high-speed machines that can be dangerous if strict safety rules are not observed. Most operators wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses and earplugs, to protect against flying particles of metal or plastic and against noise from the machines. However, many modem machines are totally enclosed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, dust, and lubricants used during machining. Other required safety equip ment varies by work setting and machine. For example, workers in the plastics industry who work near materials that emit dangerous fumes or dust must wear face masks or self-contained breathing apparatus. Most metalworking and plastics-working machine operators work a 40-hour week, but overtime is common during periods of increased production. Because many metalworking and plastics-working shops operate more than one shift daily, some operators work nights and weekends. Employment Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic held about 1.6 million jobs in 2000. About 3 out of every 4 metalworking and plastics-working machine operators are found in 5 manufacturing industries—fabricated metal products, industrial machinery and equipment, rubber and miscellaneous plastics products, transporta tion equipment, and primary metals. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment of metalworking and plastics-work ing machine operators by detailed occupation. Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................. Molders and molding machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................... All other metal workers and plastic workers................................ Grinding, lapping, polishing, and buffing machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.................... Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic........................................................... Multiple machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.......................................................................... Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic ................................................... Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................... Plating and coating machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.............................................................. Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................................. Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................................. Heat treating equipment setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................................. Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders................................. Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic........................................................... Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners............................................. Model makers and patternmakers, metal and plastic.................. Lay-out workers, metal and plastic............................................... 372,000 235,000 150,000 145,000 126,000 105,000 84,000 71,000 65,000 54,000 49,000 43,000 40,000 34,000 29,000 19,000 18,000 Production Occupations 525 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic learn their skills on the job. Trainees begin by observing and assisting experienced workers, sometimes in formal training programs. Un der supervision, they may start as tenders, supplying materials, start ing and stopping the machine, or removing finished products from it. They then advance to the more difficult tasks performed by op erators, such as adjusting feed speeds, changing cutting tools, or inspecting a finished product for defects. Eventually they become responsible for their own machines. The complexity of the equipment largely detennines the time required to become an operator. Most operators leam the basic machine operations and functions in a few weeks, but they may need several years to become skilled operators or to advance to the more highly skilled job of setter. Setters or technicians normally need a thorough knowledge of the machinery and of the products being manufactured because they often plan the sequence of work, make the first produc tion run, and determine which adjustments need to be made. Strong analytical abilities are particularly important to perform this job. Some companies have formal training programs for opera tors and setters, which combine classroom instruction with onthe-job training. Although no special education is required for most operating jobs, employers prefer to hire applicants with good basic skills. Many require employees to have a high school education and to read, write, and speak English. Because machinery is becoming more complex and shop-floor organization is changing, employers increasingly look for persons with good communication and inter personal skills. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and experi ence working with machinery also are helpful. Those interested in becoming machine setters, operators, and tenders can improve their employment opportunities by completing high school courses in shop and blueprint reading and by gaining a working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics. A solid math background including courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and basic sta tistics also is useful. Job opportunities and advancement also can be enhanced by becoming certified in a particular machining skill. The National Institute for Metalworking Skills has developed standards for met alworking-machine operators. After taking a course approved by the organization and passing a written exam and performance re quirement, the worker is issued a credential that formally recog nizes him or her as competent in a specific machining operation. The Society of Plastics Industry, Inc., the national trade association representing plastics manufacturers, also certifies workers in the plastics industry. To achieve machine-operator certification, 2 years of experience operating a plastics-processing machine is recom mended, and one must pass a computer-based exam. Advancement for operators usually takes the form of higher pay, although there are some limited opportunities for operators to ad vance to new positions as well. For example, they can become multiple machine operators, setup operators, or trainees for the more highly skilled positions of machinist, tool and die maker, or com puter control programmers or operators. Some setup workers may advance to supervisory positions. (See the statements on machin ists, computer control programmers and operators, and tool and die makers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment trends for among the various machine setters, opera tors, and tenders—metal and plastic are expected to diverge over https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the 2000-10 period. In general, employment of these workers will be affected by the rate of technological implementation, the demand for the goods they produce, the effects of trade, and the reorgani zation of production processes. These trends are expected to spur employment growth among multiple machine tool operators; plastics-molding, core-making, and casting machine operators; and a number of miscellaneous operating positions. On the other hand, a decline in employment is projected for many machine tool operators, including cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders; and lathe and turning-machine tool work ers. Despite differing rates of employment change, a large num ber of machine setter, operator, and tender jobs will become available due to an expected surge in retirements as the first of the baby boomers become eligible for retirement by the end of this decade. One of the most important factors influencing employment change in this occupation is the implementation of laborsaving machinery. In order to remain competitive by improving quality and lowering production costs, many firms are adopting new tech nologies, such as computer-controlled machine tools and robots. Computer-controlled equipment allows operators to simultaneously tend a greater number of machines and often makes setup easier, thereby reducing the amount of time setup workers spend on each machine. Robots are being used to load and unload parts from machines. The lower-skilled manual machine tool operators and tenders are more likely to be eliminated by these new technologies because the functions they perform are more easily automated. The demand for metalworking and plastics-working machine operators largely mirrors the demand for the parts they produce. Recent growth in the domestic economy, for example, has led to increased employment in a number of machine-operating occupa tions. In addition, the consumption of plastic products has grown as they have been substituted for metal goods in many consumer and manufactured products in recent years. This process is likely to continue and should result in stronger demand for machine opera tors in plastics than in metalworking. Both the plastics and metal industries, however, face stiff for eign competition that is limiting the demand for domestically pro duced parts. One way in which larger U.S. producers have responded to this competition is by moving production operations to other coun tries where labor costs are lower. These moves are likely to con tinue, and will further reduce employment opportunities for many machine operators, setters, and tenders—metal and plastic in the United States. Workers with a thorough background in machine operations, exposure to a variety of machines, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals and plastics will be best able to adjust to this changing environment. In addition, new shop-floor arrange ments will reward workers with good basic mathematics and read ing skills, good communication skills, and the ability and willingness to leam new tasks. As workers are called upon to adapt to new production methods and to operate more machines, the number of multiple machine tool operators, setters, and tenders—metal and plastic will continue to rise. Earnings Earnings for machine operators can vary by size of the company, union/nonunion status, industry, and skill level and experience of the operator. Also, temporary employees, who are being hired in greater numbers, usually get paid less than company-employed workers. The median hourly earnings in 2000 for a variety of ma chine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic were: 526 Occupational Outlook Handbook Model makers and patternmakers, metal and plastic..................... Lay-out workers, metal and plastic................................................... Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic........................................................ Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders................................ Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................ Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners................................................. Multiple machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................ Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................ Heat treating equipment setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................ Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic ........................................................ Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................................ Grinding, lapping, polishing, and buffing machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic...................... Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................... Plating and coating machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic............................................................... Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic....................................................... Molders and molding machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................................................................ All other metal workers and plastic workers................................... $ 16.07 14.27 13.77 13.47 13.25 13.22 12.96 12.85 12.64 12.25 12.11 11.71 11.66 11.23 11.03 10.40 13.26 Approximately one-third of these workers are union members, about double the rate for other workers in the economy. Metal working industries have a higher rate of unionization than does the plastics industry. Related Occupations Workers in occupations closely related to machine setters, opera tors, and tenders—metal and plastic include machinists, tool and die makers, assemblers and fabricators, computer control program mers and operators, and woodworkers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about machine setters, operators, and ten ders—metal and plastic, contact: >- National Tooling and Metalworking Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org >- Precision Machining Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org >- Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org >• Society of Plastics Industry, 1801 K St. NW., Suite 600K, Washington, DC 20006-1301. Internet: http://www.socplas.org and http:// www.certifyme.org Tool and Die Makers (0*NET 51-4111.00) Significant Points • • Most tool and die makers train for 4 or 5 years in apprenticeships or postsecondary programs; employers typically recommend apprenticeship training. Jobseekers with the appropriate skills and background should enjoy excellent opportunities. Nature of the Work Tool and die makers are among the most highly skilled production workers in the economy. These workers produce tools, dies, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Tool and die makers use many types of machine tools. special guiding and holding devices that enable machines to manu facture a variety of products we use daily—from clothing and fur niture to heavy equipment and parts for aircraft. Toolmakers craft precision tools that are used to cut, shape, and form metal and other materials. They also produce jigs and fixtures (devices that hold metal while it is bored, stamped, or drilled) and gauges and other measuring devices. Die makers construct metal forms (dies) that are used to shape metal in stamping and forging operations. They also make metal molds for diecasting and for mold ing plastics, ceramics, and composite materials. In addition to devel oping, designing and producing new tools and dies, these workers also may repair worn or damaged tools, dies, gauges, jigs, and fixtures. To perform these functions, tool and die makers employ many types of machine tools and precision measuring instruments. They also must be familiar with the machining properties, such as hard ness and heat tolerance, of a wide variety of common metals and alloys. As a result, tool and die makers are knowledgeable in ma chining operations, mathematics, and blueprint reading. In fact, tool and die makers often are considered highly specialized machinists. (See the statement on machinists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working from blueprints, tool and die makers first must plan the sequence of operations necessary to manufacture the tool or die. Next, they measure and mark the pieces of metal that will be cut to form parts of the final product. At this point, tool and die makers cut, drill, or bore the part as required, checking to ensure that the final product meets specifications. Finally, these workers assemble the parts and perform finishing jobs such as filing, grinding, and polishing surfaces. Modem technology is changing the ways in which tool and die makers perform their jobs. Today, for example, these workers often use computer-aided design (CAD) to develop products and parts. Specifications entered into computer programs can be used to elec tronically develop drawings for the required tools and dies. Numer ical tool and process control programmers use computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) programs to convert electronic drawings into computer programs that contain a sequence of cutting tool opera tions. (See the statement on computer-control programmers and operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Once these programs are developed, computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines follow the set of instructions contained in the program to produce the part. (Computer-controlled machine tool operators or machinists normally operate CNC machines; however, tool and die makers are trained in both operating CNC machines and writing CNC programs, and they may perform either task. CNC programs are stored electronically Production Occupations 527 for future use, saving time and increasing worker productivity.) Next, tool and die makers assemble the different parts into a functioning machine. They file, grind, shim, and adjust the different parts to properly fit them together. Finally, the tool and die makers set up a test run using the tools or dies they have made to make sure that the manufactured parts meet specifications. If problems occur, tool and die makers compensate by adjusting the tools or dies. Working Conditions Tool and die makers usually work in toolrooms. These areas are quieter than the production floor because there are fewer machines in use at one time. They also are generally clean and cool to mini mize heat-related expansion of metal workpieces and to accommo date the growing number of computer-operated machines. To minimize the exposure of workers to moving parts, machines have guards and shields. Many computer-controlled machines are totally enclosed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, dust, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Tool and die makers also must follow safety rules and wear protective equip ment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal, earplugs to protect against noise, and gloves and masks to reduce exposure to hazardous lubricants and cleaners. These workers also need stamina because they often spend much of the day on their feet and may do moderately heavy lifting. Companies employing tool and die makers have traditionally operated only one shift per day. Overtime and weekend work are common, especially during peak production periods. Employment Tool and die makers held about 130,000jobs in 2000. Most worked in industries that manufacture metalworking machinery and equip ment, metal forgings and stampings, motor vehicles, miscellaneous plastics products, and aircraft and parts. Although they are found throughout the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Midwest, Northeast, and West, where many of the metalworking industries are located. Training, Other Qualiilcations, and Advancement Most tool and die makers learn their trade through 4 or 5 years of education and training in formal apprenticeships or postsecondary programs. The best way to leam all aspects of tool and die making, according to most employers, is a formal apprenticeship program that combines classroom instruction and job experience. A grow ing number of tool and die makers receive most of their formal classroom training from community and technical colleges, some times in conjunction with an apprenticeship program. Tool and die maker trainees leam to operate milling machines, lathes, grinders, spindles, and other machine tools. They also leam to use handtools for fitting and assembling gauges, and other me chanical and metal-forming equipment. In addition, they study metalworking processes, such as heat treating and plating. Class room training usually consists of mechanical drawing, tool design ing, tool programming, blueprint reading, and mathematics courses, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and basic statistics. Tool and die makers increasingly must have good computer skills to work with CAD technology and CNC machine tools. Workers who become tool and die makers without completing formal apprenticeships generally acquire their skills through a com bination of informal on-the-job training and classroom instruction at a vocational school or community college. They often begin as machine operators and gradually take on more difficult assignments. Many machinists become tool and die makers. Because tools and dies must meet strict specifications—preci sion to one ten-thousandth of an inch is common—the work of tool https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and die makers requires a high degree of patience and attention to detail. Good eyesight is essential. Persons entering this occupa tion also should be mechanically inclined, able to work and solve problems independently, and capable of doing work that requires concentration and physical effort. There are several ways for skilled workers to advance. Some move into supervisory and administrative positions in their firms; many obtain their college degree and go into engineering or tool design; and some may start their own shops. Job Outlook Applicants with the appropriate skills and background should en joy excellent opportunities for tool and die maker jobs. The num ber of workers receiving training in this occupation is expected to continue to be fewer than the number of openings created each year by tool and die makers who retire or transfer to other occupations. As more of these highly skilled workers retire, employers in certain parts of the country report difficulty attracting well-trained appli cants. A major factor limiting the number of people entering the occupation is that many young people who have the educational and personal qualifications necessary to leam tool and die making may prefer to attend college or may not wish to enter productionrelated occupations. Despite expected excellent employment opportunities, little or no change in employment of tool and die makers is projected over the 2000-10 period because advancements in automation, includ ing CNC machine tools and computer-aided design, should im prove worker productivity, thus limiting employment. On the other hand, tool and die makers play a key role in the operation of many firms. As firms invest in new equipment, modify production tech niques, and implement product design changes more rapidly, they will continue to rely heavily on skilled tool and die makers for retooling. Earnings Median hourly earnings of tool and die makers were $19.76 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.67 and $24.45. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $12.44, while the top 10 percent earned more than $28.88. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest number of tool and die makers in 2000 are shown below. Motor vehicles and equipment.......................................................... Aircraft and parts .................................................................................. Metal forgings and stampings............................................................ Metalworking machinery..................................................................... Miscellaneous plastics products, not elsewhere classified.......... $25.76 22.17 21.52 18.99 18.92 Related Occupations The occupations most closely related to the work of tool and die makers are other machining occupations. These include machin ists; computer-control programmers and operators; and machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic. Another occupation that requires precision and skill in working with metal is welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in tool and die making, contact: >■ Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org >■ National Tooling and Metalworking Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Ft. Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org >• PMA Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org 528 Occupational Outlook Handbook Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Workers (0*NET 51-4121.01, 51-4121.02, 51-4121.03, 51-4121.04, 51-4121.05, 51-4122.01, 51-4122.02, 51-4122.03, 51.4122.04) • • Significant Points Job prospects should be excellent. Training ranges from a few weeks of school or on-thejob training for low-skilled positions to several years of combined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs. Nature of the Work Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. In this process, heat is applied to metal pieces, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used in shipbuilding, automobile manufacturing and repair, aerospace applications, and thousands of other manufactur ing activities. Welding also is used to join beams when construct ing buildings, bridges, and other structures, and to join pipes in pipelines, power plants, and refineries. Welders use many types of welding equipment set up in a variety of positions, such as flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead. They may perform manual welding, in which the work is entirely controlled by the welder, or semiautomatic welding, in which the welder uses machinery, such as a wire feeder, to help in performing welding tasks. Arc welding is the most common type of welding. Standard arc welding involves two large metal alligator clips that are carrying a strong electrical current. One clip is attached to any part of the workpiece being welded. The second clip is connected to a thin welding rod. When the rod touches the workpiece, a powerful elec trical circuit is created. The massive heat created by the electrical current causes both the workpiece and the steel core of the rod to melt together, cooling quickly to form a solid bond. During weld ing, the flux that surrounds the rod’s core vaporizes, forming an inert gas that serves to protect the weld from atmospheric elements that might weaken it. Two common advanced types of arc welding are Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG) and Gas Metal Arc (MIG) welding. Instead of welding rods, these welding systems use a spool of con tinuously fed wire, which allows the welder to weld longer stretches without stopping to replace the rod. Instead of using gas flux sur rounding the rod, TIG and MIG protect the initial weld from the environment by blowing inert gas onto the weld. Like arc welding, soldering and brazing use metal to join two pieces of metal. However, the metal added during the process has melting point lower than that of the workpiece, so only the added metal is melted, not the workpiece. Soldering uses metals with a melting point below 800 degrees Fahrenheit; brazing uses metals with a melting point above 800 degrees Fahrenheit. Because sol dering and brazing do not melt the workpiece, these processes nor mally do not create distortions or weaknesses in the workpiece that can occur with welding. Soldering commonly is used to join elec trical, electronic, and other small metal parts. Brazing produces a stronger joint than does soldering, and often is used to join metals other than steel, such as brass parts. Skilled welding, soldering, and brazing workers generally plan work from drawings or specifications or use their knowledge of fluxes and base metals to analyze parts. These workers then select and set up welding equipment and examine welds, to ensure that they meet standards or specifications. Some welders have more limited duties, however. They perform routine jobs that already have been planned and laid out and do not require extensive knowl Digitized forof FRASER edge welding techniques. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A relatively small proportion of welding, soldering, and brazing workers are in construction. Automated welding is used in an increasing number of produc tion processes. In these instances, a machine or robot performs the welding tasks while monitored by a welding machine operator. Welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and ten ders follow specified layouts, work orders, or blueprints. Opera tors must load parts correctly and constantly monitor the machine to ensure that it produces the desired bond. The work of arc, plasma, and oxy-gas cutters is closely related to that of welders. However, instead of joining metals, cutters use the heat from an electric arc, a stream of ionized gas, or burning gases to cut and trim metal objects to specific dimensions. Cutters also dismantle large objects, such as ships, railroad cars, automo biles, buildings, or aircraft. Some operate and monitor cutting ma chines similar to those used by welding machine operators. Plasma cutting has been increasing in popularity because, unlike other meth ods, it can cut a wide variety of metals, including stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. Working Conditions Welding, soldering, and brazing workers often are exposed to a number of potential hazards, including the intense light created by the arc, hazardous fumes, and burns. In the interests of safety, they wear safety shoes, goggles, hoods with protective lenses, and other devices designed to prevent bums and eye injuries and to protect them from falling objects. They normally work in well-ventilated areas to limit their exposure to fumes. Automated welding, solder ing, and brazing machine operators are not exposed to as many dan gers, however, and a face shield or goggles usually provide adequate protection for these workers. Welders and cutters may work outdoors, often in inclement weather, or indoors, sometimes in a confining area designed to con tain sparks and glare. When outdoors, they may work on a scaffold or platform high off the ground. In addition, they may be required to lift heavy objects and work in a variety of awkward positions, having to make welds while bending, stooping, or working over head. Although about half of welders, solderers, and brazers work a 40-hour week, overtime is common, and some welders work up to 70 hours per week. Welders also may work in shifts as long as 12 hours. Some welders, solderers, brazers, and machine operators work in factories that operate around-the-clock. Employment Welding, soldering, and brazing workers held about 521,000 jobs in 2000. Of these jobs, 3 of every 4 were found in manufacturing and services. Most manufacturing jobs were in the transportation Production Occupations 529 equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, or fabricated metal products industries. Services industry jobs were mainly in repair shops and personnel supply agencies. Most jobs for welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders were found in manufacturing industries, primarily those producing fabricated metal products, motor vehicles, and construction and related machinery. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for welding, soldering, and brazing workers can range from a few weeks of school or on-the-job training for low-skilled posi tions to several years of combined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs. Formal training is available in high schools, vocational schools, and postsecondary institutions, such as voca tional-technical institutes, community colleges, and private weld ing schools. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Some employers provide training. Courses in blueprint reading, shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, and metallurgy are helpful. Knowledge of computers is gaining in im portance, especially for welding, soldering, and brazing machine operators, who are becoming responsible for the programming of computer-controlled machines, including robots. Some welders become certified, a process whereby the employer sends a worker to an institution, such as an independent testing lab or technical school, to weld a test specimen to specific codes and standards required by the employer. Testing procedures are based on the standards and codes set by one of several industry associa tions with which the employer may be affiliated. If the welding inspector at the examining institution determines that the worker has performed according to the employer’s guidelines, the inspec tor will then certify the welder being tested as able to work with a particular welding procedure. Welding, soldering, and brazing workers need good eyesight, hand-eye coordination, and manual dexterity. They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. In addition, welders increasingly need to be willing to receive training and perform tasks in other production jobs. Welders can advance to more skilled welding jobs with addi tional training and experience. For example, they may become welding technicians, supervisors, inspectors, or instructors. Some experienced welders open their own repair shops. Job Outlook Job prospects should be excellent for skilled candidates, as many potential entrants who have the educational and personal qualifica tions to acquire the necessary skills may prefer to attend college or may prefer work that has more comfortable working conditions. Employment of welding, soldering, and brazing workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period. In addition, many openings will arise as workers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. The major factor affecting employment of welders is the health of the industries in which they work. Because almost every manu facturing industry uses welding at some stage of manufacturing or in the repair and maintenance of equipment, a strong economy will keep demand for welders high. A downturn affecting industries such as auto manufacturing, construction, or petroleum, however, would have a negative impact on the employment of welders in those areas, and could cause some layoffs. Levels of government funding for infrastructure repairs and improvements also are expected to be an important determinant of the future number of welding jobs. Regardless of the state of the economy, the pressures to improve productivity and hold down labor costs are leading many compa nies to invest more in automation, especially computer-controlled and robotically-controlled welding machinery. This may affect the demand for low-skilled manual welding, soldering, and brazing https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis workers because the jobs that are currently being automated are the simple, repetitive ones. The growing use of automation, however, should increase demand for highly skilled welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders. Welders working on construction projects or in equipment repair will not be affected by technology change to the same extent that other welders are, because their jobs are not as easily automated. Technology is helping to improve welding, creating more uses for welding in the workplace and expanding employment opportu nities. For example, new ways are being developed to bond dis similar materials and nonmetallic materials, such as plastics, composites, and new alloys. Also, laser beam and electron beam welding, new fluxes, and other new technologies and techniques are improving the results of welding, making it applicable to a wider assortment ofjobs. Improvements in technology also have boosted welding productivity, making it more competitive with other meth ods of joining metals. Earnings Median hourly earnings of welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers were $ 13.13 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 10.74 and $ 16.37. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $8.86, while the top 10 percent earned over $20.74. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers in 2000 were: Construction and related machinery................................................. Motor vehicles and equipment........................................................... Fabricated structural metal products................................................ Miscellaneous repair shops................................................................ Personnel supply services.................................................................... $13.51 13.43 12.91 12.33 10.55 Median hourly earnings ofwelding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders were $13.09 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.41 and $16.83. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $8.64, while the top 10 percent earned over $23.32. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of welding machine operators in 2000 were: Motor vehicles and equipment........................................................... Construction and related machinery................................................. Fabricated structural metal products................................................ $16.16 13.72 12.77 Many welders belong to unions. Among these are the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Inter national Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America. Related Occupations Welding, soldering, and brazing workers are skilled metal workers. Other metal workers include machinists; machine setters, opera tors, and tenders—metal and plastic; computer-control program mers and operators; tool and die makers; sheet metal workers; and boilermakers. Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welding, soldering, and brazing workers, contact local employers, the local office of the State employment service, or schools providing weld ing, soldering, or brazing training. Information on careers in welding is available from: American Welding Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 5699. Internet: http://www.aws.org 530 Occupational Outlook Handbook Plant and System Operators Power Plant Operators, Distributors, and Dispatchers (0**NET 51-8011.00, 51-8012.00, 51-8013.01, 51-8013.02) • • • Significant Points Overall employment of operators, distributors, and dispatchers is expected to decline due to increasing industry competition. Opportunities will be best for operators with training in automated systems. Little or no change in employment and low turnover will result in few job opportunities. Nature of the Work Electricity is vital for most everyday activities. From the moment you flip the first switch each morning, you are connecting to a huge network of people, electric lines, and generating equipment. Power plant operators control the machinery that generates electricity. Power distributors and dispatchers control the flow of electricity from the power plant over a network of transmission lines, to industrial plants and substations, and, finally, over distribution lines to residential users. Power plant operators control and monitor boilers, turbines, generators, and auxiliary equipment in power generating plants. Operators distribute power demands among generators, combine the current from several generators, and monitor instruments to maintain voltage and regulate electricity flows from the plant. When power requirements change, these workers start or stop generators and connect or disconnect them from circuits. They often use com puters to keep records of switching operations and loads on genera tors, lines, and transformers. Operators also may use computers to prepare reports of unusual incidents, malfunctioning equipment, or maintenance performed during their shift. Operators in plants with automated control systems work mainly in a central control room and usually are called control room opera tors and control room operator trainees or assistants. In older plants, the controls for the equipment are not centralized, and switchboard operators control the flow of electricity from a central point, whereas auxiliary equipment operators work throughout the plant, operat ing and monitoring valves, switches, and gauges. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses operators of nuclear power plants. Reactor operators are authorized to con trol equipment that affects the power of the reactor in a nuclear power plant. In addition, an NRC-licensed senior reactor operator must be on duty during each shift to act as the plant supervisor and supervise the operation of all controls in the control room. Power distributors and dispatchers, also called load dispatch ers or systems operators, control the flow of electricity through trans mission lines to industrial plants and substations that supply residential electric needs. They operate current converters, voltage transformers, and circuit breakers. Dispatchers monitor equipment and record readings at a pilot board, which is a map of the transmis sion grid system showing the status of transmission circuits and connections with substations and industrial plants. Dispatchers also anticipate power needs, such as those caused by changes in the weather. They call control room operators to start or stop boilers and generators, to bring production into balance with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Power plant operators often use computers to keep records of switching operations and loads on generators, lines, and transformers. needs. They handle emergencies such as transformer or transmis sion line failures and route current around affected areas. They also operate and monitor equipment in substations, which step up or step down voltage, and operate switchboard levers to control the flow of electricity in and out of substations. Working Conditions Because electricity is provided around the clock, operators, distribu tors, and dispatchers usually work one of three daily 8-hour shifts or one of two 12-hour shifts on a rotating basis. Shift assignments may change periodically, so that all operators can share duty on less desirable shifts. Work on rotating shifts can be stressful and fatigu ing, because of the constant change in living and sleeping patterns. Operators, distributors, and dispatchers who work in control rooms generally sit or stand at a control station. This work is not physi cally strenuous but requires constant attention. Operators who work outside the control room may be exposed to danger from electric shock, falls, and bums. Nuclear power plant operators are subject to random drug and alcohol tests, as are most workers at nuclear power plants. Employment Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers held about 55,000jobsin2000. Jobs are located throughout the country. About 8 in 10 worked for utility companies and government agencies that produced electricity. Others worked for manufacturing establish ments that produced electricity for their own use. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers seek high school graduates for entry-level operator, dis tributor, and dispatcher positions. Candidates with strong math and science skills are preferred. College-level courses or prior experi ence in a mechanical or technical job may be helpful. Employers increasingly require computer proficiency, as computers are used to keep records, generate reports, and track maintenance. Most entrylevel positions are helper or laborer jobs, such as in powerline con struction. Depending on the results of aptitude tests, worker preferences, and availability of openings, workers may be assigned to train for one of many utility positions. Production Occupations 531 Workers selected for training as a fossil-fueled power plant opera tor or distributor undergo extensive on-the-job and classroom train ing. Several years of training and experience are required to become a fully qualified control room operator or power distributor. With further training and experience, workers may advance to shift super visor. Utilities generally promote from within; therefore, opportu nities to advance by moving to another employer are limited. Extensive training and experience are necessary to pass the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) examinations for reactor operators and senior reactor operators. To maintain their license, licensed reactor operators must pass an annual practical plant opera tion exam and a biennial written exam administered by their employer. Training may include simulator and on-the-job training, classroom instruction, and individual study. Entrants to nuclear power plant operator trainee jobs must have strong math and science skills. Experience in other power plants or with Navy nuclear propulsion plants also is helpful. With further training and experience, reactor operators may advance to senior reactor operator positions. In addition to preliminary training as a power plant operator, distributor, or dispatcher, most workers are given periodic refresher training. Nuclear power plant operators are given frequent refresher training. This training is usually taken on plant simulators designed specifically to replicate procedures and situations that might be en countered working at the trainee’s plant. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment of power plant operators, dis tributors, and dispatchers is expected through the year 2010, as the industry continues to restructure in response to deregulation and increasing competition. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 has had a tremendous impact on the organization of the utilities industry. This legislation has increased competition in power generating utilities by allowing independent power producers to sell power directly to industrial and other wholesale customers. Utilities, which histori cally operated as regulated local monopolies, are restructuring op erations to reduce costs and compete effectively and, as a result, the number ofjobs is decreasing. People who want to become power plant operators, distribu tors, and dispatchers are expected to encounter keen competition for these high-paying jobs. Little or no change in employment and low turnover in this occupation will result in few job opportuni ties. The slow pace of new plant construction also will limit op portunities for power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers. Increasing use of automatic controls and more efficient equipment should increase productivity and decrease the demand for opera tors. Individuals with training in computers and automated equip ment will have the best job prospects. Earnings Median annual earnings of power plant operators were $46,090 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,320 and $54,200 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,700, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,020 a year. Median an nual earnings of power plant operators in 2000 were $48,350 in electric services and $40,160 in local government. Median annual earnings of nuclear power reactor operators were $57,220 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,720 and $67,320 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,890, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,370 a year. Median annual earnings of power distributors and dispatchers were $48,570 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,880 and $58,290 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,760, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,260 a year. Median annual earnings in electric services, the industry https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis employing the largest numbers of power distributors and dispatch ers, were $49,070. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate plant and systems equip ment include chemical plant and system operators; petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers; stationary engi neers and boiler operators; and water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators. Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities, contact local elec tric utility companies, locals of unions mentioned below, and State employment service offices. For general information about power plant operators, nuclear power reactor operators, and power distributors and dispatchers, contact: > International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. > Utility Workers Union of America, 815 16th St. NW., Suite 605, Wash ington, DC 20006. Stationary Engineers and Boiler Operators (0*NET 51-8021.01, 51-8021.02) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities will be best for workers with computer skills. Stationary engineers and boiler operators usually acquire their skills through a formal apprenticeship program or informal on-the-job training supplemented by courses at a trade or technical school. A license to operate boilers, ventilation, air conditioning, and other equipment is required in most States and cities. Nature of the Work Heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation systems keep large build ings comfortable all year long. Industrial plants often have facili ties to provide electrical power, steam, or other services. Stationary engineers and boiler operators control and maintain these systems, which include boilers, air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment, diesel engines, turbines, generators, pumps, condensers, and com pressors. The equipment that stationary engineers and boiler op erators control is similar to equipment operated by locomotive or marine engineers, except that it is not on a moving vehicle. Stationary engineers and boiler operators start up, regulate, and shut down equipment. They ensure that it operates safely, economi cally, and within established limits by monitoring meters, gauges, and computerized controls. They manually control equipment and, if necessary, make adjustments. They use hand and power tools to perform repairs and maintenance ranging from a complete over haul to replacing defective valves, gaskets, or bearings. They also record relevant events and facts concerning operation and mainte nance in an equipment log. On steam boilers, for example, they observe, control, and record steam pressure, temperature, water level and chemistry, power output, fuel consumption, and emissions. They watch and listen to machinery and routinely check safety devices, identifying and correcting any trouble that develops. 532 Occupational Outlook Handbook Stationary engineers and boiler operators work throughout the country, generally in the more heavily populated areas in which large industrial and commercial establishments are located. Routine maintenance is a regular part of the work of stationary engineers and boiler operators. Stationary engineers and boiler operators may use computers to operate the mechanical systems of new buildings and plants. Engi neers and operators monitor, adjust, and diagnose these systems from a central location using a computer linked into the buildings’ communications network. Routine maintenance, such as lubricating moving parts, replac ing filters, and removing soot and corrosion that can reduce operat ing efficiency, is a regular part of the work of stationary engineers and boiler operators. They test boiler water and add chemicals to prevent corrosion and harmful deposits. They also may check the air quality of the ventilation system and make adjustments to keep within mandated guidelines. In a large building or industrial plant, a stationary engineer may be in charge of all mechanical systems in the building. Engineers may supervise the work of assistant stationary engineers, turbine operators, boiler tenders, and air-conditioning and refrigeration operators and mechanics. Some perform other maintenance duties, such as carpentry, plumbing, and electrical repairs. In a small build ing or industrial plant, there may be only one stationary engineer. Working Conditions Stationary engineers and boiler operators generally have steady, yearround employment. The average workweek is 40 hours. In facili ties that operate around the clock, engineers and operators usually work one of three daily 8-hour shifts on a rotating basis. Weekend and holiday work often is required. Engine rooms, power plants, and boiler rooms usually are clean and well lighted. Even under the most favorable conditions, how ever, some stationary engineers and boiler operators are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, and high noise levels from the equip ment. General maintenance duties also may require contact with oil, grease, or smoke. Workers spend much of the time on their feet. They may also have to crawl inside boilers and work in crouch ing or kneeling positions to inspect, clean, or repair equipment. Stationary engineers and boiler operators work around poten tially hazardous machinery such as boilers and electrical equipment. They must follow procedures to guard against bums, electric shock, and exposure to hazardous materials such as asbestos or certain chemicals. Employment Stationary engineers and boiler operators held about 57,000 jobs in 2000. They worked in a variety of places, including factories, hos pitals, hotels, office and apartment buildings, schools, and shop Digitized for malls. FRASER ping Some are employed as contractors to a building or plant. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Stationary engineers and boiler operators usually acquire their skills through a formal apprenticeship program or informal on-the-job training supplemented by courses at a trade or technical school. In addition, valuable experience can be obtained in the Navy or the Merchant Marine because marine-engineering plants are similar to many stationary power and heating plants. Most employers prefer to hire persons with at least a high school diploma, or equivalent, due to the increasing complexity of the equipment with which engi neers and operators work. Many stationary engineers and boiler operators have some college education. Mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, and good physical condition also are important. The International Union of Operating Engineers sponsors appren ticeship programs and is the principal union for stationary engineers and boiler operators. In selecting apprentices, most local labor-man agement apprenticeship committees prefer applicants with education or training in mathematics, computers, mechanical drawing, machineshop practice, physics, and chemistry. An apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years and includes 8,000 hours of on-the-job training. In addition, apprentices receive 600 hours of classroom instruction in subjects such as boiler design and operation, elementary physics, pneumatics, refrigeration, air conditioning, electricity, and electronics. Those who acquire their skills on the job usually start as boiler tenders or helpers to experienced stationary engineers and boiler operators. This practical experience may be supplemented by postsecondary vocational training in computerized controls and in strumentation. However, becoming an engineer or operator with out completing a formal apprenticeship program usually requires many years of work experience. Most large and some small employers encourage and pay for skill-improvement training for their employees. Training almost always is provided when new equipment is introduced or when regu lations concerning some aspect of the workers’ duties change. Most States and cities have licensing requirements for station ary engineers and boiler operators. Applicants usually must be at least 18 years of age, reside for a specified period in the State or locality, meet experience requirements, and pass a written exami nation. A stationary engineer or boiler operator who moves from one State or city to another may have to pass an examination for a new license due to regional differences in licensing requirements. There are several classes of stationary engineer licenses. Each class specifies the type and size of equipment the engineer can oper ate without supervision. A licensed first-class stationary engineer is qualified to run a large facility, supervise others, and operate equip ment of all types and capacities. An applicant for this license may be required to have a high school education, apprenticeship or onthe-job training, and several years of experience. Licenses below first class limit the types or capacities of equipment the engineer may operate without supervision. Stationary engineers and boiler operators advance by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip ment. Generally, engineers advance to these jobs as they obtain higher class licenses. Some stationary engineers and boiler opera tors advance to boiler inspectors, chief plant engineers, building and plant superintendents, or building managers. A few obtain jobs as examining engineers or technical instructors. Job Outlook Persons wishing to become stationary engineers and boiler operators may face competition for job openings. Employment opportunities Production Occupations 533 will be best for those with apprenticeship training or vocational school courses covering systems operation using computerized con trols and instrumentation. Employment of stationary engineers and boiler operators is expected to decline through the year 2010. Continuing commer cial and industrial development will increase the amount of equip ment to be operated and maintained. However, automated systems and computerized controls are making newly installed equipment more efficient, thus reducing the number of jobs needed for its operation. Some job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, turnover in this occupation is low, partly due to its high wages. Consequently, relatively few replacement openings are expected. Earnings Median annual earnings of stationary engineers and boiler opera tors were $40,420 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,490 and $51,090 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,470, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,530 a year. Median annual earnings of stationary engineers and boiler operators in 2000 were $46,600 in local government and $37,680 in hospitals. Related Occupations Other workers who monitor and operate stationary machinery in clude chemical plant and system operators; gas plant operators; petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers; power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers; and water and wastewater treatment plant and system operators. Other workers who maintain the equipment and machinery in a building or plant are industrial machinery repairers and millwrights. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships, vocational training, and work opportunities is available from State employment service offices, locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, vocational schools, and State and local licensing agencies. Specific questions about this occupation should be addressed to: ► International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.iuoe.org >- National Association of Power Engineers, Inc., 1 Springfield St., Chicopee, MA 01013. Internet: http://www.powerengineers.com >- Building Owners and Managers Institute International, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. Internet: http://www.bomi-edu.org Water and Liquid Waste Treatment Plant and System Operators (0**NET 51-8031.00) Significant Points • Employment is concentrated in local government and private water supply and sanitary services companies. • Postsecondary training is increasingly an asset as the number of regulated contaminants grows and treatment plants become more complex. • Operators must pass exams certifying that they are capable of overseeing various treatment processes. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Clean water is essential for everyday life. Water treatment plant and system operators treat water so that it is safe to drink. Liquid waste treatment plant and system operators, also known as waste water treatment plant and system operators, remove harmful pollut ants from domestic and industrial liquid waste so that it is safe to return to the environment. Water is pumped from wells, rivers, and streams to water treat ment plants, where it is treated and distributed to customers. Liquid waste travels through customers’ sewer pipes to liquid waste treat ment plants, where it is treated and returned to streams, rivers, and oceans, or reused for irrigation and landscaping. Operators in both types of plants control processes and equipment to remove or de stroy harmful materials, chemical compounds, and microorganisms from the water. They also control pumps, valves, and other process ing equipment to move the water or liquid waste through the various treatment processes, and dispose of the removed waste materials. Operators read, interpret, and adjust meters and gauges to make sure plant equipment and processes are working properly. They operate chemical-feeding devices, take samples of the water or liq uid waste, perform chemical and biological laboratory analyses, and adjust the amount of chemicals, such as chlorine, in the water. They use a variety of instruments to sample and measure water quality, and common hand and power tools to make repairs. Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, and other equipment. Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators in creasingly rely on computers to help monitor equipment, store sam pling results, make process-control decisions, schedule and record maintenance activities, and produce reports. When problems oc cur, operators may use their computers to determine the cause of the malfunction and its solution. Occasionally operators must work under emergency conditions. A heavy rainstorm, for example, may cause large amounts of liquid waste to flow into sewers, exceeding a plant’s treatment capacity. Emergencies also can be caused by conditions inside a plant, such as chlorine gas leaks or oxygen deficiencies. To handle these con ditions, operators are trained to make an emergency management response and use special safety equipment and procedures to pro tect public health and the facility. During these periods, operators may work under extreme pressure to correct problems as quickly as possible. These periods may create dangerous working conditions, and operators must be extremely cautious. The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all machinery, perform tests, keep records, handle complaints, and do repairs and maintenance. A few operators may handle both a water treatment and a liquid waste treatment plant. In larger plants with many em ployees, operators may be more specialized and only monitor one process. The staff also may include chemists, engineers, laboratory technicians, mechanics, helpers, supervisors, and a superintendent. Water pollution standards have become increasingly stringent since adoption of two major Federal environmental statutes: the Clean Water Act of 1972, which implemented a national system of regulation on the discharge of pollutants; and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, which established standards for drinking water. Industrial facilities sending their wastes to municipal treatment plants must meet certain minimum standards to ensure that the wastes have been adequately pretreated and will not damage municipal treat ment facilities. Municipal water treatment plants also must meet stringent drinking water standards. The list of contaminants regu lated by these statutes has grown over time. For example, the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments include standards for the monitoring of Cryptosporidium and giardia, two biological organ isms that cause health problems. Operators must be familiar with 534 Occupational Outlook Handbook Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators are employed throughout the country, but most jobs are in larger towns and cities. Although nearly all work full time, those who work in small towns may only work part time at the treatment plant—the remainder of their time may be spent handling other municipal duties. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma usually is required to become a water or liquid waste treatment plant operator. Operators need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics, chemistry, and biology. They must have the ability to apply data to formulas of treatment requirements, flow levels, and concentration levels. Some basic familiarity with computers also is necessary because of the trend toward computer-controlled equipment and more sophis ticated instrumentation. Certain positions—particularly in larger cities and towns—are covered by civil service regulations. Appli cants for these positions may be required to pass a written examina tion testing mathematics skills, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence. Completion of an associate degree or 1-year certificate program in water quality and liquid waste treatment technology increases an applicant’s chances for employment and promotion because plants are becoming more complex. Offered throughout the country, these programs provide a good general knowledge of water and liquid waste treatment processes, as well as basic preparation for becom Operators take samples ofwater or liquid waste, perform laboratory analyses, and adjust the amount of chemicals, such as chlorine, in the water. the guidelines established by Federal regulations and how they af fect their plant. In addition to Federal regulations, operators also must be aware of any guidelines imposed by the State or locality in which the plant operates. Working Conditions Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators work both indoors and outdoors, and may be exposed to noise from ma chinery and unpleasant odors. Operators’ work is physically de manding and often is performed in unclean locations. They must pay close attention to safety procedures for they may be confronted with hazardous conditions, such as slippery walkways, dangerous gases, and malfunctioning equipment. Plants operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; therefore, operators work one of three 8-hour shifts, including weekends and holidays, on a rotational basis. Operators may be required to work overtime. Employment Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators held about 88,000 jobs in 2000. Most worked for local governments. Some worked for private water supply and sanitary services com panies, which increasingly provide operation and management ser vices to local governments on a contract basis. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ing an operator. Trainees usually start as attendants or operators-in-training and learn their skills on the job under the direction of an experienced operator. They leam by observing and doing routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking samples of liquid waste and sludge; and performing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, elec tric motors, valves, and other plant equipment. Larger treatment plants generally combine this on-the-job training with formal class room or self-paced study programs. The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, enforced by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, specify national mini mum standards for certification and recertification of operators of community and nontransient, noncommunity water systems. As a result, operators must pass an examination to certify that they are capable of overseeing liquid waste treatment plant operations. There are different levels of certification depending on the operator’s experience and training. Higher certification levels qualify the op erator for a wider variety of treatment processes. Certification re quirements vary by State and by size of treatment plants. Although relocation may mean having to become certified in a new location, many States accept other States’ certifications. Most State drinking water and water pollution control agencies offer training courses to improve operators’ skills and knowledge. These courses cover principles of treatment processes and process control, laboratory procedures, maintenance, management skills, collection systems, safety, chlorination, sedimentation, biological treatment, sludge treatment and disposal, and flow measurements. Some operators take correspondence courses on subjects related to water and liquid waste treatment, and some employers pay part of the tuition for related college courses in science or engineering. As operators are promoted, they become responsible for more complex treatment processes. Some operators are promoted to plant supervisor or superintendent; others advance by transferring to a larger facility. Postsecondary training in water and liquid waste treatment, coupled with increasingly responsible experience as an operator, may be sufficient to qualify for superintendent of a small plant, where a superintendent also serves as an operator. However, Production Occupations 535 educational requirements are rising as larger, more complex treat ment plants are built to meet new drinking water and water pollu tion control standards. With each promotion, the operator must have greater knowledge of Federal, State, and local regulations. Su perintendents of large plants generally need an engineering or sci ence degree. A few operators get jobs with State drinking water or water pol lution control agencies as technicians, who monitor and provide technical assistance to plants throughout the State. Vocational-tech nical school or community college training generally is preferred for technician jobs. Experienced operators may transfer to related jobs with industrial liquid waste treatment plants, water or liquid waste treatment equipment and chemical companies, engineering consulting firms, or vocational-technical schools. Job Outlook Employment of water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupa tions through the year 2010. Because the number of applicants in this field is normally low, job prospects will be good for qualified applicants. The increasing population and growth of the economy are ex pected to boost demand for essential water and liquid waste treat ment services. As new plants are constructed to meet this demand, employment of water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators will increase. In addition, many job openings will occur as experienced operators transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Local governments are the largest employers of water and liq uid waste treatment plant and system operators. However, Fed eral certification requirements have increased reliance on private firms specializing in the operation and management of water and liquid waste treatment facilities. As a result, employment in pri vately owned facilities will grow faster than the average. Increased pretreatment activity by manufacturing firms also will create new job opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators were $31,380 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $24,390 and $39,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $47,370. Median annual earnings of water and liquid waste treatment plant and systems operators in 2000 were $31,120 in lo cal government and $29,810 in water supply. In addition to their annual salaries, water and liquid waste treat ment plant and system operators usually receive benefits that may include health and life insurance, a retirement plan, and educational reimbursement for job-related courses. Related Occupations Other workers whose main activity consists of operating a system of machinery to process or produce materials include chemical plant and system operators; gas plant operators; petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers; power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers; and stationary engineers and boiler operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact State or lo cal water pollution control agencies, State water and liquid waste operator associations, State environmental training centers, or local offices of the State employment service. For information on certification, contact: >■ Association of Boards of Certification, 208 Fifth St., Ames, IA 50010 6259. Internet: http://www.abccert.org For educational information related to a career as a water or liq uid waste treatment plant and system operator, contact: >- American Water Works Association, 6666 West Quincy Ave., Denver, CO 80235. >- Water Environment Federation, 601 Wythe St., Alexandria, VA 22314 1994. Internet: http://www.wef.org Printing Occupations Bookbinders and Bindery Workers (0**NET 51-5011.01, 51-5011.02, 51-5012.00) Significant Points • Most workers train on the job. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than average, reflecting increasingly productive bindery operations. • Opportunities for hand bookbinders are limited because of the small number of establishments that do this highly specialized work. Nature of the Work The process of combining printed sheets into finished products such as books, magazines, catalogs, folders, directories, or prod uct packaging is known as “binding.” Binding involves cutting, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis folding, gathering, gluing, stapling, stitching, trimming, sewing, wrapping, and other finishing operations. Bindery workers oper ate and maintain the machines that perform these various tasks. Job duties depend on the kind of material being bound. In firms that do edition binding, for example, workers bind books produced in large numbers, or “runs.” Job binding workers bind books pro duced in smaller quantities. In firms specializing in library bind ing, workers repair books and provide other specialized binding services to libraries. Pamphlet binding workers produce leaflets and folders, and manifold binding workers bind business forms such as ledgers and books of sales receipts. Blankbook binding workers bind blank pages to produce notebooks, checkbooks, address books, diaries, calendars, and note pads. Some types of binding and finishing consist of only one step. Preparing leaflets or newspaper inserts, for example, require only folding. Binding of books and magazines, on the other hand, requires a number of steps. Bookbinders and bindery workers assemble books and maga zines from large, flat, printed sheets of paper. Skilled workers 536 Occupational Outlook Handbook Bindery jobs are concentrated near large metropolitan areas such as New York, Chicago, Washington, DC, Los Angeles, Philadel phia, and Dallas. a.- Some bookbinders and bindery workers in small shops may perform many binding tasks, while those in large shops usually specialize. operate machines that first fold printed sheets into “signatures,” which are groups of pages arranged sequentially. Bookbinders then sew, stitch, or glue the assembled signatures together, shape the book bodies with presses and trimming machines, and reinforce them with glued fabric strips. Covers are created separately, and glued, pasted, or stitched onto the book bodies. The books then undergo a variety of finishing operations, often including wrapping in paper jackets. A small number of bookbinders work in hand binderies. These highly skilled workers design original or special bindings for limited editions, or restore and rebind rare books. The work requires creativity, knowledge of binding materials, and a thorough background in the history of binding. Hand bookbinding gives individuals the opportunity to work in the greatest variety of jobs. Bookbinders and bindery workers in small shops may perform many binding tasks, while those in large shops usually are assigned only one or a few operations, such as operating complicated manual or electronic guillotine paper cutters or folding machines. Others specialize in adjusting and preparing equipment, and may perform minor repairs as needed. Working Conditions Binderies often are noisy and jobs can be fairly strenuous, requir ing considerable lifting, standing, and carrying. They also may re quire stooping, kneeling, and crouching. Binding often resembles an assembly line where workers perform repetitive tasks. Employment In 2000, bookbinders and bindery workers held about 115,000 jobs, including 9,600 working as skilled bookbinders and 105,000 work ing as bindery workers. Although some large libraries and commercial book publishers have their own bindery operations, employing some bookbinders and bindery workers, the majority of jobs are in commercial print ing plants. The largest employers of bindery workers are bindery trade shops— these companies specialize in providing binding ser vices for printers without binderies or whose printing production exceeds their binding capabilities. Few publishers maintain their own manufacturing facilities, so most contract out the printing and assembly of books to commercial printing plants or bindery trade shops. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bookbinders and bindery workers leam the craft through onthe-job training. Inexperienced workers usually are assigned simple tasks such as moving paper from cutting machines to folding ma chines. They leam basic binding skills, including the characteris tics of paper and how to cut large sheets of paper into different sizes with the least amount of waste. As workers gain experience, they advance to more difficult tasks and leam to operate one or more pieces of equipment. Usually, it takes one to three months to leam to operate the simpler machines but it can take up to one year to become completely familiar with more complex equipment, such as computerized binding machines. Formal apprenticeships are not as common as they used to be, but still are offered by some employers. Apprenticeships provide a more structured program that enables workers to acquire the high levels of specialization and skill needed for some bindery jobs. For example, a 4-year apprenticeship usually is necessary to teach workers how to restore rare books and to produce valuable collectors’ items. Employers prefer to hire experienced individuals, but will train workers with some basic knowledge of binding operations. High school students interested in bindery careers should take shop courses or attend a vocational-technical high school. Occupational skill centers, usually operated by labor unions, also provide an intro duction to a bindery career. To keep pace with changing technol ogy, retraining is increasingly important for bindery workers. Students with computer skills and mechanical aptitudes are espe cially in demand. Bindery workers need basic mathematics and language skills. Bindery work requires careful attention to detail so accuracy, pa tience, nearness, and good eyesight also are important. Manual dexterity is essential in order to count, insert, paste, and fold. Me chanical aptitude is needed to operate the newer, more automated equipment. Artistic ability and imagination are necessary for hand bookbinding. Training in graphic arts also can be an asset. Vocational-techni cal institutes offer postsecondary programs in the graphic arts, as do some skill updating or retraining programs, and community col leges. Some updating and retraining programs require students to have bindery experience; other programs are available through unions for members. Four-year colleges also offer programs, but their emphasis is on preparing people for careers as graphic artists, educators, or managers in the graphic arts field. Without additional training, advancement opportunities outside of bindery work are limited. In large binderies, experienced book binders or bindery workers may advance to supervisory positions. Job Outlook Overall employment of bookbinders and bindery workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010 as demand for printed material grows, but productivity in bind ery operations increases. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who change jobs or leave the labor force. Binding is increasingly mechanized as computers are attached to or associated with binding equipment. New “in-line” equip ment performs a number of operations in sequence, beginning with raw stock and ending with a complete finished product. Techno logical advances such as automatic tabbers, counters, palletizers, and joggers reduce labor and improve the appearance of the finished product. These improvements are increasingly inducing printing com Production Occupations 537 panies to acquire in-house binding and finishing equipment. How ever, growth in demand for specialized bindery workers who assist skilled bookbinders will be slowed as binding machinery continues to become more efficient. New technology requires a considerable investment in capital expenditures and employee training; therefore, computer skills and mechanical aptitude are increasingly important. The small number of establishments that do hand bookbinding limits opportunities for these specialists. Experienced workers will continue to have the best opportunities. Earnings Median hourly earnings of bookbinders were $11.42 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.14 and $15.71 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.28, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $20.11. Median hourly earnings ofbindery workers were $ 10.05 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.88 and $13.27 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.57, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.22. Workers covered by union con tracts usually had higher earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery in clude prepress technicians and workers; printing machine opera tors; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and various other precision machine operators. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local printing industry associations, local book binding shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications Inter national Union, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information on bindery occupations, write to: >■ Bindery Industries Association, International, 70 East Lake St., #300, Chicago, IL 60601. >- Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW, Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.gciu.org For information on careers and training programs in printing and the graphic arts, contact: >- Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston,VA 20191. Internet: http://www.npes.org/edcouncil/index.html > Printing Industries of America, 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.gain.org/servlet/gateway/PIA_GATF/non_index.html >• Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. Internet: http://www.gatf.org Prepress Technicians and Workers (0**NET 51-5021.00, 51-5022.01, 51-5022.02, 51-5022.03, 51-5022.04, 51-5022.05, 51-5022.06, 51-5022.07, 51-5022.08, 51-5022.09, 51 5022.10, 51-5022.11, 51-5022.12, 51-5022.13) Significant Points • Most workers train on-the-job; some complete formal graphics arts programs or other postsecondary programs in printing technology. • Most employers prefer to hire experienced prepress technicians and workers. • Employment is projected to decline as the increased use of computers in typesetting and page layout eliminates many prepress jobs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The printing process has three stages—prepress, press, and binding or postpress. Prepress technicians and workers prepare material for printing presses. They perform a variety of tasks involved with transforming text and pictures into finished pages and making print ing plates of the pages. Advances in computer software and printing technology con tinue to change prepress work. Customers, as well as prepress tech nicians and workers, use their computers to produce material that looks like the desired finished product. Customers, using their own computers, increasingly do much of the typesetting and page lay out work formerly done by prepress technicians and workers. This process, called “desktop publishing,” poses new challenges for the printing industry. (A separate statement on desktop publishers ap pears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Instead of receiving simple typed text from customers, prepress technicians and workers get the material on a computer disk. Because of this, customers are increasingly likely to have already settled on a format on their own, rather than relying on suggestions from prepress technicians and workers. Furthermore, the printing industry is rapidly moving to ward complete “digital imaging,” by which customers’ material received on computer disks is converted directly into printing plates. Other innovations in prepress work are digital color page makeup systems, electronic page layout systems, and off-press color proof ing systems. Typesetting and page layouts also have been affected by tech nological changes. The old “hot type” method of text composi tion—which used molten lead to create individual letters, paragraphs, and full pages of text—is nearly extinct. Today, com position work is done with computers and “cold type” technology. Cold type, which is any of a variety of methods creating type with out molten lead, has traditionally used “photo typesetting” to ready text and pictures for printing. Although this method has many varia tions, all use photography to create images on paper. The images are assembled into page format and re-photographed to create film negatives from which the actual printing plates are made. How ever, newer cold type methods are becoming more common. These automate the photography or make printing plates directly from electronic files. In one common form of phototypesetting, text is entered into a computer programmed to hyphenate, space, and create columns of text. Typesetters or data entry clerks may do keyboarding of text at the printing establishment. (See the Handbook statement on data entry and information processing workers.) Increasingly, however, authors do this work before the job is sent out for composition. The coded text then is transferred to a typesetting machine, which uses photography, a cathode-ray tube, or a laser to create an image on typesetting paper or film. Once it has been developed the paper or film is sent to a lithographer who makes the actual printing plate. New technologies have had a significant impact on the role of other composition workers. Sophisticated publishing software al lows an entire newspaper, catalog, or book page, complete with artwork and graphics, to be made up on the computer screen ex actly as it will appear in print. Although generally this is the work of desktop publishers, which are discussed separately in the Hand book, improvements in packaged software allow customers to do more of their own typesetting and layout work. Operators, how ever, still transmit the pages for production into film and then into plates or directly into plates. “Imagesetters” read text from com puter memory and then “beam” it directly onto film, paper, or plates, bypassing the slower photographic process traditionally used. In small shops, job printers may be responsible for composition and page layout, reading proofs for errors and clarity, correcting mis takes, and printing. 538 Occupational Outlook Handbook With traditional photographic processes, the material is arranged and typeset, and then passed on to workers who further prepare it for the presses. Camera operators usually are classified as line camera operators, halftone operators, or color separation photogra phers. Line camera operators start the process of making a litho graphic plate by photographing and developing film negatives or positives of the material to be printed. They adjust light and expose film for a specified length of time, and then develop film in a series of chemical baths. They may load exposed film in machines that automatically develop and fix the image. The use of film in print ing will decline, as electronic imaging becomes more prevalent. With decreased costs and improved quality, electronic imaging has become the method of choice in the industry. The litographic printing process requires that images be made up of tiny dots coming together to form a picture. Photographs cannot be printed without them. When normal “continuous-tone” photographs need to be reproduced, halftone camera operators sepa rate the photograph into pictures containing the dots. Color separa tion photography is more complex. In this process, camera operators produce four-color separation negatives from a continuous-tone iW' color print or transparency. Most of this separation work is done electronically on scan ners. Scanner operators use computerized equipment to capture photographs or art as digital data, or to create film negatives or positives of photographs or art.. The computer controls the color separation of the scanning process, and with the help of the op erator, corrects for mistakes, or compensates for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Each scan produces a dotted image, or halftone, of the original in one of four primary printing colors—yellow, magenta, cyan, and black. The images are used to produce printing plates that print each of these colors, with transparent colored inks, one at a time. These produce sec ondary” color combinations of red, green, blue, and black which can be combined to produce the colors and hues of the original photograph. Scanners that can perform color correction during the color separation procedure are rapidly replacing lithographic dot etch ers, who retouch film negatives or positives by sharpening or re shaping images. They work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. Dot etchers must know the characteristics of all types of paper and must produce fine shades of color. Like cam era operators, they are usually assigned to only one phase of the work, and may have job titles such as dot etcher, retoucher, or letterer. New technology also is lessening the need for film strippers, who cut the film to the required size and arrange and tape the nega tives onto “flats”—or layout sheets used by platemakers to make press plates. When completed, flats resemble large film negatives of the text in its final form. In large printing establishments such as newspapers, arrangement is done automatically. Platemakers use a photographic process to make printing plates. The film assembly or flat is placed on top of a thin metal plate coated with a light-sensitive resin. Exposure to ultraviolet light activates the chemical in parts not protected by the film’s dark ar eas. The plate then is developed in a solution that removes the unexposed non-image area, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate exposed to the light hardens and becomes water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text. A growing number of printing plants use lasers to directly con vert electronic data to plates without any use of film. Entering, storing, and retrieving information from computer-aided equipment require technical skills. In addition to operating and maintaining the equipment, lithographic platemakers must make sure that plates meet quality standards. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most prepress technicians and workers train on the job; some complete postsecondary programs in printing technology. During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal non image areas, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were ex posed to light. Next, the plate comes in contact with a rubber roller covered with oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text is transferred to paper. Although computers perform a wider variety of tasks, printing still involves text composition, page layout, and plate making, so printing still will require prepress technicians and workers. As com puter skills become increasingly important, these workers will need to demonstrate a desire and an ability to benefit from the frequent retraining required by rapidly changing technology. Working Conditions Prepress technicians and workers usually work in clean, air-condi tioned areas with little noise. Some workers, such as typesetters and compositors, may develop eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal, or musculoskeletal problems such as back aches. Lithographic artists and film strippers may find working with fine detail tiring to the eyes. Platemakers, who work with toxic chemicals, face the hazard of skin irritations. Workers often are subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Production Occupations 539 Prepress employees usually work an 8-hour day. Some work ers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Employment Prepress technicians and workers held about 162,000 jobs in 2000. Of these, almost 56,000 were job printers. Most prepress jobs were found in firms that handle commercial or business printing, and in newspaper plants. Commercial print ing firms print newspaper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and adver tisements, while business form establishments print material such as sales receipts. A large number ofjobs also are found in printing trade services firms and “in-plant” operations. Establishments in printing trade services typically perform custom compositing, plate making, and related prepress services. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geo graphically dispersed in the United States, and prepress jobs are found throughout the country. However, job prospects may be best in large metropolitan cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Ange les, Philadelphia, Washington, DC, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most prepress technicians and workers train on the job; the length of training varies by occupation. Some skills, such as typesetting, can be learned in a few months, but they are the most likely to be automated in the future. Other skills, such as stripping (image as sembly), require years of experience to master. However, these workers also should expect to receive intensive retraining. Workers often start as helpers who are selected for on-the-job training programs after demonstrating their reliability and interest in the occupation. They begin with instruction from an experienced craft worker and advance based on their demonstrated mastery of skills at each level. All workers should expect to be retrained from time to time to handle new, improved equipment. As workers gain experience, they advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory positions. Apprenticeship is another way to become a skilled prepress worker, although few apprenticeships have been offered in recent years. Apprenticeship programs emphasize a specific craft—such as camera operator, film stripper, lithographic etcher, scanner op erator, or platemaker—but apprentices are introduced to all phases of printing. Usually, most employers prefer to hire high school graduates who possess good communication skills, both oral and written. Prepress technicians and workers should be able to deal courte ously with people, because in small shops they may take customer orders. They also may perform computations to estimate job costs. Persons interested in working for firms using advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers. Mathematical skills also are essential for operating many of the software packages used to run modem, computerized prepress equipment. Prepress technicians and workers need good manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work indepen dently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, also are assets. Artistic ability is often a plus. Employers also seek persons who are even-tempered and adaptable, important qualities for work ers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment. Formal graphic arts programs, offered by community and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges, are a good way to leam about the industry. These programs provide job-related training, which will help when seeking full-time employment. Bachelor’s degree https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis programs in graphic arts usually are intended for students who may eventually move into management positions, and 2-year associate degree programs are designed to train skilled workers. Courses in various aspects of printing also are available at voca tional-technical institutes, industry-sponsored update and retrain ing programs, and private trade and technical schools. As workers gain experience, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory positions. Job Outlook Overall employment of prepress technicians and workers is expected to decline through 2010. Demand for printed material should con tinue to grow, spurred by rising levels of personal income, increas ing school enrollments, higher levels of educational attainment, and expanding markets. However, increased use of computers in desk top publishing should eliminate many prepress jobs. Technological advances will have a varying effect on employ ment among the prepress occupations. This reflects the increasing proportion of page layout and design that will be performed using computers. Most prepress technicians and workers such as paste up, composition and typesetting, photoengraving, platemaking, film stripping, and camera operator occupations are expected to experi ence declines as handwork becomes automated. Computerized equipment allowing reporters and editors to specify type and style, and to format pages at a desktop computer terminal, already has eliminated many typesetting and composition jobs; more may dis appear in the years ahead. In contrast, employment ofjob printers is expected to grow slightly because at certain times, it is more ad vantageous for a company to contract out this same service to a small shop. Contracting out is likely to benefit job printers because they usually are found in small shops. Job prospects also will vary by industry. Changes in technology have shifted many employment opportunities away from the tradi tional printing plants into advertising agencies, public relations firms, and large corporations. Many companies are turning to in-house typesetting or desktop publishing, as personal computers with elabo rate graphic capabilities have become common. Corporations are finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. Some new jobs for prepress technicians and workers are expected to emerge in commercial printing establishments. New equipment should reduce the time needed to complete a printing job, and al low commercial printers to make inroads into new markets that re quire fast turnaround. Because small establishments predominate, commercial printing should provide the best opportunities for inex perienced workers who want to gain a good background in all fac ets of printing. Most employers prefer to hire experienced prepress technicians and workers. Among persons without experience, however, oppor tunities should be best for those with computer backgrounds who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them leam the printing process and adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques. Earnings Median hourly earnings of prepress technicians and workers were $14.57 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.70 and $19.12 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.20, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.57 an hour. Median hourly earnings in commercial printing, the industry employing the largest number of prepress technicians and workers, were $ 15.26 in 2000. 540 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median hourly earnings of job printers were $13.61 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.00 and $17.67 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.81, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.88 an hour. Median hourly earnings in commercial printing, the industry employing the largest number of job printers, were $14.68 in 2000. Wage rates for prepress technicians and workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, and size of the firm, and whether they are union members. Related Occupations Prepress technicians and workers use artistic skills in their work. These skills also are essential for artists and related workers, etch ers and engravers, designers, and desktop publishers. In addition to typesetters, other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards include data entry and information processing workers. Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training programs may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, or from local offices of the State employment service. For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to: ► Printing Industries of America, 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.gain.org/servlet/gateway/PIA_GATF/non_index.html >• Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191. Internet: http://www.npes.org/edcouncil/index.html >- Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.gciu.org ► Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. Internet: http://www.gatf.org Printing Machine Operators (0**NET 51-5023.01, 51-5023.02, 51-5023.03, 51-5023.04, 51-5023.05, 51-5023.06, 51-5023.07, 51-5023.08, 51-5023.09) • • • Significant Points Most are trained informally on the job. Employment growth will be slowed by the increasing use of new, more efficient computerized printing should increase in use, but letterpress, in which an inked, raised surface is pressed against paper, will be phased out. In addition to the major printing processes, plateless or nonimpact processes are coming into general use. Plateless processes—including electronic, electrostatic, and ink-jet printing—are used for copying, duplicat ing, and document and specialty printing, usually by quick and in house printing shops. To prepare presses for printing, machine operators install and adjust the printing plate, adjust pressure, ink the presses, load paper, and adjust the press to the paper size. Press operators ensure that paper and ink meet specifications, and adjust margins and the flow of ink to the inking rollers accordingly. They then feed paper through the press cylinders and adjust feed and tension controls. While printing presses are running, press operators monitor their operation and keep the paper feeders well stocked. They make adjustments to correct uneven ink distribution, speed, and tempera tures in the drying chamber, if the press has one. If paper jams or tears and the press stops, which can happen with some offset presses, operators quickly correct the problem to minimize downtime. Simi larly, operators working with other high-speed presses constantly look for problems, making quick corrections to avoid expensive losses of paper and ink. Throughout the run, operators occasion ally pull sheets to check for any printing imperfections. In most shops, press operators also perform preventive mainte nance. They oil and clean the presses and make minor repairs. Machine operators’jobs differ from one shop to another because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses. Small commercial shops are operated by one person and tend to have relatively small presses, which print only one or two colors at a time. Operators who work with large presses have assistants and helpers. Large newspaper, magazine, and book printers use giant “in-line web” presses that require a crew of several press operators and press as sistants. These presses are fed paper in big rolls, called “webs,” up to 50 inches or more in width. Presses print the paper on both sides; trim, assemble, score, and fold the pages; and count the fin ished sections as they come off the press. Most plants have or will soon have installed printing presses with computers and sophisticated instruments to control press opera tions, making it possible to set up for jobs in less time. Computers allow press operators to perform many of their tasks electroni cally. With this equipment, press operators monitor the printing process on a control panel or computer monitor, which allows them to adjust the press electronically. presses. Jobseekers are likely to face keen competition; opportunities should be best for persons who qualify for formal apprenticeship training or who complete postsecondary training programs. Nature of the Work Printing machine operators prepare, operate, and maintain the print ing presses in a pressroom. Duties of printing machine operators vary according to the type of press they operate—offset lithogra phy, gravure, flexography, screen printing, or letterpress. Offset lithography, which transfers an inked impression from a rubbercovered cylinder to paper or other material, is the dominant print ing process. With gravure, the recesses on an etched plate or cylinder are inked and pressed to paper. Flexography is a form of rotary printing in which ink is applied to the surface by a flexible mbber printing plate with a raised image area. Gravure and flexography https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ^ Printing machine operators prepare, operate, and maintain the printing presses in a pressroom. Production Occupations 541 Working Conditions Operating a press can be physically and mentally demanding, and sometimes tedious. Printing machine operators are on their feet most of the time. Often, operators work under pressure to meet deadlines. Most printing presses are capable of high printing speeds, and adjustments must be made quickly to avoid waste. Pressrooms are noisy, and workers in certain areas wear ear protectors. Work ing with press machinery can be hazardous, but accidents can be avoided when safe work practices are observed. The threat of acci dents is less with newer computerized presses because operators make most adjustments from a control panel. Many press operators work evening, night, and overtime shifts. Employment Printing machine operators held about 222,000 jobs in 2000. Most press operator jobs were in newspaper plants or in firms handling commercial or business printing. Commercial printing firms print newspaper inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and the advertisements found in mailboxes, and business form establishments print items such as business cards, sales receipts, and paper used in computers. Addi tional jobs were in the “in-plant” section of organizations and busi nesses that do their own printing—such as banks, insurance companies, and government agencies. The printing and publishing industry is one of the most geo graphically dispersed in the United States, and press operators can find jobs throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large printing centers such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, DC, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although completion of a formal apprenticeship or a postsecondary program in printing equipment operation continue to be the best ways to learn the trade, most printing machine operators are trained informally on the job while working as assistants or helpers to ex perienced operators. Beginning press operators load, unload, and clean presses. With time, they move up to operating one-color sheet fed presses and eventually advance to multicolor presses. Opera tors are likely to gain experience on many kinds of printing presses during the course of their career. Apprenticeships for press operators in commercial shops take 4 years. In addition to on-the-job instruction, apprenticeships include related classroom or correspondence school courses. Once the domi nant method for preparing for this occupation, apprenticeships are becoming less prevalent. In contrast, formal postsecondary programs in printing equip ment operation offered by technical and trade schools and commu nity colleges are growing in importance. Some postsecondary school programs require 2 years of study and award an associate degree, but most programs can be completed in 1 year or less. Postsecondary courses in printing are increasingly important because they provide the theoretical knowledge needed to operate advanced equipment. Persons who wish to become printing machine operators need mechanical aptitude to make press adjustments and repairs. Oral and writing skills also are required. Operators should possess the mathematical skills necessary to compute percentages, weights, and measures, and to calculate the amount of ink and paper needed to do a job. Because of technical developments in the printing indus try, courses in chemistry, electronics, color theory, and physics are helpful. Technological changes have had a tremendous effect on the skills needed by printing machine operators. New presses now require operators to possess basic computer skills. Even experienced op erators periodically receive retraining and skill updating. For ex ample, printing plants that change from sheet-fed offset presses to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Web offset presses have to retrain the entire press crew because skill requirements for the two types of presses are different. Web offset presses, with their faster operating speeds, require faster de cisions, monitoring of more variables, and greater physical effort. In the future, workers are expected to need to retrain several times during their career. Printing machine operators may advance in pay and responsibil ity by working on a more complex printing press. Through experi ence and demonstrated ability, for example, a one-color sheet-fed press operator may become a four-color sheet-fed press operator. Others may advance to pressroom supervisor and become respon sible for an entire press crew. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as printing machine operators are likely to face keen competition from experienced operators and prepress workers who have been displaced by new technology, particularly those who have completed retraining programs. Opportunities to become printing machine operators are likely to be best for persons who qualify for formal apprenticeship training or who complete postsecondary training programs. Employment of printing machine operators is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Al though demand for printed materials will grow, employment growth will be slowed by the increased use of new, more efficient comput erized printing presses. Most job openings will result from the need to replace operators who retire or leave the occupation. Most new jobs will result from expansion of the printing indus try as demand for printed material increases in response to demo graphic trends, U.S. expansion into foreign markets, and growing use of direct mail by advertisers. Demand for books and magazines will increase as school enrollments rise, and as substantial growth in the middle-aged and older population spurs adult education and leisure reading. Additional growth should stem from increased for eign demand for domestic trade publications, professional and sci entific works, and mass-market books such as paperbacks. Continued employment in commercial printing will be spurred by increased expenditures for print advertising materials to be mailed directly to prospective customers. New market research techniques are leading advertisers to increase spending on messages targeted to specific audiences, and should continue to require the printing of a wide variety of newspaper inserts, catalogs, direct mail enclo sures, and other kinds of print advertising. Other printing, such as newspapers, books, and greeting cards, also will provide jobs. Experienced press operators will fill most of these jobs because many employers are under severe pressure to meet deadlines and have limited time to train new employees. Earnings Median hourly earnings of printing machine operators were $13.57 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.38 and $17.80 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.09, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.92 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of print ing machine operators in 2000, were: Commercial printing............................................................................. Newspapers............................................................................................ Paperboard containers and boxes...................................................... Miscellaneous converted paper products........................................ Mailing, reproduction, and stenographic services......................... $ 14.91 14.71 14.44 13.78 10.92 The basic wage rate for a printing machine operator depends on the type of press being run and the geographic area in which the 542 Occupational Outlook Handbook work is located. Workers covered by union contracts usually had higher earnings. Union, local affiliates of Printing Industries of America, or local offices of the State employment service. For general information about press operators, write to: ► Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW., Wash Related Occupations Other workers who set up and operate production machinery in clude machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic, bookbinders and bindery workers, and various precision machine ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.gciu.org operators. Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.gain.org/servlet/gateway/PIA_GATF/non_index.html ► Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191. Internet: http://www.npes.org/edcouncil/index.html ► Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeships and other training opportunities may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, local offices of the Graphic Communications International For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to: >- Printing Industries of America, 100 Daingerfield Rd., 15143. Internet: http://www.gatf.org Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations (0**NET 51-6011.01, 51-6011.02, 51-6011.03, 51-6021.01, 51-6021.02, 51-6021.03, 51-6031.01, 51-6031.02, 51-6041.00, 51-6042.00, 51 6051.00, 51-6052.01, 51-6052.02, 51-6061.00, 51-6062.00, 51-6063.00, 51-6064.00, 51-6091.01, 51-6092.00, 51-6093.00, 51-6099.99) Significant Points • Most workers learn through on-the-job training. • Employment is expected to decline for most occupations, primarily due to increased imports, laborsaving machinery, and offshore assembly. • Earnings of most workers are low. Nature of the Work Textiles and leather clothe our bodies, cover our furniture, and adorn our homes. Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers produce these materials and fashion them into a wide range of products that we use in our daily lives. Jobs range from those that employ comput ers, to those that operate large industrial machinery and smaller power equipment, to those that involve substantial handwork. Textile machine operators. Textile machinery operators mn machines that make textile products from fibers. Textiles are the basis of towels, bed linens, hosiery and socks, and nearly all cloth ing, but they also are a key ingredient of products ranging from roofing to tires. The first step in manufacturing textiles is prepar ing the natural or synthetic fibers. Extruding andforming machine operators, synthetic and glass fibers set up and operate machines that extrude—or force—liquid synthetic material such as rayon, fi berglass, or liquid polymers out through small holes and draw out filaments. Other operators put natural fibers such as cotton, wool, flax, or hemp through carding and combing machines that clean and align them into short lengths called “sliver.” When sliver is produced, different types of natural fibers and synthetics filaments may be combined to give the product a desired texture, durability, or other characteristics. Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine operators take the sliver and draw out, twist, and wind it to produce yam, taking care to repair any breaks. Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators control machines that wash, bleach, or dye either yam or finished fabrics and other products. Textile knitting and weaving machine operators put the yam on machines that weave, knit, loop, or tuft it into a product. Woven fabrics are used to make apparel and other goods, while some knitted products—such as hosiery—and tufted products such https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis as carpeting—emerge in near finished form. Different types of machines are used for these processes, but operators perform simi lar tasks. They repair breaks in the yam and monitor the yam sup ply, while tending many machines at once. Textile cutting machine operators trim the fabric into various widths and lengths, depend ing on its intended use. Apparel workers. Apparel workers cut fabric and other mate rials and sew it into clothing and related products. Workers in a variety of occupations fall under the heading of apparel workers. Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers make custom clothing and alter and repair garments for individuals. However, workers in most apparel occupations are found in manufacturing where they per form specialized tasks in the production of large numbers of gar ments that are shipped to retail establishments for sale to the public. Fabric and apparel patternmakers convert a clothing designer’s original model of a garment into a pattern of separate parts that can be laid out on a length of fabric. After discussing the item with the designer, these skilled workers usually use a computer to outline the parts and draw in details to indicate the position of pleats, but tonholes, and other features. (In the past, patternmakers laid out the parts on paper using pencils and drafting instruments, such as mlers.) Patternmakers then alter the size of the pieces in the pat tern to produce garments of various sizes, and may “mark” the fab ric showing the best layout of pattern pieces to minimize waste of material. Once an item’s pattern has been made and marked, mass pro duction of the garment begins. Cutters and trimmers take the pat terns and cut out material. They must pay close attention to their work because mistakes are costly. They place multiple layers of material on the cutting table and use an electric knife or other cut ting tools to cut out the various pieces of the garment following the outline of the pattern; delicate materials may be cut by hand. In some companies, computer-controlled machines do the cutting. Sewing machine operators join the parts together, reinforce seams, and attach buttons, hooks, zippers, and accessories to pro duce clothing. After the product is sewn, other workers remove lint and loose threads and inspect and package the garments. Shoe and leather workers. Shoe and leather workers are em ployed either in manufacturing or in personal services. In shoe manu facturing, shoe machine operators and tenders operate a variety of specialized machines that perform cutting, joining, and finishing functions. In personal services, shoe and leather workers and re pairers perform a variety of repairs and custom leatherwork for members of the general public. The construct, decorate, or repair Production Occupations 543 shoes, belts, purses, saddles, luggage, and other leather products. They also may repair some products made of canvas or plastic. When making custom shoes or modifying existing footwear for people with foot problems or special needs, they cut pieces of leather, shape them over a form shaped like a foot, and sew them together. They then attach soles and heels using sewing machines or cement and nails. They also dye and polish the items using a buffing wheel for a smooth surface and lustrous shine. When making luggage, they fasten leather to a frame and attach handles and other hardware. They also cut and secure linings inside the frames and sew or stamp designs onto the luggage exterior. In addition to the steps listed above, saddle mak ers often apply leather dyes and liquid topcoats to produce a gloss finish on a saddle. They may also decorate the saddle surface by hand stitching or by stamping the leather with decorative patterns and designs. Shoe and leather workers and repairers who own their own shops keep records and supervise other workers. Upholsterers. Upholsterers make, fix, and restore furniture that is covered with fabric. Upholsterers who restore furniture remove old fabric and stuffing to get back down to the springs and wooden frame. They use hammers and tack pullers to remove the old parts. They reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wood. The springs sit on a cloth mat, called webbing, that is attached to the frame. Upholsterers replace tom webbing and examine the springs and replace broken or bent ones. Upholsterers who make new furniture start with a bare wooden frame. First, they install webbing, tacking it to one side of the frame, — f/T Textile machinery operators run machines that make products from Digitizedfibers. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis stretching it tight, and tacking it to the other side. Then, they tie each spring to the webbing and to its neighboring springs. Uphol sterers next cover the springs with filler, such as foam or a polyester batt or similar fibrous batting material, to form a smooth, rounded surface. They then measure and cut fabric for the arms, backs, seats, sides, and other surfaces, leaving as little waste as possible. They sew the fabric pieces together and attach them to the frame using tacks, staples, or glue. Lastly, they attach any ornaments, such as fringes, buttons, or rivets. Laundry and drycleaning workers. Laundry and drycleaning workers clean cloth garments, linens, draperies, blankets, and other articles. They also may clean leather, suede, furs, and mgs. When necessary, they treat spots and stains on articles before laundering or drycleaning. The tend machines during cleaning and ensure that items are not lost or misplaced with those of another customer. Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials shape and remove wrinkles from items after cleaning by steam pressing or ironing by hand. Workers then assemble each customer’s items, box or bag them, and prepare an itemized bill for the customer. Working Conditions Most persons in textile, apparel and furnishings occupations work a standard 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. Evenings and weekend work is common for shoe and leather workers, laundry and drycleaning workers, and tailors, dressmakers, sewers employed in retail stores. In manufacturing, some employers add second shifts to justify the expense of new machinery. Many textile and fiber mills often use rotating schedules of shifts so that employees do not continuously work nights or days. But these rotating shifts sometimes cause workers to have sleep disorders and stress-related problems. While much of the work in apparel manufacturing still is based on a piecework system that allows for little interpersonal contact, some apparel firms are placing more emphasis on teamwork and cooperation. Under this new system, individuals work closely with one another and each team or module often governs itself, increas ing the overall responsibility of each operator. Working conditions vary by establishment and by occupation. In manufacturing, machinery in textile mills often is noisy, as are areas in which sewing and pressing are performed in apparel facto ries; pattemmaking and spreading areas tend to be much quieter. Many older factories are cluttered, hot, and poorly lit and venti lated, but more-modem facilities usually have more workspace and are well-lit and ventilated. Textile machinery operators use protec tive glasses and masks that cover their noses and mouths to protect against airborne materials. Many machines operate at high speeds, and textile machinery workers must be careful not to wear clothing or jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. In addition, ex truding and forming machine operators wear protective shoes and clothing when working with certain chemical compounds. Work in apparel production can be physically demanding. Some workers sit for long periods, and others spend many hours on their feet, leaning over tables and operating machinery. Operators must be attentive while mnning equipment such as sewing machines, pressers, and automated cutters. A few workers wear protective devices such as gloves. In some instances, new machinery and pro duction techniques have decreased the physical demands upon work ers. For example, newer pressing machines now are operated by foot pedals or computer controls, and do not require much strength to operate. Laundries and drycleaning establishments often are hot and noisy; but those in retail stores tend to be less noisy and more comfort able. Areas in which shoe and leather workers make or repair shoes and other leather items can be noisy and odors from leather dyes and stains often are present. Workers need to pay close attention 544 Occupational Outlook Handbook when working with machines to avoid punctures, lacerations, and abrasions. Upholstery work is not dangerous, but upholsterers usually wear protective gloves and clothing when using sharp tools and lifting and handling furniture or springs. Upholsterers stand most of the workday and may do a lot of bending and heavy lifting. They also may work in awkward positions for short periods. Employment Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers held over 1.3 million jobs in 2000. Employment in the detailed occupations that make up this group was distributed as follows: Sewing machine operators................................................................... 399,000 Laundry and drycleaning workers..................................................... 236,000 Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials............................ 110,000 Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers....................................................... 101,000 All other textile, apparel, and furnishings workers....................... 95,000 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders...................................................................... 90,000 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders.......................................................................................... 70,000 Upholsterers............................................................................................ 58,000 Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders, synthetic and glass fibers........................................ 41,000 Textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders................ 38,000 Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders..... 37,000 Shoe and leather workers and repairers............................................ 19,000 Fabric and apparel patternmakers..................................................... 15,000 Shoe machine operators and tenders................................................. 9,100 Manufacturing jobs are concentrated in California, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia. Jobs in reupholstery, shoe repair and custom leather work, and laundry and drycleaning establishments are found in cities and towns through out the Nation. Only about 7 percent of all workers in textile, ap parel, and furnishings occupations were self-employed, compared with more than one-third of tailors, dressmakers, and sewers and more than one-quarter of upholsterers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire high school graduates for jobs in textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations. Entrants with postsecondary vocational training or previous work experience in apparel production usually have a better chance of getting a job and advancing to a supervisory position. Regardless of setting, workers usually begin by performing simple tasks. In manufacturing, textile and apparel workers need good handeye coordination, manual dexterity, physical stamina, and the abil ity to perform repetitive tasks for long periods. Machine operators usually are trained on the job by more-experienced employees or by machinery manufacturers’ representatives. As they gain experience, they are assigned more difficult operations. Further advancement is limited, however. Some production workers may become firstline supervisors, but most can advance only to more-skilled opera tor jobs. As machinery in the industry continues to become more complex, knowledge of the basics of computers and electronics will increasingly be an asset. In addition, the trends toward cross-train ing of operators and working in teams will increase the time needed to become fully trained on all machines and require interpersonal skills to work effectively with others. Retailers prefer to hire custom tailors, dressmakers, and sewers with previous experience in apparel manufacture, design, or alter ation. Knowledge of fabrics, design, and construction is very im portant. Some experienced custom tailors open their own tailoring Custom tailoring is a very competitive field, however, and Digitizedshop. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training in small-business operations can mean the difference be tween success and failure. Although laundries and drycleaners pre fer entrants with previous work experience, they routinely hire inexperienced workers. Precision shoe and leather workers and repairers generally learn their skills on the job. Manual dexterity and the mechanical apti tude to work with handtools and machines are important in shoe repair and leather working. Shoe and leather workers who produce custom goods should have artistic ability as well. Beginners start as helpers for experienced workers but, in manufacturing, they may attend more-formal in-house training programs. Trainees gener ally become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years. Shoe repairers need to keep their skills up-to-date to work with the rapidly chang ing footwear styles and materials. Some do this by attending trade shows, while others attend specialized training seminars and work shops in custom shoe making, shoe repair, and other leather work sponsored by associations. Skilled workers who produce and modify prescription footwear may become certified as pedorthists by the Pedorthic Footwear Association after completing 120 hours of train ing and passing an examination. Some in the shoe and leather working occupations begin as workers or repairers and advance to salaried supervisory and managerial positions. Some open their own shop, but knowledge of business practices and management and a pleasant manner when dealing with customers are needed to stay in business. Most upholsterers learn their skills on the job, but a few learn their skills through apprenticeships. Inexperienced persons also may take training in basic upholstery in vocational schools and some community colleges. Upholsterers should have manual dexterity, good coordination, and the strength needed to lift heavy furniture. An eye for detail, a flair for color, and the ability to use fabrics creatively also are helpful. It takes about 3 years of on-the-job train ing for beginners hired as helpers to become fully skilled upholster ers. The primary forms of advancement for upholsterers are opening their own shop or moving into management. The upholstery busi ness is very competitive, so operating a shop successfully is diffi cult. In large shops and factories, experienced or highly skilled upholsterers may become supervisors or sample makers. Job Outlook Employment of textile, apparel, and furnishings workers is expected to decline through 2010. Apparel workers have been among the most rapidly declining occupational groups in the economy, and increasing imports, the use of offshore assembly, and greater pro ductivity through new automation will contribute to additional job losses. Because of the large size of this occupation, however, many thousands of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace persons who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment in the domestic textile and apparel industries has declined in recent years as foreign producers have gained a greater share of the U.S. market. Imports are expected to continue to in crease—and domestic output and employment decrease—as the U.S. market is opened further by the North American Free Trade Agree ment (NAFTA), the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) of the World Trade Organization, and the Caribbean Basin Initiative. NAFTA and the Caribbean Basin Initiative allow most apparel pro duced in Mexico, Canada, and many other Western Hemisphere countries to be imported duty-free to the United States. The ATC, as it is phased in, will result in the elimination of quotas and a reduction in tariffs for many apparel products produced in addi tional countries. Domestic production—especially of apparel—will continue to move abroad and imports to the U.S. market will in crease. Declines in U.S. apparel production will cause declines in domestic textile production because the apparel industry is the larg est consumer of American-made textiles. Domestic apparel manufacturers are developing the ability to take advantage of their close proximity to the U.S. market by re sponding more quickly to changes in market demand. U.S. produc ers use computers and electronic data interchange with retailers to closely monitor the sales of the items that they produce and to re plenish diminishing inventories quickly. They are, therefore, able to keep retailers stocked with the most popular items and to cut back production of apparel that is not selling well. Fierce competition in the market for apparel will keep domestic apparel and textile firms under intense pressure to cut costs and produce more with fewer workers. The textile industry already is highly automated but it will continue to seek to increase worker productivity through the introduction of laborsaving machinery. Employment is expected to decline as textile firms invest in new equipment, reorganize work practices, and consolidate. New ma chinery, such as faster air jet looms and computer-integrated manu facturing technology, will allow each operator to monitor a larger number of machines. Many factories are also reorganizing produc tion floors to give workers additional responsibility, further increas ing productivity. Also, textile firms are merging to take advantage of economies of scale and to pool resources for investment in new equipment. These practices will make the textile industry increas ingly competitive, but they will decrease employment of many ma chine operator occupations. Persons with technical skills and some computer training will have the best opportunities. Despite advances in technology, the apparel industry has had difficulty employing automated equipment extensively due to the soft properties of textile products. The industry produces a wide variety of apparel items that change frequently with changes in style and season. Adapting existing technology to the production of ap parel is time consuming and expensive, and each change could re quire retooling. However, some larger firms and those that produce standardized items that change infrequently have automated presewing functions, material handling, and some simple sewing procedures. Technological developments, such as computer-aided marking and grading, computer-controlled cutters, semiautomatic sewing and pressing machines, and automated material handling systems have increased output while reducing the need for some workers in larger firms. Assembly and sewing continues to be the most labor-intensive step in the production of apparel, and increas ing numbers of sewing machine operator jobs are expected to be lost to lower-wage workers abroad. But productivity improvements will allow many ofthe presewing functions of design, pattemmaking, marking, and cutting to continue be done domestically, and em ployment of workers who perform these functions will not be as adversely affected. However, as the domestic apparel industry con tinues to restructure and consolidate, more of the smaller, less-effi cient producers will lose market share to larger U.S. firms and foreign producers. Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers, the most skilled apparel work ers, also are expected to experience declining employment. Demand for their services will continue to lessen as consumers are increas ingly likely to buy new, mass-produced apparel instead of purchas ing custom-made apparel or having clothes altered or repaired. Employment of shoe and leather workers is expected to decline through 2010 due to growing imports of less-expensive shoes and leather goods, increasing productivity of U.S. manufacturers, and the more frequent tendency to buy new shoes rather than repair damaged ones. However, declines are expected to be somewhat offset as more people invest in expensive leather shoes that they will want repaired. Also, as the population continues to age, more people will need custom shoes for health reasons. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Production Occupations 545 Employment of upholsterers is expected to decline through 2010 as firms manufacturing new furniture and automotive seats use moredurable coverings and continue to become more automated and ef ficient. Demand for the reupholstery of furniture also is expected to decline as the increasing manufacture of new, relatively inexpen sive upholstered furniture causes many people to simply replace old, worn furniture. However, demand will continue steady for upholsterers to restore very valuable furniture. Most reupholstery work is labor-intensive and not easily automated. Job opportuni ties for experienced upholsterers should be good because few young people enter the occupation and few shops offer training. Earnings Earnings of textile, apparel, and furnishings workers vary by occu pation. Because many production workers in apparel manufactur ing are paid according to the number of acceptable pieces they or their group produce, their total earnings depend on skill, speed, and accuracy. Workers covered by union contracts tend to have higher earnings. Median hourly earnings by occupation in 2000 were as follows: Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders, synthetic and glass fibers................................................. Fabric and apparel patternmakers...................................................... Upholsterers............................................................................................. Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders........................................................................................... Tailors, dressmakers, and custom sewers.......................................... Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders........................................................................ Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders...... All other textile, apparel, and furnishings workers........................ Textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders................. Shoe machine operators and tenders................................................. Shoe and leather workers and repairers............................................. Sewers, hand............................................................................................. Sewing machine operators.................................................................... Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials............................. Laundry and drycleaning workers...................................................... $12.66 11.57 11.42 10.32 10.14 9.89 9.42 9.25 9.23 8.89 8.32 8.09 7.80 7.77 7.59 Benefits also vary. A few large employers, for example, include childcare in their benefits package. Apparel workers in retail trade also may receive a discount on their purchases from the company for which they work. In addition, some of the larger manufacturers operate company stores, from which employees can purchase ap parel products at significant discounts. Some small firms, how ever, offer only limited benefits. Related Occupations Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers apply their knowledge of textiles and leathers to fashion products using hand tools and ma chinery. Other occupations that produce products using hand tools, machines, and their knowledge of the materials with which they work include assemblers and fabricators, dental laboratory techni cians, food processing workers, jewelers and precious stone and metal workers, and woodworkers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities in textile, apparel, and furnish ings occupations is available from local employers and local of fices of the State employment service. For general information on careers, technology, and trade regu lations in the textile industry, contact: >- American Textile Manufacturers Institute, Inc., 1130 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 1200, Washington, DC 20036-3954. 546 Occupational Outlook Handbook ► Institute ofTextile Technology, 2551 Ivy Rd., Charlottesville, NC 22903 4614. Internet: http://www.itt.edu For general information on the apparel industry, contact: >- American Apparel Manufacturers Association, 2500 Wilson Blvd., Suite 301, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.americanapparel.com For information about the custom-made prescription shoe busi ness and training opportunities in this field, contact: >- Pedorthic Footwear Association, 7150 Columbia Gateway Dr., Suite G, Columbia, MD 21046. Internet: http://www.pedorthics.org To receive a list of technical schools with accredited programs in upholstery, contact: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technol ogy, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http ://www.accsct.org Woodworkers (0* *NET 51-7011.00, 51-7021.00, 51-7031.00, 51-7032.00, 51-7041.01, 51-7041.02, 51-7042.01, 51-7042.02, 51-7099.99) Significant Points • • • Most woodworkers are trained on the job; basic machine operations may be learned in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 or more years. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than average—reflecting relatively slow growth among lesser skilled woodworkers. Job prospects will be best for highly skilled workers and those with knowledge of computerized numerical control machine tool operation. Nature of the Work In spite of the development of sophisticated plastics and other ma terials, the demand for wood products continues unabated. Help ing to meet this demand are woodworkers. Woodworkers are found in industries that produce wood, such as sawmills and plywood mills; in industries that use wood to produce furniture, kitchen cabinets, musical instruments, and other fabricated wood products; or in small shops that make architectural woodwork, furniture, and many other specialty items. All woodworkers are employed at some stage of the process through which logs of wood are transformed into finished prod ucts. Some of these workers produce the structural elements of buildings; others mill hardwood and softwood lumber; still others assemble finished wood products. They operate machines that cut, shape, assemble, and finish raw wood to make the doors, windows, cabinets, trusses, plywood, flooring, paneling, molding, and trim that are components of most homes. Others may fashion home accessories, such as beds, sofas, tables, dressers, and chairs. In addition to these household goods, woodworkers also make sport ing goods, including baseball bats, racquets, and oars, as well as musical instruments, toys, caskets, tool handles, and thousands of other wooden items. Production woodworkers set up, operate, and tend woodwork ing machines such as power saws, planers, sanders, lathes, jointers, and routers that cut and shape components from lumber, plywood, and other wood products. In sawmills, sawing machine operators and tenders set up, operate, or tend wood sawing machines that cut logs into planks, timbers, or boards. In plants manufacturing wood products, woodworkers first determine the best method of shaping and assembling parts working from blueprints, supervisors’ instruc tions, or shop drawings that woodworkers themselves produce. Before cutting, they often must measure and mark the materials. They verify dimensions and may trim parts using hand tools such as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis planes, chisels, wood files, or sanders to insure a tight fit. Wood working machine operators and tenders set up, operate, or tend a specific woodworking machine such as drill presses, lathes, shapers, routers, sanders, planers, and wood-nailing machines. Lower skilled operators may merely press a switch on a woodworking machine and monitor the automatic operation whereas more highly skilled operators set up equipment, cut and shape wooden parts, and verify dimensions using a template, caliper, or rule. The next step in the manufacturing process is the production of subassemblies using fasteners and adhesives. The pieces then are brought together to form a complete unit. The product is then fin ish sanded, stained, and, if necessary, coated with a sealer, such as lacquer or varnish. Woodworkers may perform this work in teams or be assisted by a helper. Woodworkers have been greatly affected by the introduction of computer-controlled machinery. This technology has raised worker productivity by allowing one operator to simultaneously tend a greater number of machines. With computerized numerical con trols (CNC), an operator can program a machine to perform a se quence of operations automatically, resulting in greater precision and reliability. The integration of computers with equipment has improved production speeds and capabilities, simplified setup and maintenance requirements, and increased the demand for workers with computer skills. While this costly equipment has had a great impact on workers in the largest, most efficient firms, precision or custom woodwork ers—who generally work in smaller firms—have continued to em ploy the same production techniques they have used for many years. Workers such as cabinetmakers and bench carpenters; model mak ers and patternmakers; and furniture finishers work on a custom ized basis, often building one-of-a-kind items. These highly skilled Furniture and fixtures manufacturing firms employ 1 in 4 woodworkers. Production Occupations 547 precision woodworkers usually perform a complete cycle of tasks, cutting, shaping, preparing surfaces, and assembling prepared parts of complex wood components into a finished wood product. For this reason, these workers normally need substantial training and an ability to work from detailed instructions and specifications. In addition, they often are required to exercise independent judgment when undertaking an assignment. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by industry and specific job duties. In primary industries, such as logging and sawmills, working condi tions are physically demanding, due to the handling of heavy, bulky material. Workers in these industries also may encounter excessive noise and dust and other air pollutants. Flowever, the use of ear plugs and respirators may partially alleviate these problems. Also, rigid adherence to safety precautions minimizes risk of injury from contact with rough wood stock, sharp tools, and power equipment. The risk of injury also is lowered by the installation of computercontrolled equipment, which reduces the physical labor and handson contact with machinery. In secondary industries, such as furniture and kitchen cabinet manufacturing, working conditions also depend on the industry and the particular job. Employees who operate machinery often must wear ear and eye protection, follow operating safety instructions, and use safety shields or guards to prevent accidents. Those who work in the finishing area must either be provided with an appro priate dust or vapor mask, a complete protective safety suit, or work in a finishing environment that removes all vapors and particulate matter from the atmosphere. Prolonged standing, lifting, and fit ting heavy objects are common characteristics of the job. Employment Woodworkers held about 409,000 jobs in 2000. Self-employed woodworkers, mostly cabinetmakers and furniture finishers, ac counted for 10 percent of these jobs. Employment among detailed woodworking occupations was distributed as follows: Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters............................................... Woodworking machine setters, operators, and tenders, except sawing.................................................................................... Sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood................ Furniture finishers................................................................................. All other woodworkers......................................................................... Model makers and patternmakers, wood......................................... 159,000 103,000 57,000 45,000 35,000 10,000 More than 7 out of 10 woodworkers were employed in manu facturing industries. Among these woodworkers, 27 percent were found in establishments fabricating household and office furniture and fixtures and 40 percent worked in lumber and wood products, manufacturing a variety of raw, intermediate, and finished wood stock. Wholesale and retail lumber dealers, furniture stores, reupholstery and furniture repair shops, and construction firms also employ woodworkers. Woodworking jobs are found throughout the country. However, production jobs are concentrated in the South and Northwest, close to the supply of wood, whereas furniture makers are more prevalent in the East. Custom shops can be found everywhere, but generally are concentrated in or near highly populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most woodworkers are trained on the job, picking up skills infor mally from experienced workers. Some acquire skills through voca tional education or by working as carpenters on construction jobs. Others may attend colleges or universities that offer training in areas including wood technology, furniture manufacturing, wood engi neering, and production management. These programs prepare https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis students for positions in production, supervision, engineering, and management. Beginners usually observe and help experienced machine op erators. They may supply material to or remove fabricated products from machines. Trainees also do simple machine operating jobs, while at first closely supervised by experienced workers. As begin ners gain experience, they perform more complex jobs with less supervision. Some may learn to read blueprints, set up machines, and plan the sequence of the work. Most woodworkers leam basic machine operations and job tasks in a few months, but becoming a skilled woodworker often requires 2 or more years. Employers increasingly seek applicants with a high school di ploma or the equivalent, because of the growing sophistication of machinery and the constant need for retraining. Persons seeking woodworking jobs can enhance their employment and advancement prospects by completing high school and receiving training in math ematics, science, and computer applications. Other important quali ties for entrants in this occupation include mechanical ability, manual dexterity, and the ability to pay attention to detail. Advancement opportunities often are limited and depend upon availability, seniority, and a worker’s skills and initiative. Some times experienced woodworkers become inspectors or supervisors responsible for the work of a group of woodworkers. Production workers often can advance into these positions by assuming addi tional responsibilities and by attending workshops, seminars, or college programs. Those who are highly skilled may set up their own woodworking shops. Job Outlook Overall employment of woodworkers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010— reflecting relatively slow growth among lesser-skilled woodwork ing machine setters, operators, and tenders, except sawing, and furniture finishers. On the other hand, employment of higher-skilled woodworkers—including model makers and patternmakers, wood; sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood; and cabinet makers and bench carpenters—is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. In addition, thousands of openings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced wood workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Demand for woodworkers will stem from increases in popula tion, personal income, and business expenditures, in addition to the continuing need for repair and renovation of residential and com mercial properties. Therefore, opportunities should be particularly good for woodworkers who specialize in such items as moldings, cabinets, stairs, and windows. Due to increasingly automated manu facturing processes, prospects will be best for highly skilled wood workers with knowledge of CNC machine tool operation. Several factors may limit the growth of woodworking occupa tions. Technological advances, like robots and CNC machinery, will continue to increase productivity among woodworkers, pre venting employment from rising as fast as the demand for wood products, particularly in the mills and manufacturing plants where many processes can be automated. In addition, some jobs in the United States will be lost as imports continue to grow and as U.S. firms move some production to other countries. Also, the demand for wood may be reduced somewhat, as materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass continue to be used in many products as al ternatives to wood. Environmental measures designed to control various pollutants used in, or generated by, woodworking processes also may adversely impact employment. Employment in all woodworking specialties is highly sensitive to economic cycles. During economic downturns, workers are sub ject to layoffs or a reduction in hours. 548 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings Median hourly earnings of cabinetmakers and bench carpenters were $10.83 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.69 and $13.72. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.24, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.21. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of cabinetmakers and bench carpenters in 2000 are shown below: Partitions and fixtures.......................................................................... Furniture and homefumishings stores.............................................. Millwork, plywood, and structural members.................................. Household furniture............................................................................... $12.24 11.15 10.75 9.83 Median hourly earnings of sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood were $10.23 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.40 and $12.60. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.12, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 15.36. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of sawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, wood in 2000 are shown below: the largest numbers of woodworking machine setters, operators, and tenders, except sawing in 2000 are shown below: Millwork, plywood, and structural members.................................. Household furniture............................................................................... Sawmills and planing mills........................................ Miscellaneous wood products............................................................ Wood containers..................................................................................... $10.36 10.05 9.83 9.37 8.30 In 2000, median hourly earnings were $10.34 for furniture fin ishers and $9.48 for all other woodworkers. Some woodworkers, such as those in logging or sawmills who are engaged in processing primary wood and building materials, are members of the International Association of Machinists. Oth ers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. $10.56 10.36 9.88 Related Occupations Carpenters also work with wood. In addition, many woodworkers follow blueprints and drawings and use machines to shape and form raw wood into a final product. Workers who perform similar func tions working with other materials include sheet metal workers, struc tural and reinforcing iron and metal workers, computer control programmers and operators, machinists, and tool and die makers. Median hourly earnings of woodworking machine setters, op erators, and tenders, except sawing were $ 10.00 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.19 and $12.32. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $6.95, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.88. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing Sources of Additional Information For information about woodworking occupations, contact local fur niture manufacturers, sawmills and planing mills, cabinetmaking or millwork firms, lumber dealers, a local of one of the unions men tioned above, or the nearest office of the State employment service. Sawmills and planing mills................................................................. Millwork, plywood, and structural members.................................. Household furniture.............................................................................. Other Production Occupations Dental Laboratory Technicians (0* *NET 51-9081.00) Significant Points • • Employment should increase slowly, as the public’s improving dental health requires fewer dentures but more bridges and crowns. Dental laboratory technicians need artistic aptitude for detailed and precise work, a high degree of manual dexterity, and good vision. Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians fill prescriptions from dentists for crowns, bridges, dentures, and other dental prosthetics. First, den tists send a specification of the item to be fabricated, along with an impression (mold) of the patient’s mouth or teeth. Then, dental laboratory technicians, also called dental technicians, create a model of the patient’s mouth by pouring plaster into the impression and allowing it to set. Next, they place the model on an apparatus that mimics the bite and movement of the patient’s jaw. The model serves as the basis of the prosthetic device. Technicians examine the model, noting the size and shape of the adjacent teeth, as well as gaps within the gumline. Based upon these observations and the dentist’s specifications, technicians build and shape a wax tooth or teeth model, using small hand instruments called wax spatulas and wax carvers. They use this wax model to cast the metal framework Digitized forfor theFRASER prosthetic device. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis After the wax tooth has been formed, dental technicians pour the cast and form the metal and, using small hand-held tools, pre pare the surface to allow the metal and porcelain to bond. They then apply porcelain in layers, to arrive at the precise shape and color of a tooth. Technicians place the tooth in a porcelain furnace to bake the porcelain onto the metal framework, and then adjust the shape and color, with subsequent grinding and addition of porce lain to achieve a sealed finish. The final product is a nearly exact replica of the lost tooth or teeth. In some laboratories, technicians perform all stages of the work, whereas in other labs, each technician does only a few. Dental labo ratory technicians can specialize in one of five areas: Orthodontic appliances, crowns and bridges, complete dentures, partial dentures, or ceramics. Job titles can reflect specialization in these areas. For example, technicians who make porcelain and acrylic restorations are called dental ceramists. Working Conditions Dental laboratory technicians generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Technicians usually have their own work benches, which can be equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing equipment, and hand instruments, such as wax spatulas and wax carvers. The work is extremely delicate and time consuming. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week, but self-employed tech nicians frequently work longer hours. Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 43,000 jobs in 2000. Most jobs were in commercial dental laboratories, which usually are Production Occupations 549 oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, ethics, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in a school or an associated dental laboratory. Accredited programs normally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree. Graduates of 2-year training programs need additional hands-on experience to become fully qualified. Each dental laboratory owner operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not nec essarily expose students to techniques and procedures favored by individual laboratory owners. Students who have taken enough courses to leam the basics of the craft usually are considered good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have completed a formal program. Many employers will train someone without any classroom experience. The National Board for Certification, an independent board es tablished by the National Association of Dental Laboratories, of fers certification in dental laboratory technology. Certification, which is voluntary, can be obtained in five specialty areas: crowns and bridges, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orth odontic appliances. In large dental laboratories, technicians may become supervi sors or managers. Experienced technicians may teach or may take jobs with dental suppliers in such areas as product development, marketing, and sales. Still, for most technicians, opening one’s own laboratory is the way toward advancement and higher earnings. A high degree of manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings and variations in shape are necessary. An artistic aptitude for detailed and precise work also is important. High school students interested in becoming dental labo ratory technicians should take courses in art, metal and wood shop, drafting, and sciences. Courses in management and business may help those wishing to operate their own laboratories. Dental laboratory technicians use molds ofpatients ’ teeth to design crowns, bridges, dentures, and other dental prosthetics. small, privately owned businesses with fewer than five employ ees. However, some laboratories are large; a few employ more than 50 technicians. Some dental laboratory technicians work in dentists’ offices. Others work for hospitals providing dental services, including U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’ hospitals. Some technicians work in dental laboratories in their homes, in addition to their regular job. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job. They begin with simple tasks, such as pouring plaster into an impression, and progress to more complex procedures, such as making porce lain crowns and bridges. Becoming a fully trained technician requires an average of 3 to 4 years, depending upon the individual’s aptitude and ambition, but it may take a few years more to become an accomplished technician. Training in dental laboratory technology also is available through community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and the Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and in the level of skill they impart. In 2000, 30 programs in dental laboratory technology were ap proved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjunction with the American Dental Association (ADA). These programs provide classroom instruction in dental materials science, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Job opportunities for dental laboratory technicians should be favor able, despite very slow growth in the occupation. Employers have difficulty filling trainee positions, probably because entry-level sala ries are relatively low and because the public is not familiar with the occupation. Although job opportunities are favorable, slower-than-average growth in the employment of dental laboratory technicians is ex pected through the year 2010, due to changes in dental care. The overall dental health of the population has improved because of fluoridation of drinking water, which has reduced the incidence of dental cavities, and greater emphasis on preventive dental care since the early 1960s. As a result, full dentures will be less common, as most people will need only a bridge or crown. However, during the last few years, demand has arisen from an aging public that is grow ing increasingly interested in cosmetic prostheses. For example, many dental laboratories are filling orders for composite fillings that are the same shade of white as natural teeth to replace older, less attractive fillings. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental laboratory technicians were $12.94 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.83 and $16.82 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.78, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $21.47 an hour. Median hourly earnings of dental laboratory technicians in 2000 were $12.88 in offices and clinics of dentists and $12.87 in medical and dental laboratories. Technicians in large laboratories tend to specialize in a few pro cedures, and, therefore, tend to be paid a lower wage than those employed in small laboratories that perform a variety of tasks. 550 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians fabricate artificial teeth, crowns and bridges, and orthodontic appliances, following specifications and instructions provided by dentists. Other workers who make and repair medical devices include dispensing opticians, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instrument and equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited programs in dental laboratory technology, contact: ► Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 1L 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on requirements for certification, contact: >• National Board for Certification in Dental Technology, 1530 Metropoli tan Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32308. Internet: http://www.nadl.org/html/certification.html For information on career opportunities in commercial laborato ries, contact: >• National Association of Dental Laboratories, 1530 Metropolitan Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32308. Internet: http://www.nadl.org General information on grants and scholarships is available from dental technology schools. Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers seams. These workers also may verify dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, or other physical characteristics of objects. Machinery testers generally verify that parts fit, move correctly, and are properly lubricated; check the pressure of gases and the level of liquids; test the flow of electricity; and do a test run to check for proper operation. Some jobs involve only a quick visual inspection; others require a longer, detailed one. Sorters may sepa rate goods according to length, size, fabric type, or color, while samplers test or inspect a sample taken from a batch or production run for malfunctions or defects. Weighers weigh quantities of ma terials for use in production. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers are involved at every stage of the production process. Some inspectors examine materials received from a supplier before sending them to the pro duction line. Others inspect components, subassemblies, and as semblies or perform a final check on the finished product. Depending on the skill level of the inspectors, they also may set up and test equipment, calibrate precision instruments, repair defective prod ucts, or record data. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers rely on a num ber of tools to perform their jobs. Many use micrometers, calipers, alignment gauges, and other instruments to check and compare the dimensions of parts against the parts’ specifications. They also may operate electronic equipment, such as measuring machines, which use sensitive probes to measure a part’s dimensional accuracy. In spectors testing electrical devices may use voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test insulation, current flow, and resistance. __ (0**NET 51-9061.01, 51-9061.02, 51-9061.03, 51-9061.04, 51-9061.05) Significant Points • For workers who perform relatively simple tests of products, a high school diploma is sufficient; experienced production workers fill more complex inspecting positions. • Employment is expected to decline, reflecting the growth of automated inspection and the redistribution of quality-control responsibilities from inspectors to other production workers. Nature of the Work Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers ensure that your food will not make you sick, your car will run properly, and your pants will not split the first time you wear them. These workers monitor or audit quality standards for virtually all manufactured products, including foods, textiles, clothing, glassware, motor ve hicles, electronic components, computers, and structural steel. As quality becomes increasingly important to the success of many pro duction firms, daily duties of inspectors have changed. In some cases, their titles also have changed to quality-control inspector or a similar name, reflecting the growing importance of quality. (A separate statement on construction and building inspectors appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of title, all inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers work to guarantee the quality of the goods their firms produce. Job duties, even within one company, vary by the type of products produced or the stage of production. Specific job duties also vary across the wide range of industries in which these work ers are found. For example, inspectors may check products by sight, sound, feel, smell, or even taste to locate imperfections such as cuts, scratches, bubbles, missing pieces, misweaves, or crooked https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis * An inspector collects grain samples for testing. Production Occupations 551 Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defec tive items outright, send them for repair or correction, or fix minor problems themselves. If the product is acceptable, inspectors may screw on a nameplate, tag it, stamp it with a serial number, or cer tify it in some other way. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers record the results of their inspections, compute the per centage of defects and other statistical measures, and prepare in spection and test reports. Some electronic inspection equipment automatically provides test reports containing these inspection re sults. When defects are found, inspectors notify supervisors and help analyze and correct the production problems. Increased emphasis on quality control in manufacturing means that inspection is more fully integrated into the production process than in the past. For example, some companies have set up teams of inspection and production workers to jointly review and improve product quality. In addition, many companies now use self-moni toring production machines to ensure that the output is produced within quality standards. Self-monitoring machines can alert in spectors to production problems and automatically repair defects in some cases. Many firms have completely automated inspection with the help of advanced vision systems, using machinery installed at one or several points in the production process. Inspectors in these firms calibrate and monitor the equipment, review output, and per form random product checks. Working Conditions Working conditions vary by industry and establishment size. As a result, some inspectors examine similar products for an entire shift, whereas others examine a variety of items. In manufacturing, it is common for most inspectors to remain at one workstation; in trans portation, some travel from place to place to do inspections. In spectors in some industries may be on their feet all day and may have to lift heavy objects, whereas, in other industries, they sit dur ing most of their shift and do little strenuous work. Workers in heavy manufacturing plants may be exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in other plants, inspectors work in clean, air-condi tioned environments suitable for carrying out controlled tests. Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. Shift as signments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals. Employment Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers held about 602,000 jobs in 2000. About 7 out of 10 worked in manufacturing establishments that produced such products as industrial machin ery and equipment, motor vehicles and equipment, aircraft and parts, primary and fabricated metals, electronic components and accesso ries, food, textiles, and apparel. Inspectors, testers, sorters, sam plers, and weighers also were found in personnel supply services, transportation, wholesale trade, engineering and management ser vices, and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary, based on the responsibilities of the in spector, tester, sorter, sampler, or weigher. For workers who per form simple “pass/fail” tests of products, a high school diploma is preferred and may be required for some jobs. Simple jobs may be filled by beginners provided with in-house training. Training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, com puters, or other instruments; quality-control techniques; blueprint reading; safety; and reporting requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but many employers prefer to train inspectors on the job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Complex precision-inspecting positions are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. To advance to these positions, experienced workers may need training in statistical process control, new automation, or the company’s quality assurance policies. As automated inspection equipment be comes more common, computer skills are increasingly important. In general, inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers need mechanical aptitude, math and communication skills, and good hand-eye coordination and vision. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. They also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or related posi tions, such as purchaser of materials and equipment. Job Outlook Like many other occupations concentrated in manufacturing indus tries, employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weigh ers is expected to decline through the year 2010. The projected decline stems primarily from the growing use of automated inspec tion and the redistribution of quality-control responsibilities from inspectors to production workers. In spite of declining employ ment, numerous job openings will arise due to turnover in this large occupation. Many of these jobs, however, will be open only to experienced production workers with advanced skills. Employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weigh ers will be significantly affected by the increased focus on quality in American industry. The emphasis on quality has led manufacturers to invest in automated inspection equipment and to take a more sys tematic approach to quality inspection. Continued improvements in technologies, such as spectrophotometers and computer-assisted visual inspection systems, allow firms to effectively automate simple inspection tasks, increasing worker productivity and reducing the demand for inspectors. As the price of these technologies continues to decrease, they will become more cost effective and will be more widely implemented in a broad range of industries. Apart from automation, firms are improving quality by building it into the production process. Many inspection duties are being redistributed from inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weigh ers to other production workers who monitor quality at every stage of the process. In addition, the growing implementation of statisti cal process control is resulting in smarter inspection. Using this system, firms survey the sources and incidence of defects so that they can better focus their efforts and reduce production of defec tive products. In many industries, however, automation is not being aggres sively pursued as an alternative to manual inspection. Where key inspection elements are oriented toward size, such as length, width, or thickness, automation may play some role in the future. But where taste, smell, texture, appearance, fabric complexity, or prod uct performance is important, inspection will probably continue to be done by humans. Employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers is expected to increase in the rapidly grow ing personnel supply services industry, as more manufacturers and industrial firms hire temporary inspectors to increase the flexibility of their staffing strategies, and in wholesale trade. Earnings Median hourly earnings of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers were $12.22 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $9.26 and $ 16.55 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.33 an hour; the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.21 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weigh ers in 2000 were: 552 Occupational Outlook Handbook Motor vehicles and equipment.............................................. Aircraft and parts................................................................. Electronic components and accessories .................................. Miscellaneous plastics products, not elsewhere classified........ Personnel supply services...................................................... $21.50 17.00 11.55 11.24 8.25 N . ■tim Related Occupations Other inspectors include construction and building inspectors, who examine buildings and other structures to ensure compliance with building codes, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Sources of Additional Information For general information about inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers, contact: >- The American Society for Quality, 600 North Plankinton Ave., Milwau kee, WI 53203. Internet: http://www.asq.org IJgjjiSp S§ Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers (0**NET 51-9071.01, 51-9071.02, 51-9071.03, 51-9071.04, 51-9071.05, 51-9071.06) • • • Significant Points About 30 percent of all jewelers are self-employed. Jewelers usually learn their trade in vocational or technical schools, through correspondence courses, or on the job. Although employment is expected to experience little or no change, prospects should be excellent; as more jewelers retire, many employers have difficulty finding and retaining workers with the right skills. Nature of the Work Jewelers use a variety of common and specialized handtools to de sign and manufacture new pieces of jewelry; cut, set, and polish stones; and repair or adjust rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewelry. Jewelers usually specialize in one or more of these areas, and may work for large jewelry manufacturing firms or small retail jewelry shops, or may open their own business. Regardless of the type of work done or the work setting, j ewelers require a high degree of skill, precision, and attention to detail. Some jewelers design or make their own jewelry. Following their own designs, or those created by designers or customers, they begin by shaping the metal or by carving wax to make a model for casting the metal. The individual parts then are soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other gem, or engrave a design into the metal. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones, polishing, or engraving. Typical repairwork includes en larging or reducing ring sizes, resetting stones, and replacing bro ken clasps and mountings. In manufacturing, jewelers usually specialize in a single operation. Mold and model makers create models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Assemblers connect by soldering or fusing the metal and may set stones. En gravers may etch designs into the metal, and polishers polish the metal and stones to perfect the piece. In small retail stores or repairshops, jewelers may be involved in all aspects of the work. Jewelers who own or manage stores or shops also hire and train employees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Jewelers andprecious stone and metal workers must have excellent hand-eye coordination. Jewelers typically do the handiwork required in producing a piece ofjewelry, while gemologists study the quality, characteristics, and value of gemstones. Gemologists usually sell jewelry and provide appraisal services. A few gemologists are employed by insurance companies that offer their own appraisal services for those custom ers who wish to insure certain pieces of jewelry. Many jewelers also study gemology in order to become familiar with the physical properties of the gemstones with which they work, so that they do not unknowingly damage stones while setting and polishing them. Although the quality of a piece ofjewelry is the direct reflection of a particular jeweler’s skills, and many procedures have been per formed the same way for hundreds of years, new technology is help ing to produce higher quality pieces ofjewelry at a reduced cost and in a shorter amount of time. A growing number of jewelers use lasers for cutting and improving the quality of stones, intricate en graving or design work, and identification (ID) inscription. Jewel ers also use lasers to weld metals together in milliseconds with no seams or blemishes, improving the quality and appearance of the jewelry. Some manufacturing firms use computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) to facilitate product design and auto mate some steps in the mold- and model-making process. CAD allows a jeweler to create a virtual reality model of a piece of jew elry, modify the design, and find mistakes, all on the computer screen. Once a jeweler is satisfied with the model, CAM produces the model in a wax-like material. Once the model is made, it is easier for manu facturing firms to produce numerous pieces of the jewelry, which are distributed to different retail establishments across the country. Working Conditions A jeweler’s work involves a great deal of concentration and atten tion to detail. Working on precious stones and metals while trying to satisfy customers’ and employers’ demands for speed and quality can cause fatigue or stress. However, the use of more ergonomically correct jewelers’ benches has eliminated the strain and discomfort formerly caused by spending long periods bending over a workbench in one position. In larger manufacturing plants and some smaller repairshops, chemicals, sharp or pointed tools, and jewelers’ torches pose potential safety threats and may cause injury if proper care is not taken; however, most dangerous chemicals have been replaced with synthetic, less toxic products to meet safety requirements. In repairshops, jewelers usually work alone with little supervi sion. In retail stores, on the other hand, they may talk with customers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some sales Production Occupations 553 work. Because many of their materials are very valuable, jewelers must observe strict security procedures. These include locked doors that are opened only by a buzzer, barred windows, burglar alarms, and, for large jewelry establishments, the presence of armed guards. Employment Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers held about 43,000 jobs in 2000. About one-third of all these workers were self-em ployed; many operated their own store or repairshop, and some spe cialized in designing and creating custom jewelry. Over 40 percent of all salaried jewelers worked in retail estab lishments, while another 40 percent were employed in manufactur ing plants. Although jewelry stores and repairshops can be found in every city and in many small towns, most job opportunities are in larger metropolitan areas. Many jewelers employed in manufactur ing work in Rhode Island, New York, and California. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers usually learn their trade in vocational or technical schools, through correspondence courses, or on the job. Colleges and art and design schools also offer programs that can lead to a bachelor’s or master’s degree of fine arts in jewelry design. Formal training in the basic skills of the trade enhances one’s employment and ad vancement opportunities. Many employers prefer jewelers with design, repair, and sales skills. For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repairshop, vocational and technical training or courses offered by public and private colleges and schools are the best sources of training. In these programs, which can vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, students learn the use and care of jewelers’ tools and machines and basic jewelry-making and -repairing skills, such as design, casting, stone setting, and polishing. Technical school courses also cover topics including blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. To enter some technical school and most college programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent is required. Flowever, some schools spe cializing in jewelry training do not require a high school diploma. Because computer-aided design is used increasingly in the jewelry field, it is recommended that students—especially those interested in design and manufacturing—obtain training in CAD. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) offers programs lasting about 6 months and self-paced correspondence courses that may last longer. The GIA offers the graduate gemologist (G.G.) and graduate jeweler (G. J.) diplomas, along with a variety of courses in gemology and jewelry manufacturing and design. Advanced pro grams cover a wide range of topics, including the identification and grading of diamonds and gemstones. Most employers feel that vocational and technical school gradu ates need several more years of supervised, on-the-job training, or apprenticeship, to refine their repair skills and learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers en courage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as samplemaking, wax carving, or gemology. Many employers pay all or part of the cost of this addi tional training. In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally develop their skills through informal apprenticeships and on-the-job train ing. This training lasts 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, stonesetting, modelmaking, or engraving. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools and colleges have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Like employers in retail trade, though, those in manufacturing now prefer graduates of these programs because they are familiar with the production process, requiring less on-the-job training. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, patience, and con centration. Artistic ability and fashion consciousness are major assets because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat, personable, and knowledgeable about the merchan dise. In addition, employers require workers of good character be cause jewelers work with very valuable materials. Advancement opportunities are limited and depend greatly on an individual’s skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewel ers advance to supervisory jobs, such as master jeweler or head jeweler but, for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repairshops may become managers; some open their own businesses. Those interested in starting their own business should first es tablish themselves and build a reputation for their work within the jewelry trade. Then, they can obtain sufficient credit from jewelry suppliers and wholesalers to acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and com munity colleges. Job Outlook Employment of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is expected to experience little or no change through 2010. Employ ment opportunities, however, should be excellent, because while jewelers are retiring, jewelry sales are increasing at rates that ex ceed the number of new jewelers entering the profession. When master jewelers retire, they take with them years of experience that require substantial time and financial resources to replace, in the form of training new jewelers. As a result, many employers have difficulty finding and retaining jewelers with the right skills. Those who devote the time and effort to mastering their trade should have excellent job prospects. Even though some technological advances have made jewelry making more efficient, many of the skills re quire excellent handiwork and cannot be fully automated. The demand for jewelry depends largely on the amount of dis posable income people have. Therefore, the increasing numbers of affluent individuals, working women, double-income households, and fashion-conscious men are expected to keep jewelry sales strong. The population aged 45 and older, which accounts for a major por tion ofjewelry sales, also is on the rise. Recently, nontraditional jewelry marketers, such as discount stores, mail-order catalogue companies, television shopping net works, and Internet retailers have limited the growth of sales by traditional jewelers. Because these establishments require fewer sales and marketing staff, employment opportunities for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers who work mainly in sales will be limited. As these marketers enjoy increases in sales, how ever, they will need highly skilled jewelers to make the jewelry. Opportunities in jewelry stores and repairshops will be best for graduates from a jeweler or gemologist training program. Despite an increase in sales by nontraditional jewelry marketers, traditional jewelers should not be greatly affected. Traditional jewelers have the advantage of being able to build client relationships based on trust. Many clients prefer to work directly with a jeweler to ensure that the product is of the highest quality and meets their specifica tions. Many traditional jewelers expand their business as clients recommend their services to friends and relatives. The jewelry industry can be cyclical. During economic down turns, demand for jewelry products, and jewelers, tends to decrease. However, demand for repair workers should remain strong, even 554 Occupational Outlook Handbook during economic slowdowns, because maintaining and repairing jewelry is an ongoing process. In fact, demand for jewelry repair may increase during recessions, as people repair or restore existing pieces rather than purchase new ones. Also, many nontraditional vendors typically do not offer repair services. Within manufacturing, increasing automation will adversely af fect employment of low-skilled occupations, such as assembler and polisher. Automation will have a lesser impact on more creative, highly skilled positions, such as mold- and modelmaker. Further more, small manufacturers, which typify the industry, will have an increasingly difficult time competing with the larger manufacturers when it comes to supplying large retailers. Because of recent inter national trade agreements, exports are increasing modestly as manu facturers become more competitive in foreign markets. However, imports from foreign manufacturers are increasing more rapidly than exports due to these same agreements. Earnings Median annual earnings for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were $26,330 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $19,140 and $35,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,120. In 2000, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were: Miscellaneous shopping goods stores.............................................. Jewelry, silverware, and plated ware................................................. $32,290 22,920 Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians (0*NET 51-9083.01, 51-9083.02) Significant Points • Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. • Increasing use of automated equipment will result in relatively slow job growth. Only a small number of job openings will be created each year because the occupation is small and slowerthan-average growth is expected. • Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufacturing opticians, optical mechanics, or optical goods workers—make pre scription eyeglass or contact lenses. Prescription lenses are curved in such a way that light is correctly focused onto the retina of the patient's eye, improving vision. Some ophthalmic laboratory tech nicians manufacture lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthalmologists, and may insert lenses into frames to produce finished glasses. Although some Most jewelers start out with a base salary but, once they become more proficient, they might begin charging by the number of pieces completed. Jewelers who work in retail stores may earn a commis sion for each piece of jewelry sold, in addition to their base salary. Many jewelers also enjoy a variety of benefits, including reimburse ment from their employers for work-related courses and discounts on jewelry purchases. Related Occupations Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers do precision hand work. Other skilled workers who do similar jobs include precision instrument and equipment repairers; welding, soldering, and braz ing workers; and woodworkers. Some jewelers and precious stone and metal workers create their own jewelry designs. Other visually artistic occupations include artists and related workers, and design ers. And, some jewelers and precious stone and metal workers are involved in the buying and selling of stones and metals or of the finished piece of jewelry. Similar occupations include retail sales persons and sales representatives in wholesale trade. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities and training programs for jewel ers is available from: >■ Gemological Institute ofAmerica, 5345 Armada Dr., Carlsbad, CA 92008. Internet: http://www.gia.org >■ California Institute of Jewelry Training, 5800 Winding Way, Carmichael, CA 95608. Internet: http://www.jewelrytraining.com General career information is available from: ► Manufacturing Jewelers and Suppliers of America, 45 Royal Little Dr., Providence, RI 02904. Internet: http://mjsa.poiygon.net To receive a list of technical schools which have programs in jewelry design, accredited by the Accrediting Commission of Ca reer Schools and Colleges of Technology, contact: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technol ogy, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A contact lens manufacturing worker grinds lenses according to prescription. Production Occupations 555 lenses still are produced by hand, technicians increasingly use au tomated equipment to make lenses. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmologists and optometrists are “eye doctors” who examine eyes, diagnose and treat vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Ophthalmologists are physicians who perform eye surgery. Dispensing opticians, who also may do work described here, help patients select frames and lenses, and adjust finished eyeglasses. (See the statement on physi cians and surgeons, which includes ophthalmologists, as well as the statements on optometrists and opticians, dispensing, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Ophthalmic laboratory technicians read prescription specifica tions, then select standard glass or plastic lens blanks and mark them to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription should be ground. They place the lens in the lens grinder, set the dials for the prescribed curvature, and start the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be “finished” by a machine that rotates it against a fine abrasive to grind it and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine with an even finer abrasive, to polish it to a smooth, bright finish. Next, the technician examines the lens through a lensometer, an instrument similar in shape to a microscope, to make sure the de gree and placement of the curve is correct. The technician then cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame, dips each lens into dye if the prescription calls for tinted or coated lenses, polishes the edges, and assembles the lenses and frame parts into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians usually handle every phase of the operation. In large ones, technicians may be responsible for operating computerized equipment where virtually every phase of the operation is automated. Technicians also inspect the final prod uct for quality and accuracy. Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in relatively clean and welllighted laboratories and have limited contact with the public. Sur roundings are relatively quiet despite the humming of machines. At times, technicians wear goggles to protect their eyes, and may spend a great deal of time standing. Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include weekends, evenings, or occasionally some overtime. Some work part time. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians need to take precautions against the hazards associated with cutting glass, handling chemi cals, and working near machinery. Employment Ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 32,000 jobs in 2000. Thirty-one percent were in retail optical stores that manufacture and sell prescription glasses and contact lenses, and 23 percent were in optical laboratories. These laboratories manufacture eyewear and contact lenses for sale by retail stores, as well as by ophthalmolo gists and optometrists. Most of the rest were in wholesalers or in optical laboratories that manufacture lenses for other optical instru ments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Employers filling trainee jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science, mathematics, and com puters are valuable; manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technician trainees producing lenses by hand start on simple tasks such as marking or blocking lenses for grinding, then progress to lens grinding, lens cutting, edging, beveling, and eyeglass as sembly. Depending on individual aptitude, it may take up to 6 months to become proficient in all phases of the work. Technicians using automated systems will find computer skills valuable. Training is completed on the job and varies in duration depending on the type of machinery and individual aptitude. A very small number of ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces or in the few programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These programs have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year and award certifi cates or diplomas. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some technicians become dispensing opticians, although further education or training generally is required. Job Outlook Overall employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment is expected to increase slowly in manufacturing as firms invest in automated machinery. Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will need vision care in the years ahead. Not only will the popula tion grow, but also the proportion of middle-aged and older adults is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons usually require more vision care than others. Fashion, too, influences demand. Frames come in a variety of styles and colors—encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Demand also is expected to grow in response to the availability of new technologies that improve the quality and look of corrective lenses, such as antireflective coatings and bifocal lenses without the line visible in traditional bifocals. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace techni cians who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, only a small number ofjob openings will be created each year because the occupation is small. Earnings Median hourly earnings of ophthalmic laboratory technicians were $9.88 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.25 and $12.07 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.19, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $14.71 an hour. In 2000, median hourly earnings of ophthalmic laboratory technicians were $ 10.25 in ophthalmic goods manufacturing and $9.79 in retail stores, not elsewhere classified, including optical goods stores. Related Occupations Workers in other precision production occupations include dental laboratory technicians, orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instrument and equipment repairers. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited programs in ophthalmic laboratory technol ogy, contact: ► Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 7023 Little River Turnpike, Suite 207, Annandale, VA 22003. Internet: http://www.coaccreditation.com State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for ophthalmic laboratory technicians. 556 Occupational Outlook Handbook Painting and Coating Workers, Except Construction and Maintenance (0*NET 51-9121.01, 51-9121.02, 51-9122.00, 51-9123.00) • • Significant Points Most workers acquire their skills on the job; for most operators, training lasts from a few days to several months, but becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 1 to 2 years. Employment growth for highly skilled transportation painters and automotive refinishers is projected to be slightly faster than for lesser skilled painting, coating, and spraying machine operators. Nature of the Work Millions of items ranging from cars to candy are covered by paint, plastic, varnish, chocolate, or some other type of coating solution. Often the protection provided by the paint or coating is essential to the product, as with the coating of insulating material covering wires and other electrical and electronic components. Many paints and coatings have dual purposes, such as the paint finish on an automo bile, which heightens the visual appearance of the vehicle while providing protection from corrosion. Painting, coating, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders control the machinery that applies these paints and coatings to a wide range of manufactured products. Perhaps the most straight forward technique is simply dipping an item in a large vat of paint or other coating. This is the technique used by dippers, who immerse racks or baskets of articles in vats of paint, liquid plastic, or other solutions using a power hoist. Similarly, tumbling barrel painters deposit articles made of porous materials in a barrel of paint, varnish, or other coating, which is then rotated to insure thorough coverage. Another familiar technique is spraying products with a solution of paint or other coating. Spray-machine operators use spray guns to coat metal, wood, ceramic, fabric, paper, and food products with paint and other coating solutions. Following a formula, operators fill the equipment’s tanks with a mixture of paints or chemicals, adding prescribed amounts of solution. They adjust nozzles on the spray guns to obtain the proper dispersion of the spray and hold or position the guns to direct the spray onto the article. Operators also check the flow and viscosity of the paint or solution and visually inspect the quality of the coating. When products are drying, these workers often must regulate the temperature and air circulation in drying ovens. Individuals who paint, coat, or decorate articles such as furniture, glass, pottery, toys, and books are known as painting, coating, and decorating workers. Painting workers use various types of machines to coat a range of products. Often, their job title reflects the specialized nature of the machine or the coating being applied. For example, enrobing machine operators coat, or “enrobe,” confectionery, bakery, and other food products with melted chocolate, cheese, oils, sugar, or other substances. Paper coating machine operators spray “size” on rolls of paper to give it its gloss or finish. And silvering appli cators spray silver, tin, and copper solutions on glass in the manu facture of mirrors. In response to concerns about air pollution and worker safety, manufacturers increasingly use new types of paints and coatings on their products instead of high-solvent paints. Water-based paints and powder coatings are two of the most common. These com pounds do not emit as many volatile organic compounds into the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A painting and coating machine operator carefully prepares a car before painting. air and can be applied to a variety of products. Powder coatings are sprayed much like liquid paints and then heated to melt and cure the coating. The adoption of new types of paints often is accompanied by a conversion to more automated painting equipment that the operator sets and monitors. When using these machines, operators position the automatic spray guns, set the nozzles, and synchronize the ac tion of the guns with the speed of the conveyor carrying articles through the machine and drying ovens. The operator also may add solvents or water to the paint vessel that prepares the paint for ap plication. During operation, these workers tend painting machines, observe gauges on the control panel, and randomly check articles for evidence of any variation from specifications. The operator then uses a spray gun to “touch up” spots where necessary. Although the majority of workers are employed in manufactur ing, the best known group of these workers refinish old and dam aged cars, trucks, and buses in automotive body repair and paintshops. Transportation equipment or automotive painters are among the most highly skilled manual spray operators because they perform intricate, detailed work and mix paints to match the origi nal color, a task that is especially difficult if the color has faded. To prepare a vehicle for painting, painters or their helpers use power sanders and sandpaper to remove the original paint or rust, and then fill small dents and scratches with body filler. They also remove or mask parts they do not want to paint, such as chrome trim, headlights, windows, and mirrors. Automotive painters use a spray gun to apply several coats ofpaint. They apply lacquer, enamel, or water-based primers to vehicles with metal bodies, and flexible primers to newer vehicles with plastic body parts. Controlling the spray gun by hand, they apply successive coats until the finish of the repaired sections of the vehicle matches that of the original undam aged portions. To speed drying between coats, they may place the freshly painted vehicle under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After each coat of primer dries, they sand the surface to re move any irregularities and to improve the adhesion of the next coat. Final sanding of the primers may be done by hand with a fine grade of sandpaper. A sealer then is applied and allowed to dry, followed by the final topcoat. When lacquer is used, painters or their helpers usually polish the finished surface after the final coat has dried. Working Conditions Painting and coating workers typically work indoors and may be exposed to dangerous fumes from paint and coating solutions. Although painting usually is done in special ventilated booths, many Production Occupations 557 operators wear masks or respirators that cover their noses and mouths. In addition, the Clean Air Act of 1990 has led to a de crease in workers’ exposure to hazardous chemicals by regulating emissions of volatile organic compounds from paints and other chemicals. This legislation also has led to increasing use of more sophisticated paint booths and fresh air systems which provide a safer work environment. Operators have to stand for long periods of time and, when us ing a spray gun, they may have to bend, stoop, or crouch in uncom fortable positions to reach different parts of the article. Most operators work a normal 40-hour week, but self-employed automo tive painters sometimes work more than 50 hours a week, depend ing on the number of vehicles customers want repainted. Employment Painting and coating workers held about 195,000 jobs in 2000. Lesser skilled coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, opera tors, and tenders accounted for about 108,000 jobs, while more skilled transportation equipment painters accounted for about 49,000. About 38,000 workers were painting, coating, and deco rating workers. Seventy-one percent of jobs for salaried workers were found in manufacturing establishments, where they applied coatings to items such as fabricated metal products, motor vehicles and related equip ment, industrial machines, household and office furniture, and plas tics, wood, and paper products. Other workers included automotive painters employed by independent automotive repair shops and body repair and paintshops operated by retail motor vehicle dealers. About 7 percent of painting and coating machine operators were self-em ployed; most of these were transportation equipment painters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most painting and coating workers acquire their skills on the job, usually by watching and helping other experienced workers. For most setters, operators and tenders, as well as painting, coating, and decorating workers, training lasts from a few days to several months. Coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, opera tors, and tenders who modify the operation of computer-controlled equipment during operation may require additional training in com puter operations and minor programming. Similarly, most transportation equipment painters start as help ers and gain their skills informally on the job. Becoming skilled in all aspects of automotive painting usually requires 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training. Beginning helpers usually remove trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, mask surfaces that they do not want painted, and polish finished work. As helpers gain experi ence, they progress to more complicated tasks, such as mixing paint to achieve a good match and using spray guns to apply primer coats or final coats to small areas. Painters should have keen eyesight and a good sense of color. Completion of high school generally is not required but is advanta geous. Additional instruction is offered at many community col leges and vocational or technical schools. Such programs enhance one’s employment prospects and can speed promotion to the next level. Some employers sponsor training programs to help their work ers become more productive. This training is available from manu facturers of chemicals, paints, or equipment or from other private sources. It may include safety and quality tips and knowledge of products, equipment, and general business practices. Some auto motive painters are sent to technical schools to learn the intricacies of mixing and applying different types of paint. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automo tive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as the standard of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis achievement for automotive painters. For certification, painters must pass a written examination and have at least 2 years of experience in the field. High school, trade or vocational school, or community or junior college training in automotive painting and refinishing may substitute for up to 1 year of experience. To retain certifica tion, painters must retake the examination at least every 5 years. Experienced painting and coating workers with leadership abil ity may become team leaders or supervisors. Those who acquire practical experience or college or other formal training may become sales or technical representatives for chemical or paint companies. Eventually, some automotive painters open their own shops. Job Outlook Overall employment of painting and coating workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment growth for highly skilled transportation painters and automotive refinishers is projected to be slightly faster than for lesser skilled painting, coating, and spraying machine opera tors. In addition to job growth, some jobs will become available each year as employers replace experienced operators who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. An increasing population demanding more manufactured goods will spur employment growth among coating, painting, and spray ing machine operators. Similarly, increasing demand for hand-painted tiles and related specialty products will lead to growth among paint ing, coating, and decorating workers. Employment growth will be limited, however, by improvements in the automation of paint and coating applications that will raise worker productivity. For example, operators will be able to coat goods more rapidly as they use sophis ticated industrial robots that move and aim spray guns increasingly more like humans; as the cost of robots continues to fall, they will be more widely used. The Clean Air Act of 1990, which sets limits on the emissions of ozone-forming volatile organic compounds, also is expected to impede the employment growth of operators in manu facturing because firms tend to introduce more efficient automa tion as they switch to water-based and powder coatings to comply with the law. Because the detailed work of refinishing automobiles in colli sion repair shops and motor vehicle dealerships does not lend itself to automation, painters employed in these establishments are pro jected to experience slightly faster growth. As the demand for re finishing continues to grow, slower productivity growth among these workers will lead to employment increases more in line with the growing demand for their services. The number of job openings for painting and coating workers may fluctuate from year to year due to cyclical changes in economic conditions. When demand for manufactured goods lessens, pro duction may be suspended or reduced, and workers may be laid off or face a shortened workweek. Automotive painters, on the other hand, can expect relatively steady work because automobiles dam aged in accidents require repair and refinishing regardless of the state of the economy. Earnings Median hourly earnings of coating, painting, and spraying machine setters, operators, and tenders, were S11.37 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.11 and $14.11 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.54, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.65 an hour. Median hourly earnings of transportation equipment painters were $ 14.64 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 11.43 and $19.45 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.12, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.79 an hour. Median hourly earnings of transportation equipment painters were $14.45 558 Occupational Outlook Handbook in automotive repair shops and $18.77 in motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing. Median hourly earnings of painting, coating, and decorating workers were $9.55 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $7.56 and $12.48 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.45, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.07 an hour. Many automotive painters employed by motor vehicle dealers and independent automotive repair shops receive a commission based on the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend largely on the amount of work a painter does and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guarantee commis sioned painters a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they become sufficiently skilled to work on commission. Trucking companies, bus lines, and other organizations that repair and refinish their own vehicles usually pay by the hour. Many painting and coating machine operators belong to unions. Most union operators work for manufacturers and the larger motor vehicle dealers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers apply paints and coatings in clude painters and paperhangers, woodworkers, and machine set ters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic. Photographic processing machine operators often have special ized jobs. Film process technicians operate machines that develop exposed photographic film or sensitized paper in a series of chemi cal and water baths to produce negative or positive images. First, technicians mix developing and fixing solutions, following a for mula. They then load the film in the machine, which immerses the exposed film in a developer solution. This brings out the latent image. The next steps include immersing the negative in a stopbath to halt the developer action, transferring it to a hyposolution to fix the image, and then immersing it in water to remove the chemi cals. The technician then dries the film. In some cases, these steps are performed by hand. Color printer operators control equipment that produces color prints from negatives. These workers read customer instructions to determine processing requirements. They load film into color print ing equipment, examine negatives to determine equipment control settings, set controls, and produce a specified number of prints. Finally, they inspect the finished prints for defects, remove any that are found, and insert the processed negatives and prints into an en velope for return to the customer. Photographic process workers, sometimes known as digital imag ing technicians, use computer images of conventional negatives and specialized computer software to vary the contrast of images, remove unwanted background, or combine features from different photo graphs. Although computers and digital technology are replacing much manual work, some photographic process workers, especially Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local manufac turers, automotive body repair shops, motor vehicle dealers, and vocational schools; locals of unions representing these workers; or the local office of the State employment service. The State em ployment service also may be a source of information about train ing programs. Information on how to become a certified automotive painter is available from: >- National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE., Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org : m Photographic Process Workers and Processing Machine Operators (0**NET 51-9131.01, 51-9131.02, 51-9131.03, 51-9131.04, 51-9132.00) • • Significant Points Employment is expected to show little or no change as digital photography becomes commonplace. Most receive on-the-job training from their companies, manufacturers’ representatives, and experienced workers. Nature of the Work Both amateur and professional photographers rely heavily on pho tographic process workers and processing machine operators to develop film, make prints or slides, and do related tasks, such as enlarging or retouching photographs. Photographic processing machine operators operate various machines, such as mounting presses and motion picture film printing, photographic printing, and film developing machines. Photographic process workers perform more delicate tasks, such as retouching photographic negatives and prints to emphasize or correct specific features. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' . . v* 41 * Photographic process workers review negatives to ensure quality photographs. Production Occupations 559 those who work in portrait studios, still perform many specialized tasks by hand directly on the photo or negative. Airbrush artists restore damaged and faded photographs, and may color or shade drawings to create photographic likenesses using an airbrush. Pho tographic retouchers alter photographic negatives, prints, or im ages to accentuate the subject. Colorists apply oil colors to portrait photographs to create natural, lifelike appearances. Photographic spotters remove imperfections on photographic prints and images. Working Conditions Photographic process workers and processing machine operators generally spend their work hours in clean, appropriately lighted, well-ventilated, and air-conditioned offices, photofinishing labora tories, or 1 -hour minilabs. In recent years, more commercial photo graphic processing has been done on computers than in darkrooms; and this trend is expected to continue. Some photographic process workers and processing machine operators are exposed to the chemicals and fumes associated with developing and printing. These workers must wear rubber gloves and aprons and take precautions against these hazards. Those who use computers for extended periods may experience back pain, eye strain, or fatigue. Photographic processing machine operators must do repetitive work at a rapid pace without any loss of accuracy. Photographic process workers do detailed tasks, such as airbrushing and spotting, which can contribute to eye fatigue. Many photo laboratory employees work a 40-hour week, includ ing evenings and weekends, and may work overtime during peak seasons. Employment Photographic process workers held about 26,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly one-third of photographic process workers were employed in photofinishing laboratories and 1-hour minilabs. About onefourth worked for portrait studios or commercial laboratories that specialize in processing the work of professional photographers for advertising and other industries. Photographic processing machine operators held about 50,000 jobs in 2000. One-half worked in retail establishments, such as department stores and drug stores. About one-quarter worked in photofmishing laboratories and 1-hour minilabs. A small number were self-employed. Employment fluctuates somewhat over the course of the year. Typically, employment peaks during school graduation and sum mer vacation periods, and again during the winter holiday season. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most photographic process workers and processing machine opera tors receive on-the-job training from their companies, manufactur ers’ representatives, and experienced workers. New employees gradually leam to use the machines and chemicals that develop and print film. Employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates or those who have some experience in the field. Familiarity with com puters is essential for photographic processing machine operators. The ability to perform simple mathematical calculations also is help ful. Photography courses that include instruction in film process ing are valuable preparation. Such courses are available through high schools, vocational-technical institutes, private trade schools, and colleges and universities. On-the-job training in photographic processing occupations can range from just a few hours for print machine operators to several months for photographic processing workers like airbrush artists Digitized forand FRASER colorists. Some workers attend periodic training seminars to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis maintain a high level of skill. Manual dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, and good vision, including normal color perception, are important qualifications for photographic process workers. Photographic process machine workers can sometimes advance from jobs as machine operators to supervisory positions in labora tories or to management positions within retail stores. Job Outlook Overall employment of photographic process workers and process ing machine operators is expected to show little or no change through the year 2010. Employment of processing machine operators will grow slower than average, while employment of photographic pro cess workers will decline. Most openings will result from replace ment needs, which are higher for machine operators than for photographic process workers. In recent years, the use of digital cameras, which use electronic memory rather than film to record images, has grown rapidly among professional photographers and advanced amateurs. As the cost of digital photography drops, the use of such cameras will become more widespread among amateur photographers, reducing the de mand for traditional photographic processing machine operators. However, conventional cameras, which use film to record images, are expected to continue to be the camera of choice among most casual photographers. Population growth and the popularity of amateur and family photography will contribute to an ongoing need for photographic processing machine operators to process the film used in conventional cameras, including increasingly sophisticated disposable cameras. This need will prevent what otherwise would be even slower growth in the numbers of these workers. Employment of photographic process workers is expected to decline, as digital cameras and imaging become more commonplace. Using digital cameras and technology, consumers who have a per sonal computer and the proper software will be able to download and view pictures on their computer, as well as manipulate, correct, and retouch their own photographs. No matter what improvements occur in camera technology though, there will be some photographic processing tasks that require skillful manual treatment. Earnings Earnings of photographic process workers vary greatly depending on skill level, experience, and geographic location. Median hourly earnings for photographic process workers were $9.44 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.56 and $12.54. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.44, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.61. Median hourly earnings were $9.55 in miscella neous business services, including photofmishing laboratories. Median hourly earning for photographic processing machine operators were $8.39 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.06 and $10.56. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.06, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 14.48. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of photo graphic processing machine operators were as follows: Miscellaneous business services....................................................... Department stores.................................................................................. Drug stores and proprietary stores................................................... $9.03 7.97 6.89 Related Occupations Photographic process workers and processing machine operators need specialized knowledge of the photodeveloping process. Other workers who apply specialized technical knowledge include clini cal laboratory technologists and technicians, computer operators, jewelers and precious stone and metal workers, prepress technicians and workers; printing machine operators; and science technicians. 560 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For information about employment opportunities in photographic laboratories and schools that offer degrees in photographic tech nology, contact: >• Photo Marketing Association International, 3000 Picture Place, Jack son, MI 49201. Semiconductor Processors (0* *NET 51-9141.00) Significant Points • Semiconductor processors is the only production occupation whose employment expected to grow much is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. • An associate degree in a relevant curriculum is increasingly required. Nature of the Work Electronic semiconductors—also known as computer chips, micro chips, or integrated chips—are the miniature but powerful brains of high technology equipment. They are comprised of a myriad of tiny aluminum wires and electric switches, which manipulate the flow of electrical current. Semiconductor processors are respon sible for many of the steps necessary to manufacture each semicon ductor that goes into a personal computer, missile guidance system, and a host of other electronic equipment. Semiconductor processors manufacture semiconductors in disks about the size of dinner plates. These disks, called wafers, are thin slices of silicon on which the circuitry of the microchips is layered. Each wafer is eventually cut into dozens of individual chips. Semiconductor processors make wafers using photolithography, a printing process for creating plates from photographic images. Operating automated equipment, workers imprint precise micro scopic patterns of the circuitry on the wafers, etch out the patterns with acids, and replace the patterns with metals that conduct elec tricity. Then the wafers receive a chemical bath to make them smooth, and the imprint process begins again on a new layer with the next pattern. Wafers usually have from 8 to 20 such layers of microscopic, three-dimensional circuitry. Semiconductors are produced in semiconductor fabricating plants, or “fabs.” Within fabs, the manufacture and cutting of wa fers to create semiconductors takes place in “clean rooms.” Clean rooms are production areas that must be kept free of any airborne matter, because the least bit of dust can damage a semiconductor. All semiconductor processors working in clean rooms—both op erators and technicians—must wear special lightweight outer gar ments known as “bunny suits.” Bunny suits fit over clothing to prevent lint and other particles from contaminating semiconductor processing worksites. Operators, who make up the majority of the workers in clean rooms, start and monitor the sophisticated equipment that performs the various tasks during the many steps of the semiconductor pro duction sequence. They spend a great deal of time at computer terminals, monitoring the operation of the equipment to ensure that each of the tasks in the production of the wafer is performed cor rectly. They also may transfer wafer carriers from one development station to the next; in newer fabs, the lifting of heavy wafer carriers and the constant monitoring for quality control are increasingly being automated, however. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■ m WSm Semiconductor processing technicians use microscopes to check for flaws in semiconductor wafers. Once begun, production of semiconductor wafers is continuous. Operators work to the pace of the machinery that has largely auto mated the production process. Operators are responsible for keep ing the automated machinery within proper operating parameters. Technicians account for a smaller percentage of the workers in clean rooms, but they troubleshoot production problems and make equipment adjustments and repairs. They also take the lead in as suring quality control and in maintaining equipment. In order to prevent the need for repairs, technicians perform diagnostic analy ses and run computations. For example, technicians may deter mine if a flaw in a chip is due to contamination and peculiar to that wafer, or if the flaw is inherent in the manufacturing process. Working Conditions The work pace in cleanrooms is deliberately slow. Limited move ment keeps the air in cleanrooms as free as possible of dust and other particles, which can destroy semiconductors during produc tion. Because the machinery sets operators’ rate of work in the largely automated production process, workers keep an easy-going pace. Although workers spend some time alone monitoring equip ment, operators and technicians spend much of their time working in teams. Technicians are on their feet most of the day, walking through the clean room to oversee production activities. Operators spend a great deal of time sitting or standing at workstations, monitoring Production Occupations 561 computer readouts and gauges. Sometimes, they must retrieve wa fers from one station and take them to another. The temperature in the cleanrooms must be kept within narrow ranges, usually a comfortable 72 degrees Fahrenheit. Although bunny suits cover virtually the entire body, except perhaps the eyes, their light-weight fabric keeps the temperature inside fairly com fortable as well. However, entry and exit of workers in bunny suits from the clean room is controlled to minimize contamination, and workers must be reclothed in a clean suit and decontaminated each time they return to the clean room. The work environment of semiconductor fabricating plants is one of the safest in any industry. Measures taken to avoid contami nation of the wafers lead to more than just antiseptically clean rooms—they result in a work environment nearly free of conditions that cause occupational illnesses and accidents. Semiconductor fabricating plants operate around the clock. For this reason, night and weekend work is common. In some plants, workers maintain standard 8-hour shifts, 5 days a week. In other plants, employees are on duty for 12-hour shifts to minimize the disruption of clean room operations brought about by shift changes. Managers in some plants allow workers to alternate schedules for equitable distribution of the “graveyard” shift. Employment Electronic semiconductor processors held 52,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly all of them were employed in facilities that manufacture elec tronic components and accessories, though a small percentage worked in plants that primarily manufacture computers and office equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People interested in becoming semiconductor processors—either operators or technicians—need a solid background in mathematics and physical sciences. In addition to their application to the com plex manufacturing processes performed in fabs, math and science knowledge are essentials for pursuing higher education in semi conductor technology—and knowledge of both subjects is one of the best ways to advance in the semiconductor fabricating field. Semiconductor processor workers must also be able to think analytically and critically to anticipate problems and avoid costly mistakes. Communication skills also are vital, as workers must be able to convey their thoughts and ideas both orally and in writing. Employers prefer to hire persons who have completed associate degree programs for semiconductor processor jobs. A high school diploma or equivalent is the minimum requirement for entry-level operator jobs in semiconductor fabrication plants. Although comple tion of a 1 -year certificate program in semiconductor technology offered by some community colleges is an asset, technicians must have at least an associate degree in electronics technology or a re lated field. Degree or certificate candidates who get hands-on training while attending school look even more attractive to prospective employ ers. Semiconductor technology programs in a growing number of community colleges include an internship at a semiconductor fabri cating plant; many students in these programs already hold full- or part-time jobs in the industry and work toward degrees in semicon ductor technology in their spare time to update their skills or qualify for promotion to technician jobs. In addition, to ensure that opera tors and technicians keep their skills current, most employers pro vide 40 hours of formal training annually. Some employers also provide financial assistance to employees who want to earn associ ate and bachelor’s degrees. Summer and part-time employment provide another option for getting started in the field for those who live near a semiconductor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis processing plant. Students often are hired to work during the sum mer, and some students are allowed to continue working part time during the school year. Students in summer and part-time semicon ductor processor jobs learn what education they need to prosper in the field. They also gain valuable experience that may lead to full time employment after graduation. Some semiconductor processing technicians transfer to sales engineer jobs with suppliers of the machines that manufacture the semiconductors or become field support personnel. Job Outlook Between 2000 and 2010, employment of semiconductor processors is projected to increase faster than the average for all occupations. Besides the creation of new jobs, additional openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Grow ing demand for semiconductors and semiconductor processors will stem from the many existing and future applications for semicon ductors in computers, appliances, machinery, vehicles, cell phones and other telecommunications devices, and other equipment. Job prospects should be best for people with postsecondary education in electronics or semiconductor technology. The electronic components and accessories industry is projected to be one of the most rapidly growing manufacturing industries. Moreover, industry development of semiconductors made from bet ter materials means that semiconductors will become even smaller, more powerful, and more durable. For example, the industry has begun producing a new generation of microchips, made with cop per rather than aluminum wires, which will better conduct electric ity. Also, technology to develop chips based on plastic, rather than on silicon, will make computers durable enough to be used in a variety of applications in which they could not easily have been used previously. These technological developments and new ap plications will lead to employment growth in the industry and more semiconductor processor jobs. Earnings Median hourly earnings of electronic semiconductor processors were $12.23 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.02 and $15.36 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.85, and the top 10 percent earned more than $19.10 an hour. Technicians with an associate degree in electronics or semicon ductor technology generally started at higher salaries than those with less education. Almost one fourth of all electronic semiconductor processors belong to a union, considerably higher than the rate for all occupations. Related Occupations Electronic semiconductor processors do production work that re sembles the work of precision assemblers and fabricators of electri cal and electronic equipment. Also, many electronic semiconductor processors have academic training in semiconductor technology, which emphasizes scientific and engineering principles. Other oc cupations that require some college or postsecondary vocational training emphasizing such principles are engineering technicians, electrical and electronics engineers, and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more information on semiconductor processor careers, contact: >- Semiconductor Industry Association, 181 Metro Dr., Suite 450, San Jose, CA 95110. Internet: http://www.semichips.org ► SEMATECH, 2706 Montopolis Dr., Austin, TX 78741. Internet: http://www.4chipjobs.com ► Maricopa Advanced Technology Education Center (MATEC), 2323 West 14th St., Suite 540, Tempe, AZ 85281. Internet: http://matec.org Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Air Transportation Occupations Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers (0**NET 53-2011.00, 53-2012.00) Significant Points • • • Strong competition is expected for jobs because aircraft pilots have very high earnings, especially those employed by national airlines. Pilots usually start with smaller commuter and regional airlines to acquire the experience needed to qualify for higher paying jobs with national airlines. Most pilots traditionally have learned to fly in the military, but growing numbers have college degrees with flight training from civilian flying schools that are certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained professionals who fly airplanes and heli copters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Although four out of five are airline pilots, copilots, andflight engineers who transport passengers and cargo, others are commercial pilots involved in more unusual tasks, such as dusting crops, spreading seed for reforesta tion, testing aircraft, flying passengers and cargo to areas not ser vice by regular airlines, directing firefighting efforts, tracking criminals, monitoring traffic, and rescuing and evacuating injured persons. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot, the captain, is in com mand and supervises all other crew members. The pilot and copilot share flying and other duties, such as communicating with air traf fic controllers and monitoring the instruments. Some large aircraft have a third pilot—theflight engineer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor inflight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and virtually all new aircraft now fly with only two pilots, who rely more heavily on computerized controls. As older, less technologically sophisti cated aircraft continue to be retired from airline fleets, the number of flight engineer jobs will decrease. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They thor oughly check their aircraft to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. They confer with flight dispatchers and aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions en route and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that will provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules—procedures governing the op eration of the aircraft when there is poor visibility—the pilot in Digitized 562for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis command, or the company dispatcher, normally files an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordi nated with other air traffic. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight, and require close coordination between the pilot and first officer. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the first officer scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots con sider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the first officer informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Airplane pilots, with the assistance of autopilot and the flight man agement computer, steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They regularly scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply, the condition of their engines, and the air-conditioning, hydraulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in alti tude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots fly ing at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request an altitude change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed. In contrast, helicopters are used for short trips at relatively low altitude, so pilots must be constantly on the lookout for trees, bridges, power lines, transmission towers, and other dangerous obstacles. Regardless of the type of aircraft, all pilots must monitor warning devices designed to help detect sudden shifts in wind conditions that can cause crashes. Pilots must rely completely on their instruments when visibility is poor. On the basis of altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and whether they can fly safely over moun tains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information that, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equipment provides directions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their organization and the FAA report. The number of nonflying duties that pilots have depends on the employment setting. Airline pilots have the services of large sup port staffs, and consequently, perform few nonflying duties. Pilots employed by other organizations such as charter operators or busi nesses have many other duties. They may load the aircraft, handle all passenger luggage to ensure a balanced load, and supervise re fueling; other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major maintenance, and perform ing minor aircraft maintenance and repairwork. Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the prin ciples of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in dual-controlled planes and helicopters. A few Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 563 Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suffer jet lag—fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. To guard against excessive pilot fatigue that could result in unsafe flying conditions, the FAA requires airlines to allow pilots at least 8 hours of uninterrupted rest in the 24 hours before finish ing their flight duty. The work of test pilots, who check the flight performance of new and experimental planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and seldom have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Helicopter pilots involved in policework may be subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, no matter what the weather, can be tiring. Pilots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong, particularly during takeoff and landing. wm ik IPlf 1 v fWvf 7^7 % fjf / I . if. Pilots employed in the aerial spraying of crops also may be responsible for loading their planes with chemicals. specially trained pilots are “examiners” or “check pilots.” They periodically fly with other pilots or pilot’s license applicants to make sure that they are proficient. Working Conditions By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 75 hours a month and work an additional 75 hours a month per forming nonflying duties. About one-fourth of all pilots work more than 40 hours a week. Most spend a considerable amount of time away from home because the majority of flights involve overnight layovers. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accommodations, transportation between the hotel and air port, and an allowance for meals and other expenses. Airlines oper ate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Flight assignments are based on seniority. Those pilots not employed by the airlines often have irregular schedules as well; they may fly 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Because these pilots frequently have many nonflying re sponsibilities, they have much less free time than do airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most do not remain away from home overnight. They may work odd hours. Flight instructors may have irregular and seasonal work schedules, depending on their students’ available time and the weather. Instructors frequently work at night or on weekends. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Civilian aircraft pilots and flight engineers held about 117,000 jobs in 2000. About 84 percent worked as airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers. The remainder were commercial pilots who worked as flight instructors at local airports or for large businesses that fly company cargo and executives in their own airplanes or helicop ters. Some commercial pilots flew small planes for air taxi compa nies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not served by major airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses, performing tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, State, and local governments also employed pilots. A few pilots were self-employed. The employment of airplane pilots is not distributed like the population. Pilots are more concentrated in California, New York, Illinois, Washington, Michigan, Georgia, New Jersey, Florida, the District of Columbia, and Texas, which have a high amount of fly ing activity relative to their population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license with an instrument rating issued by the FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight experience. The experience required can be reduced through par ticipation in certain flight school curricula approved by the FAA. Applicants also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. They must pass a written test that in cludes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation tech niques, and FAA regulations and must demonstrate their flying ability to FAA or designated examiners. To fly in periods of low visibility, pilots must be rated by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this rating by having 105 hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of expe rience in flying by instruments; they also must pass a written exami nation on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying and demonstrate to an examiner their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. Pilots must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, including night and instrument flying, and must pass FAA written and flight examinations. Usually, they also have one or more advanced ratings, such as multi-engine aircraft or air craft type ratings dependent upon the requirements of their particu lar flying jobs. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure, many airline companies re ject applicants who do not pass required psychological and aptitude 564 Occupational Outlook Handbook tests. All licenses are valid so long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical examinations and tests of flying skills required by Federal Government and company regulations. Depending on their physi cal condition, a pilot license may have a Class I, II, and III Medical certificate. A Class I Medical Certificate requires the highest stan dards for vision, hearing, equilibrium, and general physical condi tion. Requirements for a Class II Medical Certificate are less rigid, but still require a high degree of physical health and an excellent medical history. A Class III Medical Certificate has the least strin gent physical requirements. All three classes of medical certificates allow the pilot to wear glasses provided the correction is within the prescribed limits of vision. The Armed Forces have always been an important source of trained pilots for civilian jobs. Military pilots gain valuable experi ence on jet aircraft and helicopters, and persons with this experi ence usually are preferred for civilian pilot jobs. This primarily reflects the extensive flying time military pilots receive. Persons without Armed Forces training may become pilots by attending flight schools. The FAA has certified about 600 civilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Over the projection period, Federal budget reduc tions are expected to reduce military pilot training. As a result, FAA-certified schools will train a larger share of pilots than in the past. Prospective pilots also may learn to fly by taking lessons from individual FAA-certified flight instructors. Although some small airlines will hire high school graduates, most airlines require at least 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. Because the number of college educated applicants continues to increase, many employers are making a college degree an educational requirement. Depending on the type of aircraft, new airline pilots start as first officers or flight engineers. Although some airlines favor appli cants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may pro vide flight engineer training for those who have only the commercial license. Many pilots begin with smaller regional or commuter air lines, where they obtain experience flying passengers on scheduled flights into busy airports in all weather conditions. These jobs of ten lead to higher paying jobs with bigger, national airlines. Initial training for airline pilots includes a week of company in doctrination, 3 to 6 weeks of ground school and simulator training, and 25 hours of initial operating experience, including a check-ride with an FAA aviation safety inspector. Once trained and “on the line,” pilots are required to attend recurrent training and simulator checks twice a year throughout their career. Organizations other than airlines usually require less flying ex perience. However, a commercial pilot’s license is a minimum re quirement, and employers prefer applicants who have experience in the type of craft they will be flying. New employees usually start as first officers, or fly less sophisticated equipment. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree. Advancement for all pilots usually is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more experi enced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes or perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air taxi companies. Some advance to business flying jobs. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines. In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority pro visions of union contracts. After 1 to 5 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to first officer and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonairline job, a first officer may ad Digitized for to FRASER vance pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot or director of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis aviation in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures. Job Outlook Pilots are expected to face strong competition for jobs through the year 2010. Many qualified persons seek jobs in this occupation because it offers very high earnings, glamour, prestige, and free or low-cost travel benefits. As time passes, some pilots will fail to maintain their qualifications, and the number of applicants compet ing for each opening should decline. Factors affecting demand, however, are not expected to ease that competition. Relatively few jobs will be created from rising demand for pi lots, even though employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Expected growth in domestic and international airline passenger and cargo traffic will create a need for more airliners, pilots, and flight instructors. How ever, computerized flight management systems on new aircraft will continue to eliminate the need for flight engineers on those planes, thus restricting the growth of pilot employment. In addition, the trend toward using larger planes in the airline industry will increase pilot productivity. Future business travel could also be adversely affected by the growing use of teleconferencing, facsimile mail, and electronic communications—such as e-mail—as well as by the elimination of middle management positions in corporate downsizing. Employment of business pilots is expected to grow more slowly than in the past as more businesses opt to fly with regional and smaller airlines serving their area rather than to buy and operate their own aircraft. The number ofjob openings result ing from the need to replace pilots who retire or leave the occupa tion traditionally has been very low. Aircraft pilots usually have a strong attachment to their occupation because it requires a substan tial investment in specialized training that is not transferable to other fields, and it commonly offers very high earnings. However, many of the pilots who were hired in the late 1960s are approaching the age for mandatory retirement and, thus, several thousand job open ings are expected to be generated each year. Pilots who have logged the greatest number of flying hours in the more sophisticated equipment typically have the best prospects. For this reason, military pilots often have an advantage over other applicants. Job seekers with the most FAA licenses also will have a competitive advantage. Opportunities for pilots in the regional com muter airlines and international service are expected to be more favorable, as these segments are expected to grow faster than other segments of the industry. Employment of pilots is sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when a decline in the demand for air travel forces airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may temporarily furlough some pilots. Commercial and corporate fly ing, flight instruction, and testing of new aircraft also decline dur ing recessions, adversely affecting the employment of pilots in those areas. Earnings Earnings of aircraft pilots and flight engineers vary greatly depend ing whether they work as airline or commercial pilots. Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation, and depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane and the number of hours and miles flown. For example, pilots who fly jet aircraft usually earn higher salaries than do pilots who fly turbo props. Airline pilots and flight engineers may earn extra pay for night and international flights. In 2000, median annual earnings of airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers were $110,940. The lowest lOpercent earned less than $36,110. Over 25 percent earned more than $145,000. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 565 Median annual earnings of commercial pilots were $43,300 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,500 and $61,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,000. Airline pilots usually are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the airlines. They also receive retirement ben efits and, if they fail the FA A physical examination at some point in their careers, they get disability payments. In addition, pilots re ceive an expense allowance, or “per diem,” for every hour they are away from home. Per diem can represent up to $500 each month in addition to their salary. Some airlines also provide allowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced fare transportation on their own and other airlines. More than one-half of all aircraft pilots are members of unions. Most of the pilots who fly for the major airlines are members of the Airline Pilots Association, International, but those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engineers’ International Association. Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and air field operation specialists also play an important role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions that pilots must make. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities, salaries for a particular air line, and qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. For information on airline pilots, contact: >• Airline Pilots Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. >- Air TransportAssociation ofAmerica, Inc., 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004. For information on helicopter pilots, contact: ► Helicopter Association International, 1619 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. For a copy of the List of Certificated Pilot Schools, write to: >- Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash ington, DC 20402. There is a charge for this publication. For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports. Air Traffic Controllers (0**NET 53-2021.00) • • • Significant Points Nearly all air traffic controllers are employed and trained by the Federal Government. Keen competition is expected for the few job openings in this occupation. Aircraft controllers earn relatively high pay and have good benefits. Nature of the Work The air traffic control system is a vast network of people and equip ment that ensures the safe operation of commercial and private https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis aircraft. Air traffic controllers coordinate the movement of air traffic to make certain that planes stay a safe distance apart. Their imme diate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes effi ciently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal controllers watch over all planes traveling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsi bility is to organize the flow of aircraft in and out of the airport. Relying on radar and visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to ensure a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s air space. In addition, controllers keep pilots informed about changes in weather conditions such as wind shear—a sudden change in the velocity or direction of the wind that can cause the pilot to lose control of the aircraft. During arrival or departure, several controllers direct each plane. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of its presence. The controller in the radar room, just beneath the control tower, has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the path is clear, the controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any departures that would interfere with the plane’s land ing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground con troller usually works entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor. The procedure is reversed for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then informs the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure controller. After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 21 enroute con trol centers located around the country, each employing 300 to 700 controllers, with more than 150 on duty during peak hours at the busier facilities. Airplanes usually fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many differ ent routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three mem bers, depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center’s airspace. A team, for example, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the radar associate controller organizes flight plans coming off a printer. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at nearly the same time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight path. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s airspace, the radar con troller accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous con trolling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace. The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team’s airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about 566 Occupational Outlook Handbook nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other potential haz ards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination. Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control sev eral planes at a time; often, they have to make quick decisions about completely different activities. For example, a controller might di rect a plane on its landing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with information about condi tions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well separated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic con trollers also work in flight service stations operated at more than 100 locations. These flight service specialists provide pilots with information on the station’s particular area, including terrain, pre flight and inflight weather information, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight. Flight service sta tion specialists help pilots in emergency situations and initiate and coordinate searches for missing or overdue aircraft. However, they are not involved in actively managing air traffic. Some air traffic controllers work at the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center in Herndon, Virginia, where they oversee the entire system. They look for situations that will create bottlenecks or other prob lems in the system, then respond with a management plan for traf fic into and out of the troubled sector. The objective is to keep traffic levels in the trouble spots manageable for the controllers working at enroute centers. Currently, the FAA is in the midst of developing and implement ing a new automated air traffic control system that will allow con trollers to more efficiently deal with the demands of increased air traffic. For example, some traditional air traffic controller tasks— like determining how far apart planes should be kept—will be done by computer. Present separation standards call for a 2,000-foot vertical spacing between two aircraft operating above 29,000 feet and flying the same ground track. With the aid of new technolo gies, the FAA will be able to reduce this vertical separation stan dard to 1,000 feet. Improved communication between computers on airplanes and those on the ground also is making the controller’s job a little easier. At present controllers sit at consoles with green-glowing screens that display radar images generated by a computer. In the future, controllers will work at a modem workstation computer that de picts air routes in full-color on a 20- by 20-inch screen. The con trollers will select radio channels simply by touching on-screen buttons instead of turning dials or switching switches. The new technology will also enable controllers to zoom in on selected cor ners of the air space that is their responsibility and get better images of moving traffic than is possible with today’s machines. The new automated air traffic control system is expected to become opera tional in several phases over the next 8 years. The FAA is also considering implementing a system called “free flight” which would give pilots much more freedom in operating their aircraft. The change will require new concepts of shared re sponsibility between controllers and pilots. Air traffic controllers will still be central to the safe operation of the system, but their responsibilities will eventually shift from controlling to monitoring flights. At present, controllers assign routes, altitudes, and speeds. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Airport tower controllers coordinate arriving and departing air traffic. Under the new system, airlines and pilots would choose them. Con trollers would intervene only to ensure that aircraft remained at safe distances from one another, to prevent congestion in terminal areas and entry into closed airspace, or to otherwise ensure safety. Today’s practices often result in planes zigzagging from point to point along corridors rather than flying from city to city in a straight line. This results in lost time and fuel. However, it may be several years be fore a free flight system is implemented, despite its potential ad vantages. For the system to work, new equipment must be added for pilots and controllers, and new procedures developed to accom modate both the tightly controlled and flexible aspects of free flight. Budget constraints within the Federal Government may delay or slow implementation. Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work additional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. This requires total concentration to keep track of several planes at the same time and make certain all pilots receive correct instruc tions. The mental stress of being responsible for the safety of sev eral aircraft and their passengers can be exhausting for some persons. Employment Air traffic controllers held about 27,000 jobs in 2000. They were employed by the Federal Government at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in enroute traffic control centers. The overwhelming majority worked for the FAA. Some professional controllers conduct research at the FAA’s national experimental center near Atlantic City, New Jersey. Others serve as instructors at Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 567 the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. A small number of civilian controllers worked for the U.S. Department of Defense. In addition to controllers employed by the Federal Government, some worked for private air traffic control companies providing service to nonFAA towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the competitive Federal Civil Service system. Applicants must pass a written test that measures their ability to learn the controller’s duties. Appli cants with experience as a pilot, navigator, or military controller can improve their rating by scoring well on the occupational knowl edge portion of the examination. Abstract reasoning and three-di mensional spatial visualization are among the aptitudes the exam measures. In addition, applicants usually must have 3 years of gen eral work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. Applicants also must survive a week of screening at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, which includes aptitude tests using computer simulators and physical and psychological examinations. Successful applicants receive drug screening tests. For airport tower and enroute center positions, applicants must be less than 31 years old. Those 31 years old and over are eligible for positions at flight service stations. Controllers must be articulate, because pilots must be given directions quickly and clearly. Intelligence and a good memory also are important because controllers constantly receive informa tion that they must immediately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness also is required because controllers often have to make quick decisions. The ability to concentrate is crucial because con trollers must make these decisions in the midst of noise and other distractions. Trainees learn their jobs through a combination of formal and on-the-job training. They receive 7 months of intensive training at the FAA academy, where they learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, aircraft performance characteristics, as well as more specialized tasks. To receive a job offer, trainees must successfully complete the training and pass a series of examinations, including a controller skills test that mea sures speed and accuracy in recognizing and correctly solving air traffic control problems. The test requires judgments on spatial relationships and requires application of the rules and procedures contained in the Air Traffic Control Handbook. Based on aptitude and test scores, trainees are selected to work at either an enroute center or a tower. After graduation, it takes several years of progressively more responsible work experience, interspersed with considerable class room instruction and independent study, to become a fully quali fied controller. This training includes instruction in the operation of the new, more automated air traffic control system—including the automated Microwave Landing System that enables pilots to receive instructions over automated data links—that is being in stalled in control sites across the country. Controllers who fail to complete either the academy or the onthe-job portion of the training are usually dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance examination twice each year. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time also may result in dis missal. Controllers also are subject to drug screening as a condi tion of continuing employment. At airports, new controllers begin by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to ground controller, then local controller, departure controller, and finally, arrival controller. At an enroute traffic control center, new https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis controllers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staffjobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. However, there are only limited opportunities for a controller to switch from a position in an enroute center to a tower. Job Outlook Extremely keen competition is expected for air traffic controller jobs because the occupation attracts many more qualified appli cants than the small number ofjob openings that result mostly from replacement needs. Replacement needs are very low because of the relatively high pay, liberal retirement benefits, and controllers’ very strong attachment to the occupation. A new FAA hiring policy, allowing eligible retired military air traffic controllers to apply for FAA positions, will make competition even keener. Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to grow more slowly than average through the year 2010. Employment growth is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying because of the implementation of a new air traffic control system over the next several years. This computerized system will assist the controller by automatically making many of the routine decisions. Automation will allow controllers to handle more traf fic, thus increasing their productivity. Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic control lers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off. Earnings Median annual earnings of air traffic controllers in 2000 were $82,520. The middle 50 percent earned between $62,250 and $101,570. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $44,760, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $111,150. The average annual salary, excluding overtime earnings, for air traffic controllers in the Federal Government—which employs 89 percent of the total—in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage rial positions was $53,313 in 2001. Both the worker’s job respon sibilities and the complexity of the particular facility determine a controller’s pay. For example, controllers who work at the FAA’s busiest air traffic control facilities earn higher pay. Depending on length of service, air traffic controllers receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and health benefits. In addition, controllers can re tire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other Fed eral employees. Air traffic controllers are eligible to retire at age 50 with 20 years of service as an active air traffic controller or after 25 years of active service at any age. There is a mandatory retirement age of 56 for controllers who manage air traffic. Related Occupations Airfield operations specialists also are involved in the direction and control of traffic in air transportation. Sources of Additional Information Information on acquiring a job as an air traffic controller with the Federal Government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system. Consult your tele phone directory under U.S. Government for a local number, or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. That num ber is not tollfree and charges may result. Information also is avail able on the Internet: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. 568 Occupational Outlook Handbook Material Moving Occupations (0**NET 53-1021.00, 53-7011.00, 53-7021.00, 53-7031.00, 53-7032.01, 53-7032.02, 53-7033.00, 53-7041.00, 53-7051.00, 53-7061.00, 53 7062.01, 53-7062.02, 53-7062.03, 53-7063.00, 53-7064.00, 53-7071.01, 53-7071.02, 53-7072.00, 53-7073.00, 53-7081.00, 53-7111.00, 53 7121.00, 53-7199.99) • Significant Points Job openings should be numerous because the occupation is very large. • Most jobs require little work experience or specific training, but earnings are low. • Pay is highest in jobs that require the most experience or that have the greatest responsibilities, but seasonal work may reduce earnings. Nature of the Work Material moving workers are categorized into two groups: operators and laborers. Operators use machinery to move construction materi als, earth, petroleum products, and other heavy materials. Generally, they move materials over short distances—around a construction site, factory, or warehouse. Some move materials on or off trucks and ships. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. They may also set up and inspect equipment, make adjustments, and perform minor repairs when needed. Laborers and hand material movers manually handle freight, stock, or other materials; clean vehicles, machinery, and other equip ment; feed materials into or remove materials from machines or equip ment; and pack or package products and materials. Material moving occupations are classified by the type of equip ment they operate or goods they handle. Each piece of equipment requires different skills to move different types of loads. (For in formation on operating engineers; paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators; and pile-driver operators, see the statement on construction equipment operators, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial truck and tractor operators drive and control indus trial trucks or tractors equipped to move materials around a ware house, storage yard, factory, or construction site. A typical industrial truck, often called a forklift or lift truck, has a hydraulic lifting mechanism and forks. They also may operate tractors that pull trail ers loaded with materials, goods, or equipment within factories and warehouses, or around outdoor storage areas. Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators oper ate or tend machinery equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets, to dig and load sand, gravel, earth, or similar materials into trucks or onto conveyors. Construction and mining industries employ the majority of excavation and loading machine and dragline operators. Crane and tower operators operate mechanical boom and cable or tower and cable equipment to lift and move materials, machin ery, or other heavy objects. They extend or retract a horizontally mounted boom to lower or raise a hook attached to the loadline. Most operators coordinate their maneuvers in response to hand sig nals and radioed instructions. Operators position the loads from the on-board console or from a remote console at the site. While crane and tower operators are noticeable at office building and other construction sites, the biggest group works in primary metal, metal fabrication, and transportation equipment manufacturing industries Digitized thatfor useFRASER heavy, bulky materials. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hoist and winch operators control movement of cables, cages, and platforms to move workers and materials for manufacturing, logging, and other industrial operations. They work in such posi tions as derrick operators and hydraulic boom operators. One half of all jobs for hoist and winch operators were found in manufactur ing or construction industries. Pump operators and their helpers tend, control, or operate powerdriven pumps and manifold systems that transfer gases, oil, or other materials to vessels or equipment. They maintain the equipment to regulate the flow of materials according to a schedule set up by petroleum engineers and production supervisors. Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators operate steam, gas, electric motor, or internal combustion engine driven compressors. They transmit, compress, or recover gases, such as butane, nitrogen, hydrogen, and natural gas. Wellhead pumpers operate power pumps and auxiliary equipment to produce flow of oil or gas from wells in oil fields. Tank, car, truck and ship loaders operate ship loading and un loading equipment, conveyors, hoists, and other specialized mate rial handling equipment such as railroad tank car unloading equipment. They may gauge or sample shipping tanks and test them for leaks. Conveyor operators and tenders control or tend con veyor systems that move materials to or from stockpiles, processing stations, departments, or vehicles. Laborers and hand freight, stock, and material movers manu ally move materials or perform other unskilled general labor. These workers move freight, stock, and other materials to and from stor age and production areas, loading docks, delivery vehicles, ships, and containers. Their specific duties vary by industry and work setting. Specialized workers within this group include baggage and cargo handlers, who work in transportation industries; and truck loaders and unloaders. In factories, they may move raw materials, components, and finished goods between loading docks, storage areas, and work areas. They receive and sort materials and supplies and prepare them according to work orders for delivery to work or storage areas. Handpackers and packagers manually pack, package, or wrap a variety of materials. They may inspect items for defects, label car tons, stamp information on products, keep records of items packed, and stack packages on loading docks. This group also includes Some operators move materials between trucks and ships. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 569 order fillers, who pack materials for shipment, as well as grocery store courtesy clerks. In grocery stores, they may bag groceries, carry packages to customers’ cars, and return shopping carts to des ignated areas. Machine feeders and offbearers feed materials into or remove materials from automatic equipment or machines tended by other workers. Cleaners of vehicle and equipment clean machinery, ve hicles, storage tanks, pipelines, and similar equipment using water and other cleaning agents, vacuums, hoses, brushes, cloths, and other cleaning equipment. Refuse and recyclable material collectors gather trash, garbage, and recyclables from homes and businesses along a regularly scheduled route, and deposit the refuse in their truck for transport to a dump, landfill, or recycling center. They lift and empty garbage cans or recycling bins by hand, or operate a hydraulic lift truck that picks up and empties dumpsters. Working Conditions Many material moving workers work outdoors in every type of cli mate and weather condition. The work tends to be repetitive and physically demanding. They may lift and carry heavy objects, and stoop, kneel, crouch, or crawl in awkward positions. Some work at great heights, or outdoors in all weather conditions. Some jobs expose workers to harmful materials or chemicals, fumes, odors, loud noise, or dangerous machinery. To avoid injury, these workers wear safety clothing, such as gloves and hard hats, and devices to protect their eyes, mouth, or hearing. These jobs have become much safer as safety equipment such as overhead guards on forklift trucks has become common. As with most machinery, most accidents can be avoided by observing proper operating procedures and safety practices. Material movers generally work 8-hour shifts, though longer shifts are also common. In many industries that work around the clock, material movers work evening or “graveyard” shifts. Some may work at night because the establishment may not want to dis turb customers during normal business hours. Refuse and recy clable material collectors often work shifts starting at 5:00 or 6:00 a.m. Some material movers only work during certain seasons, such as when the weather permits construction activity. Employment Material movers held about 5 million jobs in 2000. They were distributed among the detailed occupations as follows: Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand............. 2,084,000 Hand packers and packagers............................................................. 1,091,000 Industrial truck and tractor operators.............................................. 635,000 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment................................................. 322,000 Machine feeders and offbearers........................................................ 182,000 First-line supervisors/managers of helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand............................................................. 153,000 Refuse and recyclable materials collectors.................................... 124,000 Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators............ 76,000 Conveyer operators and tenders ....................................................... 63,000 Crane and tower operators................................. ................................ 55,000 Tank, car, truck, and ship loaders..................................................... 19,000 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers.................................... 14,000 Wellhead pumpers................................................................................ 12,000 Hoist and winch operators.................................................................. 9,000 Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators................... 7,000 All other material moving workers................................................... 142,000 More than 44 percent of all material movers worked in trans portation, public utilities, wholesale trade, or retail trade indus tries. Another 26 percent worked in manufacturing. Significant numbers of material movers also worked in construction, mining, and service industries. A small proportion of material movers were https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis self-employed. A growing number are employed on a temporary or contract basis, many through firms providing personnel supply ser vices. For example, companies that only need workers for a few days to move materials or clean up a site may contract with tempo rary help agencies specializing in providing this type of worker on a short-term basis. Material movers work in every part of the country. Some work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as high ways and dams, or in factory or mining operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most material moving jobs require no work experience or specific training. Some employers prefer applicants with a high school di ploma, but most simply require workers to be at least 18 years old and physically able to perform the work. For those jobs requiring physical exertion, employers may require that applicants pass a physical exam. Some employers also require chug testing or back ground checks before employment. These workers often are younger than workers in other occupations—reflecting the limited training but significant physical requirements of many of these jobs. Material movers generally leam skills informally, on the job from more experienced workers or supervisors. However, workers who use dangerous equipment or handle toxic chemicals usually receive specialized training in safety awareness and procedures. Many of the training requirements are standardized through the U.S. Occu pational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Material moving equipment operators need a good sense of bal ance, distance judgment, and eye-hand-foot coordination. For those jobs that involve dealing with the public, such as grocery store cour tesy clerks, workers should be pleasant and courteous. Most jobs require reading and basic mathematics skills to read procedures manuals, billing, and other documents. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile or diesel mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their equip ment. Experience operating mobile equipment, such as farm trac tors or heavy equipment in the Armed Forces, is an asset. Experience in many of these jobs may allow workers to qualify or become trainees for other skilled positions such as construction trades workers; assemblers or other production workers; motor ve hicle operators; or vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, in stallers, and repairers. In fact, many employers prefer to promote qualified material movers as openings arise. Some may eventually advance to become supervisors. Job Outlook Employment in material moving occupations will increase about as fast as average for all occupations through 2010. Employment growth will stem from an expanding economy and increased spending on the Nation’s infrastructure of highways, bridges, and dams. How ever, equipment improvements, including the growing automation of material handling in factories and warehouses, will continue to raise productivity and moderate the demand for material movers. Job growth for material movers largely depends on growth in the industries employing them and the type of equipment the work ers operate or the materials they handle. For example, employment of operators in manufacturing will decline slightly due to increased automation and efficiency in the production process. On the other hand, employment will grow rapidly in temporary help organiza tions as firms contract out material moving services. Job openings should be numerous because the occupation is very large and turnover is relatively high—characteristic of occupations requiring little formal training. Many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force for other reasons. 570 Occupational Outlook Handbook Both construction and manufacturing are very sensitive to changes in economic conditions, so the number of job openings in these industries may fluctuate from year to year. Earnings Median hourly earnings of material moving workers in 2000 were as follows: Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators........................ $20.32 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers........................................ 17.16 First-line supervisors/managers of helpers, laborers, 16.73 and materia! movers, hand.................................................................. Wellhead pumpers.................................................................................... 16.35 Crane and tower operators...................................................................... 15.89 Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators................ 14.94 Hoist and winch operators....................................................................... 14.40 Tank, car, truck, and ship loaders.......................................................... 13.78 Refuse and recyclable materials collectors........................................ 11.83 Industrial truck and tractor operators................................................... 11.74 Conveyer operators and tenders............................................................ 10.70 Machine feeders and offbearers............................................................ 9.69 Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand................. 9.04 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment..................................................... 7.55 Hand packers and packagers.................................................................. 7.53 Pay rates vary according to experience and job responsibilities. Pay usually is higher in metropolitan areas. Seasonal work may reduce earnings. Related Occupations Other workers who operate mechanical equipment include busdrivers; construction equipment operators; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; rail transportation workers; and truckdrivers and driver/sales workers. Other entrylevel workers who perform mostly physical work are agricultural workers; building cleaning workers; construction laborers; for est, conservation, and logging workers; and grounds maintenance workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about job opportunities and training programs, con tact local State employment service offices, building or construc tion contractors, manufacturers, and wholesale and retail establishments. Information on safety and training requirements is available from: >- U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administra tion (OSHA), 200 ConstitutionAve. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Internet: http://www.osha.gov Information on industrial truck and tractor operators is available from: >- Industrial Truck Association, 1750 K St. NW., Suite 460, Washington, DC 20006. >- Specialized Carriers and Rigging Association, 2750 Prosperity Ave., Suite 620, Fairfax, VA 22301. Motor Vehicle Operators Busdrivers (0*NET 53-3021.00, 53-3022.00) • • • Significant Points Opportunities should be good, particularly for school busdriver jobs. A commercial driver’s license is required to operate on interstate bus routes. Busdrivers must posses strong customer service skills, including communication skills and the ability to manage large groups of people with varying needs. Nature of the Work Millions of Americans every day leave the driving to busdrivers. Busdrivers are essential in providing passengers with an alternative to their automobiles or other fonns of transportation. Intercity busdrivers transport people between regions of a State or of the country; local transit busdrivers, within a metropolitan area or county; motorcoach drivers, on charter excursions and tours; and school busdrivers, to and from schools and related events. Drivers pick up and drop off passengers at bus stops, stations, or, in the case of students, at regularly scheduled neighborhood lo cations based on strict time schedules. Drivers must operate ve hicles safely, especially when traffic is heavier than normal. However, they cannot let light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that they miss passengers. Local transit and intercity busdrivers report to their assigned terminal or garage, where they stock up on tickets or transfers and prepare trip report forms. In some firms, maintenance departments https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are responsible for keeping vehicles in good condition. In others, drivers may check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, and water supply, before beginning their routes. Drivers usually verify that the bus has safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors in case of an emergency. During the course of their shift, local transit and intercity busdrivers collect fares; answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points; and sometimes announce stops. Intercity busdrivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day. They may stop at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Local transit busdrivers may make several trips each day over the same city and suburban streets, stopping as frequently as every few blocks. Local transit busdrivers submit daily trip reports with a record of trips, significant schedule delays, and mechanical problems. In tercity drivers who drive across State or national boundaries must comply with U.S. Department of Transportation regulations. These include completing vehicle inspection reports and recording dis tances traveled and the periods they spend driving, performing other duties, and off duty. Motorcoach drivers transport passengers on charter trips and sightseeing tours. Drivers routinely interact with customers and tour guides to make the trip as comfortable and informative as pos sible. They are directly responsible for keeping to strict schedules, adhering to the guidelines of the tours’ itinerary, and the overall success of the trip. These drivers act as customer service represen tative, tour guide, program director, and safety guide. Trips fre quently last more than one day. The driver may be away for more than a week if assigned to an extended tour. As with all drivers who drive across State or national boundaries, motorcoach drivers must comply with Department of Transportation regulations. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 571 - ; V.. Regular local transit busdrivers usually have a 5-day workweek, which may include weekends. School busdrivers usually drive the same routes each day, stop ping to pick up pupils in the morning and return them to their homes in the afternoon. Some school busdrivers also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. In addition to driv ing, some school busdrivers work part time in the school system as janitors, mechanics, or classroom assistants when not driving buses. Busdrivers must be alert to prevent accidents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather, and to avoid sudden stops or swerves that jar passengers. School busdrivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off the bus. They must maintain order on their bus and enforce school safety standards by allowing only students to board. In addition, they must know and enforce rules regarding student conduct used throughout the school system. School busdrivers do not always have to report to an assigned terminal or garage. In some cases, school busdrivers often have the choice of taking their bus home, or parking it in a more convenient area. School busdrivers do not collect fares. Instead, they prepare weekly reports on the number of students, trips or runs, work hours, miles, and the amount of fuel consumption. Their supervisors set time schedules and routes for the day or week. Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is more stressful and fatiguing than physically strenuous. Many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for their bus and passengers. To improve working conditions and retain drivers, many bus lines provide er gonomically designed seats and controls for drivers. Intercity busdrivers may work nights, weekends, and holidays and often spend nights away from home, where they stay in hotels at company expense. Senior drivers with regular routes have regu lar weekly work schedules, but others do not have regular sched ules and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. They report for work only when called for a charter assignment or to drive extra buses on a regular route. Intercity bus travel and charter work tends to be seasonal. From May through August, drivers may work the maximum number of hours per week that regulations al low. During winter, junior drivers may work infrequently, except for busy holiday travel periods, and may be furloughed for periods. School busdrivers work only when school is in session. Many work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two routes in the morn ing and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips or who also have midday kindergarten routes may work more hours a week. As https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis more students with a variety of physical and behavioral disabilities assimilate into mainstream schools, school busdrivers must learn how to accommodate their special needs. Regular local transit busdrivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate com muters, many work “split shifts,” for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between. Tour and charter busdrivers may work any day and all hours of the day, including weekends and holidays. Their hours are dictated by the charter trips booked and the schedule and prearranged itiner ary of tours. However, like all busdrivers, their weekly hours must be consistent with the Department of Transportation’s rules and regu lations concerning hours of service. For example, a driver may drive for 10 hours, and work up to 15 hours—including driving and non-driving duties—before having 8 hours off-duty. A driver may not drive after having worked for 70 hours in the past 8 days. Most drivers are required to document their time in a logbook. Employment Busdrivers held about 666,000 jobs in 2000. More than a third worked part time. About two-thirds of all drivers worked for school systems or companies providing school bus services under contract. Most of the remainder worked for private and local government transit systems; some also worked for intercity and charter bus lines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Busdriver qualifications and standards are established by State and Federal regulations. All drivers must comply with Federal regula tions and any State regulations that exceed Federal requirements. Federal regulations require drivers who operate vehicles designed to transport 16 or more passengers to hold a commercial driver’s license (CDL) from the State in which they live. To qualify for a commercial driver’s license, applicants must pass a written test on rules and regulations and then demonstrate they can operate a bus safely. A national data bank permanently records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold com mercial licenses. A State may not issue a commercial driver’s li cense to a driver who already has a license suspended or revoked in another State. A driver with a CDL must accompany trainees until they get their own CDL. Information on how to apply for a com mercial driver’s license may be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. While many States allow those who are 18 years and older to drive buses within State borders, the Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for busdrivers engaged in in terstate commerce. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations re quire drivers to be at least 21 years old and pass a physical examination once every 2 years. The main physical requirements include good hearing, 20/40 vision with or without glasses or cor rective lenses, and a 70-degree field of vision in each eye. Drivers must not be colorblind. They must be able to hear a forced whisper in one ear at not less than 5 feet, with or without a hearing aide. Drivers must have normal use of arms and legs and normal blood pressure. They may not use any controlled substances, unless pre scribed by a licensed physician. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate busdrivers. Federal regulations also require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment, and require periodic random tests while on duty. In addition, a driver must not have been convicted of a felony involving the use of a motor ve hicle; a crime involving drugs; driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol; or hit-and-run driving which resulted in injury or death. All drivers must be able to read and speak English well enough to 572 Occupational Outlook Handbook read road signs, prepare reports, and communicate with law en forcement officers and the public. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a writ ten test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. Many intercity and public transit bus companies prefer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require several years of bus or truck driving experience. In some States, school busdrivers must pass a back ground investigation to uncover any criminal record or history of mental problems. Because busdrivers deal with passengers, they must be courte ous. They need an even temperament and emotional stability be cause driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Drivers must have strong customer service skills, including communication skills and the ability to coordinate and manage large groups of people. Most intercity bus companies and local transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “behind-the-wheel” instruc tion. In the classroom, trainees learn Department of Transportation and company work rules, safety regulations, State and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. School busdrivers are also required to obtain a commercial driver’s license from the State in which they live. Many persons who enter school busdriving have never driven any vehicle larger than an auto mobile. They receive between 1 and 4 weeks of driving instruction plus classroom training on State and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating school buses; safe driving practices; driverpupil relations; first aid; special needs of disabled and emotionally troubled students; and emergency evacuation procedures. School busdrivers also must be aware of school systems rules for discipline and conduct for busdrivers and the students they transport. During training, busdrivers practice driving on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag maneuvers, backing up, and driving in narrow lanes. Then they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without passengers, to improve their driving skills and leam the routes. Local transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. New drivers begin with a “break-in” period. They make regularly scheduled trips with pas sengers, accompanied by an experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and evaluates the new driver’s performance. New intercity and local transit drivers are usually placed on an “extra” list to drive charter runs, extra buses on regular runs, and special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events). They also substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, perhaps for several years, until they have enough seniority to receive a regular run. Senior drivers may bid for runs they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or, in the case of intercity busdrivers, higher earnings or fewer workdays per week. Opportunities for promotion are generally limited. However, experienced drivers may become supervisors or dispatchers, assign ing buses to drivers, checking whether drivers are on schedule, re routing buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatching extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail systems, drivers may become train operators or station attendants. A few drivers become managers. Promotion in publicly owned bus systems is often by competitive civil service examination. Some motorcoach drivers purchase their own equipment and go in to business for themselves. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as busdrivers should encounter good opportu nities. Many employers have recently had difficulty finding quali fied candidates to fill vacancies left by departing employees. Opportunities should be best for individuals with good driving records who are willing to start on a part-time or irregular schedule, as well as for those seeking jobs as school busdrivers in rapidly growing suburban areas. Those seeking higher paying intercity and public transit busdriver positions may encounter competition. Employment of busdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2010, primarily to meet the transportation needs of a growing school-age population and local environmental concerns. Thousands of additional job openings are expected to occur each year because of the need to replace workers who take jobs in other occupations, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. School busdriving jobs should be easiest to acquire because most are part time positions with high turnover and minimal training re quirements. The number of school busdrivers is expected to in crease as a result of growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments. In addition, as more of the Nation’s population is con centrated in suburban areas—where students generally ride school buses—and less in the central cities—where transportation is not provided for most pupils—more school busdrivers will be needed. Employment of local transit and intercity drivers will grow as bus ridership increases due to population growth. There may be competition for positions with more regular hours and steady driv ing routes. Competition from other modes of transportation—airplane, train, or automobile—will temper growth in the intercity bus industry. Most growth in intercity bus lines will occur in group charters to locations not served by other modes of transportation. Like auto mobiles, buses have a far greater number of possible travel destina tions than airplanes or trains. Due to greater cost savings and convenience over automobiles, buses usually are the most economi cal option for tour groups heading to out-of-the-way destinations. Full-time busdrivers are rarely laid off during recessions. How ever, employers might reduce hours of part-time local transit and intercity busdrivers if bus ridership decreases, because fewer extra buses would be needed. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many inter city busdrivers with little seniority, for example, are furloughed during the winter when regular schedule and charter business falls off; school busdrivers seldom work during the summer or school holidays. Earnings Median hourly earnings of transit and intercity busdrivers were SI2.36 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.47 and $16.78 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.64, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.03 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of transit and intercity busdrivers in 2000 were as follows: Local government.................................................................................... Intercity and rural bus transportation.................................................. Local and suburban transportation...................................................... School buses.............................................................................................. Bus charter service.................................................................................. $ 14.68 14.60 11.48 10.67 10.27 Median hourly earnings of school busdrivers were $10.05 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.28 and $12.74 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.99, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.48 an hour. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of school busdrivers in 2000 were as follows: Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 573 School buses......................................................................... Elementary and secondary schools.......................................... Local and suburban transportation.......................................... Child daycare services........................................................... Individual and family services................................................ $10.50 9.97 9.49 8.12 7.84 The benefits busdrivers receive from their employers vary greatly. Most intercity and local transit busdrivers receive paid health and life insurance, sick leave, and free bus rides on any of the regular routes of their line or system. Drivers who work full time also get as much as 4 weeks of vacation annually. Most local transit busdrivers are also covered by dental insurance and pension plans. School busdrivers receive sick leave, and many are covered by health and life insurance and pension plans. Because they generally do not work when school is not in session, they do not get vacation leave. In a number of States, local transit and school busdrivers employed by local governments are covered by a statewide public employee pension system. Increasingly, school systems extend ben efits to drivers who supplement their driving by working in the school system during off hours. Most intercity and many local transit busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Local transit busdrivers in New York and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transporta tion Union and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets are ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical tech nicians; taxi drivers and chauffeurs; and truckdrivers and driver/ sales workers. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact local transit systems, intercity bus lines, school systems, or the local offices of the State employment service. General information on busdriving is available from: ► American Bus Association, 1100 New York Ave. NW., Suite 1050, Wash ington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.buses.org General information on school bus driving is available from: >- National School Transportation Association, 625 Slaters Lane, Suite 205, Alexandria, VA 22314. ► School Bus Fleet, 21061 S. Western Ave., Torrance, CA 90501. General information on local transit busdriving is available from: >- American Public Transportation Association, 1666KSt.NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.apta.com General information on motorcoach driving is available from: >• United Motorcoach Association, 113 S. West St., 4th Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314. Telephone (tollfree): 800-424-8262. Taxi Drivers and Chauffeurs (0**NET 53-3041.00) Significant Points • Taxi drivers and chauffeurs can work all schedules, including full-time, part-time, night, evening, and weekend work. • Job opportunities will be good because replacement needs are high—many people work in these jobs for short periods. • FRASER Many taxi drivers and chauffeurs like the independent, Digitized for unsupervised work of driving their automobile. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Anyone who has been in a large city knows the importance of taxi and limousine service. Taxi drivers, also known as cab drivers, help passengers get to and from their homes, workplaces, and rec reational pursuits such as dining, entertainment, and shopping. They also help out-of-town business people and tourists get around in new surroundings. At the start of their driving shift, taxi drivers usually report to a taxicab service or garage where they are assigned a vehicle, most frequently a large, conventional automobile modified for commer cial passenger transport. They record their name, work date, and cab identification number on a trip sheet. Drivers check the cab’s fuel and oil levels, and make sure the lights, brakes, and wind shield wipers are in good working order. Drivers adjust rear and side mirrors and their seat for comfort. Any equipment or part not in good working order is reported to the dispatcher or company mechanic. Taxi drivers pick up passengers in one of three ways: cmising the streets to pick up random passengers; prearranged pickups; and pickups from taxi stands established in highly trafficked areas. In urban areas, the majority of passengers hail or “wave down” driv ers cmising the streets. Customers may also prearrange a pickup by calling a cab company and giving a location, approximate pick up time, and destination. The cab company dispatcher then relays the information to a driver by two-way radio, cellular telephone, or on-board computer. Outside of urban areas, the majority of trips are dispatched in this manner. Drivers also pick up passengers waiting at cabstands or in taxi lines at airports, train stations, ho tels, and other places where people frequently seek taxis. Some drivers transport individuals with special needs, such as those with disabilities and the elderly. These drivers, also known as paratransit drivers, operate specially equipped vehicles designed to accommodate a variety of needs in nonemergency situations. Although special certification is not necessary, some additional train ing on the equipment and passenger needs may be required. Drivers should be familiar with streets in the areas they serve so they can use the most efficient route to destinations. They should know the locations of frequently requested destinations, such as airports, bus and railroad terminals, convention centers, hotels, and other points of interest. In case of emergency, the driver should also know the location of fire and police stations and hospitals. Upon reaching the destination, drivers determine the fare and announce it to the rider. Fares often consist of many parts. In many cabs, a taximeter measures the fare based on the length of the trip and the amount of time the trip took. Drivers turn the taximeter on when passengers enter the cab and turn it off when they reach the final destination. The fare also may include a surcharge for addi tional passengers, a fee for handling luggage, or a drop charge—an additional flat fee added for use of the cab. In some cases, fares are determined by a system of zones through which the taxi passes during a trip. Each jurisdiction determines the rate and structure of the fare system covering licensed taxis. Passengers generally add a tip or gratuity to the fare. The amount of the gratuity depends on the passengers’ satisfaction with the quality and efficiency of the ride and courtesy of the driver. Drivers issue receipts upon request from the passenger. They enter onto the trip sheet all information regarding the trip, including the place and time of pick-up and drop off and the total fee. These logs help check the driver’s activity and efficiency. Drivers also must fill out accident reports when necessary. Chauffeurs operate limousines, vans, and private cars for lim ousine companies, private businesses, government agencies, and wealthy individuals. This service differs from taxi service in that all trips are prearranged. Many chauffeurs transport customers in 574 Occupational Outlook Handbook *■ --r Taxi drivers should be familiar with streets in the areas they serve, so that they can use the most efficient routes to destinations. large vans between hotels and airports, bus, or train terminals. Oth ers drive luxury automobiles, such as limousines, to business events, entertainment venues, and social events. Still others pro vide full-time personal transportation for wealthy families and private companies. At the start of the workday, chauffeurs ready their automobiles or vans for use. They inspect the vehicle for cleanliness and, when needed, vacuum the interior and wash the exterior body, windows, and mirrors. They check fuel and oil levels and make sure the lights, tires, brakes, and windshield wipers work. Chauffeurs may perform routine maintenance and make minor repairs, such as changing tires or adding oil and other fluids when needed. If a vehicle requires more complicated repair, they take it to a profes sional mechanic. Chauffeurs cater to passengers with attentive customer service and a special regard for detail. They help riders into the car by holding open doors, holding umbrellas when raining, and loading packages and luggage into the trunk of the car. They may perform errands for their employers such as delivering packages or picking up clients arriving at airports. Many chauffeurs offer conveniences and luxuries in their limousines to insure a pleasurable ride, such as newspapers, magazines, music, drinks, televisions, and telephones. A growing number of chauffeurs work as full-service executive as sistants, simultaneously acting as driver, secretary, and itineraryplanner. Working Conditions Taxi drivers and chauffeurs occasionally have to load and unload heavy luggage and packages. Driving for long periods can be tiring and uncomfortable, especially in densely populated urban areas. Drivers must be alert to conditions on the road, especially in heavy and congested traffic or in bad weather. They must take precau tions to prevent accidents and avoid sudden stops, turns, and other driving maneuvers that would jar passengers. Taxi drivers also risk robbery because they work alone and often carry large amounts of cash. Work hours of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly. Some jobs offer full-time or part-time employment with work hours that can change from day to day or remain the same every day. It is often necessary for drivers to report to work on short notice. Chauf feurs who work for a single employer may be on call much of the time. Digitized for Evening FRASER and weekend work are common for limousine and taxicab services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The needs of the client or employer dictate the work schedule for chauffeurs. The work of taxi drivers is much less structured. Working free from supervision, they may break for a meal or a rest whenever their vehicle is unoccupied. This occupation is attractive to individuals seeking flexible work schedules, such as college and postgraduate students. Similarly, other service workers such as ambulance drivers and police officers often consider moonlighting as taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Full-time taxi drivers usually work one shift a day, which may last from 8 to 12 hours. Part-time drivers may work half a shift each day, or work a full shift once or twice a week. Drivers may work shifts at all times of the day and night, because most taxi com panies offer services 24 hours a day. Early morning and late night shifts are common. Drivers work long hours during holidays, week ends, and other special events that support heavier demand for their services. Independent drivers, however, often set their own hours and schedules. Design improvements in newer cabs have reduced stress and increased the comfort and efficiency of drivers. Many regulators require standard amenities such as air conditioning and general up keep of the vehicles. Modem taxicabs also are sometimes equipped with sophisticated tracking devices, fare meters, and dispatching equipment. Satellites and tracking systems link many of these stateof-the-art vehicles with company headquarters. In a matter of sec onds, dispatchers can deliver directions, traffic advisories, weather reports, and other important communications to drivers anywhere in the transporting area. The satellite link-up also allows dispatch ers to track vehicle location, fuel consumption, and engine perfor mance. Drivers can easily communicate with dispatchers to discuss delivery schedules and courses of action should there be mechani cal problems. For instance, automated dispatch systems help dis patchers locate the closest driver to a customer in order to maximize efficiency and quality of service. When threatened with crime or violence, drivers may have special “trouble lights” to alert authori ties of emergencies and guarantee that help arrives quickly. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs meet many different types of people. Dealing with rude customers and waiting for passengers requires patience. Many municipalities and taxicab and chauffeur compa nies require taxi drivers to wear clean and neat clothes. Many chauf feurs wear formal attire such as a tuxedo, a coat and tie, a dress, or a uniform and cap. Employment Taxi drivers and chauffeurs held about 176,000 jobs in 2000. Al most one-third worked for local and suburban passenger transpor tation and taxicab companies. Others worked for service oriented companies such as automotive dealers, automotive rental agencies, hotels, healthcare facilities, and social services agencies. About 27 percent were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local governments set license standards and requirements for taxi drivers and chauffeurs that include minimum qualifications for driv ing experience and training. Many taxi and limousine companies set higher standards than required by law. It is common for compa nies to review applicants’ medical, credit, criminal, and driving records. In addition, many companies require a higher minimum age and prefer that drivers be high school graduates. Persons interested in driving a limousine or taxicab must first have a regular automobile driver’s license. They also must acquire a chauffeur or taxi driver’s license, commonly called a “hack” license. Local authorities generally require applicants for a hack license to pass a written exam or complete a training program that Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 575 may include up to 80 hours of classroom instruction. To qualify through either an exam or a training program, applicants must know local geography, motor vehicle laws, safe driving practices, regula tions governing taxicabs, and display some aptitude for customer service. Many training programs include a test on English profi ciency, usually in the form of listening comprehension; applicants who do not pass the English exam must take an English course along with the formal driving program. In addition, some class room instruction includes route management, map reading, and ser vice for passengers with disabilities. Many taxicab or limousine companies sponsor applicants and give them a temporary permit that allows them to drive, although they may not yet have finished the training program or passed the test. However, some jurisdic tions, such as New York City, have discontinued this practice and now require driver applicants to complete the licensing process be fore operating a taxi or limousine. Some taxi and limousine companies give new drivers on-thejob training. They show drivers how to operate the taximeter and communications equipment, and how to complete paperwork. Other topics covered may include driver safety and popular sightseeing and entertainment destinations. Many companies have contracts with social service agencies and transportation services to transport elderly and disabled citizens in non-emergency situations. To sup port these services, new drivers may get special training on how to handle wheelchair lifts and other mechanical devices. Taxi drivers and chauffeurs should be able to get along with many different types of people. They must be patient when waiting for passengers or when dealing with rude customers. It is also help ful for drivers to be tolerant and have even tempers when driving in heavy and congested traffic. Drivers should be dependable because passengers rely on them to be picked up at a prearranged time and taken to the correct destination. To be successful, drivers must be responsible and self-motivated because they work with little super vision. Increasingly, companies encourage drivers to develop their own loyal customer base to improve their businesses. The majority of taxi drivers and chauffeurs are called “lease driv ers.” Lease drivers pay a daily, weekly, or monthly fee to the com pany allowing them to lease their vehicle. In the case of limousines, leasing also allows the driver access to the company’s dispatch sys tem. The fee may also include a charge for vehicle maintenance, insurance, and a deposit on the vehicle. Lease drivers may take their cars home with them when they are not on duty. Opportunities for advancement are limited for taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Experienced drivers may obtain preferred routes or shifts. Some advance to dispatcher or manager jobs; others may start their own limousine company. On the other hand, many drivers like the independent, unsupervised work of driving their automobile. In small and medium-size communities, drivers are sometimes able to buy their taxi, limousine, or other type of automobile and go into business for themselves. These independent owner-drivers require an additional permit allowing them to operate their vehicle as a company. Some big cities limit the number of operating permits. In these cities, drivers become owner-drivers by buying permits from owner-drivers who leave the business. Although many owner-driv ers are successful, some fail to cover expenses and eventually lose their permit and automobile. Good business sense and courses in accounting, business, and business arithmetic can help an ownerdriver become successful. Knowledge of mechanics enables ownerdrivers to perform routine maintenance and minor repairs to cut expenses. Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as taxi drivers and chauffeurs should encounter good opportunities. Many job openings will occur each year as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis drivers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, opportunities for drivers vary greatly in terms of earn ings, work hours, and working conditions, depending on economic and regulatory conditions. Opportunities should be best for per sons with good driving records and the ability to work flexible schedules. Employment of taxi drivers and chauffeurs is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010, as local and suburban travel increases with population growth. Em ployment growth will also stem from Federal legislation requiring increased services for persons with disabilities. Opportunities should be best in rapidly growing metropolitan areas. Job opportunities can fluctuate from season to season and from month to month. Extra drivers may be hired during holiday seasons and peak travel and tourist times. During economic slowdowns, drivers are seldom laid offbut they may have to increase their work ing hours, and earnings may decline somewhat. In economic up turns, job openings are numerous as drivers leave the occupation for other opportunities. Earnings Earnings of taxi drivers and chauffeurs vary greatly, depending on the number of hours worked, customers’ tips, and other factors. Median hourly earnings of salaried taxi drivers and chauffeurs, in cluding tips, were S8.19 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.68 and $10.46 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.86, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.47 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of taxi drivers and chauffeurs in 2000 were as follows: Local and suburban transportation........................................................ Taxicabs........................................................................................................ Automotive rentals, no drivers............................................................... Hotels and motels...................................................................................... Personnel supply services........................................................................ $8.58 8.34 7.93 7.51 6.63 According to limited information available, the majority of selfemployed taxi owner-drivers earned from about $20,000 to $30,000 annually, including tips. However, professional drivers with a regular clientele often earn more. Many chauffeurs who worked full time earned from about $25,000 to $50,000, including tips. Earnings were generally higher in urban areas. Related Occupations Other workers who have similar jobs include ambulance drivers, except emergency medical technicians; busdrivers; and truckdrivers and driver/sales workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensing and registration of taxi drivers and chauf feurs is available from offices of local governments regulating taxi cabs. For information about work opportunities as a taxi driver or chauffeur, contact local taxi or limousine companies or State em ployment service offices. For general information about the work of taxi drivers and the taxi industry, contact: >■ Taxi, Limousine, and Paratransit Association, 3849 Farragut Ave., Kensington, MD 20895. For general information about the work of limousine drivers, contact: >• National Limousine Association, 2365 Harrodsburg Rd., Suite A325, Lexington, KY 40504. Telephone (tollfree): 800-652-7007. 576 Occupational Outlook Handbook Truckdrivers and Driver/Sales Workers (0*NET 53-3031.00, 53-3032.01, 53-3032.02, 53-3033.00) Significant Points • • • Opportunities should be good, because this occupation has among the greatest number of job openings each year. Competition is expected for jobs offering the highest earnings or most favorable work schedules. A commercial driver’s license is required to operate most larger trucks. Nature of the Work Truckdrivers are a constant presence on the Nation’s highways and interstates, delivering everything from automobiles to canned foods. Firms of all kinds rely on trucks for pickup and delivery of goods because no other form of transportation can deliver goods from doorstep to doorstep. Even if goods travel in part by ship, train, or airplane, trucks carry nearly all goods at some point in their journey from producer to consumer. Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, truckdrivers check the fuel level and oil in their trucks. They also inspect the trucks to make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and that a fire extinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard and in working order. Drivers make sure their cargo is se cure and adjust their mirrors so that both sides of the truck are vis ible from the driver’s seat. Drivers report equipment that is inoperable, missing, or loaded improperly to the dispatcher. Once under way, drivers must be alert to prevent accidents. Driv ers can see farther down the road, because large tractor-trailers sit higher than cars, pickups, and vans. This allows drivers to seek traffic lanes that allow for a steady speed, while keeping sight of varying road conditions. The length of deliveries varies according to the type of mer chandise and its final destination. Local drivers may provide daily service for a specific route, while other drivers make intercity and interstate deliveries that take longer and may vary from job to job. The driver’s responsibilities and assignments change according to the time spent on the road, the type of payloads transported, and vehicle size. Heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers drive trucks or vans with a capacity of at least 26,000 Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW). They transport goods including cars, livestock, and other materials in liquid, loose, or packaged form. Many routes are from city to city and cover long distances. Some companies use two drivers on very long runs—one drives while the other sleeps in a berth be hind the cab. “Sleeper” runs may last for days, or even weeks, usually with the truck stopping only for fuel, food, loading, and unloading. Some heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Other drivers perform unscheduled runs because shippers request varying service to different cities every day. Dispatchers tell these drivers when to report for work and where to haul the freight. Increasingly, tracking companies use automated routing equipment to track goods during shipment. After these truckdrivers reach their destination or complete their operating shift, the U.S. Department of Transportation requires that Digitized forcomplete FRASER reports detailing the trip, the condition of the truck, they https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and the circumstances of any accidents. In addition, Federal regu lations require employers to subject drivers to random alcohol and drug tests while they are on duty. Long-distance heavy track and tractor-trailer drivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel, but may load or unload their cargo after arriving at the final destination. This is especially common when drivers haul specialty cargo, because they may be the only one at the destination familiar with procedures or certified to handle the materials. Auto-transport drivers, for example, drive and position cars on the trailers and head ramps at the manufactur ing plant and remove them at the dealerships. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of long-distance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload. Light or delivery services truckdrivers drive trucks or vans with a capacity under 26,000 GVW. They deliver or pick up merchan dise and packages within a specific area. This may include short “turnarounds” to deliver a shipment to a nearby city, pick up an other loaded truck or van, and drive it back to their home base the same day. These services may require use of delivery tracking or location software to track the whereabouts of the merchandise or packages. Light or delivery services truckdrivers usually load or unload the merchandise at the customer’s place of business. They may have helpers if there are many deliveries to make during the day, or if the load requires heavy moving. Typically, before the driver arrives for work, material handlers load the trucks and ar range items in order of delivery to minimize handling of the mer chandise. Customers must sign receipts for goods and pay drivers the balance due on the merchandise if there is a cash-on-delivery arrangement. At the end of the day, drivers turn in receipts, money, records of deliveries made, and any reports on mechanical prob lems with their tracks. Some local truckdrivers have sales and customer service respon sibilities. The primary responsibility of driver/sales workers, or route drivers, is to deliver and sell their firm’s products over estab lished routes or within an established territory. They sell goods such as food products, including restaurant takeout items, or pick up and deliver items such as laundry. Their response to customer complaints and requests can make the difference between a large order and a lost customer. Route drivers may also take orders and collect payments. The duties of driver/sales workers vary according to their indus try, the policies of their particular company, and the emphasis placed on their sales responsibility. Most have wholesale routes that de liver to businesses and stores, rather than to homes. For example, wholesale bakery driver/sales workers deliver and arrange bread, m ■ ■ . :■?; I 23684 Untied Parcel Sei Firms of all kinds rely on trucks for pickup and delivery ofgoods. Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 577 cakes, rolls, and other baked goods on display racks in grocery stores. They estimate the amount and variety of baked goods to stock by paying close attention to the items that sell well and to those left sitting on the shelves. They may recommend changes in a store’s order or encourage the manager to stock new bakery products. Driver/sales workers employed by laundries that rent linens, tow els, work clothes, and other items visit businesses regularly to re place soiled laundry. From time to time, they solicit new orders from businesses along their route. After completing their route, driver/sales workers order items for the next delivery based on product sales trends, weather, and customer requests. Working Conditions Truckdriving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and improved, ergonomically designed cabs. Although these changes make the work environment more attractive, driving for many hours at a stretch, unloading cargo, and making many deliveries can be tiring. Local truckdrivers, unlike long-distance drivers, usually re turn home in the evening. Some self-employed long-distance truckdrivers who own and operate their trucks spend most of the year away from home. Design improvements in newer trucks reduce stress and increase the efficiency of long-distance drivers. Many of the newer trucks are virtual miniapartments on wheels, equipped with refrigerators, televisions, and bunks. Satellites and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) link many of these state-of-the-art vehicles with company headquarters. Troubleshooting information, directions, weather reports, and other important communications can be delivered to the truck anywhere in the country within seconds. Drivers can eas ily communicate with the dispatcher to discuss delivery schedules and courses of action in the event of mechanical problems. The satellite linkup also allows the dispatcher to track the truck’s loca tion, fuel consumption, and engine performance. Many drivers must also work with computerized inventory track ing equipment. It is important for the producer, warehouse, and customer to know the product’s location at all times, in order to keep costs low and the quality of service high. For example, voice recognition software has replaced bar code readers in some freezer and refrigerator trucks, reducing error rates and improving function in cold conditions. Drivers must be able to adapt to an increasingly technology-driven workplace. The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and other working conditions of truckdrivers engaged in interstate com merce. A long-distance driver cannot work more than 60 hours in any 7-day period. Federal regulations also require that truckers rest 8 hours for every 10 hours of driving. Many drivers, particularly on long runs, work close to the maximum time permitted because they typically are compensated according to the number of miles or hours they drive. Drivers on long runs may face boredom, loneliness, and fatigue. Drivers frequently travel at night, on holidays, and week ends to avoid traffic delays and deliver cargo on time. Local truckdrivers frequently work 50 or more hours a week. Drivers who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries typically work long hours, starting late at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have regular routes, some have different routes each day. Many local truckdrivers, particu larly driver/sales workers, load and unload their own trucks. This requires considerable lifting, carrying, and walking each day. Employment Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers held about 3.3 million jobs in 2000. Most truckdrivers find employment in large metropolitan https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis areas along major interstate roadways where major trucking, retail, and wholesale companies have distribution outlets. Some drivers work in rural areas, providing specialized services such as deliver ing newspapers to customers or coal to a railroad. Trucking companies employed about 28 percent of all truckdrivers in the United States. Almost 32 percent worked for companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade, such as auto parts stores, oil companies, lumber yards, restaurants, or distributors of food and grocery products. The remaining truckdrivers were dis tributed across many industries, including construction, manufac turing, and services. Fewer than 1 out of 10 truckdrivers were self-employed. Of these, a significant number were owner-operators who either served a variety of businesses independently or leased their services and trucks to a trucking company. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State and Federal regulations govern the qualifications and stan dards for truckdrivers. All drivers must comply with Federal regu lations and any State regulations that are stricter than Federal requirements. Truckdrivers must have a driver’s license issued by the State in which they live, and most employers require a clean driving record. Drivers of trucks designed to carry at least 26,000 pounds—including most tractor-trailers, as well as bigger straight trucks—must obtain a commercial driver’s license (CDL) from the State in which they live. All truckdrivers who operate trucks trans porting hazardous materials must obtain a CDL, regardless of truck size. Federal regulations governing the CDL exempt certain groups, including farmers, emergency medical technicians, firefighters, some military drivers, and snow and ice removers. In many States, a regular driver’s license is sufficient for driving light trucks and vans. To qualify for a commercial driver’s license, applicants must pass a written test on rules and regulations, and then demonstrate that they can operate a commercial truck safely. A national databank permanently records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses. A State will check these records and deny a commercial driver’s license to a driver who already has a license suspended or revoked in another State. Licensed drivers must accompany trainees until the trainees get their own CDL. In formation on how to apply for a commercial driver’s license may be obtained from State motor vehicle administrations. While many States allow those who are at least 18 years old to drive trucks within State borders, the U.S. Department ofTransportation establishes minimum qualifications for truckdrivers engaged in interstate commerce. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations require drivers to be at least 21 years old and to pass a physical examination once every 2 years. The main physical requirements include good hearing, at least 20/40 vision with glasses or correc tive lenses, and a 70-degree field of vision in each eye. Drivers can not be colorblind. Drivers must be able to hear a forced whisper in one ear at not less than 5 feet, with a hearing aide if needed. Driv ers must have normal use of arms and legs and normal blood pres sure. Drivers can not use any controlled substances, unless prescribed by a licensed physician. Persons with epilepsy or diabe tes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate truckdrivers. Federal regulations also require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment, and require periodic random tests of the drivers while they are on duty. In addition, a driver must not have been convicted of a felony in volving the use of a motor vehicle; a crime using drugs; driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol; or hit-and-run driving that resulted in injury or death. All drivers must be able to read and speak English well enough to read road signs, prepare reports, and communicate with law enforcement officers and the public. Also, 578 Occupational Outlook Handbook drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many trucking operations have higher standards than those described. Many firms require that drivers be at least 22 years old, be able to lift heavy objects, and have driven trucks for 3 to 5 years. Many prefer to hire high school graduates and require annual physi cal examinations. Companies have an economic incentive to hire less-risky drivers because good drivers can increase fuel economy with their driving skills and decrease liability costs for the company. Taking driver-training courses is a desirable method of prepar ing for truckdriving jobs and for obtaining a commercial driver’s license. High school courses in driver-training and automotive mechanics also may be helpful. Many private and public voca tional-technical schools offer tractor-trailer driver training programs. Students leam to maneuver large vehicles on crowded streets and in highway traffic. They also learn to inspect trucks and freight for compliance with Federal, State, and local regulations. Some pro grams provide only a limited amount of actual driving experience, and completion of a program does not guarantee a job. Persons interested in attending a driving school should check with local truck ing companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable. Some States require prospective drivers to complete a training course in basic truckdriving before being issued their CDL. In Maine, for example, prospective applicants must complete an 8week course at a school certified by the Professional Truck Drivers Institute (PTDI). PTDI-certified schools provide training that meets Federal Highway Administration guidelines for training tractortrailer drivers. Drivers must get along well with people because they often deal directly with customers. Employers seek driver/sales workers who speak well and have self-confidence, initiative, tact, and a neat ap pearance. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated in dividuals able to work with little supervision. Training given to new drivers by employers is usually informal, and may consist of only a few hours of instruction from an experi enced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. New drivers may also ride with and observe experienced drivers before assignment of their own runs. Drivers receive additional training to drive special types of trucks or handle hazardous materials. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction covering gen eral duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver/ sales workers also receive training on the various types of products they carry, so that they will be effective sales workers. Very few people enter truckdriving professions directly out of school; most truckdrivers previously held jobs in other occupations. Driving experience in the Armed Forces can be an asset. In some cases, a person may also start as a truckdriver’s helper, driving part of the day and helping to load and unload freight. Senior helpers receive promotion when driving vacancies occur. Although most new truckdrivers are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, substituting for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. New drivers sometimes start on panel trucks or other small straight trucks. As they gain experience and show competent driv ing skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and fi nally to tractor-trailers. Advancement of truckdrivers generally is limited to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. For the most part, a local truckdriver may advance to driving heavy or special types of tmcks, or transfer to long-distance truckdriving. Working for companies that also employ long-dis tance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. A few https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis truckdrivers may advance to dispatcher, manager, or traffic work— for example, planning delivery schedules. Some long-distance truckdrivers purchase a truck and go into business for themselves. Although many of these owner-operators are successful, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truckdriving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business mathematics are helpful, and knowledge of truck mechan ics can enable owner-operators to perform their own routine main tenance and minor repairs. Job Outlook Opportunities should be favorable for persons interested in truckdriving. This occupation has among the largest number ofjob openings each year. Although growth in demand for truckdrivers will create thousands of openings, many openings also will occur as experienced drivers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, weekly work hours, number of nights spent on the road, and quality of equipment operated. Competition is expected for jobs with the most attractive earnings and working conditions, be cause truckdriving does not require education beyond high school. Employment of truckdrivers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, as the economy grows and the amount of freight carried by truck increases. The increased use of rail, air, and ship transportation requires truckdrivers to pick up and deliver shipments. Growth in the num ber of long-distance drivers will remain strong because these driv ers transport perishable and time-sensitive goods more efficiently than do alternative modes of transportation, such as railroads. Average growth of light and heavy truck driver employment will outweigh slow growth in driver/sales worker jobs. The number of truckdrivers with sales responsibilities is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all other occupations because compa nies are increasingly shifting sales, ordering, and customer service tasks to sales and office staffs, and using regular truckdrivers to make deliveries to customers. Job opportunities may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy dictates the amount of freight moved by trucks. Companies tend to hire more drivers when the economy is strong and deliveries are in high demand. Consequently, when the economy slows, employers hire fewer drivers, or even lay off drivers. Inde pendent owner-operators are particularly vulnerable to slowdowns. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluctuation tend to be the most stable places for employment. Earnings Median hourly earnings of heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers were $15.25 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.97 and $19.12 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.58, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.50 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers in 2000 were as follows: Trucking and courier services, except air......................................... Personnel supply services..................................................................... Groceries and related products........................................................... Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... Concrete, gypsum, and plaster products........................................... $16.35 15.93 15.39 13.50 13.22 Median hourly earnings of light or delivery services truckdrivers were $10.74 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.19 and $14.48 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.57, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.25 an hour. Median Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 579 hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of light or delivery services truckdrivers in 2000 were as follows: Air transportation, scheduled.................... Trucking and courier services, except air Groceries and related products................. Motor vehicles, parts, and supplies......... Eating and drinking places........................ $16.61 12.60 11.34 8.19 6.56 Median hourly earnings of driver/sales workers, including com mission, were $9.79 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $6.70 and $ 14.28 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.88, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.77 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the larg est numbers of driver/sales workers in 2000 were as follows: Beer, wine, and distilled beverages........ Laundry, cleaning, and garment services Groceries and related products................ Nonstore retailers....................................... Eating and drinking places....................... $14.49 13.79 12.27 11.05 6.41 associated with operating their trucks, they commonly have earn ings of $20,000 to $25,000 a year. Many truckdrivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Some truckdrivers employed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions representing the plant workers of the companies for which they work. Related Occupations Other driving occupations include ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians; busdrivers; and taxi drivers and chauffeurs. Sources of Additional Information Information on truckdriver employment opportunities is available from local trucking companies and local offices of the State em ployment service. Information on career opportunities in truckdriving may be obtained from: ► American Trucking Associations, Inc., 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA As a general rule, local truckdrivers receive an hourly wage and extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Employers pay long-distance drivers primarily by the mile. Their rate per mile can vary greatly from employer to employer and may even depend on the type of cargo. Typically, earnings increase with mileage driven, seniority, and the size and type of truck driven. Most driver/ sales workers receive a commission based on their sales in addition to an hourly wage. Most self-employed truckdrivers are primarily engaged in long distance hauling. After deducting their living expenses and the costs 22314. Internet: http://www.truckline.com >■ American Trucking Association Foundation, 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. The Professional Truck Driver Institute, a nonprofit organiza tion established by the trucking industry, manufacturers, and oth ers, certifies truckdriver training courses meeting industry standards. A free list of certified tractor-trailer driver training courses may be obtained from: > Professional Track Driver Institute, 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA22314. Internet: http://www.ptdi.org Rail Transportation Occupations (0**NET 53-4011.00, 53-4012.00, 53-4013.00, 53-4021.01, 53-4021.02, 53-4031.00, 53-4041.00, 53-4099.99) • • • Significant Points Overall employment in the railroad transportation industry is expected to decline due to productivity gains. Employment of locomotive engineers is projected to grow slowly, but all other rail transportation occupations are projected to decline. Nearly 8 out of 10 rail transportation workers are members of unions and many have relatively high earnings. Nature of the Work More than a century ago, freight and passenger railroads were the ties binding the Nation together and the engine driving the economy. Today, rail transportation remains a vital link in our Nation’s trans portation network and economy. Railroads deliver billions of tons of freight and thousands of travelers to destinations throughout the Nation, while subways and streetcars transport millions of passen gers within metropolitan areas. Locomotive engineers are among the most experienced and skilled workers on the railroad. Locomotive engineers operate large trains carrying cargo and passengers between stations. Most engineers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mn diesel locomotives, while a few operate electrically powered locomotives. Before and after each run, engineers check the mechanical con dition of their locomotive, and make minor adjustments on the spot. Engineers receive starting instructions from conductors and move controls such as throttles and air brakes to drive the locomotive. They monitor gauges and meters that measure speed, amperage, battery charge, and air pressure both in the brakelines and in the main reservoir. On the open rail and in the yard, engineers confer with conduc tors and traffic control center personnel via two-way radio or mo bile telephone to issue or receive information concerning stops, delays, and train locations. They interpret and comply with train orders, train signals, speed limits, and railroad rules and regula tions. They must have a thorough knowledge of the signaling sys tems, yards, and terminals on routes over which they operate. Engineers must be constantly aware of the condition and makeup of their train. This is extremely important because trains react dif ferently to acceleration, braking, and curves, depending on the grade and condition of the rail, number of cars, ratio of empty to loaded cars, and amount of slack in the train. Locomotive firers, or assistant engineers, monitor instruments during runs and watch for dragging equipment, track obstructions, and train signals. In rail yards, they watch for and relay traffic sig nals from yard workers to yard engineers. Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers drive switching or small “dinkey” engines within railroad yards, industrial plants, mines and quarries, or construction projects. 580 Occupational Outlook Handbook Railroad conductors coordinate the activities of freight and pas senger train crews. Railroad conductors assigned to freight trains review schedules, switching orders, way bills, and shipping records to obtain cargo loading and unloading information. Conductors assigned to passenger trains ensure passenger safety and comfort. They collect tickets and fares, and coordinate crew activities to pro vide boarding, porter, maid, and meal services. Before a train leaves the terminal, the conductor and engineer discuss instructions received from the dispatcher concerning the train’s route, timetable, and cargo. During the run, conductors use two-way radios and mobile telephones to communicate with dis patchers, engineers, and conductors of other trains. Conductors receive information from dispatch or electronic monitoring devices that relay any equipment problems on the train or the rail. They may arrange for the removal of defective cars from the train for repairs at the nearest station or stop. Additionally, conductors may discuss alternative routes if there is a defect or obstruction on the rail. Yardmasters coordinate activities of workers engaged in railroad traffic operations. These activities include the makeup or breakup of trains and switching inbound or outbound traffic to a specific section of the line. Some cars are sent to unload their cargo on special tracks, while other cars are moved to other tracks to await assemblage into new trains destined for different cities. Yardmas ters inform engineers where to move the cars to fit the planned train configuration. Computerized switches divert the locomotive or cars to the proper track for coupling and uncoupling. Other railroad brake, signal, and switch operators perform a variety of activities such as operating track switches to route cars to different sections of the yard. They may signal engineers and set warning signals, help couple and uncouple rolling stock to make up or break up trains, or inspect couplings, air-hoses, and hand brakes. Traditionally, freight train crews included either one or two brake operators—one in the locomotive with the engineer and the firer and another who rode with the conductor in the rear car. Brake operators worked under the direction of conductors and did the physi cal work involved in adding and removing cars at railroad stations and assembling and disassembling trains in railroad yards. In an effort to reduce costs and take advantage of new technology, most railroads have phased out locomotive firers and brake operators. Many modem freight trains only use an engineer and a conductor, stationed with the engineer, because new visual instrumentation and monitoring devices have eliminated the need for crewmembers loca ted at the rear of the train. In contrast to other rail transportation workers, subway and street car operators generally work for public transit authorities instead of railroads. Subway operators control trains that transport passen gers throughout a city and its suburbs. The trains run on rail-guided tracks in underground tunnels, on the surface, or on elevated plat forms above streets. Operators must stay alert to observe signals along the track that indicate when they must start, slow, or stop their train. They also make announcements to riders, may open and close the doors, and ensure that passengers get on and off the sub way safely. To meet predetermined schedules, operators must control the train’s speed and the amount of time spent at each station. Increas ingly, however, these functions are controlled by computers and not by the operator. When breakdowns or emergencies occur, opera tors contact their dispatcher or supervisor and may have to evacuate cars. Streetcar operators drive electric-powered streetcars or trolleys that transport passengers in metropolitan areas. Some tracks may be recessed in city streets or have grade crossings, so operators must observe traffic signals and cope with car and truck traffic. Opera Digitized FRASER torsfor start, slow, and stop their cars so passengers may get on or off https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Control centerpersonnel communicate with other rail transportation workers via two-way radio or mobile telephone. with ease. They may collect fares, and issue change and transfers. They also answer questions from passengers concerning fares, sched ules, and routes. Working Conditions Many rail transportation employees work nights, weekends, and holidays because trains operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Nearly 40 percent work more than a 40-hour workweek. Seniority usually dictates who receives the more desirable shifts. Most freight trains are unscheduled, and few workers on these trains have scheduled assignments. Instead, workers place their names on a list and wait their turn to work. Jobs are usually handed out on short notice and often at odd hours. Those who work on trains operating between stations that are hundreds of miles apart may spend several nights at a time away from home. Workers on passenger trains ordinarily have more regular and reliable shifts. The appearance, temperature, and accommodations of the passenger trains are also more comfortable than freight trains. Rail yard workers spend most of their time outdoors in varying weather. The work of conductors and engineers on local runs, where trains frequently stop at stations to pick up and deliver cars, is physi cally demanding. Climbing up and down and getting off moving cars is strenuous and can be dangerous. Employment Rail transportation workers held 115,000 jobs in 2000—including 37,000 locomotive engineers and firers; 3,800 rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers; 45,000 railroad conductors and yardmasters; and 22,000 railroad brake, signal, and switch operators. Railroads employ more than 92 percent of all rail transportation workers. The rest primarily work for local governments as subway and streetcar operators, and for mining and manufacturing estab lishments operating their own locomotives and dinkey engines that move rail cars containing ore, coal, and other bulk materials. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most railroad transportation workers begin as yard laborers, and later may have the opportunity to train for engineer or conductor jobs. Railroads require that applicants have a minimum of a high school diploma or equivalent. Applicants must have good hearing, eye sight, and color vision, as well as good hand-eye coordination, manual dexterity, and mechanical aptitude. Physical stamina is required for these entry-level jobs. Employers require railroad transportation Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 581 job applicants to pass a physical examination and drug and alcohol screening. Under Federal law, all train crewmembers are subject to random drug and alcohol testing while on duty. Applicants for locomotive engineer jobs must be at least 21 years old. Frequently, employers fill engineer positions with workers who have experience in other railroad operating occupations. Federal regulations require beginning engineers to complete a formal engi neer training program, including classroom, simulator, and handson instruction in locomotive operation. The instruction is usually administered by the rail company in programs approved by the Fed eral Railroad Administration. At the end of the training period, they must pass a hearing and visual acuity test, a safety conduct background check, a railroad operation knowledge test, and a skills performance test. The company issues the engineer a license after the applicant successfully passes the examinations. Other condi tions and rules may apply to entry-level engineers, and these rules usually vary by employer. To maintain certification, railroad companies must monitor their engineers. Additionally, engineers must periodically pass an op erational rules efficiency test. The test is an unannounced event requiring engineers to take active or responsive action in certain situations such as maintaining a certain speed through a turn or yard. Engineers undergo periodic physical examinations and drug and alcohol testing to determine their fitness to operate locomotives. In some cases, engineers who fail to meet these physical and conduct standards are restricted to yard service; in other instances, they may be disciplined, trained to perform other work, or discharged. Conductor jobs are generally filled from the ranks of experi enced rail transportation workers who have passed tests covering signals, timetables, operating rules, and related subjects. Seniority usually is the main factor in determining promotion to conductor. On some railroads, conductors start in the yards, then move to freight or passenger service. Newly trained engineers and conductors are placed on the “ex tra board” until permanent positions become available. Extra board workers only receive assignments when the railroad needs substi tutes for regular workers who are absent because of vacation, ill ness, or other personal reasons. Seniority rules may also allow workers with greater seniority to select their type of assignment. For example, an engineer may move from an initial regular assign ment in yard service to road service. For subway and streetcar operator jobs, subway transit systems prefer applicants with a high school education. Applicants also must be in good health, have good communication skills, and be able to make quick, responsible judgments. New operators generally complete training programs that last from a few weeks to 6 months. At the end of the period of class room and on-the-job training, operators usually must pass qualify ing examinations covering the operating system, troubleshooting, and evacuation and emergency procedures. Some operators with sufficient seniority can advance to station managers or other super visory positions. Job Outlook Competition for available opportunities is expected to be keen. Many persons qualify for rail transportation occupations because educa tion beyond high school is generally not required. Many more de sire employment than can be hired because the pay is good and the work steady. Employment for a majority of railroad transportation occupa tions is expected to decline through the year 2010, with only loco motive engineers expected to grow. The need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or retire will be the main source https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of job openings. Employment in most rail occupations, other than locomotive engineers, will continue to decline due to consolidation of railroads and job duties. To remain competitive with other modes of transportation, railroads will strive to control labor costs. Demand for railroad freight service will grow as the economy and the intermodal transportation of goods expand. Intermodal sys tems use trucks to pick-up and deliver the shippers’ sealed trailers or containers, and trains to transport them long distance. This saves customers time and money by efficiently carrying goods across the country. For railroads, the benefit has been the increased efficiency of equipment use, allowing increases in the number of runs each train makes in a year. In order to compete with other modes of transportation such as trucks, ships, and aircraft, railroads are im proving delivery times and on-time service while reducing ship ping rates. As a result, businesses are expected to increasingly use railroads to carry their goods. However, growth in the number of railroad transportation work ers will be adversely affected by innovations such as larger, faster, more fuel-efficient trains and computerized classification yards that make it possible to move freight more economically. Computers help keep track of freight cars, match empty cars with the closest loads, and dispatch trains. Computer-assisted devices alert engi neers to train malfunctions and new work rules have become wide spread allowing trains to operate with two- or three-person crews instead of the traditional five-person crews. Earnings Median hourly earnings of locomotive engineers were $21.26 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.77 and $25.30 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.84, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.67 an hour. Median hourly earnings of railroad conductors and yardmasters were $ 18.86 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 15.47 and $22.08 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.92, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31.03 an hour. Median hourly earnings of railroad brake, signal, and switch operators were $18.82 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $14.60 and $25.26 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.87, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31.83 an hour. Median hourly earnings of rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers were $17.69 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.43 and $20.38 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.70, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.66 an hour. Most railroad workers in road service are paid according to miles traveled or hours worked; whichever leads to higher earnings. Full time employees have steadier work, more regular hours, increased opportunities for overtime work, and higher earnings than do those assigned to the extra board. According to the National Railroad Labor Conference (NRLC) in 1999, the average annual earnings for Class I railroad engineers ranged from $61,400 for yard-freight engineers, to $81,000 for pas senger engineers. For conductors, earnings ranged from $53,500 for yard-freight conductors, up to $68,300 for passenger conduc tors. The NRLC reported that brake operators averaged from $40,800 for yard-freight operators, up to $58,700 for local-freight operators. According to data from the American Public Transportation Association, in early 2001 the top-rate full-time hourly earnings of operators for commuter rail ranged from $17.50 to $30.10; opera tors for heavy rail from $16.20 to $27.70; and operators for light rail from $14.40 to $23.90. Transit workers in the northeastern United States typically had the highest wages. 582 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nearly 80 percent of railroad transportation workers are mem bers of unions. Many different railroad unions represent various crafts on the railroads. Most railroad engineers are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, while most other railroad transportation workers are members of the United Transportation Union. Many subway operators are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union, while others belong to the Transport Workers Union of North America. Related Occupations Other related transportation workers include aircraft pilots and flight engineers, busdrivers, truckdrivers and driver/sales workers, and water transportation occupations. Sources of Additional Information To obtain information on employment opportunities, contact the employment offices of the various railroads and rail transit systems, or State employment service offices. For general information about the rail transportation industry, contact: >■ Association of American Railroads, 50 F St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.aar.org. >- Federal Railroad Administration, 400 7th St. SW., Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://www.fra.dot.gov For general information about career opportunities in passenger transportation, contact: ► American Public Transportation Association, 1666 K St. NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.apta.com General information on rail transportation occupations and ca reer opportunities as a locomotive engineer is available from: >■ Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 1370 Ontario Ave., Cleveland, OH 44113-1702. Internet: http://www.ble.org Water Transportation Occupations (0**NET 53-5011.01, 53-5011.02, 53-5021.01, 53-5021.02, 53-5021.03, 53-5022.00, 53-5031.00) • Significant Points Many jobs in water transportation occupations require a merchant mariner’s document or a license from the U.S. Coast Guard. • Merchant mariners on ocean-going ships are hired for periods ranging from a single voyage to several continuous voyages and may be away from home continuously for months. • Jobs aboard ocean-going vessels have high pay but competition for them remains keen, and merchant mariners might have to wait months between work opportunities. Nature of the Work Movement of huge amounts of cargo, as well as passengers, be tween nations and within our nation depends on workers in water transportation occupations. They operate and maintain deep-sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion ves sels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great Lakes, rivers and canals, other waterways, and in harbors. (Workers who operate watercraft used in commercial fishing are described in the section on fishers and fishing vessel operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Captain, mates, and pilots of water vessels command or super vise the operations of ships and water vessels, both within domes tic waterways and on the deep sea. Captains or masters are in overall command of the operation of a vessel, and they supervise the work of any other officers and crew. They determine the course and speed, maneuver to avoid hazards, and continuously monitor the vessel’s position using charts and navigational aides. Captains either direct or oversee crew members who steer the vessel, determine its loca tion, operate engines, communicate to other vessels, perform main tenance, handle lines, or operate vessel equipment. Captains and their department heads ensure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, check that machinery and equipment are in Digitized for working FRASER order, and oversee the loading and discharging of good https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cargo or passengers. They also maintain logs and other records tracking the ships’ movements, efforts at controlling pollution, and cargo/passenger carrying records. Deck officers or mates perform the work for captains on vessels when they are on watch. Mates also supervise and coordinate ac tivities of the crew aboard the ship. They inspect the cargo holds during loading to ensure the load is stowed according to specifica tions and regulations. Mates supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the primary up-keep of the vessel. All mates stand watch for specified periods, usually 4 hours on and 8 hours off. However, on smaller vessels, there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some inland towing vessels) who alternates watches with the captain. The mate would assume command of the ship if the captain became incapacitated. When more than one mate is neces sary aboard a ship, they typically are designated Chief Mate or First Mate, Second Mate, and Third Mate. Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where a familiarity with local water depths, winds, tides, currents, and hazards such as reefs and shoals are of prime importance. Pilots on river and canal vessels are usually regular crew members, like mates. Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors, who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port. They may pilot many ships in a single day. Motorboat operators operate small, motor-driven boats to carry passengers and freight. They also take depth soundings in turning basins, and serve as liaisons between ships, between ship and shore, harbor and beach, or area patrol. Ship engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers: A chief engineer, and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. Assistant engi neers stand periodic watches, overseeing the safe operation of en gines and machinery. Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the proper running order of their vessels in the engine spaces below decks under the direc tion of the ship’s engineering officers. They lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors; read pres sure and temperature gauges and record data; and may assist with repairs and adjust machinery. Sailors operate the vessel and its deck equipment under the di rection of the ship’s officers, and keep the nonengineering areas in Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 583 good condition. They stand watch, looking out for other vessels and obstructions in the ship’s path and navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats, anchors, and cargo-handling gear. On vessels handling liquid cargo, sailors hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks, while on tugboats or tow vessels, they tie barges to gether into tow units, inspect them periodically, and disconnect them when the destination is reached. When docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform routine maintenance chores such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks or other areas. Experienced sailors are designated able sea men on ocean-going vessels, but may just be called deckhands on inland waters; larger vessels usually have a boatswain, or head seaman. A typical deep-sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck officers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, a radio operator, plus six or more nonofficers, such as deck seamen, oilers and QMEDs, and cooks or foodhandlers. The size and ser vice of the ship determine the number of crew for a particular voy age. Small vessels operating in harbors, rivers, or along the coast may have a crew comprised only of a captain and one deckhand. The cooking responsibilities usually fall under the deckhands’ duties. On larger coastal ships, the crew may include a captain, a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Non-licensed po sitions on a large ship may include a full-time cook, an electrician, Seamen handle lines when docking in or departing from port. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and machinery mechanics. On cruise ships, which also may be con sidered coastal ships, bedroom stewards keep passengers’ quarters clean and comfortable. Working Conditions Merchant mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several months, although there is no job security after that voyage. Many are unemployed for weeks or months before they have another oppor tunity to join another ship’s crew. The rate of unionization for these workers is almost 75 percent, much higher than the average for all occupations. Consequently, merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by ship ping companies. Hiring halls prioritize the candidates by the length of time the person has been out of work, and fill open slots accord ingly. Hiring halls are typically found in major seaports. At sea, these workers usually stand watch for 4 hours and are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week. Those employed on Great Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off, but do not work in the winter when the lakes are frozen. Workers on rivers, canals, and in har bors are more likely to have year-round work. Some work 8- or 12hour shifts and go home every day. Others work steadily for a week or month and then have an extended period off. When working, they are usually on duty for 6 or 12 hours and are off for 6 or 12 hours. Those on smaller vessels are normally assigned to one ves sel and have steady employment. People in water transportation occupations work in all weather conditions. Although merchant mariners try to avoid severe storms while at sea, working in damp and cold conditions is often inevi table. While it is uncommon nowadays for vessels to suffer sea disasters such as fire, explosion, or a sinking, workers face the possibility that they may have to abandon their craft on short no tice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. They also risk injury or death from falling overboard, and hazards associ ated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. Most newer vessels are air-conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and equipped with comfortable living quarters. Never theless, some mariners dislike the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship, and consequently leave the industry. Employment Water transportation workers held about 70,000 jobs in 2000. The total number who worked at some point in the year was somewhat higher because many merchant marine officers and seamen worked only part of the year. The following tabulation shows employment in the occupations that make up this group: Sailors and marine oilers....................... Ship and boat captains and operators.. Ship engineers.......................................... All other water transportation workers 32.000 25.000 8,600 4,900 More than 75 percent of these workers were employed in water transportation services. Of these, about 39 percent worked in es tablishments related to marine cargo handling, towing and tugboat services, marinas, or boat cleaning and marine salvaging. About 25 percent worked in the transportation of freight on the oceans or the Great Lakes, while about 13 percent were employed in the water transportation of passengers on the deep seas, ferries, or sightseeing boats. The Federal government employed approximately 10 per cent of all water transportation workers. 584 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training and Other Qualifications Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water trans portation occupations are established and regulated by the U.S. Coast Guard, an agency of the U.S. Department of Transportation. All officers and operators of watercraft must be licensed by the Coast Guard, which offers various kinds of licenses, depending on the position and type of craft. There are two ways to qualify for a deck or engineering officer’s license: Applicants either must accumulate sea time and meet regu latory requirements, or must graduate from the U.S. Merchant Ma rine Academy or one of the six State maritime academies. In both cases, applicants must pass a written examination. Federal regula tions also require that an applicant pass a physical examination, a drug screening, and a National Driver Register Check before being considered. Persons without formal training can be licensed if they pass the written exam and possess sea service appropriate to the license for which they are applying. However, it is difficult to pass the examination without substantial formal schooling or indepen dent study. Also, because seamen may work 6 months a year or less, it can take 5 to 8 years to accumulate the necessary experience. The academies offer a 4-year academic program leading to a bach elor of science degree, a license as a third mate (deck officer) or third assistant engineer (engineering officer) issued by the Coast Guard, and, if the person is qualified, a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve, Merchant Marine Reserve, or the Coast Guard Reserve. With experience and additional training, third officers may qualify for higher rank. Sailors and unlicensed engineers working on U.S. flagged deepsea and Great Lakes vessels must hold a Coast Guard-issued docu ment. Additionally, they must hold certification when working aboard liquid-carrying vessels. Able seamen also must hold gov ernment-issued certification. For employment in the merchant ma rine as an unlicensed seaman, a merchant mariner’s document issued by the Coast Guard is needed. Most of the jobs must be filled by U.S. citizens. However, a small percentage of applicants for mer chant mariner documents do not need to be U.S. citizens, but must at least be aliens legally admitted into the United States and hold ing a green card. A medical certificate of excellent health attesting to vision, color perception, and general physical condition is re quired for higher level deckhands and unlicensed engineers. While no experience or formal schooling is required, training at a unionoperated school is the best source. Beginners are classified as ordi nary seamen and may be assigned to any of the three unlicensed departments: Deck, engine, or steward. With experience at sea, and perhaps union-sponsored training, an ordinary seaman can pass the able seaman exam and move up with 3 years of service. No special training or experience is needed to become a seaman or deckhand on vessels operating in harbors or on rivers or other waterways. Newly hired workers are generally given a short intro ductory course and then learn skills on the job. After sufficient experience, they are eligible to take a Coast Guard exam to qualify as a mate, pilot, or captain. Substantial knowledge gained through experience, courses taught at approved schools, and independent study are needed to pass the exam. Harbor pilot training is usually an extended apprenticeship with a towing company or a pilot association. Entrants may be able sea men or licensed officers. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected to continue for jobs in water trans portation occupations. Overall, employment in water transporta tion occupations is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Opportunities will vary by sector. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment in deep-sea shipping for American mariners is ex pected to stabilize after several years of decline. New international regulations have raised shipping standards with respect to safety, training, and working conditions. Consequently, competition from ships that sail under foreign flags of convenience (FOCs) should lessen as insurance rates rise for ships that do not meet the new standards. Insuring ships under industrialized countries’ flags, in cluding that of the United States, should become less expensive, increasing the amount of international cargo carried by U.S. ships. A fleet of deep-sea U.S. flagged ships is considered to be vital to the Nation’s defense, so some receive Federal support through a maritime security subsidy and other provisions in laws limit certain Federal cargoes to ships that fly the U.S. flag. Newer ships are designed to be operated safely by much smaller crews. Innovations include automated controls and computerized monitoring systems in navigation, engine control, watchkeeping, ship management, and cargo handling. As older vessels are replaced, computer skills will become more important for crews. Possible future developments include “fast ships,” ocean-going cargo ves sels that use jet propulsion, which would decrease ocean-crossing times significantly. If such plans are successful, the industry will benefit in terms of increased business and employment. Vessels on rivers and canals and on the Great Lakes carry mostly bulk products such as coal, iron ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals. Though shipments of these products are expected to grow through the year 2010, current imports of steel are dampening employment on the Lakes. Employment in water transportation services is likely to rise, however. Growth also is expected in the cruiseline industry within U.S. waters. Vessels that operate between U.S. ports are required by law to be U.S. flagged vessels. The building and staffing of several new cruise ships over the next 3 to 4 years will create new opportu nities for employment at sea in the cruise line industry, which is composed mostly of foreign flagged ships. Nevertheless, openings within the traditional water transporta tion sector for mariners, though expanding slightly, will remain tight. Some experienced merchant mariners may continue to go for peri ods of time without work. However, this situation appears to be changing, as the demand for licensed and non-licensed personnel has been on the rise. Maritime academy graduates who have not found licensed shipboard jobs in the U.S. merchant marine find jobs in related industries. Because they are commissioned as en signs in the Naval or Coast Guard Reserve, some are selected for active duty in the Navy or Coast Guard. Some find jobs as seamen on U.S. flagged or foreign flagged vessels, tugboats, other water craft, or enter civilian jobs with the U.S. Navy or Coast Guard. Some take land-based jobs with shipping companies, marine insur ance companies, manufacturers of boilers or related machinery, or other related jobs. Earnings Earnings vary widely depending on the particular water transporta tion position and experience, ranging from the minimum wage in some beginning seamen or mate positions to more than $33.77 an hour for some experienced ship engineers. Median hourly earnings in 2000 of water transportation occupations were as follows: Ship and boat captains and operators................................................... Ship engineers........................................................................................... Sailors and marine oilers.............................................................. All other water transportation workers............................................... $21.62 22.85 13.52 11.70 Annual pay for captains of larger vessels, such as container ships, oil tankers, or passenger ships, may exceed $ 100,000, but only after Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 585 many years of experience. Similarly, captains of tugboats often earn more than the median reported here, with earnings dependent on the port and the nature of the cargo. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who make their living on the seas and coastal waters include fishers and fishing vessel operators and some members of branches of the armed forces. >- Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, 400 7th St. SW„ Room 7302, Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://www.marad.dot.gov ► Seafarers’International Union, 5201 Auth Way, Camp Springs, MD 20746. >- Paul Hall Center for Maritime Training and Education, P.O. Box 75, Piney Point, MD 20674-0075. Internet: http://www.seafarers.org/phc >• International Organization of Masters, Mates, and Pilots, 700 Maritime Boulevard, Linthicum Heights, MD 21090-1941. ► U.S. Coast Guard National Maritime Center, Licensing and Evaluation Branch, 4200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 630, Arlington, VA 22203-1804. Internet: http://www.uscg.mil/stcw/m-pers.htm Individuals interested in attending the merchant marine acad Sources of Additional Information Information on merchant marine careers, training, and licensing requirements is available from: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis emy should contact: ► Admissions Office, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, Steamboat Rd., Kings Point, NY 11024-1699. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces (0*NET 55-1011.00, 55-1012.00, 55-1013.00, 55-1014.00, 55-1015.00, 55-1016.00, 55-1017.00, 55-1019.99, 55-2011.00, 55-2012.00, 55 2013.00, 55-3011.00, 55-3012.00, 55-3013.00, 55-3014.00, 55-3015.00, 55-3016.00, 55-3017.00, 55-3018.00, 55-3019.99) Significant Points • • • • Opportunities should be good in all branches of the Armed Forces for applicants who meet designated standards. Most enlisted personnel need at least a high school diploma, while officers need a bachelor’s or advanced degree. Hours and working conditions can be arduous and vary substantially. Some training and duty assignments are hazardous, even in peacetime. Nature of the Work Maintaining a strong national defense encompasses such diverse activities as running a hospital, commanding a tank, programming computers, operating a nuclear reactor, or repairing and maintain ing a helicopter. The military provides training and work experi ence in these fields and many others for more than 1.5 million people who serve in the active Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard, their Reserve components, and the Air and Army National Guard. The military distinguishes between enlisted and officer careers. Enlisted personnel, who make up about 85 percent of the Armed Forces, carry out the fundamental operations of the military in areas such as combat, administration, construction, engineering, healthcare, and human services. Officers, who make up the remain ing 15 percent of the Armed Forces, are the leaders of the military. They supervise and manage activities in every occupational spe cialty in the military. The following sections discuss the major occupational groups for enlisted personnel and officers. Enlisted occupational groups: Administrative careers include a wide variety of positions. The military must keep accurate information for planning and manag ing its operations. Paper and electronic records are kept on person nel and on equipment, funds, supplies, and other property of the military. Enlisted administrative personnel record information, type reports, maintain files, and review information to assist military offices. Personnel may work in a specialized area such as finance, accounting, legal, maintenance, supply, or transportation. Some examples of administrative specialists are recruiting specialists, who recruit and place qualified personnel and provide information about military careers to young people, parents, schools, and local com munities; training specialists and instructors, who provide the train ing programs necessary to help people perform their jobs effectively; and personnel specialists, who collect and store information about individuals in the military, including training, job assignment, pro motion, and health information. Combat specialty occupations refer to enlisted specialties, such as infantry, artillery, and special forces, whose members operate weapons or execute special missions during combat situations. 586 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Persons in these occupations normally specialize by the type of weapon system or combat operation. These personnel maneuver against enemy forces, and position and fire artillery, guns, and mis siles to destroy enemy positions. They also may operate tanks and amphibious assault vehicles in combat or scouting missions. When the military has difficult and dangerous missions to perform, they call upon special operations teams. These elite combat forces stay in a constant state of readiness to strike anywhere in the world on a moment’s notice. Special operations forces team members con duct offensive raids, demolitions, intelligence, search and rescue, and other missions from aboard aircraft, helicopters, ships, or sub marines. Construction occupations in the military include personnel who build or repair buildings, airfields, bridges, foundations, dams, bun kers, and the electrical and plumbing components of these struc tures. Enlisted personnel in construction occupations operate bulldozers, cranes, graders, and other heavy equipment. Construc tion specialists also may work with engineers and other building specialists as part of military construction teams. Some personnel specialize in areas such as plumbing or electrical wiring. Plumbers and pipefitters install and repair the plumbing and pipe systems needed in buildings and on aircraft and ships. Building electricians install and repair electrical wiring systems in offices, airplane han gars, and other buildings on military bases. Electronic and electrical equipment repair personnel repair and maintain electronic and electrical equipment used in the military. Repairers normally specialize by type of equipment, such as avion ics, computer, optical, communications, or weapons systems. For example, electronic instrument repairers install, test, maintain, and repair a wide variety of electronic systems, including navigational controls and biomedical instruments. Weapons maintenance tech nicians maintain and repair weapons used by combat forces, most of which have electronic components and systems that assist in lo cating targets and in aiming and firing weapons. The military has many engineering, science, and technical occu pations, whose members require specific knowledge to operate tech nical equipment, solve complex problems, or provide and interpret information. Enlisted personnel normally specialize in one area, such as space operations, emergency management, environmental health and safety, or intelligence. Space operations specialists use and repair spacecraft ground control command equipment, includ ing electronic systems that track spacecraft location and operation. Emergency management specialists prepare emergency procedures for all types of disasters, such as floods, tornadoes, and earthquakes. Environmental health and safety specialists inspect military facili ties and food supplies for the presence of disease, germs, or other conditions hazardous to health and the environment. Intelligence specialists gather and study information using aerial photographs and various types of radar and surveillance systems. Healthcare personnel assist medical professionals in treating and providing services for men and women in the military. They may work as part of a patient service team in close contact with doctors, dentists, nurses, and physical therapists to provide the necessary support functions within a hospital or clinic. Healthcare specialists normally specialize in a particular area. They may provide emer gency medical treatment, operate diagnostic equipment such as x-ray and ultrasound equipment, conduct laboratory tests on tissue and blood samples, maintain pharmacy supplies, or maintain patient records. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 587 Human services specialists help military personnel and their fami lies with social or personal problems, or assist chaplains. For ex ample, caseworkers and counselors work with personnel who may be experiencing social problems, such as drug or alcohol depen dence or depression. Religious program specialists assist chaplains with religious services, religious education programs, and adminis trative duties. Machine operator and production occupations operate indus trial equipment, machinery, and tools to fabricate and repair parts for a variety of items and structures. They may operate engines, turbines, nuclear reactors, and water pumps. Personnel often spe cialize by type of work performed. Welders and metal workers, for instance, work with various types of metals to repair or form the structural parts of ships, submarines, buildings, or other equipment. Survival equipment specialists inspect, maintain, and repair sur vival equipment such as parachutes and aircraft life support equip ment. Dental and optical laboratory technicians construct and repair dental equipment and eyeglasses for military personnel. Media and public affairs occupations are involved in the public presentation and interpretation of military information and events. Enlisted media and public affairs personnel take and develop pho tographs; film, record, and edit audio and video programs; present news and music programs; and produce graphic artwork, drawings, and other visual displays. Other public affairs specialists act as interpreters and translators to convert written or spoken foreign lan guages into English or other languages. Service personnel include those who enforce military laws and regulations, provide emergency response to natural and manmade disasters, and maintain food standards. Personnel normally spe cialize by function. Military police control traffic, prevent crime, and respond to emergencies. Other law enforcement and security specialists investigate crimes committed on military property and guard inmates in military correctional facilities. Firefighters put out, control, and help prevent fires in buildings, on aircraft, and aboard ships. Food service specialists prepare all types of food in dining halls, hospitals, and ships. Transportation and material handling specialists ensure the safe transport of people and cargo. Most personnel within this occupa tional group are classified according to mode of transportation, such as aircraft, motor vehicle, or ship. Aircrew members operate equip ment on board aircraft during operations. Vehicle drivers operate all types of heavy military vehicles including fuel or water tank trucks, semi-tractor trailers, heavy troop transports, and passenger buses. Quartermasters and boat operators navigate and pilot many types of small watercraft, including tugboats, gunboats, and barges. Cargo specialists load and unload military supplies and material using equipment such as forklifts and cranes. Vehicle and machinery mechanics conduct preventive and corrective maintenance on aircraft, ships, automotive and heavy equipment, heating and cooling systems, marine engines, and powerhouse station equipment. They typically specialize by the type of equipment that they maintain. For example, aircraft mechanics inspect, service, and repair helicopters and air planes. Automotive and heavy equipment mechanics maintain and repair vehicles such as jeeps, cars, trucks, tanks, self-propelled missile launchers, and other combat vehicles. They also repair bulldozers, power shovels, and other construction equipment. Heating and cooling mechanics install and repair air-condition ing, refrigeration, and heating equipment. Marine engine mechan ics repair and maintain gasoline and diesel engines on ships, boats, and other watercraft. They also repair shipboard mechanical and electrical equipment. Powerhouse mechanics install, maintain, and repair electrical and mechanical equipment in power-generat ing stations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Air Force mechanics work together to maintain aircraft. Officer occupational groups: Combat specialty officers plan and direct military operations, over see combat activities, and serve as combat leaders. This category includes officers in charge of tanks and other armored assault ve hicles, artillery systems, special operations forces, and infantry. They normally specialize by type of unit that they lead. Within the unit, they may specialize by the type of weapon system. Artillery and missile system officers, for example, direct personnel as they tar get, launch, test, and maintain various types of missiles and artil lery. Special-operations officers lead their units in offensive raids, demolitions, intelligence gathering, and search and rescue missions. Engineering, science, and technical officers have a wide range of responsibilities based on their area of expertise. They lead or perform activities in areas such as space operations, environmental health and safety, and engineering. These officers may direct the operations of communications centers or the development of com plex computer systems. Environmental health and safety officers study the air, ground, and water to identify and analyze sources of pollution and its effects. They also direct programs to control safety and health hazards in the workplace. Other personnel work as aero space engineers to design and direct the development of military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. Executive, administrative, and managerial officers oversee and direct military activities in key functional areas such as finance, accounting, health administration, international relations, and sup ply. Health services administrators, for instance, are responsible for the overall quality of care provided at the hospitals and clinics they operate. They must ensure that each department works together to provide the highest quality of care. Purchasing and contracting man agers are another example: they negotiate and monitor contracts for the purchase of the billions of dollars worth of equipment, supplies, and services that the military buys from private industry each year. Healthcare officers provide health services at military facilities, based on their area of specialization. Officers who assist in exam ining, diagnosing, and treating patients with illness, injury, or dis ease include physician assistants and registered nurses. Other healthcare officers provide therapy, rehabilitative treatment, and other services for patients. Physical and occupational therapists plan and administer therapy to help patients adjust to disabilities, regain independence, and return to work. Speech therapists evalu ate and treat patients with hearing and speech problems. Dietitians manage food service facilities, and plan meals for hospital patients and for outpatients who need special diets. Pharmacists manage the purchasing, storing, and dispensing of drugs and medicines. 588 Occupational Outlook Handbook fit.' * Otficers in transportation occupations manage and perform ac tivities related to the safe transport of military personnel and mate rial by air and water. Officers normally specialize by mode of transportation or area of expertise because, in many cases, they must meet licensing and certification requirements. Pilots in the military fly various types of specialized airplanes and helicopters to carry troops and equipment and execute combat missions. Navigators use radar, radio, and other navigation equipment to determine their position and plan their route of travel. Officers on ships and sub marines work as a team to manage the various departments aboard their vessels. Ship engineers direct engineering departments aboard ships and submarines, including engine operations, maintenance, repair, heating, and power generation. S* susiS An Army occupational therapist helps a soldier develop muscles usedfor truckdriving following an injury. Health diagnosing and treating practitioner officers examine, diagnose, and provide treatment for illnesses, injuries, and disor ders. For example, physicians and surgeons in this occupational group provide the majority of medical services to the military and their families. Dentists treat diseases and disorders of the mouth. Optometrists treat vision problems by prescribing eyeglasses or contact lenses. Psychologists provide mental healthcare, and also conduct research on behavior and emotions. Human services officers perform services in support of the morale and well-being of military personnel and their families. Social workers focus on improving conditions that cause social problems, such as drug and alcohol abuse, racism, and sexism. Chaplains conduct worship services for military personnel and per form other spiritual duties covering beliefs and practices of all reli gious faiths. Media and public affairs officers oversee the development, pro duction, and presentation of information or events for the public. These officers may produce and direct motion pictures, videotapes, and television and radio broadcasts that are used for training, news, and entertainment. Some plan, develop, and direct the activities of military bands. Public information officers respond to inquiries about military activities and prepare news releases and reports to keep the public informed. Employment In 2000, more than 1.5 million individuals were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 530,500 in the Army, 400,000 in the Navy, 385,000 in the Air Force, 174,000 in the Marine Corps, and 37,000 in the Coast Guard. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of enlisted personnel in 2001, while table 2 presents similar informa tion for officers. Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. More than half of all military jobs are located in California, Texas, North Carolina, Vir ginia, Florida, and Georgia. About 258,000 individuals were sta tioned outside the United States in 2000, including those assigned to ships at sea. More than 117,000 of these were stationed in Eu rope, mainly in Germany, and another 101,000 were assigned to East Asia and the Pacific area, mostly in Japan and the Republic of Korea. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Enlisted personnel. In order to join the services, enlisted person nel must sign a legal agreement called an enlistment contract, which usually involves a commitment to 8 years of service. Depending on the terms of the contract, 2 to 6 years are spent on active duty and the balance is spent in the reserves. The enlistment contract obligates the service to provide the agreed-upon job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education. In return, enlisted personnel must serve satisfactorily for the period specified. Requirements for each service vary, but certain qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. In order to enlist, one Table 1. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category and branch of military service, April 2001 Occupational Group - Enlisted Administrative occupations........................ Combat specialty occupations............................ Construction occupations......................... Electronic and electrical repair occupations...... Engineering, science, and technical occupations......... Health care occupations ..................... Human resource development occupations........ Machine operator and precision work occupations..... Media and public affairs occupations...... Protective service occupations..................... Support services occupations.................... Transportation and material handling occupations .. Vehicle machinery mechanic occupations................. Total, by service................. Army ........ .......... 29,628 43,368 ......... ......... ......... 13,287 2,881 7,740 ......... ......... 54,555 45,921 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center East https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Air Force Coast Guard Marine Corps 23,124 1,092 6,130 47,485 42,018 19,140 12,514 9,729 6,683 31,123 7,029 36,534 37,477 280,078 2,211 11,560 33,127 5,503 15,828 25,098 881 1,725 2,153 664 654 4,410 114 1,913 1,173 10,355 1,626 27,879 5,097 2,275 1,974 5,801 3,062 25,911 17,536 152,772 Navy services 16,760 4,242 5,897 62,269 44,979 24,559 4.557 6,870 3,578 14,780 9,254 65,825 48,174 311,744 73 517 141 305 34 226 156 935 157,616 70 806 36 109 ?6 16S 20 089 75,348 33 169 193 180 150,734 1,169,199 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 589 Table 2. Military officer personnel by broad occupational category and branch of service , April 2001 Occupational Group - Officer Army 16,095 Engineering, science, and technical occupations...................... .... 10,619 Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations......... .... .... 10,829 .... 1,828 .... 601 ..... 2,063 ..... 1,578 ..... 12,749 ..... 75,076 iuw*M ‘'J uv* .................. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center East must be between 17 and 35 years old, be a U.S. citizen or immi grant alien holding permanent resident status, not have a felony record, and possess a birth certificate. Applicants who are aged 17 must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Coast Guard enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birthday, while Marine Corps enlisted personnel must not be over the age of 29. Applicants must both pass a written examination—the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery— and meet certain minimum physical standards such as height, weight, vision, and overall health. All branches of the Armed Forces require high school graduation or its equivalent for certain enlistment options. In 2000, more than 9 out of 10 recruits were high school graduates. People thinking about enlisting in the military should leam as much as they can about military life before making a decision. This is especially important if you are thinking about making the mili tary a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military expe rience is a good idea. Determine what the military can offer you and what it will expect in return. Then, talk to a recruiter, who can detennine if you qualify for enlistment, explain the various enlist ment options, and tell you which military occupational specialties currently have openings. Bear in mind that the recruiter’s job is to recruit promising applicants into his or her branch of military ser vice, so the information that the recruiter gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life in the branch in which he or she serves. Ask the recruiter for the branch you have chosen to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation of your choice, or, better still, take the aptitude exam to see how well you score. The military uses the aptitude exam as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an individual’s chances of being accepted into a particular training program. Selection for a particu lar type of training depends on the needs of the service, your gen eral and technical aptitudes, and your personal preference. Because all prospective recruits are required to take the exam, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular specialty. The recruiter can schedule you for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery without any obligation. Many high schools offer the exam as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career, and the test also provides insight into career areas in which the student has demonstrated aptitudes and interests. If you decide to join the military, the next step is to pass the physical examination and sign an enlistment contract. Negotiating the contract involves choosing, qualifying, and agreeing on a num ber of enlistment options such as length of active duty time, which https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Air Force 17,257 8,613 10,383 2,471 468 1,207 1,214 20,846 67,719 Coast Guard Marine Corps 38 1,315 578 16 275 4,741 3,027 20 981 3,645 6,868 2,220 659 152 350 44 6,916 18,109 Navy Total, all services 4,068 10,431 7,163 8,327 3.658 370 917 1,164 16,774 52,872 32,821 48,125 29,193 29,555 8,891 1,611 5,518 4,000 60,930 220,644 may vary according to the enlistment option. Most active duty programs have first-term enlistments of 4 years, although there are some 2-, 3-, and 6-year programs. The contract also will state the date of enlistment and other options, such as bonuses and types of training to be received. If the service is unable to fulfill its part of the contract, such as providing a certain kind of training, the con tract may become null and void. All services offer a “delayed entry program” by which an indi vidual can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year after enlist ing. High school students can enlist during their senior year and enter a service after graduation. Others choose this program be cause the job training they desire is not currently available but will be within the coming year, or because they need time to arrange personal affairs. Women are eligible to enter most military specialties—for ex ample, mechanics, missile maintenance technicians, heavy equip ment operators, and fighter pilots, as well as medical care, administrative support, and intelligence specialties. Generally, only occupations involving direct exposure to combat are excluded. People planning to apply the skills gained through military train ing to a civilian career should first determine how good the pros pects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty that interests them. Second, they should know the prereq uisites for the related civilian job. Because many civilian occupa tions require a license, certification, or minimum level of education, it is important to determine whether military training is sufficient to enter the civilian equivalent or, if not, what additional training will be required. Other Handbook statements discuss the job outlook, training requirements, and other aspects of civilian occupations for which military training and experience are helpful. Additional in formation often can be obtained from school counselors. Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces un dergo recruit training, which is better known as “basic” training. Recruit training provides a 6- to 12-week introduction to military life with courses in military skills and protocol. Days and nights are carefully structured, and include rigorous physical exercise de signed to improve strength and endurance and build unit cohesion. Following basic training, most recruits take additional training at technical schools that prepare them for a particular military occu pational specialty. The fonnal training period generally lasts from 10 to 20 weeks, although training for certain occupations—nuclear power plant operator, for example—may take as long as a year. Recruits not assigned to classroom instruction receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. Many service people get college credit for the technical training they receive on duty, which, combined with off-duty courses, can lead to an associate degree through community college programs 590 Occupational Outlook Handbook such as the Community College of the Air Force. In addition to onduty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of edu cational programs. Most military installations have tuition assistance programs for people wishing to take courses during off-duty hours. These may be correspondence courses or degree programs offered by local colleges or universities. Tuition assistance pays up to 75 percent of college costs. Also available are courses designed to help service personnel earn high school equivalency diplomas. Each service branch provides opportunities for full-time study to a lim ited number of exceptional applicants. Military personnel accepted into these highly competitive programs—in law or medicine, for example—receive full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. In return, they must agree to serve an additional amount of time in the service. Other very selective programs enable enlisted personnel to qualify as commissioned officers through additional military train ing. Warrant officers. Warrant officers are technical and tactical lead ers who specialize in a specific technical area; for example, Army aviators make up one group of warrant officers. The Army Warrant Officer Corps constitutes less than 5 percent of the total Army. Although the Corps is small in size, its level of responsibility is high. Its members receive extended career opportunities, world wide leadership assignments, and increased pay and retirement ben efits. Selection to attend the Warrant Officer Candidate School is highly competitive and restricted to those with the rank of E5 or higher. (See table 3.) Officers. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the Federal service academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program offered at many colleges and universities; Officer Candi date School (OCS) or Officer Training School (OTS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences; and other programs. All are very selective and are good options for those wishing to make the military a career. Persons interested in obtaining training through the Federal service academies must be single to enter and graduate, while those seeking training through OCS, OTS, or ROTC need not be single. Single parents with one or more minor dependents are not eligible for officer commissioning. Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program lead ing to a Bachelor of Science degree. Midshipmen or cadets are provided free room and board, tuition, medical and dental care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular or reserve com missions and have a 5-year active duty obligation, or more if they are entering flight training. To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midship man in one of the service academies, applicants are required to ob tain a nomination from an authorized source, usually a member of Congress. Candidates do not need to know a member of Congress personally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an aca demic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established minimum, and recommendations from teach ers or school officials; they also must pass a medical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Ap pointments to the Coast Guard Academy, however, are based strictly on merit and do not require a nomination. ROTC programs train students in about 950 Army, 67 Navy and Marine Corps, and 1,000 Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruction a week, in addition to regular college courses. After graduation, they may serve as officers on active duty for a stipulated period. Some may serve their obligation in the Reserves or National Guard. In the last 2 years of a ROTC program, students receive a monthly allowance while attending school, and additional pay for summer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis training. ROTC scholarships for 2, 3, and 4 years are available on a competitive basis. All scholarships pay for tuition and have allow ances for subsistence, textbooks, supplies, and other costs. College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS or OTS programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. These officers generally must serve their obligation on active duty. Those with training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of persons studying for the health professions, financial assistance and internship opportunities are available from the military in return for specified periods of military service. Pro spective medical students can apply to the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, which offers free tuition in a pro gram leading to a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree. In return, graduates must serve for 7 years in either the military or the U.S. Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other specialty areas, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is avail able to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct enlistment option to become a warrant officer aviator. Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, the first few promotions for both enlisted and officer personnel come easily; subsequent promotions are much more com petitive. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and grade, job performance, a fitness report (supervisor’s recommenda tion), and written examinations. People who are passed over for promotion several times generally must leave the military. Table 3 shows the officer, warrant officer, and enlisted ranks by service. Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for qualified individuals in all branches of the Armed Forces through 2010. Many military per sonnel retire with a pension after 20 years of service, while they still are young enough to start a new career. More than 365,000 enlisted personnel and officers must be recruited each year to replace The Coast Guardperforms manyfunctions vital to maritime safety, such as enforcing customs laws and monitoring traffic in major harbors. Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 591 Table 3. Military rank and employment for active duty personnel, April 2001 Grade Rank and title Navy and Coast Guard Air Force Marine Corps Commissioned officers: 0-10 General Lieutenant General 0-9 Major General 0-8 Brigadier General 0-7 0-6 Colonel Lieutenant Colonel 0-5 Major 0-4 Captain 0-3 0-2 1st Lieutenant 0-1 2nd Lieutenant Admiral Vice Admiral Rear Admiral Upper Rear Admiral Lower Captain Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant (JG) Ensign General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant Warrant officers: Chief Warrant Officer W-5 Chief Warrant Officer W-4 Chief Warrant Officer W-3 Chief Warrant Officer W-2 Warrant Officer W-l Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer Army Total DOD Employment Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer 34 118 282 441 11,302 27,543 43,151 65,917 24,759 25,303 476 1,958 3,837 6,350 2,302 Enlisted personnel: E-9 Sergeant Major E-8 E-7 E-6 E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-l 1 st Sergeant/Master Sergeant Sergeant First Class Staff Sergeant Sergeant Corporal/Specialist Private First Class Private Private Master Chief Petty Office Sr. Chief Petty Officer Chief Petty Officer Petty Officer 1 st Class Petty Officer 2nd Class Petty Officer 3rd Class Seaman Seaman Apprentice Seaman Recruit Chief Master Sergeant Sergeant Major Senior Master Sergeant Master Sergeant Technical Sergeant Staff Sergeant Senior Airman Airman 1st Class Airman Airman Basic Master Sergeant/lst Sergeant Gunnery Sergeant Staff Sergeant Sergeant Corporal Lance Corporal Private 1st Class Private 10,197 25,399 97,052 165,130 231,750 247,691 207,432 96,420 60,228 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense those who complete their commitment or retire. Since the end of the draft in 1973, the military has met its personnel requirements with volunteers. When the economy is good, it is more difficult for all the services to meet their recruitment quotas, while it is much easier to do so during a recession. America’s strategic position is stronger than it has been in de cades. Despite reductions in personnel due to the decreasing threat from Eastern Europe and Russia, the number of active duty person nel is expected to remain roughly constant through 2010. The Armed Forces’ current goal is to maintain a sufficient force to fight and win two major regional conflicts occurring at the same time. Politi cal events, however, could cause these plans to change. Educational requirements will continue to rise as military jobs become more technical and complex. High school graduates and applicants with a college background will be sought to fill the ranks of enlisted personnel, while virtually all officers will need at least a bachelor’s degree and, in some cases, an advanced degree as well. Earnings, Allowances, and Benefits The earnings structure for military personnel is shown in table 4. Most enlisted personnel started as recruits at Grade E-l in 2000; however, those with special skills or above-average education started Digitized foras FRASER high as Grade E-4. Most warrant officers started at Grade W-l https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or W-2, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifica tions and the branch of service, but warrant officer is not an entrylevel occupation and, consequently, these individuals all had previous military service. Most commissioned officers started at Grade O-1, while some with advanced education started as Grade 0-2 and some highly trained officers—for example, physicians and dentists started as high as Grade 0-3. Pay varies by total years of service as well as rank. Because it usually takes many years to reach the higher ranks, most personnel in higher ranks receive the higher pay rates awarded to those with many years of service. In addition to basic pay, military personnel receive free room and board (or a tax-free housing and subsistence allowance), medi cal and dental care, a military clothing allowance, military super market and department store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year (referred to as leave), and travel opportunities. In many duty stations, military personnel may receive a housing allowance that can be used for off-base housing. This allowance can be substantial, but varies greatly by rank and duty station. For example, in July 2001, the housing allowance for an E-4 with de pendents was $462.90 per month; for a comparable individual with out dependents, it was $323.40. The allowance for an 0-4 with dependents was $881.70 per month; for a person without depen dents, it was $766.50. Other allowances are paid for foreign duty, 592 Occupational Outlook Handbook 11M.M Ur iy:y vita £' itssiii - ! % Protecting naval bases, guarding U.S. embassies, and gathering intelligence are some of the jobs of the Marine Corps. A Navy sailor operates a crane on a ship near a naval base. hazardous duty, submarine and flight duty, and employment as a medical officer. Athletic and other facilities— such as gymnasi ums, tennis courts, golf courses, bowling centers, libraries, and movie theaters—are available on many military installations. Mili tary personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service. The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served at least 2 years in the Armed Forces. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all servicerelated disabilities, regardless of time served; those with other medi cal problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. Veterans also are eligible for certain loans, including home loans. Veterans, re gardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company in the veteran’s Table 4. Military basic monthly pay by grade for active duty personnel, July 1, 2001 Years of service Grade 0-10 Less than 2 O-l $8,518.80 7,550.10 6,838.20 5,682.30 4,211.40 3,368.70 2,839.20 2,638.20 2,301.00 1,997.70 W-5 W-4 W-3 W-2 W-l 2,688.00 2,443.20 2,139.60 1,782.60 0-9 0-8 0-7 0-6 0-5 0-4 0-3 0-2 E-9 E-8 E-7 E-6 E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-l 4mos+ E-l <4mos f 1,831.20 — 1,575.00 1,381.80 1,288.80 1,214.70 1,169.10 1,042.80 964.80 Over 4 ____ $7,252.20 6,112.50 ____ 4,280.40 3,739.50 3,489.30 3,120.30 Over 8 Over 12 Over 16 Over 20 $9,156.90 8,114.10 7,747.80 6,514.50 5,160.90 $9,664.20 8,451.60 8,114.10 6,915.90 $10,356.00 9,156.90 8.451.60 7,747.80 6,005.40 5.481.60 4,935.00 $11,049.30 9,664.20 9,156.90 4.127.70 3.839.70 4.831.80 4,629.30 4.189.80 3,336.30 2,919.00 2,649.90 2,419.20 3.614.10 3.184.80 2,851.50 2.626.80 3,892.50 3.420.30 3,058.20 2,835.90 2,622.00 2,362.20 2,097.30 1,888.50 3.197.40 2.768.40 2.512.80 2.248.80 1.811.10 3,392.40 2.945.10 — 3,056.70 2,684.10 2,391.00 2,214.60 ____ 2,149.80 1,891.80 1,701.00 1,576.20 1,385.40 ____ ____ ____ SOURCE: U.S. Department of Defense—Defense Finance and Accounting Service https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6,617.40 5,790.30 . 