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I Occupational Outlook Handbook 2002-03 Edition W# U.S. Department of Labor Elaine L. Chao, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Lois L. Orr, Acting Commissioner January 2002 Bulletin 2540 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis S.M.S.U. L/bPARy m s o» U.S. DEPOSITORY ISBN 0-16-051025-2 90000 9 7801 60 5 0250 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800 Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001 ISBN 0-16-051025-2 Suggested citation: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook 2002-03 Edition, Bulletin 2540. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 2002._______ https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Message from the Secretary In both prosperous and challenging times, the mission of the U.S. Department of Labor remains the same: to help Americans pursue safe, successful and satisfying careers. In doing so, we are also strengthening America’s 215' Century Workforce, which is the key to our nation’s future economic growth and vitality. Workers need comprehensive, accessible and reliable information on the labor market, in order to adapt to changes in our economy. Providing such valuable information is part of the Department of Labor’s responsibility to workers. As technologies advance, mar kets become more globally-oriented, and business organizations change, job-seekers need new skills to find and hold good jobs. To help workers succeed in an economy that is continuously changing, we offer the Occupational Outlook Handbook, the Gov ernment's premier career guidance publication. This Handbook provides vital information on job trends in a wide range of occu pations, and the skills and qualifications that will be needed by workers in the future. We hope the Handbook will be of value to all American workers! ELAINE L. CHAO https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mix https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Foreword Since the late 1940s, the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Handbook has been a nationally recognized source of career information. Revised every 2 years, the Handbook describes job duties, working conditions, training and educational requirements, earnings, and job prospects in a wide range of occupations. Employment in the hundreds of occupations discussed in detail in the 2002-03 Handbook accounts for 7 of every 8 jobs in the economy. Combined with the updated special features of the Handbook, the occupational information presented in this new edition provides invaluable assistance to individuals making decisions about their future work lives. Lois L. Orr Acting Commissioner Bureau ofLabor Statistics https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MW! LJ' https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Acknowledgments The Bureau of Labor Statistics produced the Handbook under the general guidance and direction of Mike Pilot, Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections. Chester C. Levine and Jon Q. Sargent, Managers of Occupational Outlook Studies, provided planning and dayto-day direction. Supervisors overseeing the research and preparation of material were Douglas Braddock, Theresa Cosca, Kristina Shelley, and Carolyn Veneri. Occupational analysts who contributed material were Andrew D. Alpert, Jill Auyer, Hall Dillon, Tamara Dillon, Arlene Dohm, Henry Kasper, Jonathan Kelinson, R. Sean Kirby, T. Alan Lacey, Kevin M. McCarron, Roger Moncarz, Andrew J. Nelson, Azure Reaser, Terry Schau, Lynn Shniper, Tiffany T. Stringer, Patricia A. Tate, and Ian Wyatt. Word processing support was provided by Beverly A. Williams. Cover and other art-work were designed by Keith Tapscott. Note Many trade associations, professional societies, unions, industrial organizations, and government agencies provide career information that is valuable to counselors and jobseekers. For the convenience of Handbook users, some of these organizations and, in some cases, their Internet addresses are listed at the end of each occupational statement. Although these references were carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has neither authority nor facilities for investigating the organizations or the information or publications that may be sent in response to a request and cannot guarantee the accuracy of such information. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not constitute in any way an endorsement or recommendation by the Bureau either ofthe organization and its activities or of the information it may supply. Each organization has sole responsibility for whatever information it may issue. The Handbook describes the job outlook over a projected 10year period for occupations across the Nation; consequently, short term labor market fluctuations and regional differences in job outlook generally are not discussed. Similarly, the Handbook provides a general, composite description of jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The Handbook, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours of work, the right of a particular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data in the Handbook be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving work injuries or accidental deaths. Material in this publication is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit, may be reproduced without permission. Comments about the contents of this publication and suggestions for improving it are welcome. Please address them to Chief, Division of Occupational Outlook, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE, Room 2135, Washington, DC 20212. Phone: (202) 691-5700. FAX: (202) 691-5745. E-mail: oohinfo@bls.gov. Additional information is available on the Internet: http ://www.bls.gov/oco/ vii Photograph Credits The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to express its appreciation for the cooperation and assistance of the many government and private sources—listed below—that either contributed photographs or made their facilities available to photographers working under contract to the U.S. Department of Labor. Situations portrayed in the photographs may not be free of every possible safety or health hazard. Depiction of company or trade name in no way constitutes endorsement by the Department of Labor. Abacus Technology Corporation; Accutech Security Systems, Rockville, MD; Allen-Mitchell Machine Shop, Washington, DC; Amaco Refining Plant, Yorktown, VA; American Association of Flight Attendants; American Association of Retired Persons, Legal Services for the Elderly; American University, Washington, DC; Andrews Air Force Base, Washington, DC; Arlington Cultural Affairs Program, Arlington, VA; Barbara Appseloff, George Washington University Hospital and Medical Associates; Behnke’s Nursery, Beltsville, MD; Ben Woodward, Manager, University of Maryland, Bioprocess Scale-Up Facility; Berry, Barlow, & Warrington, LLP, Certified Public Accountants; Burlington and Northern Railroad; C. Yvette Willis, At Your Fingertips, Washington, DC; Cape May-Lewes Ferry; Carlo Perlo of Dance Place; City Paper, Washington, DC; Civil Engineer Rosanna Alcantara, Army Corps of Engineers; Corcoran School of Art Alumni Association; Comeal Design, Gaithersburg, MD; Cornelia Ashby, General Accounting Office, U.S. Government; County Bank of Rehoboth Beach, DE; Cynthia K. Reeser, Nutritionist, Women’s Health Initiative; D.C. Vending Company; Dana A. Brown, Women’s Exercise Research Center, George Washington University, Washington, DC; Darrell L. Jackson, Food Services Manager, The Wash ington Court Hotel; David Hrupsa of First State Aerial Applicators, Felton, DE; Delaware Electric Cooperative; Department of Anthropology, Howard University; Department of Marine Sciences, University of Delaware, Lewes, DE; Dixon Pest Control Service; Dorrie Smith & Gerald Reese, Grace Davison, Technical Services Department; Dr. David Hawthorne, De partment of Entomology, University of Maryland; Dr. Gary Felton, Agricultural Engineering Department, University of Maryland; Dr. Larry Brown of Dupont Circle Chiropractic; Dulles Airport; Easter Seal Rehabilitation Center—Georgetown, DE; Ecologist and Wetland Specialist Evelyn Maurmeyer, Lewes, DE; EKG Technician Dorothy Baskin, Children’s National Medical Center; Fannie Mae Computer Department, Washington, DC; Father Everett Pearson of Holy Name School, Wash ington, DC; Federal Express; Ferris, Baker, Watts, Inc.; Fire Department Dispatchers, D.C. Government; Fitzgerald Pontiac; Gail Schneider, Volunteers for the Visually Handicapped; George Meany Labor Studies Center, Silver Spring, MD; George Washington University Health Library; George Washington University Hospital and Ambulatory Care Center; Giant Super market, Silver Spring, MD; Glenn Maurer and Associates; Hank Prensky, Weichert Realtors; Harrah’s Entertainment, Inc., Las Vegas, NV; Henlopen Electronics, Lewes, DE; Herb Gordon Dodge; Holland Jewelers, Inc. of Rehoboth Beach, DE; Information Technology Department of the American Federation of Teachers, AFL-CIO; Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesburg, VA; Iona House, Washington, DC; J. Ross Harris, Jr., P.E. of Environmental Consultants International Cor poration, Rehoboth Beach, DE; James River Corporation, Clatskamie, OR; Jason Floyd, Nuclear Engineer, University of Maryland; Jeffrey L. Ward, Administrative Clerk, District Court of Maryland, District #6; John Edghill of Ikon Office Solu tions; Jordana Romeroy, Curator, National Museum of Women in the Arts; June Linowitz, Artist; Kane County Cougars; Kathryn Morgan Lightcap, D.P.M. of Lewes, DE; Kop-Flex, Inc., Baltimore, MD; Legal Services of Washington, DC; Legg, Mason, Wood, Walker, Inc.; Leslie Brown, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine; Little Angels Day Care Center and Learning Center, Inc., Lewes, DE; Litton Industries, College Park, MD; Marilyn Goldman, Horizons Unlimited; Martha Tabor, Work ing Images Prints, Photographs, and Sculpture, Washington, DC; Maryland Semiconductor, Inc.; Mathematics Department, University of Maryland; McAllister Towing of Baltimore, MD; McCutcheon’s Apple Products, Inc.; Melvin M. Shapiro of Capitol Process Services; Midway Slots in Harrington, DE; Monilsen Animal Clinic, Madison Heights, VA; Montgomery County Jail, Montgomery County, MD; Mt. Ranier Police Department; National Weather Services, Camp Springs, MD; National Zoo—Smithsonian; Office of Personnel Management, U.S. Government; Patricia Horman, American Arbitration Association; Paulette Moss Washington, Travel the World; Pierre L. Palian, D.D.S., and staff -Heidi Bradshaw, Leslie Felix, and Josefa Duran; Political Science Department of American University; Port of Seattle; Proctor S. Harvey, American Soci ety of Landscape Architects, Lynchburg, VA; Professor Michael Harris, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Maryland; Public Production Group of Washington, DC; Rabbi Avis Miller; Rapp Funeral and Cremation Services; Rev. Ruth Hamilton of Westminster Presbyterian Church, Washington, DC; Riggs National Bank of Washington, DC; Robbie Murray, Connie Rogers, Brandon Donaway of the Sussex County Emergency Medical Services (Delaware); Robert Schwartz and Keith Peoples, Architects; Rock Terrace High School, Montgomery County, MD; Roush & Averill, Interior Designers, Gaithersburg, MD; San Francisco Mime Troupe; Sandy Springs Friends School, Sandy Springs, MD; Seaport Transportation of Rehoboth Beach, DE; Shawn Mead, International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craft Workers; Sheraton Washington Hotel, Washington, DC; Silver Spring Library of Montgomery County, MD; Southern State Grain Elevator, Lothian, MD; Staff at the Days Inn, Keene, NH; State Farm Insurance Company; Strasburger & Siegel, Inc., Hanover, MD; Superior Court, Sussex County, Georgetown, DE; Surgery Department, Children’s National Medical Center; Sussex County (Delaware) Engineering Department; Sussex County (Delaware) Finance Department; The Segal Company, Washington, DC; The Wash ington Times; The Wilmer Eye Institute of the Johns Hopkins University Hospital; Thrifty Rental Car, Mt. Ranier, MD; Town of Rehoboth Beach, DE—Water Treatment Plant; U.S. Probation Officer Robin T. Hillen; Urban Institute of Washington, DC; USDA Graduate School; Violin House of Weaver, Bethesda, MD; Walter Reed Army Medical Hospital, Washington, DC; Washington Home, Washington, DC; Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority; Wendy Semey, Materials Engi neer, University of Maryland; WETA Television and Radio; William G. Grimm ofAvorex Designs; William McGuire, Beltsville Agricultural Research Station; William Strein, Associate Professor and Co-Director of School Psychology Program, Univer sity of Maryland; Woodley House, Washington, DC; Workers Institute for Health and Safety, Washington, DC. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis viii Contents Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians............................................................................... Special Features Tomorrow’s Jobs....................................................... Sources of Career Information................................ Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer............ Occupational Information Included in the Handbook................................................................. Data for Occupations Not Studied in Detail........ Assumptions and Methods Used in Preparing Employment Projections...................................... Occupational Information Network Coverage...... Reprints....................................................................... Index............................................................................. Drafters and engineering technicians Drafters......................................................................................... 98 Engineering technicians................................................................ 100 1 9 14 Engineers.....................................................................................103 Aerospace engineers..................................................................... 106 Agricultural engineers.................................................................. 107 Biomedical engineers................................................................... 107 Chemical engineers...................................................................... 108 Civil engineers............................................................................... 109 Computer hardware engineers..................................................... 109 Electrical and electronics engineers, except computer............. 110 Environmental engineers............................................................ Ill Industrial engineers, including health and safety.......................112 Materials engineers...................................................................... 113 Mechanical engineers................................................................... 114 Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers.......................................................... 115 Nuclear engineers..........................................................................116 Petroleum engineers..................................................................... 117 19 594 607 609 617 620 Occupational Coverage Management and business and financial operations occupations Accountants and auditors........................................................... Administrative services managers.............................................. Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers.................................................................. Budget analysts............................................................................ Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators..... Computer and information systems managers........................... Construction managers................................................................ Cost estimators............................................................................ Education administrators............................................................ Engineering and natural sciences managers.............................. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.......................... Financial analysts and personal financial advisors................... Financial managers...................................................................... Food service managers................................................................ Funeral directors.......................................................................... Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.......................................................................... Industrial production managers.................................................. Insurance underwriters................................................................ Loan counselors and officers...................................................... Lodging managers....................................................................... Management analysts.................................................................. Medical and health services managers...................................... Property, real estate, and community association managers.... Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents.............. Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents......................... Top executives............................................................................. Art and design occupations Artists and related workers......................................................... 118 Designers........................................................................................120 21 24 Entertainers and performers, sports and related occupations Actors, producers, and directors.................................................. 124 Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers........................126 Dancers and choreographers........................................................ 129 Musicians, singers, and related workers..................................... 131 26 29 32 35 37 40 42 45 47 50 52 55 58 Media and communication-related occupations Announcers.................................................................................. 133 Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators.................................................................................. 135 News analysts, reporters, and correspondents............................137 Photographers................................................................................139 Public relations specialists.......................................................... 141 Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors................................................................................. 144 Writers and editors.........................................................................145 60 64 66 68 70 72 74 77 80 83 86 Community and social services occupations Clergy.............................................................................................148 Protestant ministers.................................................................. 149 Rabbis....................................................................................... 150 Roman Catholic priests............................................................151 Counselors..................................................................................... 152 Probational officers and correctional treatment specialists..... 156 Social and human service assistants............................................158 Social workers............................................................................... 