2 666.10 2,379.60 2.040.30 4,640.70 4,168.20 3.669.90 3.280.80 3,018.60 3.601.80 3,138.00 2.817.90 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces 593 State of residence. In addition, job counseling, testing, and place ment services are available. Veterans who participate in the New Montgomery GI Bill Pro gram receive educational benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces personnel may elect to deduct up to $ 100 a month from their pay during the first 12 months of active duty, putting this money toward their future education. Veterans who serve on active duty for more than 2 years, or 2 years active duty plus 4 years in the Selected Reserve, will receive $528 a month in basic benefits for 36 months. Those who enlist and serve for 2 years will receive $429 a month for 36 months. In addition, each service provides its own additional contributions for future education. This sum be comes the service member’s educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance educational costs at any VA-approved institution. VA-approved schools include many vocational, correspondence, certification, business, technical, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis flight training schools; community and junior colleges; and colleges and universities. Sources of Additional Information Each of the military services publishes handbooks, factsheets, and pamphlets describing entrance requirements, training and advance ment opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are widely available at all recruiting stations, at most State employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. Information on educational and other veterans’ ben efits is available from VA offices located throughout the country. In addition, the Defense Manpower Data Center, an agency of the U.S. Department ofDefense, publishes Military Career Guide Online, a compendium of military occupational, training, and career infor mation designed for use by students and jobseekers. This informa tion is available on the Internet: http://www.militarycareers.com Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail Employment in the hundreds of occupations covered in detail in the main body of the Handbook accounts for nearly 128 million or 88 percent of all jobs in the economy. Although occupations cov ering the full spectrum of work are included, those requiring lengthy education or training generally are given the most attention. This chapter presents summary data on 116 additional occupa tions, for which employment projections are prepared, but for which detailed occupational information is not developed. These occupa tions account for about 7 percent of all jobs. For each occupation, the Occupational Information Network (0*NET) code, a brief de scription of the nature of the work, the number of jobs in 2000, a phrase describing the projected employment change from 2000 to 2010, and the most significant source of training are presented. For a complete list of 0*NET codes cited in the Handbook, refer to a later chapter, Occupational Information Network (0*NET) Cover age. For guidelines on interpreting the description of projected em ployment change, refer to a chapter in the front of the Handbook, Occupational Information Included in the Handbook. The approximately 5 percent of all jobs not covered either in the detailed occupational descriptions in the main body of the Hand book or in the summary data presented in this chapter are mainly residual categories, such as “all other managers,” for which little meaningful information could be developed. permits, and other compliance and enforcement inspection activi ties not classified elsewhere. Exclude tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents and financial examiners. 2000 employment: 140,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training Credit analysts (0*NET 13-2041.00) Analyze current credit data and financial statements of individuals or firms to determine the degree of risk involved in extending credit or lending money. Prepare reports with this credit information for use in decisionmaking. 2000 employment: 60,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree Emergency management specialists (0*NET 13-1061.00) Management, business, and financial occupations Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes (0*NET 13-1011.00) Represent and promote artists, performers, and athletes to prospec tive employers. May handle contract negotiations and other busi ness matters for clients. 2000 employment: 17,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s or higher degree, plus work experience Appraisers and assessors of real estate Coordinate disaster response or crisis management activities, pro vide disaster preparedness training, and prepare emergency plans and procedures for natural (e.g. hurricanes, floods, earthquakes), wartime, or technological (e.g., nuclear power plant emergencies, hazardous materials spills) disasters or hostage situations. 2000 employment: 10,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation Financial examiners (0*NET 13-2061.00) Enforce or ensure compliance with laws and regulations governing financial and securities institutions and financial and real estate trans actions. May examine, verify correctness of, or establish authentic ity of records. (0*NET 13-2021.01, 13-2021.02) Appraise real property to determine its fair value. May assess taxes in accordance with prescribed schedules. 2000 employment: 57,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Postsecondary vocational award 2000 employment: 25,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree Gaming managers (0*NET 11-9071.00) Compliance officers, except agriculture, construction, health and safety, and transportation (0*NET 13-1041.01, 13-1041.02, 13-1041.03, 13-1041.04, 13-1041 05 13-1041.06) Examine, evaluate, and investigate eligibility for or conformity with laws and regulations governing contract compliance of licenses and Digitized 594 for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Plan, organize, direct, control, or coordinate gaming operations in a casino. Formulate gaming policies for their area of responsibility. 2000 employment: 4,200 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s or higher degree, plus work experience Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 595 Meeting and convention planners (0*NET 13-1121.00) _________ ___ Professional and related occupations ______________________ _ Coordinate activities of staff and convention personnel to make ar rangements for group meetings and conventions. Athletic trainers _____________ __ _____ (0*NET 29-9091.00) 2000 employment: 34,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree Postmasters and mail superintendents (0*NET 11 -9131.00) _________ Evaluate, advise, and treat athletes to assist recovery from injury, avoid injury, or maintain peak physical fitness. 2000 employment: 15,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree _____________________ _ Direct and coordinate operational, administrative, management, and supportive services of a U.S. post office; or coordinate activities of workers engaged in postal and related work in assigned post Audio-visual collections specialists office. Prepare, plan, and operate audio-visual teaching aids for use in edu cation. May record, catalogue, and file audio-visual materials. 2000 employment: 25,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related 2000 employment: 11,000 occupation (0*NET 11-9151.00) employment: 128,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree (0*NET 13-2082.00) (0*NET 25-9011.00) Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-tenn on-the-job Dietetic technicians (0*NET 29-2051.00) Plan, organize, or coordinate the activities of a social service pro gram or community outreach organization. Oversee the program or organization’s budget and polices regarding participant involvement, program requirement, and benefits. Work may involve directing social workers, counselors, or probation officers. Tax preparers __ training Social and community service managers 2000 __________ ________ _________ _________________________________ Prepare tax returns for individuals or small businesses but do not have the background or responsibilities of an accredited or certified public accountant. 2000 employment: 69,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training ________ ______________________ Assist dieticians in the provision of food service and nutritional programs. Under the supervision of dieticians, may plan and pro duce meals based on established guidelines, teach principles of food and nutrition, or counsel individuals. 2000 employment: 26,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Directors, religious activities and education (0*NET 21-2021.00) ________ __________ Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students. Plan, direct, or coordinate church school programs designed to promote religious education among church membership. May provide counseling and guidance relative to marital, health, financial, or religious problems. 2000 employment: 121,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as the average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree Transportation, storage, and distribution managers__ (0*NET 11-3071.01, 11-3071.02) Plan, direct, or coordinate transportation, storage, or distribution activities in accordance with governmental policies and regulations. Includes logistics managers. 2000 employment: 149,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Farm and home management advisors (0*NET 25-9021.00) ______ ____________________ Advise, instruct, and assist individuals and families engaged in agriculture, agricultural-related processes, or home economics activities. Demonstrate procedures and apply research findings to solve problems; instruct and train in product development, sales, and the utilization of machinery and equipment to promote gen eral welfare. Include county agricultural agents, feed and farm 596 Occupational Outlook Handbook management advisors, home economists, and extension service advisors. 2000 employment: 11,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree staff. May participate in rehabilitation and treatment programs, help with personal hygiene, and administer oral medications and hypo dermic injections. 2000 employment: 54,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Postsecondary vocational award Health educators (0*NET 21-1091.00) Radiation therapists (0*NET 29-1124.00) Promote, maintain, and improve individual and community health by assisting individuals and communities to adopt healthy behav iors. Collect and analyze data to identify community needs prior to planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating programs de signed to encourage healthy lifestyles, policies and environments. May also serve as a resource to assist individuals, other profession als, or the community, and may administer fiscal resources for health education programs. Provide radiation therapy to patients as prescribed by a radiologist according to established practices and standards. Duties may in clude reviewing prescription and diagnosis; acting as a liaison with physician and supportive care personnel; preparing equipment, such as immobilization, treatment, and protection devices; and maintain ing records, reports, and files. May assist in dosimetry procedures and tumor localization. 2000 employment: 43,000 2000 employment: 16,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Master’s degree Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Associate degree Interpreters and translators Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers (0*NET 27-3091.00) (0*NET 23-2093.01, 23-2093.02) Translate or interpret written, oral, or sign language text into an other language for others. Search real estate records, examine titles, or summarize pertinent legal or insurance details for a variety of purposes. May compile lists of mortgages, contracts, and other instruments pertaining to titles by searching public and private records for law firms, real estate agencies, or title insurance companies. 2000 employment: 22,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training Law clerks (0*NET 23-2092.00) Assist lawyers or judges by researching or preparing legal docu ments. May meet with clients or assist lawyers and judges in court. Excludes lawyers, and paralegal and legal assistants. 2000 employment: 31,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree Orthotists and prosthetists 2000 employment: 48,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Veterinary technologists and technicians (0*NET 29-2056.00) Perform medical tests in a laboratory environment for use in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases in animals. Prepare vaccines and serums for prevention of diseases. Prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, and execute laboratory tests, such as urinalysis and blood counts. Clean and sterilize instruments and materials and maintain equipment and machines. (0*NET 29-2091.00) Assist patients with disabling conditions of limbs and spine or with partial or total absence of limb by fitting and preparing orthopedic braces and prostheses. 2000 employment: 5,300 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Bachelor’s degree 2000 employment: 49,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of training: Associate degree Service occupations Amusement and recreation attendants Psychiatric technicians fO*NET 39-3091.00) (0*NET 29-2053.00) Care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals, following physician instructions and hospital procedures. Monitor patients’ physical and emotional well-being and report to medical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Perform a variety of attending duties at amusement or recreation facilities. May schedule use of recreations facilities, maintain and provide equipment to participants of sporting events or recreational pursuits, or operate amusement concessions and rides. Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 597 2000 employment: 197,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers (0*NET 35-1012.00) _______________________ Supervise workers engaged in preparing and serving food. Animal control workers _______ (0*NET 33-9011.00) Handle animals for the purpose of investigations of mistreatment, or control of abandoned, dangerous, or unattended animals. 2000 employment: 8,600 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 649,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation First-line supervisors/managers of personal service _________ workers (0*NET 39-1021.00) _______________________ Supervise and coordinate activities of personal service workers, such as supervisors of flight attendants, hairdressers, or caddies. Baggage porters and bellhops (0*NET 39-6011.00) Handle baggage for travelers at transportation terminals or for guests at hotels or similar establishments. 2000 employment: 51,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Concierges 2000 employment: 125,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation First-line supervisors/managers, protective service workers, except police, Fire, and correctional officers (0*NET 33-1099.99) All protective services supervisors who are not supervisors of pro tective service workers, correctional officers, police and detectives, or fire fighting and prevention workers. _____ (0*NET 39-6012.00) Assist patrons at hotel, apartment or office building with personal services. May take messages, arrange or give advice on transporta tion, business services or entertainment, or monitor guest requests for housekeeping and maintenance. 2000 employment: 61,000 2000 employment: 18,000 Funeral attendants Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation Costume, locker room, and other attendants __ (0*NET 39-4021.00) Perform a variety of tasks during a funeral, such as placing casket in parlor or chapel prior to service; arranging floral offerings or lights around casket; directing or escorting mourners; closing cas ket; and issuing and storing funeral equipment. 2000 employment: 26,000 (0*NET 39-3092.00, 39-3093.00) Select, fit and take care of costumes for cast members, and aid en tertainers. Provide personal items to patrons or customers in locker rooms, dressing rooms, or coatrooms. 2000 employment: 24,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Crossing guards Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than the average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation _________ Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Massage therapists (0*NET 31-9011.00) Massage customers for hygienic or remedial purposes. 2000 employment: 34,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Postsecondary vocational award (0*NET 33-9091.00) Guide or control vehicular or pedestrian traffic at such places as streets, schools, railroad crossings, or construction sites. 2000 employment: 74,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical equipment preparers ________ (0*NET 31-9093.00) Prepare, sterilize, install, or clean laboratory or healthcare equip ment. May perform routine laboratory tasks and operate or inspect equipment. 598 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2000 employment: 33,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Motion picture projectionists 2000 employment: 23,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers (0*NET 39-3021.00) (0*NET 39-3031.00) Set up and operate motion picture projection and related sound re production equipment. 2000 employment: 11,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Parking enforcement workers Assist patrons at entertainment events by performing duties, such as collecting admission tickets and passes from patrons, assisting in finding seats, searching for lost articles, and locating such facili ties as rest rooms and telephones. 2000 employment: 112,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training (0*NET 33-3041.00) Patrol assigned area, such as public parking lot or section of city to issue tickets to overtime parking violators and illegally parked ve hicles. 2000 employment: 8,600 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Residential advisors (0*NET 39-9041.00) Coordinate activities for residents of boarding schools, college fra ternities or sororities, college dormitories, or similar establishments. Order supplies and determine need to maintenance, repairs, and furnishings. May maintain household records and assign rooms. May refer residents to counseling resources if needed. 2000 employment: 44,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers (0*NET 31-9096.00) Feed, water, and examine pets and other nonfarm animals for signs of illness, disease, or injury in laboratories and animal hospitals and clinics. Clean and disinfect cages and work areas, and sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment. May provide routine postop erative care, administer medication orally or topically, or prepare samples for laboratory examination under the supervision of veteri nary or laboratory animal technologists or technicians, veterinar ians, or scientists. Excludes nonfarm animal caretakers. 2000 employment: 55,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Much faster than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Sales and related occupations Advertising sales agents Tour and travel guides (0*NET 39-6021.00, 39-6022.00) Escort individuals or groups on sightseeing tours or through places of interest, such as industrial establishments, public buildings, and art galleries. Plan, organize, and conduct long distance cruises, tours, and expeditions for individuals or groups. 2000 employment: 44,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training (0*NET 41-3011.00) Sell or solicit advertising, including graphic art, advertising space in publications, custom made signs, or TV and radio advertising time. May obtain leases for outdoor advertising sites or persuade retailer to use sales promotion display items. 2000 employment: 155,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Transportation attendants, except flight attendants and baggage porters Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers (0*NET 39-6032.00) (0*NET 41-9091.00) Provide services to ensure the safety and comfort of passengers aboard ships, buses, trains, or within the station or terminal. Per form duties, such as greeting passengers, explaining the use of safety equipment, serving meals or beverages, or answering questions re Digitized fortoFRASER lated travel. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sell goods or services door-to-door or on the street. 2000 employment: 166,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 599 Parts salespersons __ (0*NET 41-2022.00) 2000 employment: 84,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Sell spare and replacement parts and equipment in repair shop or parts store. Proofreaders and copy markers 2000 employment: 260,000 (0*NET 43-9081.00) Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job Read transcript or proof type setup to detect and mark for correc tion any grammatical, typographical, or compositional errors. Ex cludes workers whose primary duty is editing copy. Includes proofreaders of Braille. training Telemarketers (0*NET 41-9041.00) ______________________ Solicit orders for goods and services over the telephone. 2000 employment: 572,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Office and administrative support occupations ________ ________________________________ 2000 employment: 35,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Statistical assistants _________ __ (0*NET 43-9111.00) Compile and compute data according to statistical formulas for use in statistical studies. May perform actuarial computations and com pile charts and graphs for use by actuaries. Includes actuarial clerks. __ 2000 employment: 21,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Insurance claims and policy processing clerks (0*NET 43-9041.01, 43-9041.02) Process new insurance policies, modifications to existing policies, and claims forms. Obtain information from policyholders to verify the accuracy and completeness of information on claims forms, applications and related documents, and company records. Update existing policies and company records to reflect changes requested by policyholders and insurance company representatives. Excludes claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators. Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations First-line supervisors/managers/contractors of farming, Ashing, and forestry workers ___________ ___ (0*NET 45-1011.01, 45-1011.02, 45-1011.03, 45-1011.04, 45-1011.05, 2000 employment: 289,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 45-1011.06) Directly supervise and coordinate the activities of agricultural, for estry, aquacultural, and related workers. Excludes first-line super visors/ managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers. Mail clerks and mail machine operators, except Postal Service ____ (0*NET 43-9051.01, 43-9051.02) Prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distribution. Use hand or mail handling machines to time, stamp, open, read, sort, and route outgoing mail or packages. Duties may also include keeping nec essary records and completed forms. employment: 100,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related 2000 occupation Construction and extraction occupations 2000 employment: 188,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Continuous mining machine operators ______ (0*NET 47-5041.00) Office machine operators, except computer (0*NET 43-9071.01) __ ________________ _ Operate one or more of a variety of office machines, such as pho tocopying, photographic, and duplicating machines, or other office machines. Excludes computer operators; mail clerks and mail machine operators; and billing and posting clerks and machine operators. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Operate self-propelled mining machines that rip coal, metal and nonmetal ores, rock, stone, or sand form the face and load it onto conveyors or into shuttle cars in a continuous operation. 2000 employment: 9,500 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 600 Occupational Outlook Handbook Derrick operators, oil and gas (0*NET 47-5011.00) Rig derrick equipment and operate pumps to circulate mud through drill hole. 2000 employment: 16,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Earth drillers, except oil and gas (0*NET 47-5021.01,47-5021.02) Operate a variety of drills—such as rotary, chum, and pneumatic— to tap subsurface water and salt deposits, to remove core samples during mineral exploration or soil testing, and to facilitate the use of explosives in mining or construction. May use explosives. In cludes horizontal and earth boring machine operators. Helpers—brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, and tile and marble setters (0*NET 47-3011.00) Help brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, or tile and marble setters by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes con struction laborers who do not primarily assist brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons or tile and marble setters. 2000 employment: 58,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—carpenters (0*NET 47-3012.00) 2000 employment: 24,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Help carpenters by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist carpenters. Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters 2000 employment: 101,000 (0*NET 47-5031.00) Place and detonate explosives to demolish structures or to loosen, remove, or displace earth, rock, or other materials. May perform specialized handling, storage, and accounting procedures. Includes seismograph shooters. Excludes earth drillers, except oil and gas who may also work with explosives. 2000 employment: 5,100 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Fence erectors (0*NET 47-4031.00) Erect and repair metal and wooden fences and fence gates around highways, industrial establishments, residences, or farms, using hand and power tools. Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—electricians (0*NET 47-3013.00) Help electricians by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties in clude using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with them with the appropriate skilled construction trade oc cupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily as sist electricians. 2000 employment: 114,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—extraction workers (0*NET 47-5081.00) 2000 employment: 29,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers (0*NET 47-1011.01, 47-1011.02) Directly supervise and coordinate activities of construction or ex traction workers. 2000 employment: 792,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Help extraction craft workers, such as earth drillers, blasters and explosives workers, derrick operators, and mining machine opera tors, by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include supplying equipment or cleaning work area. Excludes apprentice workers. 2000 employment: 37,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Helpers—painters, paperhangers, plasterers, and stucco masons (0*NET 47-3014.00) Help painters, paperhangers, plasterers, or stucco masons by per forming duties of lesser skill. Duties including using, supplying, or Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 601 holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction la borers who do not primarily assist painters, paperhangers, plaster ers, or stucco masons. Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 27,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training (0*NET 47-5012.00) Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters (0*NET 47-3015.00) Help pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, or steamfitters by perform ing duties of lesser skill. Duties including using, supplying, or hold ing materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction la borers who do not primarily assist pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters or steamfitters. 2000 employment: 12,000 Rotary drill operators, oil and gas Set up or operate a variety of drills to remove petroleum products from the earth and to find and remove core samples for testing dur ing oil and gas exploration. 2000 employment: 18,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Roustabouts, oil and gas (0*NET 47-5071.00) Assemble or repair oil field equipment using hand and power tools. Perform other tasks as needed. 2000 employment: 86,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 41,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Helpers—roofers (0*NET 47-3016.00) Septic tank servicers and sewer pipe cleaners Help roofers by performing duties of lesser skill. Duties include using, supplying, or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers and report them with the appropriate skilled construction trade occupation. Excludes construction laborers who do not primarily assist roofers. (0*NET 47-4071.00) Clean and repair septic tanks, sewer lines, or drains. May patch walls and partitions of tank, replace damaged drain tile, or repair breaks in underground piping. 2000 employment: 23,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 15,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Highway maintenance workers Service unit operators, oil, gas, and mining (0*NET 47-4051.00) (0*NET 47-5013.00) Maintain highways, municipal and mral roads, airport mnways, and rights-of-way. Duties include patching broken or eroded pavement, repairing guard rails, highway markers, and snow fences. May also mow or clear brush from along road or plow snow from roadway. Excludes tree trimmers and pruners. Operate equipment to increase oil flow from producing wells or to remove stick pipe, casing, tools, or other obstructions from drilling wells. May also perform similar services in mining exploration operations. Includes fishing-tool technicians. 2000 employment: 11,000 2000 employment: 151,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Rail-track laying and maintenance equipment opera tors Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations (0*NET 47-4061.00) Lay, repair, and maintain track for standard or narrow-gauge rail road equipment used in regular railroad service or in plant yards, quarries, sand and gravel pits, and mines. Includes ballast cleaning machine operators and railroad bed tamping machine operators. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bicycle repairers (0*NET 49-3091.00) Repair and service bicycles. 602 Occupational Outlook Handbook 2000 employment: 8,500 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 17,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Control valve installers and repairers, except mechani cal door Mechanical door repairers (0*NET 49-9012.01, 49-9012.02, 49-9012.03) Install, service, or repair opening and closing mechanisms of automatic doors and hydraulic door closers. Includes garage door mechanics. Install, repair, and maintain mechanical regulating and controlling devices, such as electric meters, gas regulators, thermostats, safety and flow valves, and other mechanical governors. 2000 employment: 34,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training (0*NET 49-9011.00) 2000 employment: 11,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Recreational vehicle service technicians (0*NET 49-3092.00) First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers (0*NET 49-1011.00) Supervise and coordinate the activities of mechanics, installers, and repairers. Excludes team or work leaders. Diagnose, inspect, adjust, repair, or overhaul recreational vehicles including travel trailers. May specialize in maintaining gas, electri cal, hydraulic, plumbing, or chassis/towing systems as well as repair ing generators, appliances, and interior components. Includes workers who perform customized van conversions. Excludes automotive service technicians and mechanics, and bus and txuck mechanics and diesel engine specialists who also work on recreation vehicles. 2000 employment: 442,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related field 2000 employment: 12,000 Helpers—installation, maintenance, and repair workers Riggers (0*NET 49-9098.00) (0*NET 49-9096.00) Help installation, maintenance, and repair workers in maintenance, parts replacement, and repair of vehicles, industrial machinery, and electrical and electronic equipment. Perform duties, such as fur nishing tools, materials, and supplies to other workers; cleaning work area, machines, and tools; and holding materials or tools for other workers. Set up or repair rigging for construction projects, manufacturing plants, logging yards, ships and shipyards, or for the entertainment industry. 2000 employment: 145,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 20,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Security and fire alarm systems installers (0*NET 49-2098.00) Locksmiths and safe repairers (0*NET 49-9094.00) Repair and open locks; make keys; change locks and safe combina tions; and install and repair locks. 2000 employment: 23,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Install, program, maintain, and repair security and fire alarm wiring and equipment. Ensure that work is in accordance with relevant codes. Excludes electricians who do a broad range of electrical wiring. 2000 employment: 44,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Postsecondary vocational award Tire repairers and changers (0*NET 49-3093.00) Repair and replace tires. Manufactured building and mobile home installers (0*NET 49-9095.00) Move or install homes or prefabricated buildings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2000 employment: 89,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 603 Production occupations Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51-9021.00) Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders (O’NET 51-9191.00) Operate or tend cementing and gluing machines to join items for further processing or to form a completed product. Processes in clude joining veneer sheets into plywood; gluing paper; joining rub ber and rubberized fabric parts, plastic, simulated leather, or other materials. Excludes shoe machine operators and tenders. 2000 employment: 36,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Chemical equipment operators and tenders Set up, operate, or tend machines to crush, grind, or polish materi als, such as coal, glass, grain, stone, food, or rubber. 2000 employment: 44,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Cutters and trimmers, hand (0*NET 51-9031.00) Use hand tools or hand-held power tools to cut and trim a variety of manufactured items, such as carpet, fabric, stone, glass, or rubber. (0*NET 51-9011.01, 51-9011.02) Operate or tend equipment to control chemical changes or reac tions in the processing of industrial or consumer products. Equip ment used includes devulcanizers, steam-jacketed kettles, and reactor vessels. Excludes chemical plant and system operators. 2000 employment: 61,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Chemical plant and system operators (0*NET 51-8091.00) Control or operate an entire chemical process or system of machines. 2000 employment: 71,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training Cleaning, washing, and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders 2000 employment: 32,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51-9032.01, 51-9032.02, 51-9032.03, 51-9032.04) Set up, operate, or tend machines that cut or slice materials, such as glass, stone, cork, rubber, tobacco, food, paper, or insulating mate rial. Excludes woodworking machines setters, operators, and ten ders; cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic; and textile cutting machine setters, op erators, and tenders. 2000 employment: 83,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Etchers and engravers (0*NET 51-9192.00) (0*NET 51-9194.01, 51-9194.02, 51-9194.03, 51-9194.04, 51-9194.05, Operate or tend machines to wash or clean products, such as barrels or kegs, glass items, tin plate, food, pulp, coal, plastic, or rubber, to remove impurities. 2000 employment: 20,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Cooling and freezing equipment operators and tenders 51-9194.06) Engrave or etch metal, wood, rubber, or other materials for identifi cation or decorative purposes. Includes such workers as etchercircuit processors, pantograph engravers, and silk screen etchers. Includes photoengravers with prepress technicians and workers. 2000 employment: 15,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as the average Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training (0*NET 51-9193.00) Operate or tend equipment, such as cooling and freezing units, re frigerators, batch freezers, and freezing tunnels, to cool or freeze products, food, blood plasma, and chemicals. 2000 employment: 7,200 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job https://fraser.stlouisfed.org training Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51-9041.01, 51-9041.02) Set up, operate, or tend machines, such as glass forming machines, plodder machines, and tuber machines, to shape and form products, such as glassware, food, rubber, soap, brick, tile, clay, wax, tobacco, 604 Occupational Outlook Handbook or cosmetics. Excludes paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders; and shoe machine operators and tenders. 2000 employment: 525,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 73,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job train ing Medical appliance technicians First-line supervisors/managers of production and operating workers Construct, fit, maintain, or repair medical supportive devices, such as braces, artificial limbs, joints, arch supports, and other surgical and medical appliances. (0*NET 51-1011.00) Supervise and coordinate the activities of production and operating workers, such as inspectors, precision workers, machine setters, and operators, assemblers, fabricators, and plant and system operators. Excludes team or work leaders. 2000 employment: 819,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, and kettle operators and tenders (0*NET 51-9051.00) Operate or tend heating equipment other than basic metal, plastic or food processing equipment. Includes activities, such as anneal ing glass, drying lumber, curing rubber, removing moisture from materials, or boiling soap. 2000 employment: 33,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Gas plant operators (0*NET 51-8092.01, 51-8092.02) Distribute or process gas for utility companies and others by control ling compressors to maintain specified pressures on main pipelines. (0*NET 51-9082.00) 2000 employment: 13,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training Mixing and blending machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51-9023.00) Set up, operate, or tend machines to mix or blend materials, such as chemicals, tobacco, liquids, color pigments, or explosive ingredi ents. Excludes food batchmakers. 2000 employment: 109,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Molders, shapers, and casters, except metal and plastic (0*NET 51-9195.01, 51-9195.02, 51-9195.03, 51-9195.04, 51-9195.05, 51-9195.06, 51-9195.07) Mold, shape, form, cast, or carve products such as food products, figurines, tile, pipes, and candles consisting of clay, glass, plaster, concrete, stone, or combinations of materials. 2000 employment: 42,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 12,000 Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training (0*NET 51-9111.00) Grinding and polishing workers, hand (0*NET 51-9022.00) Grind, sand, or polish, using hand tools or hand-held power tools, a variety of metal, wood, stone, clay, plastic, or glass objects. In cludes chippers, buffers, and finishers. 2000 employment: 49,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Helpers—production workers Operate or tend machines to prepare industrial or consumer prod ucts for storage or shipment. Includes cannery workers who pack food products. 2000 employment: 379,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders (0*NET 51-9196.00) Set up, operate, or tend paper goods machines that perform a vari ety of functions, such as converting, sawing, corrugating, banding, wrapping, boxing, stitching, forming, or sealing paper or paper board sheets into products. (0*NET 51-9198.01, 51-9198.02) Help production workers by performing duties of lesser skill. Du ties include supplying or holding materials or tools, and cleaning work area and equipment. Excludes apprentice workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 2000 employment: 123,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail 605 Petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and gaugers __ __ Airfield operations specialists (0*NET 51-8093.01, 51-8093.02, 51-8093.03) Ensure the safe takeoff and landing of commercial and military air craft. Duties include coordination between air-traffic control and maintenance personnel; dispatching; using airfield landing and navi gational aids; implementing airfield safety procedures; monitoring and maintaining flight records; and applying knowledge of weather information. Control the operation of petroleum refining or processing units. May specialize in controlling manifold and pumping systems, gauging or testing oil in storage tanks, or regulating the flow of oil into pipelines. 2000 employment: 35,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Long-term on-the-job training Separating, filtering, clarifying, precipitating, and still machine setters, operators and tenders ________ (0*NET 51-9012.00) ______ (0*NET 53-2022.00) 2000 employment: 4,800 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians __ (0*NET 53-3011.00) Set up, operate, or tend continuous flow or vat-type equipment; filter presses; shaker screens; centrifuges; condenser tubes; precipi tating, fermenting, or evaporating tanks; scrubbing towers; or batch stills. These machines extract, sort, or separate liquids, gases, or solids from other materials to recover a refined product. Includes dairy processing equipment operators. Excludes chemical equip ment operators and tenders. Drive ambulance or assist ambulance drivers in transporting sick, injured, or convalescent patients. Assist in lifting patients. 2000 employment: 15,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training 2000 employment: 39,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Little or no change Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training Bridge and lock tenders Tire builders Operate and tend bridges, canal locks, and lighthouses to permit marine passage on inland waterways, near shores, and at danger points in waterway passages. May supervise such operations. In cludes drawbridge operators, lock tenders and operators, and slip bridge operators. __________ (0*NET 51-9197.00) Operate machines to build tires from rubber components. 2000 employment: 18,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: More slowly than average Most significant source of training: Moderate-term on-the-job training ___ (0*NET 53-6011.00) 2000 employment: 4,500 Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training First-line supervisors/managers of transportation and material moving machine and vehicle operators (0*NET 53-1031.00) Transportation and material moving occupations Aircraft cargo handling supervisors (0*NET 53-1011.00) Direct ground crew in the loading, unloading, securing, and staging of aircraft cargo and baggage. Determine the quantity and orienta tion of cargo and compute aircraft center of gravity. May accom pany aircraft as member of flight crew and monitor and handle cargo in flight, and assist and brief passengers on safety and emergency procedures. Includes loadmasters. 2000 employment: 9,900 Projected 2000-10 employment change: Faster than average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related https://fraser.stlouisfed.org field Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Directly supervise and coordinate activities of transportation and material-moving machine and vehicle operators and helpers. 2000 employment: 194,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related field Parking lot attendants (0*NET 53-6021.00) Park automobiles or issue tickets for customers in parking lot or garage. May collect fee. 2000 employment: 117,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training 606 Occupational Outlook Handbook Service station attendants (0*NET 53-6031.00) Service automobiles, buses, trucks, boats, and other automotive or marine vehicles with fuel, lubricants, and accessories. Collect pay ment for services and supplies. May lubricate vehicle, change mo tor oil, install antifreeze, or replace lights or other accessories, such as windshield wiper blades or fan belts. May repair or replace tires. 2000 employment: 112,000 ness of signals, adequacy of lighting, and other factors influencing traffic conditions, under direction of traffic engineer. 2000 employment: 4,400 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Transportation inspectors (0*NET 53-6051.01, 53-6051.02, 53-6051.03, 53-6051.04, 53-6051.05, 53-6051.06) Projected 2000-10 employment change: A decline Most significant source of training: Short-term on-the-job training Inspect equipment or goods in connection with the safe transport of cargo or people. Includes rail transport inspectors, such as freight inspectors, car inspectors, rail inspectors, and other nonprecision inspectors of other types of transportation vehicles. Traffic technicians 2000 employment: 25,000 Projected 2000-10 employment change: About as fast as average Most significant source of training: Work experience in a related occupation (0*NET 53-6041.00) Conduct field studies to determine traffic volume, speed, effective https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections Occupational statements in the Handbook use 1 of 6 adjec tives to describe projected change in employment. (See page 20.) The adjectives are based on numerical projections de veloped using the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) employ ment projections model system. Projections of occupational employment are the sixth and final step in the system; the six steps are listed in the discussion of methods below. A full description, including numerical projections of employment, appears in the November 2001 Monthly Labor Review and in the BLS Handbook ofMethods. The Winter 2001 -02 Oc cupational Outlook Quarterly presents the projections in a series of charts. The projections reflect the knowledge and judgment of staff in the BLS Office of Occupational Statistics and Em ployment Projections and of knowledgeable people from other BLS offices, other government agencies, colleges and uni versities, industries, unions, professional societies, and trade associations, who furnished data and information, prepared reports, or reviewed the projections. BLS takes full respon sibility, however, for the projections. Assumptions. The information in the Handbook is based on an economic projection, which is characterized by labor force growth at the same rate (1.1-percent average annual growth) posted over the past 10-year period (1990-2000), strong pro ductivity growth (2.8-percent average annual growth), a con tinued low unemployment rate, and increasing trade deficits. A Federal budget surplus is assumed, with modest growth in Federal defense and nondefense expenditures. Other assump tions include consumer spending on durable goods that grows faster than consumer spending on services and nondurable goods. Within nondurable goods, consumer spending on drags and medicines is assumed to grow much faster than spending on other categories. Within services, consumer spending on telephone services and recreation services is expected to drive growth. Investment spending for produc tion equipment—including communication equipment and computer software—will grow rapidly. Expenditures for con struction of residential structures will grow at a healthy aver age annual rate of 2.3 percent. Spending on nonresidential construction will grow slightly faster than during the 1990 2000 period. Although BLS considers these assumptions reasonable, the economy may follow a different course, resulting in a different pattern of occupational growth. Real growth also could be different because most occupations are sensitive to a much wider variety of factors than those considered in the various projections models. Unforeseen changes in consumer, business, or government spending patterns and in the way goods and services are produced could greatly alter the growth of individual occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Methods. This section summarizes the steps involved in BLS projections of employment by occupation. BLS uses U.S. Census Bureau projections of the population by age, gender, and race, combined with projections of labor force participa tion rates—the percent of the specified group of the popula tion working or seeking work—to arrive at estimates of the civilian labor force for the projected year. BLS projections are developed in a series of six steps, each of which is based on separate projections procedures and models and various related assumptions. These six steps, or system components, deal with: • • • • • • Size and demographic composition of the labor force Growth of the aggregate economy Final demand or gross domestic product (GDP) Interindustry relationships (input-output) Industry output and employment Occupational employment These components provide the overall analytical frame work needed to develop detailed employment projections. Each component is developed in order, with the results of each used as input for successive components and with some results feeding back into earlier steps. Each step is repeated a number of times to ensure internal consistency as assump tions and results are reviewed and revised. The projections of the labor force and assumptions about other demographic variables, fiscal policy, foreign economic activity, and energy prices and availability form the input to the macroeconomic model. This model projects GDP (sales to all final consuming sectors in the economy) and the distri bution of GDP by its major demand components (consumer expenditures, investment, government purchases, and net exports). Estimating the intermediate flows of goods and services—for example, the steel incorporated into automo biles—is the next step in the projections process. The result ing estimates of demand for goods and services are used to project industry output of final products as well as total out put by industry. Industry output of goods and services is then converted to industry employment. Studies of trends in productivity and technology are used to estimate future output per worker hour, and regression analysis is used to estimate worker hours. These estimates, along with output projections, are used to develop the final industry employment projections. An industry-occupation matrix is used to project employ ment for wage and salary workers. The matrix shows occu pational staffing patterns—each occupation as a percent of the workforce in every industry. The matrix covering the 2000-10 period includes 262 detailed industries and 695 de tailed occupations. Data for current staffing patterns in the 607 608 Occupational Outlook Handbook matrix come from the BLS Occupational Employment Sta tistics surveys, which collect data from employers on a 3year cycle. The occupational staffing patterns for each industry were projected based on anticipated changes in the way goods and services are produced, and were then applied to projected industry employment. The resulting employment was summed across industries to derive total wage and salary employment by occupation. Using this method, rapid em ployment growth is projected for health services workers while employment of rail transportation workers is expected to decline, reflecting the projected change in the health ser vices and railroad transportation industries, respectively. Employment in an occupation also may grow or decline as a result of many other factors. For example, rapid growth also is expected among computer support specialists as tech nology advances and organizations place more emphasis on network applications and maximizing the efficiency of their computer systems. On the other hand, automation, the ex https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis panding use of computers, and developments in computer software will result in declining employment among procure ment clerks, tellers, and word processors and typists. The projected-year matrix incorporates these expected changes. Data on self-employed workers in each occupation come from the Current Population Survey. Self-employed work ers were projected separately. Replacement needs, fn most occupations, replacement needs provide more job openings than growth. Replacement open ings occur as people leave occupations. Some individuals transfer to other occupations as a step up the career ladder or to change careers; some stop working temporarily, perhaps to return to school or care for a family; other workers—retir ees for example—leave the labor force permanently. A dis cussion of replacements and the methodology used to prepare estimates is presented in Occupational Projections and Train ing Data, 2002-03 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2542. Occupational Information Network Coverage The Occupational Information Network (0 *NET), which replaces the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, will be used by public em ployment service offices to classify and place job seekers. The 0*NET was developed by job analysts. Future information on job duties, knowledge and skills, education and training, and other occupational characteristics will come directly from workers and employers. Information on 0*NET is available from 0*NET, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Room C-4514, Washington, DC 20210. Telephone (202) 693-3046 Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/programs/onet/. The 0*NET reflects the 2000 Standard Occupational Classifi cation (SOC) system. With 822 detailed occupations, the SOC is designed to provide a universal occupational classification system. All Federal agencies that collect occupational data will adhere to the SOC. Information on the SOC, including its occupational struc ture, is available on the Internet: http://www.bls.gov/soc/. Occupational statements in this 2002-03 edition of the Hand book list the 0*NET codes that relate to or match the definitions used in the Bureau’s Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) survey—the principal source of occupational employment data in the Handbook. All numbers listed also appear in the table below. The table is arranged by 0*NET code, followed by the 0*NET title and the page on which the corresponding Handbook statement or chapter can be found. 11-1011.01 11-1011.02 11 -1021.00 11-1031.00 11-2011.00 11 -2021.00 11 -2022.00 11-2031.00 11-3011.00 11-3021.00 11 -3031.01 11-3031.02 11 -3041.00 11-3042.00 11-3049.99 11-3051.00 11-3061.00 11-3071.01 11-3071.02 11-9011.01 11 -9011.02 11-9011.03 11 -9012.00 11 -9021.00 11-9031.00 13-1041.05 13-1041.06 13-1051.00 13-1061.00 13-1071.01 11-9032.00 11-9033.00 11-9039.99 11 -9041.00 11-9051.00 11 -9061.00 11-9071.00 11-9081.00 11-9111.00 11 -9121.00 11-9131.00 11 -9141.00 11 -9151.00 13-1011.00 13-1021.00 13-1022.00 13-1023.00 13-1031.01 13-1031.02 13-1032.00 13-1041.01 13-1041.02 13-1041.03 13-1041.04 Government service executives.......................................... 86 Private sector executives.....................................................86 General and operations managers...................................... 86 Legislators........................................................................... 86 Advertising and promotions managers.............................. 26 Marketing managers...........................................................26 Sales managers....................................................................26 Public relations managers.................................................. 26 Administrative services managers..................................... 24 Computer and information systems managers................... 35 Treasurers, controllers, and chief financial officers..........52 Financial managers, branch or department........................ 52 Compensation and benefits managers................................ 60 Training and development managers................................. 60 Human resources managers, all other................................ 60 Industrial production managers......................................... 64 Purchasing managers......................................................... 80 Transportation managers.................................................. 595 Storage and distribution managers................................... 595 Nursery and greenhouse managers....................................47 Agricultural crop farm managers.......................................47 Fish hatchery managers ..................................................... 47 Farmers and ranchers......................................................... 47 Construction managers ...................................................... 37 Education administrators, preschool and childcare center/program..............................................................42 Education administrators, elementary and secondary school............................................................42 Education administrators, postsecondary..........................42 Education administrators, all other....................................42 Engineering managers........................................................ 45 Food service managers....................................................... 55 Funeral directors................................................................ 58 Gaming managers............................................................ 594 Lodging managers.............................................................. 70 Medical and health services managers...............................74 Natural sciences managers.................................................45 Postmasters and mail superintendents.............................595 Property, real estate, and community association managers.....................................................77 Social and community service managers.........................595 Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes...............................................594 Purchasing agents and buyers, farm products...................80 Wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products...........80 Purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products..........................................................80 Claims examiners, property and casualty insurance........ 32 Insurance adjusters, examiners, and investigators.............32 Insurance appraisers, auto damage....................................32 Environmental compliance inspectors.............................594 Licensing examiners and inspectors................................594 Equal opportunity representatives and officers...............594 Government property inspectors and investigators........ 594 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 13-1071.02 13-1072.00 13-1073.00 13-1111.00 13-1121.00 13-2011.01 13-2011.02 13-2021.01 13-2021.02 13-2031.00 13 -2041.00 13-2051.00 13-2052.00 13-2053.00 13-2061.00 13-2071.00 13-2072.00 13-2081.00 13-2082.00 15-1011.00 15-102 LOO 15-1031.00 15-1032.00 15-1041.00 15-1051.00 15-1061.00 15-1071.01 15-1081.00 15-1099.99 15-2011.00 15-2021.00 15-2031.00 15-2041.00 17-1011.00 17-1012.00 17-1021.00 17-1022.00 17-2011.00 17-2011.00 17-2021.00 17-2021.00 17-2031.00 17-2031.00 17-2041.00 17-2041.00 17-2051.00 17-2051.00 17-2061.00 Pressure vessel inspectors......................................................594 Coroners.....................................................................................594 Cost estimators........................................................................... 40 Emergency management specialists.................................... 594 Employment interviewers, private or public employment service..............................................................60 Personnel recruiters.................................................................. 60 Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists.......60 Training and development specialists................................... 60 Management analysts................................................................72 Meeting and convention planners........................................595 Accountants................................................................................21 Auditors .......................................................................................21 Assessors................................................................................... 594 Appraisers, real estate............................................................ 594 Budget analysts.......................................................................... 29 Credit analysts.........................................................................594 Financial analysts..................................................................... 50 Personal financial advisors..................................................... 50 Insurance underwriters............................................................. 66 Financial examiners............................................................... 594 Loan counselors......................................................................... 68 Loan officers ,..............................................................................68 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents................... 83 Tax preparers........................................................................... 595 Computer and information scientists, research................. 180 Computer programmers......................................................... 166 Computer software engineers, applications.......................169 Computer software engineers, systems software..............169 Computer support specialists................................................ 171 Computer systems analysts................................................... 180 Database administrators......................................................... 180 Computer security specialists...............................................171 Network systems and data communications analysts....180 Computer specialists, all other..............................................180 Actuaries................................................................................... 163 Mathematicians........................................................................174 Operations research analysts................................................176 Statisticians............................................................................... 178 Architects, except landscape and naval............................... 90 Landscape architects................................................................ 92 Cartographers and photogrammetrists................................. 95 Surveyors.................................................................................... 95 Aerospace engineers...............................................................103 Aerospace engineers.............................................................. 106 Agricultural engineers............................................................ 103 Agricultural engineers............................................................ 107 Biomedical engineers............................................................. 103 Biomedical engineers............................................................. 107 Chemical engineers.................................................................103 Chemical engineers.................................................................108 Civil engineers......................................................................... 103 Civil engineers.........................................................................109 Computer hardware engineers............................................. 103 609 610 Occupational Outlook Handbook 17-2061.00 17-2071.00 17-2071.00 17-2072.00 17-2072.00 17-2081.00 17-2081.00 17-2111.01 17-2111.01 17-2111.02 17-2111.02 17-2111.03 17-2111.03 17-2112.00 17-2112.00 17-2121.01 17-2121.02 17-2131.00 17-2131.00 17-2141.00 17-2141.00 17-2151.00 Computer hardware engineers............................................... 109 Electrical engineers................................................................... 103 Electrical engineers................................................................... 110 Electronics engineers, except computer............................... 103 Electronics engineers, except computer............................... 110 Environmental engineers..........................................................103 Environmental engineers.......................................................... Ill Industrial safety and health engineers...................................103 Industrial safety and health engineers...................................112 Fire-prevention and protection engineers............................103 Fire-prevention and protection engineers............................112 Product safety engineers..........................................................103 Product safety engineers..........................................................112 Industrial engineers................................................................... 103 Industrial engineers................................................................... 112 Marine engineers....................................................................... 103 Marine architects...................................................................... 103 Materials engineers...................................................................103 Materials engineers................................................................... 113 Mechanical engineers.............................................................. 103 Mechanical engineers.............................................................. 114 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers..................................................... 103 17-2151.00 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers......................................................115 17-2161.00 Nuclear engineers ..................................................................... 103 17-2161.00 Nuclear engineers..................................................................... 116 17-2171.00 Petroleum engineers..................................................................103 17-2171.00 Petroleum engineers.................................................................. 117 17-2199.99 Engineers, all other................................................................... 103 17-3011.01 Architectural drafters..................................................................98 17-3011.02 Civil drafters.................................................................................98 17-3012.01 Electronic drafters....................................................................... 98 17-3012.02 Electrical drafters.........................................................................98 17-3013.00 Mechanical drafters.................................................................... 98 17-3021.00 Aerospace engineering and operations technicians......... 100 17-3022.00 Civil engineering technicians..................................................100 17-3023.01 Electronics engineering technicians...................................... 100 17-3023.02 Calibration and instrumentation technicians.................... 100 17-3023.03 Electrical engineering technicians.......................................100 17-3024.00 Electro-mechanical technicians........................................... 100 17-3025.00 Environmental engineering technicians..............................100 17-3026.00 Industrial engineering technicians.......................................100 17-3027.00 Mechanical engineering technicians....................................100 17-3031.01 Surveying technicians...............................................................95 17-3031.02 Mapping technicians.................................................................95 19-1011.00 Animal scientists..................................................................... 216 19-1012.00 Food scientists and technologists.........................................216 19-1013.01 Plant scientists.........................................................................216 19-1013.02 Soil scientists............................................................................216 19-1021.01 Biochemists...............................................................................219 19-1021.02 Biophysicists.............................................................................219 19-1022.00 Microbiologists........................................................................219 19-1023.00 Zoologists and wildlife biologists........................................219 19-1029.99 Biological scientists, all other...............................................219 19-1031.01 Soil conservationists...............................................................222 19-1031.02 Range managers.......................................................................222 19-1031.03 Park naturalists........................................................................ 222 19-1032.00 Foresters.....................................................................................222 19-1041.00 Epidemiologists....................................................................... 219 19-1042.00 Medical scientists, except epidemiologists........................219 19-1099.99 Life scientists, all other.......................................................... 219 19-2011.00 Astronomers...................... 233 19-2012.00 Physicists...................................................................................233 19-2021.00 Atmospheric and space scientists........................................ 225 19-2031.00 Chemists.....................................................................................227 19-2032.00 Materials scientists................................................................. 227 19-2041.00 Environmental scientists and specialists, including health...................................................................................... 230 19-2042.01 Geologists................................................................................. 230 19-2043.00 Hydrologists..............................................................................230 19-3011.00 Economists................................................................................ 239 19-3021.00 Market research analysts....................................................... 239 19-3022.00 Survey researchers...................................................................239 19-3031.01 Educational psychologists.....................................................241 19-3031.02 Clinical psychologists.............................................................241 19-3031.03 Counseling psychologists....................................................... 241 19-3032.00 Industrial-organizational psychologists..............................241 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 19-3 041.00 19-3051.00 19-3091.01 19-3091.02 19-3092.00 19-3093.00 19-3094.00 19-4011.01 19-4011.02 19-4021.00 19-4031.00 19-4041.01 19-4041.02 19-4051.01 19-4051.02 19-4091.00 19-4092.00 19-4093.00 21-1011.00 21-1012.00 21-1013.00 21-1014.00 21-1015.00 21 -1021.00 21-1022.00 21-1023.00 21 -1091.00 21-1092.00 21-1093.00 21-2011.00 21 -2011.00 21-2011.00 21-2011.00 21-2021.00 23-1011.00 23-1021.00 23-1022.00 23-1023.00 23-2011.00 23-2091.00 23-2092.00 23-2093.01 23-2093.02 25-1011.00 25-1021.00 25-1022.00 25-1031.00 25-1032.00 25-1041.00 25-1042.00 25-1043.00 25-1051.00 25-1052.00 25-1053.00 25-1054.00 25-1061.0 25-1062.00 25-1063.00 25-1064.00 25-1065.00 25-1066.00 25-1067.00 25-1069.99 25-1071.00 25-1072.00 25-1081.00 25-1082.00 25-1111.00 25-1112.00 25-1113.00 Sociologists....................................................................... 246 Urban and regional planners............................................ 244 Anthropologists............................................................... 246 Archeologists.................................................................... 246 Geographers.................................................................... 246 Historians........................................................................ 246 Political scientists........................................................... 246 Agricultural technicians..................................................236 Food science technicians..................................................236 Biological technicians.......................................................236 Chemical technicians...................................................... 236 Geological data technicians..............................................236 Geological sample test technicians...................................236 Nuclear equipment operation technicians........................ 236 Nuclear monitoring technicians....................................... 236 Environmental science and protection technicians, including health............................................................236 Forensic science technicians.............................................236 Forest and conservation technicians................................ 236 Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors... 152 Educational, vocational, and school counselors.............152 Marriage and family therapists....................................... 152 Mental health counselors.................................................152 Rehabilitation counselors.................................................152 Child, family, and school social workers........................ 160 Medical and public health social workers...................... 160 Mental health and substance abuse social workers.......160 Health educators..............................................................596 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists......................................................................156 Social and human service assistants............................... 158 Clergy............................................................................... 148 Protestant ministers..........................................................149 Rabbis.............................................................................. 150 Roman Catholic priests....................................................151 Directors, religious activities and education...................595 Lawyers............................................................................210 Administrative law judges, adjudicators, and hearing officers............................................................208 Arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators.........................208 Judges, magistrate judges, and magistrates....................208 Paralegals and legal assistants........................................ 213 Court reporters.................................................................206 Law clerks........................................................................ 596 Title searchers..................................................................596 Title examiners and abstractors...................................... 596 Business teachers, postsecondary....................................197 Computer science teachers, postsecondary..................... 197 Mathematical science teachers, postsecondary.............. 197 Architecture teachers, postsecondary............................. 197 Engineering teachers, postsecondary...............................197 Agricultural sciences teachers, postsecondary............... 197 Biological science teachers, postsecondary.....................197 Forestry and conservation science teachers, postsecondary............................................................... 197 Atmospheric, earth, marine, and space sciences teachers, postsecondary............................................... 197 Chemistry teachers, postsecondary..................................197 Environmental science teachers, postsecondary............. 197 Physics teachers, postsecondary......................................197 Anthropology and archeology teachers, postsecondary............................................................... 197 Area, ethnic, and cultural studies teachers, postsecondary............................................................... 197 Economics teachers, postsecondary.................................197 Geography teachers, postsecondary.................................197 Political science teachers, postsecondary........................197 Psychology teachers, postsecondary................................197 Sociology teachers, postsecondary.................................. 197 Social sciences teachers, postsecondary, all other...........197 Health specialties teachers, postsecondary......................197 Nursing instructors and teachers, postsecondary............ 197 Education teachers, postsecondary..................................197 Library science teachers, postsecondary..........................197 Criminal justice and law enforcement teachers, postsecondary............................................................... 197 Law teachers, postsecondary...........................................197 Social work teachers, postsecondary...............................197 Occupational Information Network Coverage 611 25-1121.00 25-1122.00 25-1123.00 Art, drama, and music teachers, postsecondary..............197 Communications teachers, postsecondary......................197 English language and literature teachers, postsecondary...............................................................197 25-1124.00 Foreign language and literature teachers, postsecondary............................................................... 197 25-1125.00 History teachers, postsecondary..................................... 197 25-1126.00 Philosophy and religion teachers, postsecondary...........197 25-1191.00 Graduate teaching assistants........................................... 197 25-1192.00 Home economics teachers, postsecondary......................197 25-1193.00 Recreation and fitness studies teachers, postsecondary............................................................... 197 25-1194.00 Vocational education teachers postsecondary.................197 25-1199.99 Postsecondary teachers, all other.................................... 197 25-2011.00 Preschool teachers, except special education.................200 25-2012.00 Kindergarten teachers, except special education............200 25-2021.00 Elementary school teachers, except special education...................................................................... 200 25-2022.00 Middle school teachers, except special and vocational education....................................................200 25-2023.00 Vocational education teachers, middle school................200 25-2031.00 Secondary school teachers, except special and vocational education................................................... 200 25-2032.00 Vocational education teachers, secondary school.......... 200 25-2041.00 Special education teachers, preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school.......................... 203 25-2042.00 Special education teachers, middle school.....................203 25-2043.00 Special education teachers, secondary school................203 25-3011.00 Adult literacy, remedial education, and GED teachers and instructors ...............................................194 25-3021.00 Self-enrichment education teachers................................194 25-4011.00 Archivists......................................................................... 184 25-4012.00 Curators........................................................................... 184 25-4013.00 Museum technicians and conservators........................... 184 25-4021.00 Librarians........................................................................ 188 25-4031.00 Library technicians.........................................................190 25-9011.00 Audio-visual collections specialists............................... 595 25-9021.00 Farm and home management advisors........................... 595 25-9031.00 Instructional coordinators...............................................187 25-9041.00 Teacher assistants............................................................192 27-1011.00 Art directors.................................................................... 118 27-1013.01 Painters and illustrators.................................................. 118 27-1013.02 Sketch artists....................................................................118 27-1013.03 Cartoonists...................................................................... 118 27-1013.04 Sculptors..........................................................................118 27-1014.00 Multi-media artists and animators..................................118 27-1021.00 Commercial and industrial designers..............................120 27-1022.00 Fashion designers............................................................ 120 27-1023.00 Floral designers............................................................... 120 27-1024.00 Graphic designers........................................................... 120 27-1025.00 Interior designers............................................................ 120 27-1026.00 Merchandise displayers and window trimmers..............120 27-1027.01 Set designers....................................................................120 27-1027.02 Exhibit designers............................................................. 120 27-2011.00 Actors...............................................................................124 27-2012.01 Producers.........................................................................124 27-2012.02 Directors—stage, motion pictures, television, and radio............................................................................. 124 27-2012.03 Program directors............................................................ 124 27-2012.04 Talent directors............................................................... 124 27-2012.05 Technical directors/managers......................................... 124 27-2021.00 Athletes and sports competitors...................................... 126 27-2022.00 Coaches and scouts......................................................... 126 27-2023.00 Umpires, referees, and other sports officials..................126 27-2031.00 Dancers............................................................................129 27-2032.00 Choreographers................................................................129 27-2041.01 Music directors................................................................131 27-2041.02 Music arrangers and orchestrators.................................. 131 27-2041.03 Composers.......................................................................131 27-2042.01 Singers............................................................................. 131 27-2042.02 Musicians, instrumental.................................................. 131 27-3011.00 Radio and television announcers.................................... 133 27-3012.00 Public address system and other announcers.................. 133 27-3021.00 Broadcast news analysts..................................................137 27-3022.00 Reporters and correspondents......................................... 137 27-3031.00 Public relations specialists.............................................. 141 Digitized 27-3041.00 for FRASER Editors.............................................................................. 145 27-3042.00 Technical writers..............................................................145 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 27-3043.01 27-3043.02 27-3043.03 27-3043.04 27-3091.00 27-4011.00 27-4012.00 27-4013.00 27-4014.00 27-4021.01 27-4021.02 27-4031.00 27-4032.00 29-1011.00 29-1021.00 29-1022.00 29-1023.00 29-1024.00 29-1029.99 29-1031.00 29-1041.00 29-1051.00 29-1061.00 29-1062.00 29-1063.00 29-1064.00 29-1065.00 29-1066.00 29-1067.00 29-1071.00 29-1081.00 29-1111.00 29-1121.00 29-1122.00 29-1123.00 29-1124.00 29-1125.00 29-1126.00 29-1127.00 29-1131.00 29-2011.00 29-2012.00 29-2021.00 29-2031.00 29-2032.00 29-2033.00 29-2034.01 29-2034.02 29-2041.00 29-2051.00 29-2052.00 29-2053.00 29-2054.00 29-2055.00 29-2056.00 29-2061.00 29-2071.00 29-2081.00 29-2091.00 29-9011.00 29-9012.00 29-9091.00 31-1011.00 31-1012.00 31 -1013.00 31 -2011.00 31-2012.00 31 -2021.00 31-2022.00 31 -9011.00 31 -9091.00 31-9092.00 31-9093.00 31-9094.00 31 -9095.00 31-9096.00 Poets and lyricists.....................................................................145 Creative writers.........................................................................145 Caption writers.......................................................................... 145 Copywriters...............................................................................145 Interpreters and translators....................................................596 Audio and video equipment technicians............................. 135 Broadcast technicians..............................................................135 Radio operators.........................................................................135 Sound engineering technicians ............................................. 135 Professional photographers.................................................... 139 Photographers, scientific ........................................................139 Camera operators, television,video, and motion picture...................................................................... 144 Film and video editors............................................................ 144 Chiropractors............................................................................ 248 Dentists, general....................................................................... 250 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons...........................................250 Orthodontists........................................................................... 250 Prosthodontists..........................................................................250 Dentists, all other specialists................................................ 250 Dietitians and nutritionists..................................................... 252 Optometrists............................................................................ 255 Pharmacists............................................................................. 257 Anesthesiologists................................................................... 262 Family and general practitioners..........................................262 Internists, general..................................................................... 262 Obstetricians and gynecologists ........................................262 Pediatricians, general.............................................................. 262 Psychiatrists............................................................................ 262 Surgeons....................................................................................262 Physician assistants................................................................260 Podiatrists................................................................................ 264 Registered nurses....................................................................268 Audiologists.............................................................................272 Occupational therapists......................................................... 253 Physical therapists................................................................. 259 Radiation therapists...............................................................596 Recreational therapists.......................................................... 266 Respiratory therapists........................................................... 270 Speech-language pathologists..............................................272 Veterinarians............................................................................274 Medical and clinical laboratory technologists................. 279 Medical and clinical laboratory technicians.....................279 Dental hygienists.....................................................................281 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................. 277 Diagnostic medical sonographers....................................... 282 Nuclear medicine technologists.......................................... 289 Radiologic technologists....................................................... 296 Radiologic technicians...........................................................296 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics............. 284 Dietetic technicians................................................................ 595 Pharmacy technicians............................................................295 Psychiatric technicians ......................................................... 596 Respiratory therapy technicians...........................................270 Surgical technologists............................................................298 Veterinary technologists and technicians...........................596 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.........287 Medical records and health information technicians..... 288 Opticians, dispensing............................................................. 293 Orthotists and prosthetists.................................................... 596 Occupational health and safety specialists....................... 291 Occupational health and safety technicians...................... 291 Athletic trainers...................................................................... 595 Home health aides :..................................................................317 Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants............................317 Psychiatric aides..................................................................... 317 Occupational therapist assistants.........................................320 Occupational therapist aides.................................................320 Physical therapist assistants.................................................. 322 Physical therapist aides..........................................................322 Massage therapists..................................................................597 Dental assistants..................................................................... 312 Medical assistants................................................................... 314 Medical equipment preparers...............................................597 Medical transcriptionists .......................................................315 Pharmacy aides........................................................................321 Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers..............................................................................598 612 Occupational Outlook Handbook 33-1011.00 First-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers........... .......................................................................339 33-1012.00 First-line supervisors/managers of police and detectives................................................................................344 33-1021.01 Municipal firefighting and prevention supervisors.........341 33-1021.02 Forest firefighting and prevention supervisors.................341 33-1099.99 First-line supervisors/managers, protective service workers, all other............................................................... 597 33-2011.01 Municipal firefighters............................................................ 341 33-2011.02 Forest firefighters.....................................................................341 33-2021.01 Fire inspectors.......................................................................... 341 33-2021.02 Fire investigators......................................................................341 33-2022.00 Forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists.............341 33-3011.00 Bailiffs.......................................................................................339 33-3012.00 Correctional officers and jailers..........................................339 33-3021.01 Police detectives......................................................................344 33-3021.02 Police identification and records officers..........................344 33-3021.03 Criminal investigators and special agents........................ 344 33-3021.04 Child support, missing persons, and unemployment insurance fraud investigators...............344 33-3021.05 Immigration and customs inspectors..................................344 33-3031.00 Fish and game wardens..........................................................344 33-3041.00 Parking enforcement workers.............................................. 598 33-3051.01 Police patrol officers.............................................................. 344 33-3051.02 Highway patrol pilots............................................................ 344 33-3051.03 Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs..................................................344 33-3052.00 Transit and railroad police.................................................... 344 33-9011.00 Animal control workers.........................................................597 33-9021.00 Private detectives and investigators.................................... 348 33-9031.00 Gaming surveillance officers and gaming investigators... 350 33-9032.00 Security guards........................................................................ 350 33-9091.00 Crossing guards........................................................................597 35-1011.00 Chefs and head cooks............................................................ 306 35-1012.00 First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers...................................... 597 35-2011.00 Cooks, fast food...................................................................... 306 35-2012.00 Cooks, institution and cafeteria...........................................306 35-2013.00 Cooks, private household...................................................... 306 35-2014.00 Cooks, restaurant.............................................. 306 35-2015.00 Cooks, short order................................................................... 306 35-2021.00 Food preparation workers..................................................... 306 35-3011.00 Bartenders.................................................................................309 35-3021.00 Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food.............................................................. 309 35-3022.00 Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop.................................................................... 309 35-3031.00 Waiters and waitresses........................................................... 309 35-3041.00 Food servers, nonrestaurant..................................................309 35-9011.00 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers..................................................................309 35-9021.00 Dishwashers............................................................................. 309 35-9031.00 Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop............................................................................309 37-1011.01 Housekeeping supervisors....................................................300 37-1011.02 Janitorial supervisors............................................................. 300 37-1012.01 Lawn service managers..........................................................302 37-1012.02 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— landscaping workers...........................................................302 37-2011.00 Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners....................................................... 300 37-2012.00 Maids and housekeeping cleaners....................................... 300 37-2021.00 Pest control workers.............................................................. 304 37-3011.00 Landscaping and groundskeeping workers....................... 302 37-3012.00 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation.............................................................................. 302 37-3013.00 Tree trimmers and pruners.................................................... 302 39-1011.00 Gaming supervisors............................................................... 333 39-1012.00 Slot key persons.......................................................................333 39-1021.00 First-line supervisors/managers of personal service workers.................................................................... 597 39-2011.00 Animal trainers....................................................................... 324 39-2021.00 Nonfarm animal caretakers...................................................324 39-3011.00 Gaming dealers........................................................................333 39-3012.00 Gaming and sports book writers and runners...................333 39-3019.99 Gaming service workers, all other...................................... 333 39-3021.00 Motion picture projectionists............................................... 598 39-3031.00 Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers.......................598 39-3091.00 Amusement and recreation attendants............................... 596 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 39-3092.00 39-3093.00 39-3099.99 39-4011.00 39-4021.00 39-5011.00 39-5012.00 39-5092.00 39-5093.00 39-5094.00 39-6011.00 39-6012.00 39-6021.00 39-6022.00 39-6031.00 39-6032.00 39-9011.00 39-9021.00 39-9031.00 39-9032.00 39-9041.00 41 -1011.00 41-1012.00 41-2011.00 41 -2012.00 41-2021.00 41-2022.00 41-2031.00 41-3011.00 41-3021.00 41-3031.01 41-3031.02 41-3041.00 41-4011.01 41-4011.02 41-4011.03 41 -4011.04 41 -4011.05 41 -4011.06 41-4012.00 41-9011.00 41-9012.00 41-9021.00 41-9022.00 41-9031.00 41 -9041.00 41 -9091.00 43-1011.01 43-1011.02 43-2011.00 43-2021.01 43-2021.02 43-2099.99 43-3011.00 43-3011.00 43-3021.01 43-3021.01 43-3021.02 43-3021.02 43-3021.03 43-3021.03 43-3031.00 43-3031.00 43-3041.00 43-3041.00 43-3051.00 43-3051.00 43-3061.00 43-3061.00 43-3071.00 43-3071.00 Costume attendants..........................................................597 Locker room, coatroom, and dressing room attendants ... 597 Entertainment attendants and related workers, all other........................................................................ 333 Embalmers......................................................................... 58 Funeral attendants............................................................597 Barbers............................................................................. 326 Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists................326 Manicurists and pedicurists............................................ 326 Shampooers...................................................................... 326 Skin care specialists.........................................................326 Baggage porters and bellhops..........................................597 Concierges........................................................................597 Tour guides and escorts....................................................598 Travel guides....................................................................598 Flight attendants...............................................................331 Transportation attendants, except flight attendants and baggage porters...................................598 Childcare workers............................................................328 Personal and home care aides......................................... 335 Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors......................... 336 Recreation workers..........................................................336 Residential advisors.........................................................598 First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers................................................................ 371 First-line supervisors/managers of non-retail sales workers................................................................ 371 Cashiers............................................................................ 353 Gaming change persons and booth cashiers................... 353 Counter and rental clerks.................................................354 Parts salespersons............................................................599 Retail salespersons...........................................................364 Advertising sales agents...................................................598 Insurance sales agents......................................................359 Sales agents, securities and commodities....................... 373 Sales agents, financial services....................................... 373 Travel agents....................................................................376 Sales representatives, agricultural.................................. 368 Sales representatives, chemical and pharmaceutical.....368 Sales representatives, electrical/electronic..................... 368 Sales representatives, mechanical equipment and supplies................................................................. 368 Sales representatives, medical........................................ 368 Sales representatives, instruments.................................. 368 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products..................... 368 Demonstrators and product promoters............................356 Models.............................................................................356 Real estate brokers.......................................................... 362 Real estate sales agents................................................... 362 Sales engineers.................................................................366 Telemarketers...................................................................599 Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers.......................................598 First-line supervisors, customer service .........................417 First-line supervisors, administrative support................417 Switchboard operators, including answering service....379 Directory assistance operators........................................ 379 Centra! office operators.................................................. 379 Communications equipment operators, all other............379 Bill and account collectors............................................. 386 Bill and account collectors............................................. 388 Statement clerks.............................................................. 386 Statement clerks...............................................................389 Billing, cost, and rate clerks........................................... 386 Billing, cost, and rate clerks........................................... 389 Billing, posting, and calculating machine operators.....386 Billing, posting, and calculating machine operators ..... 389 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............. 386 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks...............390 Gaming cage workers..................................................... 386 Gaming cage workers..................................................... 391 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................................386 Payroll and timekeeping clerks....................................... 392 Procurement clerks.................... 386 Procurement clerks......................................................... 393 Tellers.............................................................................. 386 Tellers.............................................................................. 393 Occupational Information Network Coverage 613 43-4011.00 43-4011.00 43-4021.00 43-4031.01 43-4031.02 43-4031.03 43-4041.01 43-4041.01 43-4041.02 43-4041.02 43-4051.01 43-4051.01 43-4051.02 43-4051.02 43-4061.01 43 -4061.01 43-4061.02 43-4061.02 43-4071.00 43-4071.00 43-4081.00 43-4081.00 43-4111.00 43-4111.00 43-4121.00 43-4121.00 43-4131.00 43-4131.00 43-4141.00 43-4151.00 43-4151.00 43-4161.00 Brokerage clerks..............................................................397 Brokerage clerks..............................................................397 Correspondence clerks.................................................... 397 Court clerks..................................................................... 397 Municipal clerks............................................................ 397 License clerks................................................................ 397 Credit authorizers............................................................ 397 Credit authorizers............................................................ 