160 Professional and related occupations Computer and mathematical occupations Actuaries.........................................................................................163 Computer programmers................................................................ 166 Computer software engineers...................................................... 169 Architects, surveyors, and cartographers Architects, except landscape and naval..................................... 90 Landscape architects.................................................................... 92 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 95 tx Dental hygienists........................................................................... 281 Diagnostic medical sonographers................................................ 282 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics.......................284 Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses.....................287 Medical records and health information technicians................. 288 Nuclear medicine technologists................................................... 289 Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.... 291 Opticians, dispensing.................................................................... 293 Pharmacy technicians................................................................... 295 Radiologic technologists and technicians.................................. 296 Surgical technologists................................................................... 298 Computer support specialists and systems administrators...... 171 Mathematicians.............................................................................. 174 Operations research analysts........................................................ 176 Statisticians.................................................................................... 178 Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators............................................................................ 180 Education, training, library, and museum occupations Archivists, curators, and museum technicians........................... 184 Instructional coordinators............................................................. 187 Librarians........................................................................................188 Library technicians........................................................................190 Teacher assistants..........................................................................192 Teachers—adult literacy and remedial and self-enrichment education................................................................................... 194 Teachers—postsecondary............................................................. 197 Teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary................................................................................... 200 Teachers—special education........................................................203 Service occupations Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations Building cleaning workers............................................................300 Grounds maintenance workers.....................................................302 Pest control workers......................................................................304 Legal occupations Court reporters...............................................................................206 Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers.........................208 Lawyers.......................................................................................... 210 Paralegals and legal assistants......................................................213 Food preparation and serving related occupations Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.............................. 306 Food and beverage serving and related workers........................309 Healthcare support occupations Dental assistants............................................................................312 Medical assistants..........................................................................314 Medical transcriptionists.............................................................. 315 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.............................. 317 Occupational therapist assistants and aides................................ 320 Pharmacy aides.............................................................................. 321 Physical therapist assistants and aides.........................................322 Life scientists Agricultural and food scientists................................................... 216 Biological and medical scientists................................................ 219 Conservation scientists and foresters..........................................222 Physical scientists Atmospheric scientists.................................................................. 225 Chemists and materials scientists................................................ 227 Environmental scientists and geoscientists................................ 230 Physicists and astronomers...........................................................233 Personal care and service occupations Animal care and service workers................................................. 324 Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers...................................................................................... 326 Childcare workers..........................................................................328 Flight attendants............................................................................331 Gaming services occupations.......................................................333 Personal and home care aides.......................................................335 Recreation and fitness workers.....................................................336 Science technicians..................................................................... 236 Social scientists and related occupations Economists and market and survey researchers.........................239 Psychologists.................................................................................241 Urban and regional planners.........................................................244 Social scientists, other.................................................................. 246 Protective service occupations Correctional officers..................................................................... 339 Firefighting occupations............................................................... 