398 Credit checkers............................................................... 397 Credit checkers............................................................... 398 Adjustment clerks............................................................397 Adjustment clerks............................................................399 Customer service representatives, utilities......................397 Customer service representatives, utilities..................... 399 Claims takers, unemployment benefits........................... 397 Claims takers, unemployment benefits.......................... 402 Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers..................397 Welfare eligibility workers and interviewers..................402 File clerks.........................................................................397 File clerks.........................................................................400 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks............................... 397 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks............................... 401 Interviewers, except eligibility and loan........................ 397 Interviewers, except eligibility and loan......................... 402 Library assistants, clerical................................................397 Library assistants, clerical................................................404 Loan interviewers and clerks............................................397 Loan interviewers and clerks............................................402 New accounts clerks.......................................................397 Order clerks.....................................................................397 Order clerks ................................................................... 405 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..................................................................397 43-4161.00 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping..................................................................401 43-4171.00 Receptionists and information clerks .............................397 43-4171.00 Receptionists and information clerks .............................406 43-4181.01 Travel clerks.....................................................................397 43-4181.01 Travelclerks.....................................................................406 43-4181.02 Reservation and transportation ticket agents..................397 43-4181.02 Reservation and transportation ticket agents..................406 43-5011.00 Cargo and freight agents................................................. 407 43-5011.00 Cargo and freight agents................................................. 410 43-5021.00 Couriers and messengers................................................. 407 43-5021.00 Couriers and messengers..................................................411 43-5031.00 Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers ......................... 407 43-5031.00 Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers .........................412 43-5032.00 Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance............407 43-5032.00 Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance............412 43-5041.00 Meter readers, utilities......................................................407 43-5041.00 Meter readers, utilities......................................................413 43-5051.00 Postal Service clerks.........................................................420 43-5052.00 Postal Service mail carriers..............................................420 43-5053.00 Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators.....................................420 43-5061.00 Production, planning, and expediting clerks...................407 43-5061.00 Production, planning, and expediting clerks................... 413 43-5071.00 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks............................ 407 43-5071.00 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks............................ 414 43-5081.01 Stock clerks, sales floor.................................................. 407 43-5081.01 Stock clerks, sales floor...................................................415 43-5081.02 Marking clerks.................................................................407 43-5081.02 Marking clerks.................................................................415 43-5081.03 Stock clerks—stockroom, warehouse, or storage yard............................................................................. 407 43-5081.03 Stock clerks—stockroom, warehouse, or storage yard............................................................................. 415 43-5081.04 Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales.......................... 407 43-5081.04 Order fillers, wholesale and retail sales.......................... 415 43-5111.00 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping..............................................................407 43-5111.00 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping..............................................................416 43-6011.00 Executive secretaries and administrativeassistants......... 422 43-6012.00 Legal secretaries..............................................................422 43-6013.00 Medical secretaries......................................................... 422 43-6014.00 Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive........... 422 43-9011.00 Computer operators..........................................................381 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 43-9021.00 43-9022.00 43-9031.00 43-9041.01 43-9041.02 43-9051.01 43-9051.02 43-9061.00 43-9071.01 43-9081.00 43-9111.00 45-1011.01 45-1011.02 45-1011.03 45-1011.04 45-1011.05 45-1011.06 45-2011.00 45-2041.00 45-2092.01 45-2092.02 45-2093.00 45-3011.00 45-4011.00 45-4021.00 45-4022.01 45-4023.00 47-1011.01 47-1011.02 47-2011.00 47-2021.00 47-2022.00 47-2031.01 47-2031.02 47-2031.03 47-2031.04 47-2031.05 47-2031.06 47-2041.00 47-2042.00 47-2043.00 47-2044.00 47-2051.00 47-2053.00 47-2061.00 47-2071.00 47-2072.00 47-2073.01 47-2073.02 47-2081.01 47-2081.02 47-2082.00 47-2111.00 47-2121.00 47-2131.00 47-2132.00 47-2141.00 47-2142.00 47-2151.00 47-2152.01 47-2152.02 47-2152.03 47-2161.00 47-2171.00 47-2181.00 47-2211.00 47-2221.00 47-3011.00 Data entry keyers..................................................................... 383 Word processors and typists................................................ 383 Desktop publishers.................................................................384 Insurance claims clerks.........................................................599 insurance policy processing clerks...................................... 599 Mail machine operators, preparation and handling.......599 Mail clerks, except mail machine operators and Postal Service....................................................................... 599 Office clerks, general............................................................ 419 Duplicating machine operators........................................... 599 Proofreaders and copy markers..........................................599 Statistical assistants...............................................................599 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— agricultural crop workers.................................................. 599 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— animal husbandry workers................................................599 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— animal care workers, except livestock........................... 599 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— horticultural workers.......................................................... 599 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— logging workers.................................................................. 599 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— fishery workers .................................................................. 599 Agricultural inspectors ........................................................... 426 Graders and sorters, agricultural products........................ 426 Nursery workers......................................................................426 General farmworkers.............................................................426 Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals..............................426 Fishers and related fishing workers....................................428 Forest and conservation workers........................................ 430 Fallers........................................................................................430 Logging tractor operators.....................................................430 Log graders and scalers ........................................................ 430 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— construction trades workers............................................. 600 First-line supervisors and manager/supervisors— extractive workers.............................................................. 600 Boilermakers............................................................................ 434 Brickmasons and blockmasons............................................435 Stonemasons.............................................................................435 Construction carpenters.........................................................437 Rough carpenters.................................................................... 437 Carpenter assemblers and repairers.................................... 437 Ship carpenters and joiners................................................... 437 Boat builders and shipwrights............................................. 437 Brattice builders.......................................................................437 Carpet installers.......................................................................439 Floor layers, except carpet, wood, and hard tiles.............439 Floor sanders and finishers................................................... 439 Tile and marble setters........................................................... 439 Cement masons and concrete finishers...............................442 Terrazzo workers and finishers............................................ 442 Construction laborers..............................................................449 Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators.....447 Pile-driver operators............................................................... 447 Grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators............................447 Operating engineers................................................................ 447 Ceiling tile installers............................................................... 451 Drywall installers.....................................................................451 Tapers..........................................................................................451 Electricians............................................................................... 452 Glaziers...................................................................................... 457 Insulation workers, floor, ceiling,and wall.........................461 Insulation workers, mechanical............................................ 461 Painters, construction and maintenance.............................. 462 Paperhangers............................................................................. 462 Pipelayers................................................................................... 464 Pipe fitters..................................................................................464 Plumbers.................................................................................... 464 Pipelaying fitters...................................................................... 464 Plasterers and stucco masons.................................................467 Reinforcing iron and rebar workers..................................... 472 Roofers........................................................................................ 469 Sheet metal workers................................................................. 470 Structural iron and steel workers.......................................... 472 Helpers—brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, and tile and marble setters................................................600 614 Occupational Outlook Handbook 47-3012.00 47-3013.00 47-3014.00 Helpers—carpenters ............................................................... 600 Helpers—electricians............................................................ 600 Helpers—painters, paperhangers, plasterers, and stucco masons.....................................................................600 47-3015.00 Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters...........................................................................601 47-3016.00 Helpers—roofers.......................................................................601 47-4011.00 Construction and building inspectors............................... 444 47-4021.00 Elevator installers and repairers .........................................455 47-4031.00 Fence erectors........................................................................... 600 47-4041.01 Irradiated-fuel handlers...........................................................458 47-4051.00 Highway maintenance workers.............................................601 47-4061.00 Rail-track laying and maintenance equipment operators................................................................................601 47-4071.00 Septic tank servicers and sewer pipe cleaners.................. 601 47-4091.00 Segmental pavers..................................................................... 442 47-5011.00 Derrick operators, oil and gas............................................... 600 47-5012.00 Rotary drill operators, oil and gas.....................................601 47-5013.00 Service unit operators, oil, gas, and mining..................... 601 47-5021.01 Construction drillers............................................................... 600 47-5021.02 Well and core drill operators................................................. 600 47-5031.00 Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters...........................................................................600 47-5041.00 Continuous mining machine operators...............................599 47-5071.00 Roustabouts, oil and gas........................................................ 601 47-5081.00 Helpers—extraction workers................................................600 49-1011.00 First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers...................................................... 602 49-2011.01 Automatic teller machine servicers..................................... 475 49-2011.02 Data processing equipment repairers..................................475 49-2011.03 Office machine and cash register servicers.......................475 49-2021.00 Radio mechanics......................................................................481 49-2022.01 Central office and pbx installers and repairers.................481 49-2022.02 Frame wirers, central office..................................................481 49-2022.03 Communication equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers..........................................................................481 49-2022.04 Telecommunications facility examiners............................481 49-2022.05 Station installers and repairers, telephone.........................481 49-2091.00 Avionics technicians...............................................................483 49-2092.01 Electric home appliance and power tool repairers...........477 49-2092.02 Electric motor and switch assemblers and repairers...... 477 49-2092.03 Battery repairers..................................................................... 477 49-2092.04 Transformer repairers............................................................ 477 49-2092.05 Electrical parts reconditioners............................................. 477 49-2092.06 Hand and portable power tool repairers ............................477 49-2093.00 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transportation equipment................................ 477 49-2094.00 Electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment...........................477 49-2095.00 Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay.................................477 49-2096.00 Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles.................................................................... 477 49-2097.00 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers..................................................... 479 49-2098.00 Security and fire alarm systems installers........................602 49-3011.01 Airframe-and-power-plant mechanics.............................. 483 49-3011.02 Aircraft engine specialists...................................................483 49-3011.03 Aircraft body and bonded structure repairers................. 483 49-3021.00 Automotive body and related repairers............................. 485 49-3022.00 Automotive glass installers and repairers........................ 485 49-3023.01 Automotive master mechanics............................................ 487 49-3023.02 Automotive specialty technicians...................................... 487 49-3031.00 Bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists.............................................................................491 49-3041.00 Farm equipment mechanics.................................................493 49-3042.00 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics, except engines....493 49-3043.00 Rail car repairers.................................................................... 493 49-3051.00 Motorboat mechanics............................................................ 496 49-3052.00 Motorcycle mechanics..........................................................496 49-3053.00 Outdoor power equipment and other small engine mechanics............................................................................. 496 49-3091.00 Bicycle repairers.................................................................... 601 49-3092.00 Recreational vehicle service technicians..........................602 49-3093.00 Tire repairers and changers..................................................602 49-9011.00 Mechanical door repairers................................................... 602 49-9012.01 Electric meter installers and repairers.............................. 602 49-9012.02 Valve and regulator repairers.............................................. 602 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 49-9012.03 49-9021.01 49-9021.02 49-9031.01 49-9031.02 49-9041.00 49-9042.00 49-9043.00 49-9044.00 49-9051.00 49-9052.00 49-9061.00 49-9062.00 49-9063.01 49-9063.02 49-9063.03 49-9063.04 49-9064.00 49-9069.99 49-9091.00 49-9094.00 49-9095.00 49-9096.00 49-9098.00 51-1011.00 51-2011.01 51 -2011.02 51-2011.03 51-2021.00 51-2022.00 51-2023.00 51-2031.00 51-2041.01 51 -2041.02 51-2091.00 51-2092.00 51-2093.00 51 -2099.99 51-3011.01 51 -3011.02 51-3021.00 51-3022.00 51-3023.00 51 -3091.00 51-3092.00 51 -3093.00 51 -4011.01 51 -4012.00 51 -4021.00 51 -4022.00 51 -4023.00 51 -4031.01 51 -4031.02 51 -4031.03 51 -4031.04 51-4032.00 51-4033.01 51 -4033.02 51 -4034.00 51-4035.00 51-4041.00 Meter mechanics............................................................... 602 Heating and air-conditioning mechanics......................... 501 Refrigeration mechanics...................................................501 Home appliance installers.................................................504 Gas appliance repairers.....................................................504 Industrial machinery mechanics...................................... 506 Maintenance and repair workers, general....................... 506 Maintenance workers, machinery.................................... 506 Millwrights ......................................................................506 Electrical power-line installers and repairers.................508 Telecommunications line installers and repairers............508 Camera and photographic equipment repairers..............511 Medical equipment repairers........................................... 511 Keyboard instrument repairers and tuners...................... 511 Stringed instrument repairers and tuners......................... 511 Reed or wind instrument repairers and tuners................511 Percussion instrument repairers and tuners.....................511 Watch repairers.................................................................511 Precision instrument and equipment repairers, all other.........................................................................511 Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers................................................................. 499 Locksmiths and safe repairers......................................... 602 Manufactured building and mobile home installers..... 602 Riggers............................................................................. 602 Helpers—installation, maintenance, and repair workers......................................................................... 602 First-line supervisors/managers of production and operating workers..................................................604 Aircraft structure assemblers, precision......................... 514 Aircraft systems assemblers, precision.......................... 514 Aircraft rigging assemblers ........................................... 514 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers.................................. 514 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers............. 514 Electromechanical equipment assemblers...................... 514 Engine and other machine assemblers............................ 514 Metal fabricators, structural metal products................... 514 Fitters, structural metal- precision.................................. 514 Fiberglass laminators and fabricators............................. 514 Team assemblers..............................................................514 Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators....514 Assemblers and fabricators, all other.............................514 Bakers, bread and pastry................................................. 516 Bakers, manufacturing.....................................................516 Butchers and meat cutters............................................... 516 Meat, poultry, and fish cutters and trimmers..................516 Slaughterers and meat packers........................................ 516 Food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators and tenders.....................................516 Food batchmakers........................................................... 516 Food cooking machine operators and tenders................ 516 Numerical control machine tool operators and tenders, metal and plastic.............................................519 Numerical tool and process control programmers......... 519 Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic................... 523 Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic..........................................................523 Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.......................................................... 523 Sawing machine tool setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic.........................................523 Punching machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic.......................................................... 523 Press and press brake machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic.........................................523 Shear and slitter machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic.........................................523 Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic.................... 523 Grinding, honing, lapping, and deburring machine set-up operators.............................................523 Buffing and polishing set-up operators..........................523 Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders metal and plastic..................... 523 Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic......................................523 Machinists....................................................................... 521 Occupational Information Network Cove rage 615 Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders.................. 523 Powers and casters, metal ....................................................523 Model makers, metal and plastic......................................... 523 Patternmakers, metal and plastic......................................... 523 Foundry mold and coremakers.............................................. 523 Plastic molding and casting machine setters and set-up operators............................................................523 51-4072.02 Plastic molding and casting machine operators and tenders.................................................................................523 51-4072.03 Metal molding, coremaking, and casting machine setters and set-up operators............................. 523 51-4072.04 Metal molding, coremaking, and casting machine operators and tenders......................................................... 523 51-4072.05 Casting machine set-up operators........................................ 523 Combination machine tool setters and set-up 51-4081.01 operators, metal and plastic.............................................. 523 51-4081.02 Combination machine tool operators and tenders, metal and plastic..................................................................523 51-4111.00 Tool and die makers................................................................ 526 51-4121.01 Welders, production.................................................................528 51-4121.02 Welders and cutters..................................................................528 51-4121.03 Welder-fitters............................................................................528 51-4121.04 Solderers.................................................................................... 528 51-4121.05 Brazers........................................................................................528 Welding machinesetters and set-up operators....................528 51-4122.01 51-4122.02 Welding machine operators and tenders.............................528 51-4122.03 Soldering and brazing machine setters and set-up operators .............................................................................. 528 51-4122.04 Soldering and brazing machine operators and tenders ... 528 51-4191.01 Heating equipment setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic.............................................. ..................523 51-4191.02 Heat treating, annealing, and tempering machine operators and tenders, metal and plastic........................ 523 51-4191.03 Heaters, metal and plastic...................................................... 523 51-4192.00 Lay-out workers, metal and plastic......................................523 Electrolytic plating and coating machine setters 51-4193.01 and set-up operators, metal and plastic.......................... 523 51-4193.02 Electrolytic plating and coating machine operators and tenders, metal and plastic.......................................... 523 51-4193.03 Nonelectrolytic plating and coating machine setters and set-up operators, metal and plastic.............523 51-4193.04 Nonelectrolytic plating and coating machine operators and tenders, metal and plastic........................ 523 51-4194.00 Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners....................................523 51-4199.99 Metal workers and plastic workers, all other.....................523 Bindery machine setters and set-up operators.................. 535 51-5011.01 51-5011.02 Bindery machine operators and tenders..............................535 51-5012.00 Bookbinders.............................................................................. 535 51-5021.00 Job printers.................................................................................537 Hand compositors and typesetters....................................... 537 51-5022.01 51-5022.02 Paste-up workers...................................................................... 537 51-5022.03 Photoengravers..........................................................................537 51-5022.04 Camera operators..................................................................... 537 51-5022.05 Scanner operators..................................................................... 537 51-5022.06 Strippers..................................................................................... 537 51-4051.00 51-4052.00 51-4061.00 51-4062.00 51-4071.00 51-4072.01 Platemakers............................................................................... Dot etchers.................................................................................537 Electronic masking system operators................................. 537 Electrotypers and stereotypers..............................................537 Plate finishers............................................................................ 537 Typesetting and composing machine operators and tenders............................................................................ 537 51-5022.13 Photoengraving and lithographing machine operators and tenders....................................................... ..537 ..540 51-5023.01 Precision printing workers................................................. ..540 51-5023.02 Offset lithographic press setters and set-up operators .. ..540 Letterpress setters and set-up operators.......................... 51-5023.03 ..540 51-5023.04 Design printing machine setters and set-up operators .. 51-5023.05 Marking and identification printing machine setters and set-up operators...............................................540 Screen printing machine setters and set-up operators......540 51-5023.06 ...540 51-5023.07 Embossing machine set-up operators.............................. ...540 51-5023.08 Engraver set-up operators.................................................. ...540 51-5023.09 Printing press machine operators and tenders ............... ...542 Spotters, dry cleaning......................................................... 51-6011.01 ...542 51-6011.02 Precision dyers...................................................................... Laundry and drycleaning machine operators and 51-6011.03 https://fraser.stlouisfed.orgtenders, except pressing................................................. ...542 51-5022.07 51-5022.08 51-5022.09 51-5022.10 51-5022.11 51-5022.12 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 51 -6021.01 51-6021.02 Pressers, delicate fabrics............................................ Pressing machine operators and tenders— textile, garment, and related materials................... 51-6021.03 Pressers, hand............................................................ 51 -6031.01 Sewing machine operators, garment.......................... 51 -6031.02 Sewing machine operators, non-garment................... 51 -6041.00 Shoe and leather workers and repairers..................... 51 -6042.00 Shoe machine operators and tenders......................... 51 -6051.00 Sewers, hand.............................................................. 51 -6052.01 Shop and alteration tailors........................................ 51-6052.02 Custom tailors............................................................ 51 -6061.00 Textile bleaching and dyeing machine operators and tenders............................................................. 51 -6062.00 Textile cutting machine setters, operators, and tenders.................................................................... 51-6063.00 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders........................................... 51-6064.00 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine setters, operators, and tenders................ 51 -6091.01 Extruding and forming machine operators and tenders, synthetic or glass fibers.......................... 51 -6092.00 Fabric and apparel patternmakers............................ 51-6093.00 Upholsterers.................................................-•■■■•.... 51 -6099.99 Textile, apparel, and furnishings workers, all other . 51-7011.00 Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters....................... 51-7021.00 Furniture finishers.................................................... 51-7031.00 Model makers, wood................................................ 51-7032.00 Patternmakers, wood................................................ 51-7041.01 Sawing machine setters and set-up operators.......... 51 -7041.02 Sawing machine operators and tenders.................... 51 -7042.01 Woodworking machine setters and set-up operators, except sawing...................................... 51-7042.02 Woodworking machine operators and tenders, except sawing....................................................... 51 -7099.99 Woodworkers, all other............................................ 51-8011.00 Nuclear power reactor operators............................. 51-8012.00 Power distributors and dispatchers......................... 51-8013.01 Power generating plant operators, except auxiliary equipment operators............................ 51-8013.02 Auxiliary equipment operators, power................... 51 -8021.01 Boiler operators and tenders, low pressure............. 51-8021.02 Stationary engineers................................................ 51 -8031.00 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators................................................. 51 -8091.00 Chemical plant and system operators..................... 51 -8092.01 Gas processing plant operators............................... 51-8092.02 Gas distribution plant operators.............................. 51 -8093.01 Petroleum pump system operators.......................... 51 -8093.02 Petroleum refinery and control panel operators...... 51-8093.03 Gaugers................................................................... 51 -9011.01 Chemical equipment controllers and operators...... 51-9011.02 Chemical equipment tenders.................... ............. 51-9012.00 Separating, filtering, clarifying, precipitating, and still machine setters, operators, and tenders...... 51 -9021.00 Crushing, grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders........................................ 51 -9022.00 Grinding and polishing workers, hand................... 51-9023.00 Mixing and blending machine setters, operators, and tenders......................................................... 51 -9031.00 Cutters and trimmers, hand.................................... 51 -9032.01 Fiber product cutting machine setters and set-up operators ............................................................ 51-9032.02 Stone sawyers......................................................... 51 -9032.03 Glass cutting machine setters and set-up operators 51 -9032.04 Cutting and slicing machine operators and tenders 51 -9041.01 Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine setters and set-up operators............... 51 -9041.02 Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine operators and tenders.......................... 51 -9051.00 Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, and kettle operators and tenders........................................ 51-9061.01 Materials inspectors.............................................. 51 -9061.02 Mechanical inspectors.......................................... 51 -9061.03 Precision devices inspectors and testers............... 51 -9061.04 Electrical and electronic inspectors and testers.... 51 -9061.05 Production inspectors, testers, graders, sorters, samplers, weighers............................................ 51-9071.01 Jewelers................................................................. 542 542 542 542 542 542 542 542 542 ,542 .542 .542 .542 .542 .542 .542 .542 .542 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,546 ,530 ,530 ,530 ,530 ...531 .,531 .,533 ,.603 .,604 .,604 .,605 .,605 .,605 .,603 .,603 ...605 ,,603 ,,604 ,,604 ,,603 ,,603 ,,603 ,,603 ,,603 ,,603 ,,603 .... 604 .....550 .....550 .....550 .....550 .....550 .....552 616 Occupational Outlook Handbook 51-9071.02 51 -9071.03 51-9071.04 51-9071.05 51-9071.06 51 -9081.00 51 -9082.00 51 -9083.01 51-9083.02 51 -9111.00 51-9121.01 51 -9121.02 51-9122.00 51 -9123.00 51-9131.01 51-9131.02 51-9131.03 51-9131.04 51-9132.00 51-9141.00 51-9191.00 51-9192.00 51-9193.00 51-9194.01 51-9194.02 51-9194.03 51 -9194.04 51-9194.05 51-9194.06 51-9195.01 51 -9195.02 51-9195.03 51 -9195.04 51-9195.05 51-9195.06 51 -9195.07 51-9196.00 51-9197.00 51-9198.01 51 -9198.02 53-1011.00 53-1021.00 53-1031.00 53-2011.00 53-2012.00 53-2021.00 53-2022.00 53-3011.00 53-3021.00 53-3022.00 53-3031.00 53-3032.01 53-3032.02 53-3033.00 53-3041.00 53-4011.00 53-4012.00 53-4013.00 53-4021.01 Silversmiths................................................................................ 552 Model and mold makers, jewelry........................................ 552 Bench workers, jewelry........................................................... 552 Pewter casters and finishers.................................................... 552 Gem and diamond workers..................................................... 552 Dental laboratory technicians.................................................548 Medical appliance technicians............................................... 604 Precision lens grinders and polishers....................................554 Optical instrument assemblers............................................... 554 Packaging and filling machine operators and tenders............................................................................ 604 Coating, painting, and spraying machine setters and set-up operators............................................... 556 Coating, painting, and spraying machine operators and tenders.......................................................... 556 Painters, transportation equipment...................................... 556 Painting, coating, and decoratingworkers...........................556 Photographic retouchers and restorers.............................. 558 Photographic reproduction technicians ..............................558 Photographic hand developers............................................ 558 Film laboratory technicians...................................................558 Photographic processing machine operators.....................558 Semiconductor processors.....................................................560 Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders ... 603 Cleaning, washing, and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders .....................................603 Cooling and freezing equipment operators and tenders ...603 Precision etchers and engravers, hand or machine.......... 603 Engravers/carvers................................................................... 603 Etchers..................................................................................... 603 Pantograph engravers..............................................................603 Etchers, hand.............................................................................603 Engravers, hand........................................................................603 Precision mold and pattern casters, except nonferrous metals.................................................................604 Precision pattern and die casters, nonferrous metals.....604 Stone cutters and carvers.......................................................604 Glass blowers, molders, benders, and finishers............... 604 Potters.......................................................................................604 Mold makers, hand................................................................604 Molding and casting workers............................................... 604 Paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders......604 Tire builders............................................................................ 605 Production laborers................................................................604 Production helpers.................................................................604 Aircraft cargo handling supervisors ...................................605 First-line supervisors/managers of helpers, laborers, and material movers, hand..............................568 First-line supervisors/managers of transportation and material-moving machine and vehicle operators ............................................................................... 605 Airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers....................562 Commercial pilots..................................................................562 Air traffic controllers............................................................ 565 Airfield operations specialists............................................ 605 Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians......................................605 Busdrivers, transit and intercity..........................................570 Busdrivers, school.................................................................. 570 Driver/sales workers..............................................................576 Truckdrivers, heavy...............................................................576 Tractor-trailer truck drivers.................................................576 Truckdrivers, light or delivery services............................ 576 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs.................................................. 573 Locomotive engineers........................................................... 579 Locomotive firers................................................................... 579 Rail yard engineers, dinkey operators, and hostlers......579 Train crew members ............................................................. 579 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 53-4021.02 5 3 -4031.00 53-4041.00 53-4099.99 53-5011.01 53-5011.02 53-5021.01 53-5021.02 53-5021.03 53-5022.00 53-5031.00 53-6011.00 5 3-6021.00 53-6031.00 53-6041.00 53-6051.01 53-6051.02 53-6051.03 53-6051.04 53-6051.05 53-6051.06 53-7011.00 53-7021.00 53-7031.00 53-7032.01 53-7032.02 53-7033.00 53-7041.00 53-7051.00 53-7061.00 53-7062.01 53-7062.02 53-7062.03 53-7063.00 53-7064.00 53-7071.01 53-7071.02 53-7072.00 53-7073.00 53-7081.00 53-7111.00 53-7121.00 53-7199.99 55-1011.00 55-1012.00 55-1013.00 55-1014.00 55-1015.00 55-1016.00 55-1017.00 55-1019.99 55-2011.00 55-2012.00 55-2013.00 55-3011.00 55-3012.00 55-3013.00 55-3014.00 55-3015.00 55-3016.00 55-3017.00 55-3018.00 55-3019.99 Railroad yard workers..................................................... 579 Railroad conductors and yardmasters............................ 579 Subway and streetcar operators......................................579 Rail transportation workers, all other........................... 579 Able seamen................................................................... 582 Ordinary seamen and marine oilers................................582 Ship and boat captains................................................... 582 Mates—ship, boat, and barge.........................................582 Pilots, ship....................................................................... 582 Motorboat operators........................................................ 582 Ship engineers................................................................... 582 Bridge and lock tenders.................................................. 605 Parking lot attendants .....................................................605 Service station attendants............................................... 606 Traffic technicians..........................................................606 Aviation inspectors.........................................................606 Public transportation inspectors.....................................606 Marine cargo inspectors.................................................. 606 Railroad inspectors......................................................... 606 Motor vehicle inspectors................................................. 606 Freight inspectors............................................................. 606 Conveyor operators and tenders......................................568 Crane and tower operators............................................... 568 Dredge operators...............................................................568 Excavating and loading machine operators................... 568 Dragline operators...........................................................568 Loading machine operators, underground mining..........568 Hoist and winch operators.............................................. 568 Industrial truck and tractor operators.............................568 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment...............................568 Stevedores, except equipment operators.........................568 Grips and set-up workers, motion picture sets, studios, and stages ....................................... Freight, stock, and material movers, hand.......................568 Machine feeders and offbearers....................................... 568 Packers and packagers, hand........................................... 568 Gas pumping station operators........................................568 Gas compressor operators................................................568 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers.................... 568 Wellhead pumpers............................................................ 568 Refuse and recyclable material collectors.......................568 Shuttle car operators........................................................ 568 Tank car, truck, and ship loaders....................................568 Material moving workers, all other................................. 568 Air crew officers.............................................................. 586 Aircraft launch and recovery officers..............................586 Armored assault vehicle officers.....................................586 Artillery and missile officers...........................................586 Command and control center officers.............................586 Infantry officers................................................................ 586 Special forces officers ....................................................586 Military officer special and tactical operations leaders/managers, all other...........................................586 First-line supervisors/managers of air crew members .... 586 First-line supervisors/managers of weapons specialists/crewmembers.............................................586 First-line supervisors/managers of all other tactical operations specialists....................................... 586 Air crew members..............................................................586 Aircraft launch and recovery specialists...........................586 Armored assault vehicle crew members...........................586 Artillery and missile crew members................................. 586 Command and control center specialists.......................... 586 Infantry.............................................................................. 5gg Radar and sonar technicians............................................. 586 Special forces............................................................... 586 Military enlisted tactical operations and air/weapons specialists and crew members, all other....................... 586 568 Reprints All occupational statements in the 2002-03 Occupational Outlook Handbook are available in reprint form. Reprints are especially useful for jobseekers who want to know about a single field and for counselors who need to stretch the contents of a single Handbook among many students. The bulletin numbers and titles of all 17 reprints along with an index to the reprints are listed below. Prices for individual reprints or for a complete set of reprints as well as an order form are acces sible on the Internet: http://www.bls.gov/emp/. Bulletin No. 2540-1 2540-2 2540-3 2540-4 2540-5 2540-6 2540-7 2540-8 2540-9 2540-10 2540-11 2540-12 2540-13 2540-14 2540-15 2540-16 2540-17 Title Tomorrow’s Jobs Management, Business, and Financial Occupations Engineers, Life and Physical Scientists, and Related Occupations Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations Education and Community and Social Service Occupations Computer and Mathematical Occupations Legal and Social Science Occupations Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Health Technologists, Technicians, and Healthcare Support Occupations Service Occupations: Cleaning, Food, and Personal Protective Service Occupations Sales Occupations Office and Administrative Support Occupations Transportation and Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations Construction Trades and Related Occupations Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Production Occupations Ifyou want information about: order Bulletin No. 2540A Accountants and auditors.................................................................2 Actors, producers, and directors...................................................... 4 Actuaries.............................................................................................6 Administrative services managers................................................... 2 Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers............................................................................... 2 Aerospace engineers......................................................................... 3 Agricultural and food scientists....................................................... 3 Agricultural engineers...................................................................... 3 Agricultural workers........................................................................14 Air traffic controllers.......................................................................14 Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians................................................................................... 16 Aircraft pilots and flight engineers................................................ 14 Animal care and service workers................................................... 10 Announcers........................................................................................ 4 Architects, except landscape and naval...........................................3 Archivists, curators, and museum technicians...............................5 Artists and related workers...............................................................4 Assemblers and fabricators............................................................. 17 Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers............................4 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Atmospheric scientists......................................................................3 Automotive body and related repairers........................................ 16 Automotive service technicians and mechanics...........................16 B Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers........................................................................................ 10 Bill and account collectors.............................................................13 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators........................13 Biological and medical scientists....................................................3 Biomedical engineers.......................................................................3 Boilermakers.................................................................................... 15 Bookbinders and bindery workers................................................. 17 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................13 Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons.............................14 Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators.............................................................................. 4 Brokerage clerks............................................................................. 13 Budget analysts................................................................................. 2 Building cleaning workers..............................................................10 Busdrivers........................................................................................ 14 C Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................................9 Cargo and freight agents.................................................................13 Carpenters........................................................................................ 15 Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers...............................15 Cashiers........................................................................................... 13 Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers......................................................................... 15 Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers................................ 10 Chemical engineers.......................................................................... 3 Chemists and materials scientists....................................................3 Childcare workers.......................................................................... 10 Chiropractors..................................................................................... 8 Civil engineers...................................................................................3 Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators...........2 Clergy............................................................... 5 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians..........................9 Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers....................................................................................... 16 Communications equipment operators..........................................12 Computer and information systems managers................................2 Computer control programmers and operators........................... 17 Computer hardware engineers......................................................... 3 Computer operators........................................................................ 13 Computer programmers....................................................................6 Computer software engineers.......................................................... 6 Computer support specialists and systems administrators............ 6 Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers........ 16 Conservation scientists and foresters............................................. 3 Construction and building inspectors............................................15 Construction equipment operators................................................15 Construction laborers..................................................................... 15 Construction managers.....................................................................2 Correctional officers..................................................................... 11 Cost estimators................................................................................. 2 Counselors......................................................................................... 5 Counter and rental clerks................................................................12 Couriers and messengers................................................................13 Court reporters...................................................................................7 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks........................................13 Customer service representatives.................................................. 13 617 618 Occupational Outlook Handbook D I Dancers and choreographers............................................................. 4 Data entry and information processing workers........................... 13 Demonstrators, product promoters, and models........................... 12 Dental assistants.............................................................................. 9 Dental hygienists............................................................................. 9 Dental laboratory technicians................................................9 or 17 Dentists...............................................................................................8 Designers........................................................................................... 4 Desktop publishers.......................................................................... 13 Diagnostic medical sonographers.....................................................9 Diesel service technicians and mechanics.................................. 16 Dietitians and nutritionists............................................................. 8 Dispatchers.......................................................................................13 Drafters...............................................................................................3 Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers................... 15 Industrial engineers, including health and safety........................... 3 Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers....................................................................................... 16 Industrial production managers........................................................2 Information and record clerks........................................................ 13 Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, weighers........................... 17 Instructional coordinators................................................................. 5 Insulation workers........................................................................... 15 Insurance sales agents.................................................................... 11 Insurance underwriters......................................................................2 Interviewers...................................................................................... 13 J Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers........................... 16 Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers............................. 7 E L Economists and market and survey researchers............................. 7 Education administrators.................................................................. 2 Electrical and electronics engineers, except computer...................3 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers ...................... 16 Electricians.................................................................................... 14 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers..................................................................................... 16 Elevator installers and repairers................................................... 15 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics........................... 9 Engineering and natural sciences managers................................... 2 Engineering technicians.................................................................... 3 Engineers........................................................................................... 3 Environmental engineers.................................................................. 3 Environmental scientists and geoscientists................................... 3 F Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers................................ 2 File clerks........................................................................................ 13 Financial analysts and personal financial advisors.........................2 Financial clerks.............................................................................. 13 Financial managers............................................................................2 Firefighting occupations................................................................ 11 Fishers and fishing vessel operators............................................. 14 Flight attendants..............................................................................10 Food and beverage serving and related workers.......................... 10 Food processing occupations........................................................ 17 Food service managers..................................................................... 2 Forest, conservation, and logging workers....................................14 Funeral directors................................................................................2 G Gaming cage workers......................................................................13 Gaming services occupations....................................................... 10 Glaziers............................................................................................ 15 Grounds maintenance workers..................................................... 10 H Hazardous materials removal workers........................................ 14 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers....................................................................................... 16 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics.................................................................................... 16 Home appliance repairers............................................................... 16 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.............................................. 13 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.... 12 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers Digitized FRASER andforspecialists............................................................................. 2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Landscape architects.......................................................................... 3 Lawyers............................................................................................... 7 Librarians............................................................................................ 5 Library assistants, clerical............................................................. 12 Library technicians............................................................................ 5 Licensed practical and vocational nurses........................................9 Line installers and repairers............................................................ 16 Loan counselors and officers............................................................ 2 Lodging managers............................................................................. 2 M Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic..... 17 Machinists...................................................................................... 17 Management analysts........................................................................2 Material moving operators............................................................. 14 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers.........................................13 Materials engineers............................................................................ 3 Mathematicians.................................................................................. 6 Mechanical engineers........................................................................ 3 Medical and health services managers............................................ 2 Medical assistants.............................................................................. 9 Medical records and health information technicians......................9 Medical transcriptionists.................................................................. 9 Meter readers, utilities................................................................... 13 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers.........................................................................................3 Musicians, singers, and related workers.......................................... 4 N News analysts, reporters, andcorrespondents................................. 4 Nuclear engineers.............................................................................. 3 Nuclear medicine technologists........................................................ 9 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.................................. 9 O Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians........ 9 Occupational therapist assistants and aides.....................................9 Occupational therapists.....................................................................8 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers....................................................................................... 13 Office clerks, general..................................................................... 12 Operations research analysts............................................................ 6 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians....................................... 9 or 17 Opticians, dispensing........................................................................ 9 Optometrists...................................................................................... 8 Order clerks......................................................................................12 Reprints 619 P Painters and paperhangers.............................................................. 15 Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance................................................................................. 17 Paralegals and legal assistants..........................................................7 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................................................12 Personal and home care aides.........................................................10 Pest control workers........................................................................10 Petroleum engineers..........................................................................3 Pharmacists........................................................................................ 8 Pharmacy aides.................................................................................. 9 Pharmacy technicians....................................................................... 9 Photographers.............................................................. 4 Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.......................................................................................17 Physical therapist assistants and aides.............................................9 Physical therapists............................................................................. 8 Physician assistants........................................................................... 8 Physicians and surgeons................................................................... 8 Physicists and astronomers...............................................................3 Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters..................... 15 Plasterers and stucco masons.........................................................15 Podiatrists...........................................................................................8 Police and detectives..................................................................... 11 Postal service workers.....................................................................13 Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers....................17 Precision instrument and equipment repairers............................. 16 Prepress technicians and workers.................................................. 17 Printing machine operators........................................................... 17 Private detectives and investigators............................................. 11 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists.... 5 or 11 Procurement clerks.......................................................................... 13 Production, planning, and expediting clerks................................ 13 Property, real estate, and community association managers.......... 2 Protestant ministers...........................................................................5 Psychologists..................................................................................... 7 Public relations specialists................................................................4 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................... 2 R Rabbis.................................................................................................5 Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers........................................................................................16 Radiologic technologists and technicians.......................................9 Rail transportation occupations...................................................... 14 Real estate brokers and sales agents.............................................. 12 Receptionists and information clerks............................................ 13 Recreation and fitness workers.......................................................10 Recreational therapists...................................................................... 8 Registered nurses............................................................................... 8 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks ..13 Respiratory therapists....................................................................... 8 Retail salespersons........................................................................ 12 Roman Catholic priests.................................................................... 5 Roofers............................................................................................. 15 S Sales engineers.............................................................................. 12 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing.................12 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sales worker supervisors................................................................ 12 Science technicians........................................................................... 3 Secretaries and administrative assistants..................................... 13 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.... 12 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers...................... 11 Semiconductor processors..............................................................17 Sheet metal workers....................................................................... 15 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks...........................................13 Small engine mechanics.................... 16 Social and human service assistants................................................5 Social scientists, other......................................................................7 Social workers.................................................................................. 5 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists............................. 8 Stationary engineers and boiler operators.................................... 17 Statisticians........................................................................................ 6 Stock clerks and order fillers......................................................... 13 Structural and reinforcing metal workers..................................... 15 Surgical technologists.......................................................................9 Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.....................................................................................3 Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators............................................................................... 6 T Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents...............................2 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs........................................................... 14 Teacher assistants............................................................................. 5 Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.......................................................................................5 Teachers—postsecondary................................................................ 5 Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.......................................................................................5 Teachers—special education........................................................... 5 Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.....................................................................................4 Tellers............................................................................................. 13 Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..............................17 Tool and die makers........................................................................ 17 Top executive.....................................................................................2 Travel agents.................................................................................... 12 Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers...........................................14 U Urban and regional planners...........................................................7 V Veterinarians.................................................................................... 8 W Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.... 17 Water transportation occupations................................................ 14 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping ... 13 Welders, soldering, and brazing workers........................... 15 or 16 Woodworkers........................................................................15 or 17 Writers and editors......................................................................... 4 Index A A&P mechanics, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians............................................................................. 483 Able seamen, see: Water transportation occupations............................... 582 Abstractors, see: Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers................ 596 Academic deans, see: Education administrators.......................................... 42 Accountants and auditors................................................................................... 21 Account collectors, see: Bill and account collectors................................ 388 Account executives, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................................... 373 Account executives, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers...................................................................... 26 Accounting clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................................................................................................. 390 Accounting clerks, see: Financial clerks.....................................................386 Accounts payable clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................................................................................. 390 Accounts receivable clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.............................................................................................. 390 Acoustical carpenters, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers...................................................................................................... 451 Actors, see: Actors, producers, and directors............................................. 124 Actors, producers and directors.......................................................................124 Actuaries...............................................................................................................163 Adjudicators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers......208 Administrative law judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers...........................................................................................208 Administrative services managers....................................................................24 Administrators, see: Top executives.................................................................86 Administrators, education, see: Education administrators......................... 42 Administrators, medical and health services, see: Medical and health services managers.......................................................................................... 74 Admissions officers, see: Education administrators....................................42 Admitting interviewers, see: Interviewers .................................................. 402 Adult basic education teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.................................................194 Adult basic education teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.................................................194 Adult basic education teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.................................................194 Adult literacy teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.................................................................. 194 Adult protective social workers, see: Social workers................................160 Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers............................................................................................... 26 Advertising sales agents................................................................................... 598 Advisors, personal financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors...........................................................................................50 Aerobics instructors, see: Recreation and fitness workers......................336 Aeronautical drafters, see: Drafters................................................................ 98 Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers.................................... 106 Aerospace engineering and operations technicians, see: Engineering technicians.................................................................................................... 100 Aerospace engineers..........................................................................................106 Affirmative action coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...........................................60 Agents, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), see: Police and detectives............................................................................................... 344 Agents, customs, see: Police and detectives............................................... 344 Agents, Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), see: Police and detectives...................................................................................................... 344 Agents, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), see: Police and detectives...................................................................................................... 344 Agents, Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), see: Police and detectives............................................................................................... 344 Agents, loss prevention, see: Private detectives and investigators.......348 Agents, U.S. Border Patrol, see: Police and detectives............................344 Agents, U.S. Secret Service, see: Police and detectives.......................... 344 620 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes......594 Agricultural and food science technicians, see: Science technicians ...236 Agricultural and food scientists .................................................................... 216 Agricultural engineers....................................................................................... 107 Agricultural inspectors, see: Agricultural workers....................................426 Agricultural managers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.......................................................................................................... 47 Agricultural workers.........................................................................................426 Agronomists, see: Agricultural and food scientists.................................. 216 Aides, geriatric, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides......317 Aides, home care, see: Personal and home care aides.............................335 Aides, home health, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides................................................................................................... 317 Aides, nursing, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........ 317 Aides, occupational therapist, see: Occupational therapist assistants and aides........................................................................................................ 320 Aides, personal care, see: Personal and home care aides....................... 335 Aides, physical therapist see: Physical therapist assistants and aides ...322 Aides, psychiatric, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides .... 317 Aides, teacher, see: Teacher assistants.......................................................... 192 Air Force, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces............................586 Air traffic controllers......................................................................................... 565 Airbrush artists, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators........................................................................................ 558 Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians ...483 Aircraft cargo handling supervisors.............................................................. 605 Aircraft pilots, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers......................... 562 Aircraft pilots and flight engineers................................................................562 Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators........................................................................514 Airfield operations specialists.........................................................................605 Airframe mechanics, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians...............................................................................483 Airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers........................................................................................... 562 Airline stewards and stewardesses, see: Flight attendants....................... 331 Airmen, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces................................ 586 Airport terminal controllers, see: Air traffic controllers.......................... 565 Airport tower controllers, see: Air traffic controllers............................... 565 All other metal workers and plastic workers, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................. 523 Allopathic physicians and surgeons, see: Physicians and surgeons......262 Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians....................................................................................................605 Amusement and recreation attendants.......................................................... 596 Amusement machine servicers and repairers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers................................. 499 Analysts, financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors........................................................................................... 50 Analysts, marketing research, see: Economists and market and survey researchers........................................................................................239 Analytical chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists................... 227 Anchors, see: Announcers................................................................................ 133 Anesthesiologists, see: Physicians and surgeons....................................... 262 Anesthetists, certified registered nurse, see: Registered nurses..............268 Animal breeders, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................216 Animal care and service workers................................................................... 324 Animal caretakers, see: Veterinary assistants and animal caretakers ... 598 Animal control officers, see: Animal care and service workers.............324 Animal control workers.................................................................................... 597 Animal scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists.......................... 216 Animal trainers, see: Animal care and service workers............................324 Animators, see: Artists and related workers................................................i 18 Announcers........................................................................................................... 133 Anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other.............................................. 246 Apartment managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers.................................................................................... 77 Apparel workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations .... 542 Index 621 Appellate court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers....................................................................................................... Appliance repairers, see: Home appliance repairers.............................. Applications engineers, see: Computer software engineers................. Applications programmers, .see.- Computer programmers.................... Applicators, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and 208 504 169 166 tapers........................................................................................................... 451 Applied mathematicians, see: Mathematicians....................................... 174 Appraisers and assessors of real estate..................................................... 594 Aquaculture farmers, see: Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural ...47 managers.................................................................................................... Aquatic biologists, see; Biological and medical scientists.................. .219 Arbitrators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................................... ...60 Arc cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers.................. .528 Archaeologists, see: Social scientists, other........................................... .246 Architects, except landscape and naval..................................................... ...90 Architectural drafters, see: Drafters.......................................................... ...98 Archivists, curators, and museum technicians........................................ .184 Armed forces, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces................. .586 Armored car guards, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers....................................................................................................... .350 Army, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces............................... .586 Arrangers, music, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers....... .131 Art directors, see: Artists and related workers....................................... . 118 Artists and related workers.......................................................................... .118 Asbestos abatement and lead abatement workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers.................................................................... .458 Asphalt paving machine operators, see: Construction equipment operators ................................................................................................... .447 Assemblers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers..... .552 Assemblers and fabricators......................................................................... .514 Asset property managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers............................................................................. ,...77 Assignment clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping...................................................................................... ..401 Assignment editors, see: Writers and editors......................................... ..145 Assistant editors, see: Writers and editors.............................................. ..145 Assistant managers, see: Food service managers.................................. ....55 Assistant managers, see: Lodging managers.......................................... ....70 Assistant principals, see: Education administrators............................ ....42 Assistants, control room, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers....................................................................................... ..530 Assistants, dental, see: Dental assistants................................................ ..312 Assistants, legal, see: Paralegals and legal assistants......................... ..213 Assistants, medical, see: Medical assistants......................................... ..314 Assistants, mental health, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides............................................................................................. ..317 Assistants, nursing, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.......................................................................................................... ..317 Assistants, occupational therapist, see: Occupational therapist assistants and aides................................................................................ ..320 Assistants, ophthalmic medical, see: Medical assistants................... ..314 Assistants, physical therapist, see: Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................................................................................. ..322 Assistants, physician, see: Physician assistants.................................... ..260 Assistants, podiatric medical, see: Medical assistants........................ ...314 Assistants, production, see: Writers and editors................................... ...145 Assistants, publication, see: Writers and editors................................. ...145 Assistants, surgeons’, see: Physician assistants.................................... ...260 Assistants, teacher, see: Teacher assistants............................................ ...192 Astronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers............................. ...106 Astronomers, see: Physicists and astronomers..................................... ...233 Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers ................................. ...126 Athletic directors, see: Education administrators................................ ...... 42 Athletic trainers............................................................................................ ...595 Athletic training instructors, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers....................................................................................... ...126 Atmospheric scientists................................................................................ ...225 Attendants, hospital, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides ......................................................................................................... ...317 Attendants, personal, see: Personal and home care aides................. ...335 Attorneys, see: Lawyers............................................................................ ...210 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Audio and video equipment operators, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators........................................ 135 Audio control engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................... 135 Audiologists, see: Speech-language pathologists and audiologists.......272 Audio-visual collections specialists..............................................................595 Auditing clerks, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks ...390 Auditing clerks, see: Financial clerks......................................................... 386 Auditors, see: Accountants and auditors........................................................ 21 Authors, see: Writers and editors.................................................................. 145 Auto damage appraisers, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.......................................................................32 Automated systems librarians, see: Librarians.......................................... 188 Automated teller machine servicers, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers.....................................................................475 Automotive air-conditioning repairers, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics........................................................................487 Automotive body and related repairers ........................................................485 Automotive body repairers, see: Automotive body and related repairers........................................................................................................ 485 Automotive glass installers and repairers, see: Automotive body and related repairers................................................................................... 485 Automotive mechanics, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics ..................................................................................................... 487 Automotive painters, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance.................................................................. 556 Automotive service technicians and mechanics.........................................487 Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers ...........................................................................................530 Avionics technicians, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians..............................................................................483 B Babysitters, see: Childcare workers..............................................................328 Baggage porters and bellhops........................................................................ 597 Bailiffs, see: Correctional officers................................................................ 339 Bakers, see: Food processing occupations.................................................. 516 Bank tellers, see: Tellers................................................................................. 393 Barbers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers....................................................................................326 Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.........326 Bartenders, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers .........309 Bedroom stewards, see: Water transportation occupations.................... 582 Behavioral disorder counselors, see: Counselors....................................... 152 Bellhops, see: Baggage porters and bellhops..............................................597 Bench technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers...............................................................................479 Bench technicians, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers................................................................................................ 477 Bench technicians, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers........................................................................................ 475 Benefits administrators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................ 60 Bibliographers, see: Librarians...................................................................... 188 Bicycle repairers................................................................................................ 601 Bill and account collectors..............................................................................388 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators.................................... 389 Billing clerks, see: Billing and posting clerks and machine operators....................................................................................................... 389 Billing machine operators, see: Billing and posting clerks and machine operators...............................................................................389 Bindery workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers.......................535 Biochemists, see: Biological and medical scientists.................................219 Biological and medical scientists.................................................................. 219 Biological oceanographers, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists......................................................................................... 230 Biological technicians, see: Science technicians.......................................236 Biological-physical anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other........ 246 Biomedical engineers....................................................................................... 107 Biophysicists, see: Biological and medical scientists...............................219 Blankbook binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers .. 535 Blasters, see: Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters...........................................................................................................600 622 Occupational Outlook Handbook Bleaching and dyeing machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..................................................................... 542 Blockmasons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons....... 435 Blood bank technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............................................................................................. 279 Boat operators, see: Water transportation occupations............................. 582 Boatswains, see: Water transportation occupations...................................582 Boatswains, fishing boat, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators.....428 Body repairers, automotive, see: Automotive body and related repairers.........................................................................................................485 Boiler operators, see: Stationary engineers and boiler operators.......... 531 Boilermaker mechanics, see: Boilermakers................................................ 434 Boilermakers...................................................................................................... 434 Bookbinders and bindery workers.................................................................. 535 Bookkeepers, see: Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks....... 390 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks............................................390 Bookmobile drivers, see: Library technicians............................................ 190 Booth cashiers, see: Cashiers.......................................................................... 353 Border Patrol agents, see: Police and detectives.........................................344 Botanists, see: Biological and medical scientists ......................................219 Brake operators, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations.............579 Brake repairers, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics .................................................................................................... 487 Brazers, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers............................528 Bricklayers, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons........... 435 Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons............................................435 Bridge and lock tenders.................................................................................... 605 Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators....... 135 Broadcast field supervisors, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................135 Broker’s assistants, see: Brokerage clerks................................................397 Brokerage clerks................................................................................................. 397 Brokers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................................................ 373 Buckers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers..................... 430 Budget analysts..................................................................................................... 29 Building cleaning workers................................................................................300 Building inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.............444 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) agents, see: Police and detectives................................................................................................344 Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents, see: Police and detectives............................................................................................... 344 Bus and truck mechanics, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics..................................................................................................... 491 . Bus dispatchers, see: Dispatchers............................................................... 412 Busdrivers............................................................................................................ 5 70 Business managers, see: Agents and business managers of artists, performers, and athletes............................................................................. 594 Butchers and meatcutters, see: Food processing occupations................ 516 Buyers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents........ 80 c Cab drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................................. 573 Cabinetmakers and bench carpenters, see: Woodworkers....................... 546 Cable line installers, see: Line installers and repairers.............................508 CAD operators, see: Drafters........................................................................98 Cafeteria cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers......306 Cage cashiers, see: Gaming cage workers................................................. 391 Call completion operators, see: Communications equipment operators......................................................................................................379 Camera operators, see: Prepress technicians and workers......................537 Camera operators, television, video, and motion picture, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors...........................................................................................................144 Camera repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers....................................................................................................... 511 Camp counselors, see: Recreation and fitness workers.......................... 336 Captains, airline, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers ......................562 Captains, fishing boat, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators........ 428 Captains, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations..................................................................................................582 Captive agents, see: Insurance sales agents................................................359 Cardiac sonographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists technicians............................................................................................ 277 Digitizedand for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cardiographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians ....277 Cardiographic technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................................................................................ 277 Cardiology technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................................................................................. 277 Cardiopulmonary technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians..............................................................................................277 Cardiovascular technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................................................................................. 277 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.............................................277 Career counselors, see: Counselors................................................................ 152 Caregivers, see: Personal and home care aides...........................................335 Cargo and freight agents................................................................................... 410 Carpenters............................................................................................................ 437 Carpet installers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers ....439 Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers ............................................ 