341 Police and detectives.....................................................................344 Private detectives and investigators............................................. 348 Security guards and gaming surveillance officers......................350 Health diagnosing and treating practitioners Chiropractors.................................................................................248 Dentists.......................................................................................... 250 Dietitians and nutritionists...........................................................252 Occupational therapists................................................................ 253 Optometrists.................................................................................. 255 Pharmacists.................................................................................... 257 Physical therapists.........................................................................259 Physician assistants...................................................................... 260 Physicians and surgeons............................................................... 262 Podiatrists...................................................................................... 264 Recreational therapists.................................................................. 266 Registered nurses...........................................................................268 Respiratory therapists................................................................... 270 Speech-language pathologists and audiologists.........................272 Veterinarians..................................................................................274 Sales and related occupations Cashiers..........................................................................................353 Counter and rental clerks.............................................................. 354 Demonstrators, product promoters, and models.........................356 Insurance sales agents................................................................... 359 Real estate brokers and sales agents............................................ 362 Retail salespersons........................................................................364 Sales engineers.............................................................................. 366 Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing................ 368 Sales worker supervisors.............................................................. 371 Securities, commodities, and financial servicessales agents .... 373 Travel agents.................................................................................. 376 Health technologists and technicians Cardiovascular technologists and technicians............................ 277 Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians......................279 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis x Glaziers.......................................................................................... 457 Hazardous materials removal workers....................................... 458 Insulation workers........................................................................ 461 Painters and paperhangers........................................................... 462 Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.................... 464 Plasterers and stucco masons...................................................... 467 Roofers.......................................................................................... 469 Sheet metal workers.....................................................................470 Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers.................... 472 Office and administrative support occupations Communications equipment operators........................................379 Computer operators...................................................................... 381 Data entry and information processing workers.........................383 Desktop publishers....................................................................... 384 Financial clerks..............................................................................386 Bill and account collectors...................................................... 388 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators................. 389 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks.......................390 Gaming cage workers............................................................... 391 Payroll and timekeeping clerks................................................ 392 Procurement clerks................................................................... 393 Tellers........................................................................................ 393 Information and record clerks..................................................... 394 Brokerage clerks....................................................................... 397 Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks................................. 398 Customer service representatives............................................399 File clerks.................................................................................. 400 Flotel, motel, and resort desk clerks........................................401 Fluman resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping.......................................................................... 401 Interviewers...............................................................................402 Library assistants, clerical....................................................... 404 Order clerks...............................................................................405 Receptionists and information clerks..................................... 406 Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks...................................................................................... 406 Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers...........................................407 Cargo and freight agents...........................................................410 Couriers and messengers..........................................................411 Dispatchers................................................................................412 Meter readers, utilities..............................................................413 Production, planning, and expediting clerks..........................413 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks.................................... 414 Stock clerks and order fillers................................................... 415 Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping....................................................................... 413 Office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers.................................................................................... 417 Office clerks, general.................................................................... 419 Postal Service workers .................................................................420 Secretaries and administrative assistants.................................... 422 Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations Electrical and electronic equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers...... 475 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers..................... 477 Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers.....................................................................................479 Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.....................................................................................481 Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians................................................................................ 483 Automotive body and related repairers......................................485 Automotive service technicians and mechanics........................ 487 Diesel service technicians and mechanics..................................491 Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics..................................................................................493 Small engine mechanics.............................................................. 496 Other installation, maintenance, and repair occupations Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers.....................................................................................499 Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers..................................................................................... 501 Home appliance repairers.............................................................504 Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers...................................................................................... 506 Line installers and repairers......................................................... 508 Precision instrument and equipment repairers...........................511 Production occupations Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations Assemblers and fabricators...................................................... 514 Agricultural workers..................................................................... 426 Fishers and fishing vessel operators............................................428 Forest, conservation, and logging workers................................. 430 Food processing occupations.................................................... 516 Metal workers and plastic workers Computer control programmers and operators...........................519 Machinists ..................................................................................... 521 Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic .... 523 Tool and die makers...................................................................... 526 Welding, soldering, and brazing workers................................... 528 Construction trades and related workers Boilermakers.................................................................................. 434 Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons...........................435 Carpenters...................................................................................... 437 Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers.............................439 Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers....................................................................... 442 Construction and building inspectors..........................................444 Construction equipment operators..............................................447 Construction laborers................................................................... 449 Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers.................. 451 Electricians.................................................................................... 452 Elevator installers and repairers.................................................. 455 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Plant and system operators Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers................. 530 Stationary engineers and boiler operators.................................. 531 Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators.................................................................................... 533 Printing occupations Bookbinders and bindery workers...............................................535 xi Prepress technicians and workers................................................ 537 Printing machine operators...........................................................540 Transportation and material moving occupations Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations.......................542 Air transportation occupations Aircraft pilots and flight engineers..........................................562 Air traffic controllers................................................................ 565 Woodworkers...............................................................................546 Material moving occupations.................... Other production occupations Dental laboratory technicians.......................................................548 Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers,and weighers....................550 Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers......................... 552 Ophthalmic laboratory technicians.............................................. 554 Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance...............................................................................556 Photographic process workers and processing machine operators....................................................................................558 Semiconductor processors............................................................560 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 568 Motor vehicle operators Busdrivers.................................................................................. 