439 Cartographers, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians............................................................................ 95 Cartoonists, see: Artists and related workers...............................................118 Case management aides, see: Social and human service assistants......158 Cash managers, see: Financial managers........................................................52 Cashiers................................................................................................................353 Cashiers, gaming, see: Gaming cage workers............................................. 391 Casino cage workers, see: Financial clerks.................................................386 Casino cashiers, see: Gaming cage workers............................................... 391 Ceiling tile installers, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers........................................................................................................45 ] Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders.............................. 603 Cement masons, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers................................................ 442 Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers.......................................................................................... 442 Central office installers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers........................................................... 481 Central office operators, see: Communications equipment operators....379 Ceramic engineers, see: Materials engineers...............................................113 Ceramists, dental, see: Dental laboratory technicians.............................. 548 Certified nurse-midwives, see: Registered nurses...................................... 268 Certified public accountants, see: Accountants and auditors....................21 Certified registered nurse anesthetists, see: Registered nurses............... 268 Certified respiratory therapists, see: Respiratory therapists....................270 Chairpersons, college or university department, see: Education administrators................................................................................................ 42 Chairpersons of the board, see: Top executives........................................... 86 Chauffeurs, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................................... 573 Checkers, see: Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping.................................................................................................416 Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers................................................ 306 Chemical engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians...........100 Chemical engineers............................................................................................108 Chemical equipment operators and tenders..................................................603 Chemical oceanographers, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists.................................................................................................. 230 Chemical plant and system operators............................................................603 Chemical technicians, see: Science technicians..........................................236 Chemists and materials scientists................................................................... 227 Chief engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators...................................................................................... 135 Chief executive officers, see: Top executives................................................ 86 Chief executives, government, see: Top executives......................................86 Chief financial officers, see: Top executives.................................................86 Chief information officers, see: Top executives ........................................... 86 Chief technology officers, see: Computer and information systems managers.......................................................................................................... 35 Childcare workers ..............................................................................................328 Child protective services social workers, see: Social workers............... 160 Child welfare social workers, see: Social workers.................................... 160 Children’s librarians, see: Librarians............................................................ 188 Chiropractic physicians, see: Chiropractors............................................... 248 Chiropractors.......................................................................................................248 Choke setters, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers..............430 Choreographers, see: Dancers and choreographers...................................129 Cinematographers, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.................................................................... 144 Circulation assistants, see: Library assistants, clerical............................ 404 City planners, see: Urban and regional planners.......................................244 Civil drafters, see: Drafters............................................................................... 98 Civil engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians...................100 Civil engineers.....................................................................................................109 Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators....................... 32 Claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators, see: Insurance sales agents................................................................................................... 359 Claims examiners, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators............................................................................................ 32 Claims representatives, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators............................................................................................ 32 Cleaners and servants, private household, see: Building cleaning workers..........................................................................................................300 Cleaners of vehicles and equipment, see: Material moving occupations................................................................................................... 568 Cleaning supervisors, see: Building cleaning workers.............................300 Cleaning, washing, and metal pickling equipment operators and tenders............................................................................................................ 603 Clergy.................................................................................................................. 148 See also: Protestant ministers.................................................................................... 149 Rabbis........................................................................................................... 150 Roman Catholic priests...............................................................................151 Clerical worker supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.............................................417 Clerks, see: Bill and account collectors....................................................................... 388 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators...............................389 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.....................................390 Brokerage clerks..........................................................................................397 Cargo and freight agents............................................................................410 Communications equipment operators................................................. 379 Computer operators ...................................................................................381 Couriers and messengers ..........................................................................411 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks...............................................398 Customer service representatives........................................................... 399 Data entry and information processing workers.................................383 Desktop publishers.....................................................................................384 Dispatchers................................................................................................. 412 File clerks.....................................................................................................400 Financial clerks...........................................................................................386 Gaming cage workers............................................................................... 391 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks.......................................................401 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.........401 Information and record clerks.................................................................394 Interviewers................................................................................................. 402 Library assistants, clerical.......................................................................404 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers.................................................407 Meter readers, utilities..............................................................................413 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers................................................................................................ 417 Office clerks, general................................................................................419 Order clerks................................................................................................405 Payroll and timekeeping clerks.............................................................. 392 Postal Service workers............................................................................. 420 Procurement clerks................................................................................... 393 Production, planning, and expediting clerks....................................... 413 Receptionists and information clerks .....................................................406 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.......406 Secretaries and administrative assistants.............................................422 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks................................................. 414 Stock clerks and order fillers..................................................................415 Tellers........................................................................................................... 393 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping........ 416 Climatologists , see: Atmospheric scientists.............................................225 Clinical chemistry technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................................................ 279 Clinical dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists................................252 Clinical laboratory scientists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...........................................................................................279 Clinical laboratory technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...........................................................................................279 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Index 623 Clinical laboratory technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians................................................................. 279 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................... 279 Clinical managers, see: Medical and health services managers..............74 Clinical nurse specialists, see: Registered nurses.................................... 268 Clinical psychologists, see: Psychologists..................................................241 Clinical social workers, see: Social workers............................................ 160 Clock repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers .... 511 Closed captioners, see: Court reporters...................................................... 206 CNC operators, see: Computer control programmers and operators .... 519 CNC programmers, see: Computer control programmers and operators....................................................................................................... 519 Coaches, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers........... 126 Coast Guard, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces......................586 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers, see: Assemblers and fabricators ...514 Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers.......... 499 Collectors,, see: Financial clerks.................................................................. 386 Collectors, see: Bill and account collectors...............................................388 Collectors, see: Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents...............83 College and university faculty, see: Teachers—postsecondary.............. 197 College counselors, see: Counselors.............................................................152 Collision repair and refinish technicians, see: Automotive body and related repairers................................................................................... 485 Color printer operators , see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.................................................................. 558 Colorists, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators....................................................................................... 558 Columnists, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.............137 Combined food preparation and serving workers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers.................................................... 309 Commentators, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents......137 Commercial and industrial designers, see: Designers...............................120 Commercial loan officers, see: Loan counselors and officers.................. 68 Commercial photographers, see: Photographers........................................ 139 Commercial pilots, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers.................. 562 Commissioners, see: Top executives............................................................... 86 Communications equipment operators.........................................................379 Communications specialists, see: Public relations specialists................ 141 Community association managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers............................................................. 77 Community dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists........................... 252 Community outreach workers, see: Social and human service assistants........................................................................................................158 Community planners, see: Urban and regional planners.........................244 Community service managers, see: Social and community service managers...................................................................................................... 595 Community supervision officers, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists............................................................156 Community support workers, see: Social and human service assistants........................................................................................................158 Companions, see: Personal and home care aides.......................................335 Compensation managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................ 60 Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.....60 Compliance officers, except agriculture, construction, health and safety, and transportation.......................................................................... 594 Composers, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers....................... 131 Compositors, see: Desktop publishers.........................................................384 Computer and information systems managers............................................. 35 Computer applications software engineers, see: Computer software engineers........................................................................................................169 Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers...................... 475 Computer chip processing operators, see: Semiconductor processors.....................................................................................................560 Computer chip processing technicians, see: Semiconductor processors..................................................................................................... 560 Computer control operators, see: Computer control programmers and operators................................................................................................ 519 Computer control programmers and operators........................................... 519 Computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, see: Computer control programmers and operators........................... 519 Computer hardware engineers.........................................................................109 Computer operators...........................................................................................381 624 Occupational Outlook Handbook Computer programmers................................................................................... 166 Computer scientists, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators............................................................................ 180 Computer security specialists, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators........................................................................ 171 Computer software engineers...........................................................................169 Computer support specialists and systems administrators........................171 Computer systems software engineers, see: Computer software engineers........................................................................................................ 169 Concierges........................................................................................................... 597 Conciliators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers........208 Conciliators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists...............................................................................60 Concrete finishers, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers................................................ 442 Concrete paving machine operators, see: Construction equipment operators........................................................................................................447 Conductors, music, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers..........131 Conductors, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations.....................579 Congress members, see: Top executives........................................................ 86 Conservation scientists and foresters............................................................222 Conservation workers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.......................................................................................................... 430 Conservators, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians..........184 Construction and building inspectors............................................................ 444 Construction cost estimators, see: Cost estimators......................................40 Construction electricians, see: Electricians................................................ 452 Construction engineers, see: Civil engineers...............................................109 Construction equipment operators..................................................................447 Construction laborers....................................................................................... 449 Construction managers....................................................................................... 37 Constructors, see: Construction managers..................................................... 37 Consultant dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists..............................252 Consultant, financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors........................................................................................... 50 Continuous mining machine operators..........................................................599 Contract managers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents........................................................................................... 80 Contract specialists, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents........................................................................................... 80 Control and valve installers and repairers, except mechanical door.....602 Control room assistants, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................ 530 Control room operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers ............................................................................................ 530 Control room trainees, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers ............................................................................................ 530 Controllers, see: Financial managers.............................................................. 52 Controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers.....................................565 Convention planners, see: Meeting and convention planners................. 595 Convention services managers, see: Lodging managers.............................70 Cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers........................ 306 Cooling and freezing equipment operators and tenders............................603 Coordinators, instructional, see: Instructional coordinators.................... 187 Copy editors, see: Writers and editors.......................................................... 145 Copy writers, see: Writers and editors.......................................................... 145 Corporate investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators.......348 Correctional officers.......................................................................................... 339 Correctional treatment specialists, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists............................................................ 156 Correspondence clerks, see: Information and record clerks....................394 Correspondents, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents .... 137 Cosmetologists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers....................................................................................326 Cost estimators.....................................................................................................40 Costume, locker room, and other attendants............................................... 597 Counseling psychologists, see: Psychologists ............................................241 Counselors........................................................................................................... 152 Counselors, loan, see: Loan counselors and officers...................................68 Counter and rental clerks.................................................................................. 354 Counter attendants, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers............................................................................................. 309 County court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial 208 Digitizedworkers......................................................................................................... for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Couriers and messengers.................................................................................411 Court reporters.................................................................................................... 206 Court, municipal, and license clerks, see: Information and record clerks................................................................................................. 394 Courtesy van drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs .......................... 573 CPAs, see: Accountants and auditors............................................................. 21 Crane and tower operators, see: Material moving occupations.............568 Creative directors, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers........................................................26 Creative writers, see: Writers and editors.................................................... 145 Credit analysts.....................................................................................................594 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks........................................................398 Credit checkers, see: Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks..............398 Credit clerks, see: Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks...................398 Credit counselors, see: Loan counselors and officers................................ 68 Credit managers, see: Financial managers..................................................... 52 Criminal investigators, see: Police and detectives..................................... 344 Criminal justice social workers, see: Social workers.............................. 160 Criminal lawyers, see: Lawyers..................................................................... 210 Crop farm managers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers......................... 47 Crop scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists............................... 216 Crossing guards................................................................................................ 597 Cruise ship workers, see: Water transportation occupations................. 582 Crushing , grinding, and polishing machine setters, operators, and tenders...................................................................................................603 CT technologists, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians......... 296 Curators, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians..................184 Curriculum specialists, see: Instructional coordinators..........................187 Customer service representatives................................................................. 399 Customer service representatives, see: Insurance sales agents............. 359 Customer services managers, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers............................................................ 417 Customs agents, see: Police and detectives................................................ 344 Customs inspectors, see: Police and detectives........................................ 344 Cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers........................... 528 Cutters and trimmers, apparel, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations................................................................................................. 542 Cutters and trimmers, hand............................................................................ 603 Cutting and slicing machine setters, operators, and tenders....................603 Cutting machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................................................................. 542 Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders— metal and plastic.......................................................................................... 523 Cytotechnologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.....................................................................................................279 D Dairy farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.......... 47 Dairy scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists.............................. 216 Dancers and choreographers............................................................................129 Data entry and information processing workers ....................................... 383 Data entiy keyers, see: Data entiy and information processing workers.......................................................................................................... 383 Data processing equipment repairers, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers..........................................................475 Database administrators, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators....................................................................... 180 Dealers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.............................................................................................................. 373 Dealers, gaming, see: Gaming services occupations................................. 333 Deans, university, see: Education administrators..........................................42 Deck officers, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations....................................................................................................582 Deckhands, fishing boats, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators ...428 Decommissioning and decontamination (D&D) workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers...................................................458 Decontamination technicians, see: Hazardous materials removal workers .......................................................................................................... 458 Delivery services truckdrivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers.......................................................................................................... 576 Demonstrators, product promoters, and models..........................................356 Dental assistants................................................................................................. 312 Index 625 Dental ceramists, see: Dental laboratory technicians.............................. 548 Dental hygienists.............................................................................................. 281 Dental laboratory technicians......................................................................... 548 Dental surgeons, see: Dentists........................................................................ 250 Dental technicians, see: Dental laboratory technicians.......................... 548 Dentists................................................................................................................ 250 Department heads, college or university, see: Education administrators........................................................................................ —■ ..42 Department manager, see: Sales worker supervisors............................... 371 Derrick operators, oil and gas....................................................................... 600 Designers............................................................................................................ 120 Desktop publishers........................................................................................... 384 Desktop publishing editors, see: Desktop publishers .............................. 384 Detectives and criminal investigators, see: Police and detectives........ .344 Detectives, hotel, see: Private detectives and investigators.....................348 Detectives, private, see: Private detectives and investigators................ .348 Detention officers, see: Correctional officers.............................................339 Development specialists, staff, see: Instructional coordinators..............187 Developmental psychologists, see: Psychologists................................... .241 Diagnostic medical sonographers................................................................. .282 Diemakers, see: Tool and die makers.......................................................... .526 Diesel engine specialists, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics.....................................................................................................491 Diesel engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................... .579 Diesel mechanics, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics...... .491 Diesel service technicians and mechanics................................................. .491 Dietetic technicians......................................................................................... .595 Dietitians and nutritionists ............................................................................ .252 Digital imaging technicians, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators........................................................ .558 Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers................................ .309 Dinkey operators, see: Rail transportation occupations........................ ..579 Diocesan priests, see: Roman Catholic priests........................................ ..151 Dippers, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance....................................................................................... ..556 Directors, see: Actors, producers, and directors........................................124 Directors of admissions, see: Education administrators............................42 Directors of fundraising, see: Education administrators............................42 Directors of human resources, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists ............................................ ...60 Directors of industrial relations, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists ............................................ ....60 Directors of instructional material, see: Instructional coordinators ... ..187 Directors of student services, see: Education administrators .............. ....42 Directors, museum, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians.................................................................................................. 184 Directors, music, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers.......... 131 Directors, program, see: Writers and editors............................................ 145 Directors, religious activities and education............................................. 595 Directory assistance operators, see: Communications equipment operators..................................................................................................... 379 Disc jockeys, see: Announcers..................................................................... 133 Dishwashers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers ... 309 Dispatchers....................................................................................................... 412 Dispatchers, load, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.............................................................. .................................. 530 Dispatchers, power, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................................................................................................. .530 Dispensing opticians, see: Opticians, dispensing................................... .293 Distribution managers, see: Transportation, storage, and distribution Managers..................................................................—........................... .595 Distributors, power, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................................................................................................. .530 Dividend clerks, see: Brokerage clerks..................................................... .397 Doctors of dental medicine, see: Dentists................................................ .250 Doctors of dental surgery, see: Dentists.................................................... .250 Doctors of chiropractic, see: Chiropractors............................................. .248 Doctors of optometry, see: Optometrists.................................................. .255 Doctors of podiatric medicine, see: Podiatrists...................................... .264 Doctors, chiropractic, see: Chiropractors................................................ .248 Doctors, medical, see: Physicians and surgeons.................................... .262 Doctors, osteopathic, see: Physicians and surgeons............................. .262 Doctors, podiatric, see: Podiatrists........................................................... .264 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers.......................................................................................... 598 Drafters.................................................................................................. .......... ..98 Dredge, excavating, and loading machine operators, see: Material moving occupations................................................................................ 568 Dressmakers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations....... 542 Drillers, see: Earth drillers, except oil and gas....................................... 600 Drilling and boring machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders— metal and plastic...................................................................................... 523 Drill operators, see: Rotary drill operators, oil and gas........................ 601 Drivers, bookmobile, see: Library technicians....................................... 190 Driver-sales workers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers.... 576 Drivers, bus, see: Busdrivers....................................................................... 570 Drivers, cab, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs........................................ 573 Drivers, courtesy van, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs..................... 573 Drivers, delivery services, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers ..................................................................................................... .576 Drivers, light truck, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers....... .576 Drivers, limousine, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs........................... .573 Drivers, motorcoach, see: Busdrivers...................................................... .570 Drivers, paratransit, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs ......................... .573 Drivers, route, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers................. .576 Drivers, sales worker, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers .... .576 Drivers, school bus, see: Busdrivers........................................................ .570 Drivers, taxi, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs....................................... .573 Drivers, tractor-trailer, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers... .576 Drivers, truck, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers................ .576 Dmg Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents, see: Police and detectives.............................................................. —...................... .344 Drycleaning workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.............................................................................................. .542 Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers............................ .451 DTP operators, see: Desktop publishers................................................. .384 Dyeing machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations....................................................................... .542 E Earth drillers, except oil and gas.................................................................. 600 Echocardiographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................................................................................................. 277 Ecologists, see: Biological and medical scientists.................................. 219 Economic geographers, see: Social scientists, other............................... 246 Economists, see: Economists and market and survey researchers....... 239 Economists and market and survey researchers....................................... .239 Edition binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers....... .535 Editors, see: Writers and editors................................................................. .145 Editors, film and video, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................. . 144 Education administrators............................................................................... ...42 Educational consultants, see: Instructional coordinators....................... .187 Educational counselors, see: Counselors.................................................. .152 EEO officers or representatives, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists ............................................ ...60 EKG technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................................................................................................. .277 Electric line repairers, see: Line installers and repairers...................... .508 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators.......................................................................................... .514 Electrical and electronics engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians......................................................................... .100 Electrical and electronics engineers, except computer.......................... .110 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.................................. .477 Electrical drafters, see: Drafters................................................................ ...98 Electrical engineers, see: Electrical and electronics engineers, except computer....................................................................................... .110 Electrical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors........ ..444 Electricians...................................................................................................... ..452 Electrocardiograph (EKG) technicians, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................................................... ..277 Electrologists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers................................................................................ ..326 Electromechanical engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians................................................................................................ ..100 626 Occupational Outlook Handbook Electromechanical equipment assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators............................................................................................. 514 Electronic drafters, see: Drafters..................................................................... 98 Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.............................. All Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers.......479 Electronic news gathering operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors....................................... 144 Electronic prepress technicians, see: Desktop publishers....................... 384 Electronic publishers, see: Desktop publishers...........................................384 Electronic publishing specialists, see: Desktop publishers.....................384 Electronics engineers, see: Electrical and electronics engineers, except computer........................................................................................... 110 Electronics repairers, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers ................................................................................................ All Elementary school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary................................ 200 Elevator constructors , see: Elevator installers and repairers................ 455 Elevator inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors ............444 Elevator installers and repairers..................................................................... 455 Elevator mechanics, see: Elevator installers and repairers.....................455 Eligibility interviewers, government programs, see: Interviewers........ 402 Eligibility interviewers, government programs, see: Information and record clerks.......................................................................................... 394 Embalmers, see: Funeral directors.................................................................. 58 Emergency management specialists...............................................................594 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics........................................284 Employee assistance plan managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................................... 60 Employee benefits managers and specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................... 60 Employee welfare managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists ..................................................60 Employer relations representatives, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................................... 60 Employment and placement managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................... 60 Employment counselors, see: Counselors.................................................... 152 Employment interviewers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..................................................60 Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.....60 EMTs, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics................. 284 Endodontists, see: Dentists .............................................................................250 ENG operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................................... 144 Engine and other machine assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators..................................................................................................... 514 Engineering and natural sciences managers.................................................. 45 Engineering geologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists................................................................................................. 230 Engineering managers, see: Engineering and natural sciences managers..........................................................................................................45 Engineering technicians.................................................................................... 100 Engineers............................................................................................................. 103 See also: Aerospace engineers................................................................................... 106 Agricultural engineers................................................................................107 Biomedical engineers.................................................................................. 107 Chemical engineers......................................................................................108 Civil engineers............................................................................................. 109 Computer hardware engineers.................................................................. 109 Electrical and electronics engineers, exceptcomputer.........................110 Environmental engineers.............................................................................Ill Industrial engineers, including health and safety..................................112 Materials engineers......................................................................................113 Mechanical engineers................................................................................. 114 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers.................................................................................................. 115 Nuclear engineers........................................................................................116 Petroleum engineers.................................................................................... 117 Engineers, computer software, see: Computer software engineers.......169 Engineers, diesel, see: Rail transportation occupations............................579 Engineers, locomotive, see: Rail transportationoccupations...................579 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Engineers, rail yard, see: Rail transportation occupations......................579 Engineers, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations....................... 579 Engineers, stationary, see: Stationary engineers and boiler operators........................................................................................................ 531 Engineers, ship, see: Water transportation occupations...........................582 English as a second language teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.........................................194 Engravers, see: Etchers and engravers..........................................................603 Engravers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers.......... 552 Enlisted personnel, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.......... 586 Enrobing machine operators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance..................................................... 556 Enroute controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers......................565 Entomologists, see: Agricultural and food scientists................................ 216 Environmental engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians..................................................................................................... 100 Environmental engineers................................................................................... 111 Environmental graphic designers, see: Designers..................................... 120 Environmental scientists and geoscientists.................................................230 Environmental technicians, see: Science technicians............................... 236 ESL teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.......................................................................... 194 Essayists, see: Writers and editors................................................................. 145 Estheticians, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.................................................................................... 326 Estimators, see: Cost estimators..................................................................... 40 Etchers and engravers.................................................................................... 603 Excavating and loading machine and dragline operators, see: Material moving occupations................................................................... 568 Executive chefs, see: Food service managers............................................... 55 Executive chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers......306 Executive editors, see: Writers and editors.................................................. 145 Executive housekeepers, see: Lodging managers.........................................70 Executives, see: Top executives........................................................................ 86 Executive secretaries and administrative assistants, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants................................................................. 422 Expediting clerks, see: Production, planning, and expediting clerks...............................................................................................................413 Experimental psychologists, see: Psychologists........................................ 241 Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters................600 Exterminators, see: Pest control workers.....................................................304 Extractive metallurgical engineers, see: Materials engineers..................113 Extruding and drawing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders— metal and plastic....................................................................................... 523 Extruding and forming machine setters, operators, and tenders, synthetic and glass fibers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations................................................................................................... 542 Extruding, forming, pressing, and compacting machine setters, operators, and tenders.................................................................................603 F Fabric and apparel patternmakers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................................................................. 542 Fabricators, see: Assemblers and fabricators.............................................514 Facility managers, see: Administrative services managers....................... 24 Faculty, college and university, see: Teachers—postsecondary............. 197 Fallers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers...........................430 Family and general practitioners, see: Physicians and surgeons........... 262 Family services social workers, see: Social workers.................................160 Family therapists, see: Counselors............................................................... 152 Farm and home management advisors........................................................ 595 Farm equipment mechanics, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics.................................... 493 Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................... 47 Farmworkers, agricultural production, see: Agricultural workers ........426 Farmworkers, crop, nursery, and greenhouse, see: Agricultural workers......................................................................................................... 426 Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals, see: Agricultural workers.......426 Fashion designers, see: Designers.................................................................120 Fast-food cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers......306 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents, see: Police and detectives ...................................................................................................... 344 Fence erectors.....................................................................................................600 Field technicians, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators..................................................................................... 135 Field technicians, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers........................................................................................ 475 Field technicians, see: Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.........................................................................................................All Field technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers............................................................................... 479 File clerks............................................................................................................ 400 Film and video editors, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.................................................................... 144 Film processing technicians, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.......................................................... 558 Film strippers, see: Prepress technicians and workers..............................537 Finance officers, see: Financial managers.....................................................52 Financial aid directors, see: Education administrators...............................42 Financial analysts, see: Insurance sales agents.......................................... 359 Financial analysts and personal financial advisors......................................50 Financial clerks..................................................................................................386 See also: Bill and account collectors....................................................................... 388 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators...............................389 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.....................................390 Gaming cage workers................................................................................ 391 Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................................................ 392 Procurement clerks..................................................................................... 393 Tellers............................................................................................................. 393 Financial consultants, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents ...................................................................................373 Financial examiners................................................. 594 Financial investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators........ 348 Financial managers.............................................................................................. 52 Financial managers, see: Insurance sales agents........................................ 359 Financial planners, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors...........................................................................................50 Financial services sales agents, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................. 373 Fine artists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators , see: Artists and related workers........................................................................118 Fine arts photographers, see: Photographers.............................................. 139 Finishers, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers.....451 Fire alarm systems installers, see: Security and fire alarm systems installers.........................................................................................................602 Fire inspectors, see: Firefighting occupations........................................... 341 Fire investigators, see: Firefighting occupations....................................... 341 Fire prevention specialists, see: Firefighting occupations.......................341 Firefighting occupations...................................................................................341 Firers, locomotive, see: Rail transportation occupations......................... 579 First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers...................................................................................... 600 First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers.......................................................................................................... 597 First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers.........................................................................................................602 First-line supervisors/managers of personal service workers................. 597 First-line supervisors/managers of production and operating workers..........................................................................................................604 First-line supervisors/managers of protective service workers, except police, fire, and corrections......................................................... 597 First-line supervisors/managers of transportation and material moving machine and vehicle operators...................................................605 First-line supervisors/managers/contractors of farming, fishing, and forestry workers...................................................................................599 First mates, fishing boat, see: Fishers and fishing vessel operators ....428 First responders, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.................................................................................................... 284 Fish cleaners, see: Food processing occupations....................................... 516 Fish cutters and trimmers, see: Food processing occupations................ 516 Fish hatchery managers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers..........................................................................................................47 Fishers and fishing vessel operators..............................................................428 Fitness trainers, see: Recreation and fitness workers...............................336 Flight attendants.................................................................................................331 Flight engineers, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers.......................562 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Index 627 Flight service specialists, see: Air traffic controllers..............................565 Floor brokers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................................. 373 Floor installers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers......439 Floor layers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers........... 439 Floor sanders and finishers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers................................................................................................. 439 Floral designers, see: Designers.....................................................................120 Food and beverage serving and related workers........................................309 Food and tobacco roasting, baking, and drying machine operators, see: Food processing occupations...................................... 516 Food batchmakers, see: Food processing occupations............................ 516 Food cooking machine operators and tenders, see: Food processing occupations.................................................................................................. 516 Food preparation workers, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers..........................................................................................................306 Food processing occupations.......................................................................... 516 Food scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists...............................216 Food servers, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers.....309 Food service managers....................................................................................... 55 Food technologists, see: Agricultural and food scientists........................216 Foot doctors, see: Podiatrists.........................................................................264 Foot specialists, see: Podiatrists................................................................... 264 Forensic technicians, see: Science technicians..........................................236 Forest and conservation technicians, see: Science technicians...............236 Forest and conservation workers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.......................................................................................... 430 Forest, conservation, and logging workers.................................................. 430 Foresters, see: Conservation scientists and foresters................................222 Forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists, see: Firefighting occupations........................................................................... 341 Forging machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................................................................................. 523 Forming machine operators, synthetic and glass fibers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.................................................... 542 Foundry mold and coremakers, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic........................................................................ 523 Freight agents, see: Cargo and freight agents............................................ 410 Freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Material moving occupations...................................................................................................568 Front office managers, see: Lodging managers........................................... 70 Front-end mechanics, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics.....................................................................................................487 Fumigators, see: Pest control workers.........................................................304 Funeral attendants.............................................................................................. 597 Funeral directors...................................................................................................58 Furnace, kiln, oven, drier, and kettle operators and tenders.....................604 Furniture finishers, see: Woodworkers........................................................546 G Gaming and sports book writers and runners, see: Gaming services occupations.................................................................................. 333 Gaming cage cashiers, see: Gaming cage workers................................... 391 Gaming cage workers....................................................................................... 391 Gaming change persons, see: Cashiers........................................................353 Gaming dealers, see: Gaming services occupations.................................333 Gaming investigators, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers...........................................................................................................350 Gaming managers................. 594 Gaming services occupations......................................................................... 333 Gaming supervisors, see: Gaming services occupations.........................333 Gaming surveillance officers, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers....................................................................................350 Gas and water service dispatchers, see: Dispatchers................................412 Gas appliance repairers, see: Home appliance repairers......................... 504 Gas compressor and gas pumping station operators, see: Material moving occupations................................................................................... 568 Gas furnace installers, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers................................,.................501 Gas plant operators............................................................................................604 Gas station attendants, see: Service station attendants.............................606 Gate agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks....................................................................................................406 628 Occupational Outlook Handbook GED teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.......................................................................... 194 Gemologists, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers......552 General and operations managers, see: Top executives........................... 86 General internists, see: Physicians and surgeons.......................................262 General maintenance and repair workers, see: Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers...................................... 506 General managers, see: Food service managers...........................................55 General managers, see: Lodging managers.................................................... 70 General practitioners, see: Physicians and surgeons................................ 262 General trial court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers........................................................................................... 208 Geochemists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists...............230 Geodesists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists................. 230 Geodetic surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................... 95 Geographers, see: Social scientists, other.................................................... 246 Geographic information specialists, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................... 95 Geological and geophysical oceanographers, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists....................................................................... 230 Geological engineers, see: Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers........................................................... 115 Geologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists....................230 Geomagnetists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists........... 230 Geophysical prospecting surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians....................................... 95 Geophysicists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists.............230 Geoscientists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists...............230 Geotechnical engineers, see: Civil engineers...............................................109 Geriatric aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........ 317 Gerontology aides, see: Social and human service assistants................ 158 Geropsychologists, see: Psychologists..........................................................241 Glass installers and repairers, automotive, see: Automotive body and related repairers....................................................................................485 Glaziers................................................................................................................ 457 Gluing machine operators, see: Cementing and gluing machine operators and tenders..................................................................................603 Golf course architects, see: Landscape architects....................................... 92 Government accountants and auditors, see: Accountants and auditors............................................................................................................21 Graders and sorters, agricultural products, see: Agricultural workers..........................................................................................................426 Graphic artists, see: Artists and related workers........................................118 Graphic designers, see: Designers .................................................................120 Greenhouse managers, see: Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers..........................................................................................................47 Greenhouse workers, see: Agricultural workers........................................ 426 Greenskeepers, see: Grounds maintenance workers..................................302 Grinding and polishing workers, hand..........................................................604 Grinding, lapping, polishing, and buffing machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................. 523 Groomers, see: Animal care and service workers...................................... 324 Grooms, see: Animal care and service workers......................................... 324 Grounds maintenance workers....................................................................... 302 Groundskeepers, see: Grounds maintenance workers............................... 302 Groundskeeping workers, see: Grounds maintenance workers..............302 Guards, prison, see: Correctional officers ...................................................339 Guards, security, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers...........................................................................................................350 Guidance counselors, see: Counselors.......................................................... 152 Guitar repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.........................................................................................................511 Gynecologic sonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.................................................................................................282 Gynecologists, see: Physicians and surgeons.............................................. 262 H Hairdressers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.............................................................................326 Hairstylists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal Digitized appearance for FRASER workers.............................................................................326 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hand packers and packagers, see: Material moving occupations.........568 Harbor pilots, see: Water transportation occupations........................... 582 Hazardous materials removal workers...................................................458 Head cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.............306 Head nurses, see: Registered nurses.......................................................268 Health and safety inspectors, occupational, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians...............................................291 Health and safety specialists and technicians, occupational, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians............291 Health educators..................................................................................... 596 Health engineers, see: Industrial engineers, including health and safety.................................................................................................. 112 Health information technicians, see: Medical records and health information technicians.................................................................... 288 Health inspectors, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.................................................................................. 291 Health psychologists, see: Psychologists...............................................241 Health services managers, see: Medical and health services managers..............................................................................................74 Healthcare social workers, see: Social workers..................................... 160 Hearing officers, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers............................................................................................. 208 Hearing therapists, see: Speech-language pathologists and audiologists....................................................................................... 272 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers.............................................................................................501 Heating equipment technicians, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers...................................... 501 Heat treating equipment setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic................................................................................................ 523 Heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers.......................................................................... 576 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics......................................................................................... 493 Help-desk technicians, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators...................................................................... 171 Helpers—brickmasons, blockmasons, stonemasons, and tile and marble setters.................................................................................... 600 Helpers—carpenters............................................................................... 600 Helpers—electricians............................................................................. 600 Helpers—extraction workers.................................................................. 600 Helpers—installation, maintenance, and repair workers...................... 602 Helpers—painters, paperhangers, plasterers, and stucco masons........ 600 Helpers—pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters............... 601 Helpers—production workers................................................................ 604 Helpers—roofers.................................................................................... 601 High school counselors, see: Counselors............................................... 152 High school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary...................................................200 Highway maintenance workers..............................................................601 Highway patrol officers, see: Police and detectives............................. 344 Histology technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................. 279 Historians, see: Social scientists, other..................................................246 Hoist and winch operators, see: Material moving occupations............ 568 Home appliance installers, see: Home appliance repairers .................. 504 Home appliance repairers....................................................................... 504 Home care aides, see: Personal and home care aides........................... 335 Home health aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides...................................................................................................317 Home health nurses, see: Registered nurses...........................................268 Home inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors............... 444 Home management advisors, see'. Farm and home management advisors............................................................................................. 595 Homemakers, see: Personal and home care aides..................................335 Horticultural specialty fanners, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers......................................................................... 47 Hospital attendants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.................................................................................................. 317 Hospital nurses, see: Registered nurses.................................................268 Hostlers, see: Rail transportation occupations...................................... 579 Hosts and hostesses, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers.................................................................................. 309 Index 629 Hotel detectives, see: Private detectives and investigators.................. 348 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks......................................................401 Housekeepers, see: Building cleaning workers.................................... 300 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.............. 401 Human resources coordinators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................................... 60 Human resources generalists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists........................................... 60 Human resources information system specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists....60 Human resources managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists ........................................... 60 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................................................ 60 Human service workers, see: Social and human service assistants.....158 Hydrographic surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................. 95 Hydrologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists............. 230 Hygienists, dental, see: Dental hygienists............................................. 281 Hygienists, industrial, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................................................................291 Hygienists, oral, see: Dental hygienists................................................ 281 I Identification clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................................401 Illustrators, see: Artists and related workers..........................................118 Image designers, see: Desktop publishers............................................. 384 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) agents and inspectors, see: Police and detectives.................................................................344 Immigration inspectors, see: Police and detectives .............................. 344 Immunology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................................. 279 Independent agents, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing............................................................................ 368 Independent insurance agents, see: Insurance sales agents................... 359 Industrial designers, see: Designers.......................................................120 Industrial engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians........100 Industrial engineers, including health and safety...................................112 Industrial hygienists, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians..................................................................................291 Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers....506 Industrial machinery mechanics, see: Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers................................. 506 Industrial nurses, see: Registered nurses............................................... 268 Industrial photographers, see: Photographers........................................139 Industrial production managers................................................................64 Industrial therapists, see: Occupational therapists................................ 253 Industrial truck and tractor operators, see: Material moving occupations....................................................................................... 568 Industrial-organizational psychologists, see: Psychologists................. 241 Information and record clerks................................................................394 See also: Brokerage clerks............................................................................... 397 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks.......................................... 398 Customer service representatives......................................................399 File clerks.......................................................................................... 400 Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks................................................. 401 Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.........401 Interviewers....................................................................................... 402 Library assistants, clerical................................................................404 Order clerks...................................................................................... 405 Receptionists and information clerks.............................................. 406 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...... 406 Information clerks, see: Receptionists and information clerks.............406 Information officers, see: Public relations specialists...........................141 Information processing workers, see: Data entry and information processing workers........................................................................... 383 Information science librarians, see: Librarians......................................188 Information specialists, geographic, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................. 95 Information systems managers, see: Computer and information systems managers............................................................................... 35 Inhalation therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.................................. 270 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Inorganic chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists....................227 Inside order clerks, see: Order clerks.......................................................... 405 Inspectors, construction, see: Construction and building inspectors ....444 Inspectors, customs, see: Police and detectives........................................344 Inspectors, farm products, see: Agricultural workers............................. 426 Inspectors, fire, see: Firefighting occupations.......................................... 341 Inspectors, health, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.............................................................................................291 Inspectors, immigration, see: Police and detectives................................344 Inspectors, occupational health and safety, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.................................................... 291 Inspectors, safety, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.............................................................................................291 Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers.................................. 550 Inspectors, transportation, see: Transportation inspectors.......................606 Installers, automotive glass, see: Automotive body and related repairers........................................................................................................ 485 Institution and cafeteria cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers....................................................................................306 Instructional aides, see: Teacher assistants................................................. 192 Instructional assistants, see: Teacher assistants......................................... 192 Instructional coordinators................................................................................ 187 Instructional designers, see: Instructional coordinators............................187 Instructional specialists, see: Instructional coordinators......................... 187 Instructors, college and university, see: Teachers—postsecondary...... 197 Instructors, sports, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers ..........................................................................................................126 Insulation workers.............................................................................................461 Insurance appraisers, auto damage, see: Insurance sales agents........... 359 Insurance brokers, see: Insurance sales agents..........................................359 Insurance claims and policy processing clerks..........................................599 Insurance investigators, see: Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators.......................................................................32 Insurance managers, see:Financial managers............................................... 52 Insurance sales agents ......................................................................................359 Insurance underwriters....................................................................................... 66 Insurance underwriters, see: Insurance salesagents.................................. 359 Intercity and local transit busdrivers, see: Busdrivers............................. 570 Interior designers, see: Designers................................................................. 120 Internal auditors, see: Accountants and auditors.........................................21 International human resources managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.........................60 Internet developers, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators.............................................................................180 Internists, general, see: Physicians and surgeons.......................................262 Interpreters and translators..............................................................................596 Interviewers........................................................................................................ 402 Investigators, corporate, see: Private detectives and investigators.......348 Investigators, criminal, see: Police and detectives.................................... 344 Investigators, financial, see: Private detectives and investigators........348 Investigators, fire, see: Firefighting occupations.......................................341 Investigators, gaming, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers................................................................................... 350 Investigators, legal, see: Private detectives and investigators ................348 Investigators, private, see: Private detectives and investigators............ 348 Investment analysts, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors............................................................................................................50 Ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers......................................................................................................... 472 J Jailers, see: Correctional officers.................................................................. 339 Janitors, see: Building cleaning workers.................................................... 300 Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers......................................... 552 Job analysts, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................................. 60 Job binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers................535 Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.........................................................586 Job printers, see: Prepress technicians and workers................................. 537 Journalists, see-. News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.............. 137 Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers......................................... 208 Junior high school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.........................................................200 630 Occupational Outlook Handbook Justices of the peace, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers..........................................................................................208 K Keepers, see: Animal care and service workers.........................................324 Kennel attendants, see: Animal care and service workers......................324 Kindergarten teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary..........................................................200 Knitting machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................................................................. 542 L Labor relations managers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................. 60 Laboratory animal caretakers, see: Veterinary technologists, technicians, and assistants..................................................................... wl30 Laboratory scientists, clinical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............................................................................................. 279 Laboratory technicians, clinical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................................................279 Laboratory technicians, dental, see: Dental laboratory technicians.....548 Laboratory technicians, ophthalmic, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.................................................................................554 Laboratory technologists, clinical, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians...................................................................279 Laborers, see: Construction laborers............................................................449 Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand, see: Material moving occupations...................................................................568 Laborers, agricultural, see: Agricultural workers......................................426 LAN administrators, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators................................................................................ 171 Land surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians............................................................................95 Landscape architects...........................................................................................92 Landscaping workers, see: Grounds maintenance workers.....................302 Language pathologists, see: Speech-language pathologists and audiologists...........................................................................................272 Lathe and turning machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic..................................................................................................... 523 Lathers, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers........ 451 Laundry and drycleaning workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................................................................. 542 Law librarians, see: Librarians.......................................................................188 Law clerks...........................................................................................................596 Lawyers............................................................................................................... 210 Lay-out workers, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.................................................................523 Layout artists, see: Desktop publishers........................................................ 384 Leather workers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations ...542 Legal assistants, see: Paralegals and legal assistants................................ 213 Legal investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators................ 348 Legal secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants........... 422 Legislators, see: Top executives........................................................................86 Librarians............................................................................................................ 188 Library aides, see: Library assistants, clerical............................................404 Library assistants, clerical............................................................................... 404 Library binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers........ 535 Library media assistants, see: Library assistants, clerical....................... 404 Library technical assistants, .see.' Library technicians.............................. 190 Library technicians............................................................................................ 190 License clerks, see: Infonnation and record clerks....................................394 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.....................................287 Licensed vocational nurses, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.........................................................................................287 Life skill counselors, see: Social and human service assistants............. 158 Light or delivery services truckdrivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers....................................................................................576 Limnologists, see: Biological and medical scientists............................... 219 Limousine drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs................................. 573 Line erectors, see: Line installers and repairers......................................... 508 Line installers and repairers............................................................................ 508 Linguistic anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other.......................... 246 Lithographic dot etchers, see: Prepress technicians and workers.......... 537 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Livestock farmers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers............................................................................................. 47 Load dispatchers, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................................................................................. 530 Loaders, tank car, truck, and ship, see: Material moving occupations........................................................................................568 Loading machine operators, underground mining, see: Material moving occupations.......................................................................... 568 Loan authorizers, see: Loan counselors and officers.............................. 68 Loan closers, see: Interviewers.............................................................. 402 Loan counselors and officers.................................................................... 68 Loan interviewers and clerks, see: Information and record clerks...... 394 Loan interviewers and clerks, see: Interviewers................................... 402 Loan officers, see: Loan counselors and officers.....................................68 Loan processing clerks, see: Interviewers..............................................402 Loan service clerks, see: Interviewers ...................................................402 Loan underwriters, see: Loan counselors and officers............................ 68 Lobby attendants, see: Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers.....598 Local operators, see: Communications equipment operators............... 379 Local truckdrivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers........... 576 Locker room attendants, see\ Costume, locker room, and other attendants...........................................................................................597 Locksmiths and safe repairers................................................................ 602 Locomotive engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations................ 579 Locomotive firers, see: Rail transportation occupations ...................... 579 Lodging managers.................................................................................... 70 Log graders, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers............... 430 Log sorters, markers, movers, debarkers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.......................................................................... 430 Logging equipment operators, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.......................................................................... 430 Long distance operators, see: Communications equipment operators............................................................................................379 Long haul truckdrivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers .... 576 Loss prevention agents, see: Private detectives and investigators....... 348 LPNs, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses............ 287 LVNs, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses............ 287 Lyricists, see: Writers and editors...........................................................145 M Machine feeders and offbearers, see: Material moving occupations .... 568 Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic................. 523 Machinery maintenance workers, see: Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers................................. 506 Machinists...............................................................................................521 Macromolecular chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists...... 227 Magistrates, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers...... 208 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technologists, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians.........................................296 Maids and housekeeping cleaners, see: Building cleaning workers....300 Mail carriers, see: Postal Service workers.............................................420 Mail clerks and mail machine operators, except Postal Service........... 599 Mail machine operators, see: Mail clerks and mail machine operators, except Postal Service........................................................................ 599 Mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators, see: Postal Service workers...................................................................... 420 Mail superintendents, see: Postmasters and mail superintendents....... 595 Maintenance electricians, see: Electricians.......................................... 452 Maintenance machinists, see: Machinists..............................................521 Maintenance technicians, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators........................................................ 135 Management accountants, see: Accountants and auditors...................... 21 Management analysts................................................................................72 Management consultants, see: Management analysts............................. 72 Management dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists...................... 252 Management of information system directors, see: Computer and information systems managers............................................................ 35 Managers, see: Administrative services managers......................................................24 Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers............................................................................... 26 Computer and information systems managers....................................35 Construction managers....................................................................... 37 Education administrators.................................................................... 42 Index 631 Engineering and natural sciences managers...................................... 45 Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers................................... 47 Financial managers............................................................................. 52 Food service managers........................................................................55 Funeral directors................................................................................. 58 Fluman resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists....................................................................................... 60 Industrial production managers..........................................................64 Lodging managers............................................................................... 70 Medical and health services managers...............................................74 Property, real estate, and community association managers.............. 77 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents....................... 80 Top executives.................................................................................... 86 Managing editors, see: Writers and editors............................................145 Manicurists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers..........................................................................326 Manifold binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers.... 535 Manufactured building and mobile home installers.............................. 602 Manufacturers’ agents, see: Sales engineers......................................... 366 Manufacturers’ agents, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing............................................................................ 368 Manufacturers’ representatives, see: Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing .........................................................368 Manufacturing opticians, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians..... 554 Map editors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians...................................................................95 Mapping technicians, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................. 95 Marble setters, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers...... 439 Margin clerks, see: Brokerage clerks.....................................................397 Marine biologists, see: Biological and medical scientists.................... 219 Marine equipment mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics...............496 Marine oilers, see: Water transportation occupations.......................... 582 Marine or hydrographic surveyors, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.................................. 95 Mariners, see: Water transportation occupations.................................. 582 Marine Corps, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.................. 586 Marines, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces........................... 586 Market research managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers................................................. 26 Marketing managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers ..................................................26 Marketing research analysts, see: Economists and market and survey researchers............................................................................. 239 Marriage and family therapists, see: Counselors...................................152 Marshals and deputy marshals, U.S., see: Police and detectives.......... 344 Massage therapists.................................................................................. 597 Masters, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations....................................................................................... 582 Material moving occupations.................................................................568 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers................................................. 407 See also: Cargo and freight agents...................................................................410 Couriers and messengers..................................................................411 Dispatchers....................................................................................... 412 Meter readers, utilities......................................................................413 Production, planning, and expediting clerks.................................... 413 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks............................................. 414 Stock clerks and order fillers............................................................415 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping....... 416 Materials scientists, see: Chemists and materials scientists................. 227 Materials engineers................................................................................. 113 Mates, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations....................................................................................... 582 Mathematicians...................................................................................... 174 Measurers, see: Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping....................................................................................416 Meat cutters, see: Food processing occupations................................... 516 Mechanical door repairers......................................................................602 Mechanical drafters, see: Drafters...........................................................98 Mechanical engineering technicians, see: Engineering technicians.... 100 Mechanical engineers............................................................................. 114 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Mechanical inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors......444 Mechanics and repairers, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians................................................ .............................. 483 Automotive body repairers and related workers................................. 485 Automotive service technicians and mechanics................................ 487 Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers...............475 Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers ....499 Diesel service technicians and mechanics............................................ 491 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers.............................. 477 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers...................................................................................................479 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers...................................................................................................501 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics............................................................................................... 493 Home appliance repairers......................................................................... 504 Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers....................................................................................................506 Line installers and repairers......................................................................508 Optical mechanics, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians ........... 554 Precision instrument and equipment repairers......................................511 Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers............................................................................ .................... 481 Small engine mechanics.............................................................................496 Media aides, library, see: Library technicians............................................190 Media directors, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers......................................................................26 Mediators, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..............................................................................60 Mediators, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers........... 208 Medical and health services managers........................................................... 74 Medical appliance technicians.......................................................................604 Medical assistants.............................................................................................. 314 Medical equipment preparers......................................................................... 597 Medical equipment repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers....................................................................................511 Medical geographers, see: Social scientists, other.................................... 246 Medical illustrators, see: Artists and related workers............................... 118 Medical laboratory technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................. 279 Medical laboratory technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.................................................................. 279 Medical microbiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists.......... 219 Medical records and health information technicians.................................288 Medical records technicians, see: Medical records and health infonnation technicians.............................................................................288 Medical scientists, see: Biological and medical scientists.......................219 Medical secretaries, see: Secretaries and administrative assistants......422 Medical stenographers, see: Medical transcriptionists............................ 315 Medical technicians, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................................................279 Medical technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians.............................................................................................279 Medical transcribers, see: Medical transcriptionists................................315 Medical transcriptionists................................................................................. 315 Medical writers, see: Writers and editors....................................................145 Medicinal chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists................... 227 Meeting and convention planners.................................................................. 595 Member services counselors, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.................................................................. 406 Mental health aides, see: Social and human service assistants..............158 Mental health assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........................................................................................ 317 Mental health counselors, see: Counselors................................................. 152 Mental health social workers, see: Social workers....................................160 Merchandise displayers and window trimmers, see: Designers..............120 Merchandise distributors, see: Stock clerks and order fillers.................415 Merchandise managers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents...................................................................................80 Messengers, see: Couriers and messengers................................................. 411 Metal-refining furnace operators and tenders, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.............................................523 632 Occupational Outlook Handbook Metallurgical engineers, see: Materials engineers......................................113 Metalworking machine operators, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.................................................................523 Meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists............................................... 225 Meter readers, utilities...................................................................................... 413 Microbiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists...........................219 Microbiology technologists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians............................................................................................. 279 Middle school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, • elementary, middle, and secondary..........................................................200 Midwives, certified nurse, see: Registered nurses.....................................268 Military occupations, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.......586 Milling and planing machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic..................................................................................................... 523 Millwrights, see: Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers.................................................................................. 506 Mine safety engineers, see: Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers........................................................... 115 Mineralogists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists..............230 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers ..115 Mining machine operators, see'. Continuous mining machine operators........................................................................................................599 Ministers, Protestant, see: Protestant ministers..........................................149 Mixing and blending machine setters, operators, and tenders ................ 604 Mobile heavy equipment mechanics and service technicians, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics.............................................................................................. 493 Mobile home installers, see: Manufactured building and mobile Home installers............................................................................................ 602 Model makers, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.................................................................523 Modelmakers and patternmakers, see: Woodworkers............................... 546 Models, see: Demonstrators, product promoters, and models................ 356 Mold and model makers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers....................................................................................... 552 Molders, shapers, and casters, except metal and plastic...........................604 Molding, coremaking, and casting machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.................................................................523 Mortgage loan officers, see: Loan counselors and officers......................68 Morticians, see: Funeral directors.................................................................... 58 Motel desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks................. 401 Motion picture camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.........................................144 Motion picture projectionists..........................................................................598 Motorboat mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics................................ 496 Motorboat operators, see: Water transportation occupations................. 582 Motorcoach drivers, see: Busdrivers............................................................. 570 Motorcycle mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics..............................496 Multimedia artists, see: Artists and related workers.................................. 118 Multiple machine tool setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................................................................................................. 523 Municipal clerks, see: Information and record clerks.............................. 394 Municipal court judges, see: Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers...........................................................................................208 Museum directors, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians.................................................................................................... 184 Museum technicians, see: Archivists, curators, and museum technicians.................................................................................................... 184 Music arrangers, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers.............. 131 Music conductors, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers......... 131 Music directors, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers............... 131 Musical instrument repairers and tuners, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers............................................................................. 511 Musicians, singers, and related workers.......................................................131 N Nail technicians, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers....................................................................................326 Nannies, see: Childcare workers....................................................................328 Natural sciences managers, see: Engineering and natural sciences Digitizedmanagers......................................................................................................... for FRASER 45 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Navy, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces................................586 Network and computer systems administrators, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators.............................. 171 Network systems and data communications analysts, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators............ 180 Neuropsychologists, see: Psychologists.................................................241 Neurosonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers................. 282 New account clerks, see: Information and record clerks..................... 394 News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.......................................137 News anchors, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents...... 137 News camera operators , see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors............................................................ 144 News photographers , see: Photographers............................................. 139 Newscasters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents........ 137 Newscasters, see: Announcers............................................................... 133 Newsletter writers, see: Writers and editors.......................................... 145 News vendors, see: Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers............................................................ 598 Newswriters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents........ 137 Nuclear engineers.................................................................................... 116 Nuclear medicine technologists.............................................................. 289 Nuclear power reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................. 530 Nuclear technicians, see: Science technicians...................................... 236 Numerical tool and process control programmers, see: Computer control programmers and operators..................................................519 Nurse practitioners , see: Registered nurses..........................................268 Nurse specialists, clinical, see: Registered nurses................................ 268 Nurse supervisors, see: Registered nurses.............................................268 Nurse-midwives, certified, see: Registered nurses ............................... 268 Nursery and greenhouse managers, see: Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers ......................................................................... 47 Nursery workers, see: Agricultural workers......................................... 426 Nurses, licensed practical, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses .............................................................................. 287 Nurses, licensed vocational, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses............................................................................. 287 Nurses, registered, see: Registered nurses.............................................268 Nursing aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides........ 317 Nursing assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides...................................................................................................317 Nursing home nurses, see: Registered nurses....................................... 268 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides..........................................317 Nutritionists, see: Dietitians and nutritionists........................................252 O Obstetric sonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........... 282 Obstetricians and gynecologists, see: Physicians and surgeons........... 262 Occupational analysts, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................60 Occupational health and safety inspectors, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians...............................................291 Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.................. 291 Occupational health nurses, see: Registered nurses.............................. 268 Occupational therapist aides, see: Occupational therapist assistants and aides............................................................................................320 Occupational therapist assistants, see: Occupational therapist assistants and aides........................................................................... 320 Occupational therapist assistants and aides...........................................320 Occupational therapists.......................................................................... 253 Oceanographers, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists....... 230 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers........................................................................................... 417 Office clerks, general ............................................................................. 419 Office machine and cash register servicers, see: Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers...................................................475 Office machine operators, except computer...........................................599 Office nurses, see: Registered nurses.....................................................268 Officers, correctional, see: Correctional officers.................................. 339 Officers, detention, see: Correctional officers.......................................339 Officers, gaming surveillance, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers.......................................................................... 350 Officers, highway patrol, .fee: Police and detectives............................ 344 Officers, loan, see: Loan counselors and officers....................................68 Officers, merchant marine, see: Water transportation occupations......582 Officers, military, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces.............586 Officers, police, see: Police and detectives................................................ 344 Officers, security, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers...........................................................................................................350 Officials, sports, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.......................................................................................................... 126 Oilers, marine, see: Water transportation occupations.............................582 Operating engineers, see: Construction equipment operators................. 447 Operating room technicians, see: Surgical technologists........................ 298 Operational meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists......................... 225 Operations research analysts........................................................................... 176 Operators, auxiliary equipment, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.....................................................................530 Operators, boiler, see: Stationary engineers and boiler operators......... 531 Operators, camera, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.................................................................... 144 Operators, color printer, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators.......................................................... 558 Operators, control room, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................ 530 Operators, crane and tower, see: Material moving occupations ............ 568 Operators, dinkey, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................... 579 Operators, dredge, excavating, and loading machine, see: Material moving occupations....................................................................................568 Operators, gas compressor and gas pumping station, see: Material moving occupations.................................................................................... 568 Operators, hoist and winch, see: Material moving occupations.............568 Operators, industrial truck and tractor, see: Material moving occupations.................................................................................... 568 Operators, motorboat, see: Water transportation occupations................ 582 Operators, photographic processing machine, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators............................558 Operators, power plant, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................ 530 Operators, pumping station, see: Material moving occupations.............568 Operators, railroad brake, signal, and switch, see: Rail transportation occupations........................................................................ 579 Operators, reactor, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................ 530 Operators, semiconductor processing, see: Semiconductor processors..................................................................................................... 560 Operators, shuttle car, see: Material moving occupations.......................568 Operators, subway and streetcar, see: Rail transportation occupations................................................................................................... 579 Operators, switchboard, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers ............................................................................................530 Operators, systems, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................ 530 Operators, television, video, and motion picture camera, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors .............................................................................................................144 Operators, wastewater treatment plant, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.....................................................533 Operators, water treatment plant, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.....................................................533 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians............................................................... 554 Ophthalmic medical assistants, see: Medical assistants.......................... 314 Ophthalmologic sonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.................................................................................................282 Optical goods workers, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians............554 Optical mechanics, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.................. 554 Opticians, dispensing....................................................................................... 293 Opticians, manufacturing, see: Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.....554 Optometrists........................................................................................................255 Oral and maxillofacial surgeons, see: Dentists.......................................... 250 Oral hygienists, see: Dental hygienists........................................................ 281 Oral pathologists, see: Dentists...................................................................... 250 Order clerks.........................................................................................................405 Order fillers, see: Stock clerks and order fillers........................................ 415 Order processors, see: Order clerks..............................................................405 Order takers, see: Order clerks ...................................................................... 405 clerks, see: Order clerks............................................................405 DigitizedOrder-entry for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Index 633 Ordnance handling experts, see'. Explosives workers, ordnance handling experts, and blasters.......................................................... 600 Organic chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists................... 227 Ornamental ironworkers, see: Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers............................................................................ 472 Orthodontists, see: Dentists................................................................... 250 Orthotists and prosthetists..................................................................... 596 Osteopathic physicians and surgeons, see: Physicians and surgeons............................................................................................262 Outdoor power equipment mechanics, see: Small engine mechanics.........................................................................................496 Outside order clerks, see: Order clerks.................................................405 Oxy-gas cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers.......... 528 Oxygen therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.....................................270 P Packagng and filling machine operators and tenders............................604 Packers and packagers, hand, see: Material moving occupations.......568 Painters, see: Artists and related workers............................................. 118 Painters and paperhangers..................................................................... 462 Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance ... 556 Painting restorers, see: Artists and related workers.............................. 118 Painting, coating, and decorating workers, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance...............................556 Paleomagnetists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists.......230 Paleontologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists.........230 Pamphlet binding workers, see: Bookbinders and bindery workers....535 Paper coating machine operators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance.............................................. 556 Paper goods machine setters, operators, and tenders...........................604 Paperhangers, see: Painters and paperhangers......................................462 Paraeducators, see: Teacher assistants.................................................. 192 Paralegals and legal assistants............................................................... 213 Paramedics, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.....284 Paratransit drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs............................573 Parking enforcement workers................................................................ 598 Parking lot attendants.............................................................................605 Parole officers, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists..........................................................................156 Parts salespersons...................................................................................599 Passenger rate clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.................................................................... 406 Pathologists, oral, see: Dentists............................................................ 250 Pathologists, speech-language, see: Speech-language pathologists and audiologists................................................................................272 Patient representatives, see: Interviewers.............................................402 Patternmakers, fabric and apparel, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations................................................................... 542 Patternmakers, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic........................................................ 523 Paving and surfacing equipment operators, see: Construction equipment operators......................................................................... 447 Payroll and timekeeping clerks............................................................. 392 Payroll technicians, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.....................392 PBX installers and repairers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers...................................................481 Pediatric dentists, see: Dentists............................................................. 250 Pediatricians, see: Physicians and surgeons..........................................262 Pedicurists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers......................................................................... 326 Pedorthists, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............ 542 Periodicals librarians, see: Librarians....................................................188 Periodontists, see: Dentists................................................................... 250 Personal and home care aides................................................................ 335 Personal appearance workers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers.................................................. 326 Personal attendants, see: Personal and home care aides.......................335 Personal care aides, see: Personal and home care aides....................... 335 Personal financial advisors, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors................................................................................50 Personal financial advisors, see: Insurance sales agents...................... 359 Personal trainers, see: Recreation and fitness workers.........................336 634 Occupational Outlook Handbook Personnel clerks, see: Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping................................................................................ 401 Personnel consultants, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................60 Personnel development specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................60 Personnel recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................60 Pest control workers............................................................................... 304 Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation, see: Grounds maintenance workers..........................................................302 Petroleum engineers................................................................................117 Petroleum geologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists...................................................................................... 230 Petroleum pump system operators, refinery operators, and guagers.............................................................................................. 605 Petroleum technicians, see: Science technicians ................................. 236 Pharmacists............................................................................................. 257 Pharmacy aides....................................................................................... 321 Pharmacy technicians.............................................................................295 Phlebotomists, see: Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians........................................................................................ 279 Photogrammetrists, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians...................................................................95 Photographers..........................................................................................139 Photographic equipment repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.......................................................................... 511 Photographic process workers and processing machine operators...... 558 Photographic retouchers, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators...........................................................558 Photographic spotters, see: Photographic process workers and processing machine operators...........................................................558 Photojournalists, see: Photographers..................................................... 139 Physical and theoretical chemists, see: Chemists and materials scientists............................................................................................227 Physical geographers, see: Social scientists, other............................... 246 Physical metallurgical engineers, see: Materials engineers...................113 Physical meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists........................... 225 Physical oceanographers, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists............................................................................... 230 Physical therapist aides, see: Physical therapist assistants and aides ...322 Physical therapist assistants, see: Physical therapist assistants and aides.................................................................................................. 322 Physical therapist assistants and aides...................................................322 Physical therapists..................................................................................259 Physician assistants................................................................................ 260 Physicians and surgeons.........................................................................262 Physicians, chiropractic, see: Chiropractors......................................... 248 Physicists and astronomers.....................................................................233 Physiologists, see: Biological and medical scientists........................... 219 Piano repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers .... 511 Pile driver operators, see: Construction equipment operators.............. 447 Pilots, see: Aircraft pilots and flight engineers..................................... 562 Pilots, water transportation, see: Water transportation occupations.... 582 Pipefitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.... 464 Pipelayers, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters....464 Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters ............................... 464 Placement directors, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists......................................................60 Plan examiners, see: Construction and building inspectors.................. 444 Planners, financial, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors................................................................................ 50 Planners, urban and regional, see: Urban and regional planners..........244 Plant operators, wastewater treatment, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators...............................................533 Plant operators, water treatment, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.............................................. 533 Plant scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists........................... 216 Plasma cutters, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers............. 528 Plasterers and stucco masons.................................................................467 Plastics-working machine operators, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.........................................................523 Platemakers, see: Prepress technicians and workers............................ 537 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Plating and coating machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............................... 523 Playwrights, see: Writers and editors............................................................ 145 Plumbers, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.......464 Plumbing inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors ......... 444 Podiatric medical assistants, see: Medical assistants .............................. 314 Podiatrists............................................................................................................ 264 Poets, see: Writers and editors........................................................................ 145 Police and detectives......................................................................................... 344 Police officers, see: Police and detectives...................................................344 Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, see: Dispatchers .....................412 Police, transit and railroad, see: Police and detectives.............................344 Polishers, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers.............552 Polishing workers, hand, see: Grinding and polishing workers, hand................................................................................................................. 604 Political geographers, see: Social scientists, other....................................246 Political scientists, see: Social scientists, other......................................... 246 Portrait photographers, see: Photographers................................................. 139 Position classifiers, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists............................................................. 60 Postal clerks, see: Postal Service workers...................................................420 Postal Service workers......................................................................................420 Postal workers, see: Postal Service workers............................................... 420 Posting clerks, see: Billing and posting clerks and machine operators........................................................................................................389 Postmasters and mail superintendents........................................................... 595 Postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers, see: Teachers—postsecondary.......................................................................... 197 Poultry cutters and trimmers, see: Food processing occupations......... 516 Poultry farmers, see: Fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers......47 Poultry scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists.......................... 216 Pourers and casters, metal, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.........................................................................523 Power dispatchers, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.................................................................................................... 530 Power distributors, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.................................................................................................... 530 Power plant mechanics, see: Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians..........................................................483 Power plant operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.............................................................................................530 Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers ................................ 530 Power reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers ............................................................................................ 530 Practical nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses ........................................................................................287 Practitioners, family and general, see: Physicians and surgeons............262 Practitioners, nurse, see: Registered nurses................................................ 268 Precision instrument and equipment repairers............................................ 511 Prepress technicians and workers................................................................... 537 Preschool teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary..........................................................200 Presidents, see: Top executives.......... ..............................................................86 Press secretaries, see: Public relations specialists..................................... 141 Pressers, textile, garment, and related materials, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations..................................................................... 542 Pretrial services officers, see: Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists.....................................................................................156 Priests, see: Roman Catholic priests..............................................................151 Principals, see: Education administrators...................................................... 42 Printing machine operators...............................................................................540 Printmakers, see: Artists and related workers..............................................118 Prison guards, see: Correctional officers........ ............................................ 339 Private bankers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................................................... 373 Private detectives and investigators............................................................... 348 Private household cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.......................................................................................................... 306 Private investigators, see: Private detectives and investigators..............348 Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists.........................156 Process metallurgical engineers, see: Materials engineers...................... 113 Process piping or pipeline drafters, see: Drafters........................................ 98 Index 635 Process technicians, see: Science technicians....................................... 236 Procurement clerks................................................................................. 393 Producers, see: Actors, producers, and directors...................................124 Product development managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers............................. 26 Product promoters, see: Demonstrators, product promoters, and models............................................................................................... 356 Production and planning clerks, see: Production, planning, and expediting clerks...............................................................................413 Production assistants, see: Writers and editors.....................................145 Production machinists, see: Machinists.................................................521 Production managers, see: Industrial production managers................... 64 Production, planning, and expediting clerks......................................... 413 Production, planning, and expediting clerks, see: Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers................................................................................... 407 Professional scouts, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.................................................................................. 126 Professors, see: Teachers—postsecondary.............................................197 Program directors, see: Writers and editors...........................................145 Programmer-analysts, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators.............................................................. 180 Programmers, computer, see: Computer programmers..........................166 Promotions managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers..................................................26 Proofreaders and copy markers..............................................................599 Property custodian, see: Stock clerks and order fillers......................... 415 Property, real estate, and community association managers................... 77 Prosecutors, government, see: Lawyers................................................ 210 Prosthetists, see: Orthotists and prosthetists......................................... 596 Prosthodontists, see: Dentists.................................................................250 Protestant ministers.................................................................................149 Provosts, see: Education administrators ................................................. 42 Psychiatric aides, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides ....317 Psychiatric nursing assistants, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.............................................................................. 317 Psychiatric technicians........................................................................... 596 Psychiatrists, see: Physicians and surgeons.......................................... 262 Psychologists.......................................................................................... 241 Public accountants, see: Accountants and auditors................................ 21 Public affairs specialists, see: Public relations specialists....................141 Public defenders, see: Lawyers..............................................................210 Public health dentists, see: Dentists...................................................... 250 Public health nurses, see: Registered nurses......................................... 268 Public relations managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers..................................................26 Public relations specialists..................................................................... 141 Public safety dispatchers, see: Dispatchers .......................................... 412 Public works inspectors, see: Construction and building inspectors.......................................................................................... 444 Publication assistants, see: Writers and editors.....................................145 Publications specialists, see: Desktop publishers................................. 384 Pulmonary function technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.................................................................................. 277 Pump operators, except wellhead pumpers, see: Material moving occupations....................................................................................... 568 Pumping station operators, see: Material moving occupations............ 568 Purchase-and-sales clerks, see: Brokerage clerks................................. 397 Purchasing agents, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................................................................................ 80 Purchasing clerks, see: Procurement clerks.......................................... 393 Purchasing directors, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................................................................................ 80 Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents............................. 80 Purchasing technicians, see: Procurement clerks................................. 393 Q QMEDs, see: Water transportation occupations................................... 582 Qualified members of the engine department, see: Water transportation occupations................................................................582 Quality control inspectors, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, Digitized and for FRASER weighers..................................................................................... 550 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis R Rabbis....................................................................................................................150 Radiation protection technicians, see: Hazardous materials removal workers......................................................................................... 458 Radiation therapists...........................................................................................596 Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers......481 Radio announcers, see: Announcers.............................................................. 133 Radio mechanics, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers...............................................................................481 Radio operators, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators..................................................................................... 135 Radiographers, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians ..............296 Radiologic technicians, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians....................................................................................................296 Radiologic technologists, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians....................................................................................................296 Radiologic technologists and technicians ................................................... 296 Rail transportation occupations......................................................................579 Rail yard engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations.......................579 Railcar repairers, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics.........................................................493 Railroad brake, signal, and switch operators, see: Rail transportation occupations.................................................................................................. 579 Railroad conductors, see: Rail transportation occupations..................... 579 Railroad engineers, see: Rail transportation occupations........................579 Rail-track laying and maintenance equipment operators.........................601 Ranchers, see: Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers..................47 Range conservationists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters......222 Range ecologists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters................. 222 Range managers, see: Conservation scientists and foresters..................222 Range scientists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters................... 222 Ratings analysts, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors............................................................................................................50 Re-recording mixers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................... 135 Reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................530 Real estate agents, see: Real estate brokers and sales agents................362 Real estate asset managers, see: Property, real estate, and community association managers......................................................77 Real estate brokers, see: Insurance sales agents........................................359 Real estate brokers and sales agents..............................................................362 Real estate sales agents, see: Insurance sales agents................................359 Realtime captioners, see: Court reporters................................................... 206 Rebuilders, transmission, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics..............................................................................................487 Receive-and-deliver clerks, see: Brokerage clerks................................... 397 Receiving clerks, see: Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks................414 Receptionists and information clerks........................................................... 406 Record center clerks, see: File clerks........................................................... 400 Recording engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators............................................................... 135 Record clerks, see: Information and record clerks ................................... 394 Recreational vehicle service technicians..................................................... 602 Recreation and fitness workers......................................................................336 Recreation attendants, see: Amusement and recreation attendants.......596 Recreation specialists, therapeutic, see:Recreational therapists.............266 Recreational therapists.....................................................................................266 Recruiters, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists..............................................................................60 Referees, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.............126 Refractory masons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons................................................................................................. 435 Refrigeration mechanics, see: Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers........................................... 501 Refuse and recyclable material collectors, see: Material moving occupations....................................................................................568 Regional planners, see: Urban and regional planners.............................. 244 Registered dietitians, see: Dietitians and nutritionists............................. 252 Registered nurse anesthetists, certified, see: Registered nurses..............268 Registered nurses............................................................................................... 268 Registered representatives, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................. 373 636 Occupational Outlook Handbook Registered respiratory therapists, see: Respiratory therapists.............. 270 Registrars, tumor, see: Medical records and health information technicians........................................................................................ 288 Registrars, college or university, see: Education administrators........... 42 Rehabilitation counselors, see: Counselors............................................ 152 Reinforcing iron and rebar workers, see: Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers..................................................................... 472 Relationship managers, .see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents......................................................................... 373 Religious priests, see: Roman Catholic priests......................................151 Remedial education teachers, see: Teachers—Adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education...........................................194 Rental clerks, see: Counter and rental clerks........................................354 Reporters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents...............137 Reporters, court, see: Court reporters....................................................206 Research analysts, marketing, see: Economists and market and survey researchers............................................................................. 239 Research psychologists, see: Psychologists...........................................241 Researchers, survey, see: Economists and market and survey researchers........................................................................................ 239 Reservation agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................................406 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks............. 406 Residential advisors................................................................................ 598 Resident managers, see: Lodging managers ............................................70 Resort desk clerks, see: Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks............... 401 Respiratory care practitioners, see: Respiratory therapists................... 270 Respiratory therapists.............. 270 Respiratory therapy technicians, see: Respiratory therapists............... 270 Responders, first, see: Emergency medical technicians and paramedics........................................................................................284 Restaurant chefs, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers....306 Restaurant managers, see: Food service managers................................. 55 Retail buyers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.................................................................................................. 80 Retail manager, see: Sales worker supervisors......................................371 Retail salespersons.................................................................................364 Revenue officers, see: Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents ... 83 Riggers.................................................................................................... 602 Rigging slingers and chasers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers .............................................................................................430 Risk managers, see: Financial managers.................................................52 Rolling machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic............ 523 Roman Catholic priests.......................................................................... 151 Roofers...................................................................................................469 Rotary drill operators, oil and gas..........................................................601 Roustabouts, oil and gas.........................................................................601 Route drivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers................... 576 S Safe repairers, see: Locksmiths and safe repairers............................... 602 Safety engineers, see: Industrial engineers, including health and safety................................................................................................. 112 Safety inspectors, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians..................................................................................291 Safety specialists and technicians, occupational, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians................................... 291 Sailors, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces............................. 586 Sailors, merchant marine, see: Water transportation occupations....... 582 Sales assistants, see: Brokerage clerks..................................................397 Sales managers, see: Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers..............................................................26 Sales workers, see: Cashiers.............................................................................................353 Counter and rental clerks..................................................................354 Demonstrators, product promoters, and models.............................. 356 Insurance sales agents.......................................................................359 Real estate brokers and sales agents.................................................362 Retail salespersons............................................................................364 Sales engineers...................... 366 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing....................... 368 worker supervisors..................................................................371 Digitized Sales for FRASER Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.......... 373 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Travel agents.................................................................................................376 Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers....................................................576 Samplers, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers......550 Samplers, see: Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping............................................................................ 416 Sawing machine operators and tenders, see: Woodworkers.................. 546 Scalers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers ........................ 430 Scanner operators, see: Prepress technicians and workers......................537 School and college counselors, see: Counselors.........................................152 School busdrivers, see: Busdrivers................................................................570 School librarians, see: Librarians.................................................................. 188 School psychologists, see: Psychologists..................................................... 241 School social workers, see: Social workers.................................................160 School superintendents, see: Top executives..................................................86 School teachers, see: Teachers— preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary................................................................................200 Science technicians............................................................................................ 236 Science writers, see: Writers and editors......................................................145 Scientific illustrators, see: Artists and related workers............................ 118 Scientific photographers, see: Photographers............................................. 139 Scouts, professional sports, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.............................................................................................. 126 Scrubs, see: Surgical technologists............................................................... 298 Sculptors, see: Artists and related workers.................................................. 118 Secondary school teachers, see: Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary..........................................................200 Secretaries and administrative assistants.....................................................422 Secret Service agents, see: Police and detectives....................................... 344 Securities analysts, see: Financial analysts and personal financial advisors........................................................................................... 50 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.................. 373 Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents, see: Insurance sales agents.................................................................................359 Security and fire alarm systems installers....................................................602 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers...................................... 350 Security officers, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers........................................................................................................... 350 Segmental pavers, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers................................................ 442 Seismologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists..............230 Self enrichment teachers, see: Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education.................................................................. 194 Semiconductor processors................................................................................560 Senators, see: Top executives............................................................................ 86 Senior reactor operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers............................................................................................ 530 Separating, filtering, clarifying, precipitating, and still machine setters, operators, and tenders................................................................... 605 Septic tank servicers and sewer pipe cleaners.............................................601 Service station attendants.................................................................................606 Service technicians, see: Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers............................................................................... 479 Service technicians, automotive, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics...............................................................................................487 Service technicians, diesel, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics.............................................................................................. 491 Service technicians, heavy vehicle and mobile equipment, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics ..................................................................................................... 493 Service technicians, home appliances, see: Home appliance repairers......................................................................................................... 504 Service technicians, mobile heavy equipment, see: Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics................493 Service unit operators, oil, gas, and mining................................................ 601 Set and exhibit designers, see: Designers.................................................... 120 Sewage treatment plant operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.....................................................533 Sewers, hand, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations ......... 542 Sewing machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations................................................................................................... 542 Shampooers, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers....................................................................................326 Sheet metal workers..........................................................................................470 Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs, see: Police and detectives .......................... 344 Ship officers, see: Water transportation occupations............................... 582 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks........................................................ 414 Shipping-and-receiving supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers............................................417 Shoe and leather workers and repairers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.............................................................................542 Shoe machine operators and tenders, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.............................................................................542 Short haul or local truckdrivers, see: Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers....................................................................................576 Short-order cooks, see: Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers..........................................................................................................306 Show hosts, see: Announcers.......................................................................... 133 Shuttle car operators, see: Material moving occupations....................... 568 Signal operators, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations.......... 579 Silvering applicators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance...................................................................556 Silversmiths, see: Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers......552 Singers, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers.............................. 131 Sketch artists, see: Artists and related workers..........................................118 Skin care specialists, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers....................................................................326 Slaughterers and meat packers, see: Food processing occupations......516 Slot key persons, see: Gaming services occupations................................ 333 Small engine mechanics...................................................................................496 Social and community service managers.....................................................595 Social and human service assistants...............................................................158 Social psychologists, see: Psychologists......................................................241 Social scientists, other...................................................................................... 246 Social work assistants, see: Social and human service assistants......... 158 Social workers.....................................................................................................160 Sociocultural anthropologists, see: Social scientists, other.....................246 Sociologists, see: Social scientists, other.....................................................246 Software quality assurance analysts, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators.................................180 Soil conservationists, see: Conservation scientists and foresters......... 222 Soil scientists, see: Agricultural and food scientists................................. 216 Solderers, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers........................528 Soldiers, see: Job opportunities in the Armed Forces...............................586 Songwriters, see: Musicians, singers, and related workers...................... 131 Sonographers, cardiac, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................................................................................. 277 Sonographers, diagnostic medical, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.................................................................................................282 Sonographers, gynecologic, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.....282 Sonographers, obstetric, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers........... 282 Sonographers, ophthalmologic, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.................................................................................................282 Sonographers, vascular, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians.................................................................................................... 277 Sorters, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers.......... 550 Sound engineering technicians, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators..........................................135 Sound mixers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators..............................................................................................135 Special education teachers, see: Teachers, special education................. 203 Specialists, clinical nurse, see: Registered nurses.....................................268 Specialists, diesel engine, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics..................................................................................................... 491 Specialists, fire prevention, see: Firefighting occupations......................341 Specialists, occupational health and safety, see: Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.....................................................291 Specialists, skin care, see: Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers....................................................................326 Specialists, therapeutic recreation, see: Recreational therapists ............266 Specification inspectors, see: Constiuction and building inspectors ....444 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists......................................... 272 Sports book writers and runners, see: Gaming services occupations ... 333 Sports officials, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers.......................................................................................................... 126 Sportscasters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents........ 137 Spray machine operators, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance.....................................................556 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Index 637 Sprinklerfitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters........................................................................................ 464 Staff development specialists, see: Instructional coordinators............. 187 State police officers, see: Police and detectives.................................... 344 State troopers, see: Police and detectives ............................................. 344 Station agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................................406 Station installers and repairers, telephone, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers..................481 Stationary engineers and boiler operators............................................. 531 Statistical assistants................................................................................599 Statisticians............................................................................................ 178 Steadicam operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors............................................................144 Steamfitters, see: Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters........................................................................................464 Stenocaptioners, see: Court reporters ................................................... 206 Stenographers, medical, see: Medical transcriptionists........................315 Stewardesses and stewards, airline, see: Flight attendants...................331 Stewards, passenger ship, see: Water transportation occupations....... 582 Stock clerks and order fillers................................................................. 415 Stock-control clerks, see: Stock clerks and order fillers......................415 Stockbrokers, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.......................................................................................373 Stonemasons, see: Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons......435 Storage managers, see: Transportation, storage, and distribution managers........................................................................................... 595 Stratigraphers, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists...........230 Streetcar operators, see: Rail transportation occupations.....................579 Street vendors, see: Door-to-door sales workers, news and street vendors, and related workers........................................................... 598 Strength trainers, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers............................................................................................. 126 Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers...............................472 Structural engineers, see: Civil engineers............................................. 109 Structural metal fabricators and fitters, see: Assemblers and fabricators......................................................................................... 514 Stucco masons, see: Plasterers and stucco masons...............................467 Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors, see: Counselors........................................................................................ 152 Substance abuse social workers, see: Social workers........................... 160 Subway operators, see: Rail transportation occupations...................... 579 Superintendents, see: Top executives...................................................... 86 Supply managers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents................................................................................80 Surgeons, see: Physicians and surgeons................................................ 262 Surgeons’ assistants, see: Physician assistants.....................................260 Surgeons, dental, see: Dentists.............................................................. 250 Surgeons, oral and maxillofacial, see: Dentists....................................250 Surgeons, podiatric, see: Podiatrists..................................................... 264 Surgical technicians, see: Surgical technologists..................................298 Surgical technologists.............................................................................298 Surveillance officers, gaming, see: Security guards and gaming surveillance officers..........................................................................350 Surveying technicians, see: Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.....................................95. Survey researchers, see: Economists and market and survey researchers........................................................................................239 Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians..........................................................................................95 Switch operators, railroad, see: Rail transportation occupations......... 579 Switchboard operators, see: Communications equipment operators ....379 Switchboard operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers .................................................................................530 Synoptic meteorologists, see: Atmospheric scientists..........................225 Systems administrators, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators......................................................................171 Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators .... 180 Systems architects, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators ....................................................................180 Systems operators, see: Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers........................................................................................ 530 Systems programmers, see: Computer programmers............................ 166 638 Occupational Outlook Handbook Systems software engineers, see: Computer software engineers.......... 169 T Tailors, dressmakers, and sewers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.................................................................... 542 Tamping equipment operators, see: Construction equipment operators........................................................................................... 447 Tank car, truck, and ship loaders, see: Material moving occupations....................................................................................... 568 Tapers, see: Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers.........451 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents.........................................83 Tax preparers.......................................................................................... 595 Taxi drivers, see: Taxi drivers and chauffeurs.......................................573 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs.................................................................... 573 Taxicab dispatchers, see: Dispatchers....................................................412 Teacher aides, see: Teacher assistants.................................................... 192 Teacher assistants....................................................................................192 Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education............................................................................................194 Teachers—postsecondary........................................................................197 Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary.......................................................................................... 200 Teachers—special education..................................................................203 Team assemblers, see: Assemblers and fabricators.............................. 514 Technical education teachers, postsecondary, see: Teachers— postsecondary.................................................................................... 197 Technical sales support workers, see: Sales engineers......................... 366 Technical support specialists, see: Computer support specialists and systems administrators...................................................................... 171 Technical writers, see: Writers and editors............................................ 145 Technicians and technologists, see-. Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians...................................................................................483 Archivists, curators, and museum technicians.................................. 184 Automotive body and related repairers............................................ 485 Automotive service technicians and mechanics.............................. 487 Cardiovascular technologists and technicians................................. 277 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians........................... 279 Dental laboratory technicians...........................................................548 Diagnostic medical sonographers.....................................................282 Diesel service technicians and mechanics....................................... 491 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics............................. 284 Engineering technicians.................................................................... 100 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers....................................................................................... 501 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics....................................................................................493 Home appliance repairers.................................................................504 Library technicians.................................................. Medical records and health information technicians....................... 288 Nuclear medicine technologists........................................................289 Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians............ 291 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians...................................................554 Pharmacy technicians.......................................................................295 Photographic process workers and processing machine operators...................................................................................... 558 Radiologic technologists and technicians........................................ 296 Respiratory therapists.......................................................................270 Science technicians...........................................................................236 Semiconductor processors................................................................560 Surgical technologists.......................................................................298 Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.....................................................................................95 Telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers............................................................................................481 Telecommunications specialists, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators.............................................180 Telemarketers .........................................................................................599 Telephone installers and repairers, see: Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers................................................... 481 Telephone line installers, see: Line installers and repairers.................. 508 Telephone operators, see: Communications equipment operators....... 379 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Television announcers, see: Announcers................................................133 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Television, video, and motion picture camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors ............................................................................................................. 144 Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors .... 144 Teller supervisors, see: Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers............................................................ 417 Tellers....................................................................................................................393 Terminal controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers...................565 Terrazzo workers, see: Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers................................................ 442 Testers, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers......... 550 Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................................. 542 Textile beaching and dyeing machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations......................................................................542 Textile cutting machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations............................................................................. 542 Textile knitting and weaving machine setters, operators, and tenders, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.............................. 542 Textile machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations................................................................................................... 542 Textile winding, twisting, and drawing out machine operators, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations...................................... 542 Theoretical mathematicians, see: Mathematicians.................................... 174 Therapeutic recreation specialists, see: Recreational therapists.............266 Therapists, hearing, see: Speech-language pathologists and audiologists................................................................................................... 272 Therapists, industrial, see: Occupational therapists.................................. 253 Therapists, inhalation, see: Respiratory therapists....................................270 Therapists, marriage and family, see: Counselors..................................... 152 Therapists, occupational, see: Occupational therapists............................253 Therapists, oxygen, see: Respiratory therapists..........................................270 Therapists, physical, see: Physical therapists............................................. 259 Therapists, recreational, see: Recreational therapists............................... 266 Therapists, respiratory, see: Respiratory therapists...................................270 Therapists, speech, see: Speech-language pathologists and audiologists................................................................................................... 272 Ticket agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................................................... 406 Ticket takers, see: Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers..............598 Tile finishers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers.......... 439 Tile installers, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers......... 439 Tilesetters, see: Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers..............439 Timber cutting and logging workers, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers.................................................................................... 430 Timekeepers, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks....................................392 Timekeeping clerks, see: Financial clerks...................................................386 Timekeeping clerks, see: Payroll and timekeeping clerks.......................392 Tire builders......................................................................................................... 605 Tire repairers and changers............................................................................. 602 190 Title examiners, abstractors, and searchers..................................................596 Tool and die makers........................................................................................... 526 Tool grinders, filers, and sharpeners, see: Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic.................................................................523 Toolmakers, see: Tool and die makers..........................................................526 Top executives.......................................................................................................86 Tour and travel guides.......................................................................................598 Tow truck dispatchers, see: Dispatchers...................................................... 412 Tower controllers, air traffic, see: Air traffic controllers ........................ 565 Tractor-trailer drivers, see: Truck drivers and driver/sales workers.....576 Traders, see: Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents................................................................................................... 373 Traffic clerks, see: Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks......................414 Traffic technicians............................................................................................. 606 Train dispatchers, see: Dispatchers............................................................... 412 Trainers, athletic, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers...........................................................................................................126 Training and development managers and specialists, see: Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.....60 Transcribers, medical, see: Medical transcriptionists............................... 315 Transcriptionists, medical, see: Medical transcriptionists....................... 315 Transfer clerks, see: Brokerage clerks..........................................................397 Transit and intercity busdrivers, see: Busdrivers....................................... 570 Transit and railroad police, see: Police and detectives.............................344 Translators, see: Interpreters and translators............................................... 596 Index 639 Transmission engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators........................................................ 135 Transmission technicians and rebuilders, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics................................................................487 Transmitter operators, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators........................................................ 135 Transportation attendants, except flight attendants and baggage porters............................................................................................... 598 Transportation engineers, see: Civil engineers......................................109 Transportation equipment painters, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance............................... 556 Transportation inspectors.......................................................................606 Transportation, storage, and distribution managers.............................. 595 Transportation ticket agents, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...........................................................406 Travel agents........................................................................................... 376 Travel clerks, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks....................................................................................... 406 Travel counselors, see: Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks................................................................................ 406 Travel guides, see: Tour and travel guides............................................ 598 Treasurers, see: Financial managers........................................................52 Treatment plant and system operators, wastewater, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.......................... 533 Treatment plant and system operators, water, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.................................... 533 Treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) workers, see: Hazardous materials removal workers................................................................458 Tree planters, see: Forest, conservation, and logging workers............ 430 Tree trimmers and pruners, see: Grounds maintenance workers......... 302 Trial lawyers, see: Lawyers....................................................................210 Truck dispatchers, see: Dispatchers...................................................... 412 Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers...................................................576 Truck mechanics, see: Diesel service technicians and mechanics....... 491 Tumbling barrel painters, see: Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance...........................................................556 Tumor registrars, see: Medical records and health information technicians........................................................................................ 288 Tuners, musical instruments, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers........................................................................................... 511 Tune-up technicians, see: Automotive service technicians and mechanics......................................................................................... 487 Typists, see: Data entry and information processing workers.............. 383 Typographers, see: Desktop publishers................................................. 384 U U.S. Border Patrol agents, see: Police and detectives........................... 344 U.S. Congress representatives, see: Top executives................................ 86 U.S. marshals and deputy marshals, see: Police and detectives........... 344 U.S. Secret Service special agents, see: Police and detectives............. 344 U.S. Senators, see: Top executives...........................................................86 Ultrasonographers, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers.................. 282 Ultrasound technologists, see: Diagnostic medical sonographers....... 282 Umpires, see: Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers........... 126 Undertakers, .see: Funeral directors..........................................................58 Underwriters, see: Insurance underwriters...............................................66 Underwriters, loan, see: Loan counselors and officers........................... 68 University deans, see: Education administrators.................................... 42 University professors, see: Teachers—postsecondary...........................197 Unlicensed assistive personnel, see: Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides....................................................................................... 317 Upholsterers, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations........ 542 Urban and regional planners..................................................................244 Urban and transportation geographers, see: Social scientists, other.... 246 Ushers, lobby attendants, and ticket takers............................................598 W Waiters and waitresses, see: Food and beverage serving and related workers..........................................................................................................309 Wastewater treatment plant and system operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators......................533 Watch repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers ... 511 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators................533 Water resources engineers, see: Civil engineers........................................ 109 Water transportation occupations.................................................................. 582 Water treatment plant and system operators, see: Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.........................................533 Weathercasters, see: News analysts, reporters, and correspondents.....137 Weaving machine operators, textile, see: Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.............................................................................542 Web designers, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators.............................................................................180 Web developers, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators.............................................................................180 Web publications designers, see: Desktop publishers.............................. 384 Webmasters, see: Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators .............................................................................180 Weighers, see: Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers .....550 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping................416 Welders, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers..........................528 Welding machine operators and tenders, see: Welding, soldering, and brazing workers...........................................................................................528 Welding, soldering, and brazingworkers......................................................528 Wellhead pumpers, see: Materialmoving occupations..............................568 Wholesale buyers, see: Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.......................................................................................... 80 Wildlife biologists, see: Biological and medical scientists..................... 219 Window trimmers, see: Designers ................................................................ 120 Woodworkers...................................................................................................... 546 Woodworking machine operators and tenders, see: Woodworkers.......546 Word processors, see: Data entry and information processing workers......................................................................................................... 383 Writers and editors............................................................................................ 145 X V Vascular sonographers, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians........................................................................................ 277 Vascular technologists, see: Cardiovascular technologists and technicians........................................................................................ 277 Vending machine repairers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers........................................................499 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Vending machine servicers, see: Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers...............................................................499 Veterinarians....................................................................................................... 274 Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakers........................... 598 Veterinary technologists and technicians.................................................... 596 Vice presidents, see: Top executives...............................................................86 Vice presidents of student affairs, see: Education administrators........... 42 Video camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors....................................................................144 Video camera operators, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors....................................................................144 Video control engineers, see: Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators...............................................................135 Video editors, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors...................................................................................144 Videographers, see: Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors...................................................................................144 Violin repairers, see: Precision instrument and equipment repairers.... 511 Visual merchandisers, see: Designers...........................................................120 Vocational counselors, see: Counselors....................................................... 152 Vocational education teachers, secondary school, see: Teachers— preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary........... 200 Vocational nurses, licensed, see: Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses........................................................................................ 287 Vocational-technical education teachers, postsecondary, see: Teachers—postsecondary......................................................................... 197 Volcanologists, see: Environmental scientists and geoscientists........... 230 X-ray technicians, see: Radiologic technologists and technicians.......296 Y Yardmasters, see: Rail transportation occupations................................... 579 Z Zookeepers, see: Animal care and service workers.................................. 324 Zoologists, see: Biological and medical scientists.................................... 219 Surf for your Future ]QlOi0 '°'o/n BLS Employment Projections Online http://www.bls.gov/emp/ Occupational Outlook Handbook and Career Guide to Industries Online ♦ Electronic version of the Federal Government’s premier career guidance publication and its companion ♦ Keyword search and index for convenience S, S .iff'- Sis' ISr Ei https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis •:i -t--. • m 1 JSK S IS pi m " - Frequently Asked Questions ♦ What are the fastest growing occupations and industries? ♦ Which occupations will add the most new jobs? Data ♦ Most requested tables ♦ Labor force projections ♦ Links to State occupational employment projections Contacts ♦ Telephone listings for industry and occupational experts at the Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections Publications ♦ Links to other related publications and order forms ♦ Links to other Federal career information For prices and ordering information j refer to the ijections Related Publications http://www.bls.gov/emp/ Career Guide to Industries, 2002-03 Edition Occupational Projections I Training Data, 2002-03 Editinn BLS Bulletin 2541 BLS Bulletin 2542 As a companion publication to the Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Career Guide discusses careers from an industry perspective. The 42 industries highlighted in this bulletin account for about 3 of every 4 wage and salary jobs in the Nation. The Career Guide includes some occupations not covered by the Handbook, and discusses the nature of the industry, job qualifications and advancement opportunities, job outlook, and earnings. This publication provides statistical data to support information presented in the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Education and training planners, career counselors, and job seekers can compare hundreds of occupations on factors such as employment change, self-employed workers, earnings, and the most significant source of education or training. Users also will find awards and degree data, by field of study. . n. ■ Occupational Projections and Training Data 2002-03 Edition ISry*oo2 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis £ U S. Department of Labor Bureau ot Labor Statistics January 2002 Bulletin 2542
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