570 Taxi drivers and chauffeurs......................................................573 Truckdrivers and driver/sales workers.....................................576 Rail transportation occupations............................................... 579 Water transportation occupations................. 582 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces......................586 xii https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Additional Information About the 2000-10 Projections Readers interested in more information about the projec tions; about the methods and assumptions that underlie them; or about details on the labor force, economic growth, or industry and occupational employment, should consult the November 2001 Monthly Labor Review, or the Winter 2001-02 Occupational Outlook Quarterly. For more information about employment change, job openings, earnings, unemployment rates, and training re quirements by occupation, consult Occupational Projec tions and Training Data, 2002-03 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2542. For occupational information from an industry perspec tive, including discussions of some occupations and career paths that the Occupational Outlook Handbook does not cover, consult the Career Guide to Industries, 2002-03 Edition, BLS Bulletin 2541. Tomorrow’s Jobs Making informed career decisions requires reliable information about opportunities in the future. Opportunities result from the relationships between the population, labor force, and the de mand for goods and services. Population ultimately limits the size of the labor force—indi viduals working or looking for work—which constrains how much can be produced. Demand for various goods and services determines employment in the industries providing them. Occu pational employment opportunities, in turn, result from skills needed within specific industries. Opportunities for computer engineers and other computer-related occupations, for example, have surged in response to rapid growth in demand for computer services. Examining the past and projecting changes in these relation ships is the foundation of the Occupational Outlook Program. This chapter presents highlights of Bureau of Labor Statistics projections of the labor force and occupational and industry employment that can help guide your career plans. Sources of detailed information about the projections appear on page xiii. Population Population trends affect employment opportunities in a number of ways. Changes in population influence the demand for goods and services. For example, a growing and aging population has increased the demand for health services. Equally important, population changes produce corresponding changes in the size and demographic composition of the labor force. The C.S. population is expected to increase by 24 million over the 2000-10 period, at a slightly faster rate of growth than during the 1990-2000 period but slower than over the 1980 90 period (chart 1). Continued growth will mean more con sumers of goods and services, spurring demand for workers in a wide range of occupations and industries. The effects of population growth on various occupations will differ. The Chart 1. Percent change in the population and labor force, 1980-90,1990-2000, and projected 2000-10 Percent change differences are partially accounted for by the age distribution of the future population. The youth population, aged 16 to 24, will grow more rapidly than the overall population, a turn-around that began in the mid1990s. As the baby boomers continue to age, the group aged 55 to 64 will increase by 11 million persons over the 2000-10 pe riod—more than any other group. Those aged 35 to 44 will be the only group to decrease in size, reflecting the birth dearth following the baby boom. Minorities and immigrants will constitute a larger share of the U. S. population in 2010 than they do today. Minority groups that have grown the fastest in the recent past—Hispanics and Asians and others—are projected to continue to grow much faster than white, non-Hispanics. Labor Force Population is the single most important factor in determining the size and composition of the labor force—comprising people who are either working or looking for work. The civilian labor force is projected to increase by 17 million, or 12 percent, to 158 mil lion over the 2000-10 period. The U.S. workforce will become more diverse by 2010. White, non-Hispanic persons will continue to make up a de creasing share of the labor force, falling from 73.1 percent in 2000 to 69.2 percent in 2010 (chart 2). However, despite rela tively slow growth, white, non-Hispanics will have the largest numerical growth in the labor force between 2000 and 2010, reflecting the large size of this group. Hispanics, non-Hispanic blacks, and Asian and other ethnic groups are projected to ac count for an increasing share of the labor force by 2010, grow ing from 10.9 to 13.3 percent, 11.8 to 12.7 percent, and 4.7 to 6.1 percent, respectively. By 2010, for the first time Hispanics will constitute a greater share of the labor force than will blacks. Asians and others continue to have the fastest growth rates, but Chart 2. Percent of labor force by race and ethnic origin, 2000 and projected 2010 Percent of labor force 20 r 80 r I Labor force f/7] Civilian noninstitutional population fZ3 2010 1 *1 1 1980-90 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 1990-2000 Period 2000-10 White, non-Hispanic Hispanic, any race non-Hispanic Asian and other races Race and ethnic origin 1 2 Occupational Outlook Handbook still are expected to remain the smallest of the four labor force groups. The numbers of men and women in the labor force will grow, but the number of men will grow at a slower rate than the num ber of women. The male labor force is projected to grow by 9.3 percent from 2000 to 2010, compared with 15.1 percent for women. As a result, men’s share of the labor force is expected to decrease from 53.4 to 52.1 percent, while women’s share is ex pected to increase from 46.6 to 47.9 percent. The youth labor force, aged 16 to 24, is expected to increase its share of the labor force to 16.5 percent by 2010, growing more rapidly than the overall labor force. The large group 25 to 54 years old, who made up 71 percent of the labor force in 2000, is proj ected to decline to 66.6 percent of the labor force by 2010. Workers 55 and older, on the other hand, are projected to in crease from 12.9 percent to 16.9 percent of the labor force be tween 2000 and 2010, due to the aging of the baby-boom generation (chart 3). Education and Training Projected job growth varies widely by education and training requirements. All seven of the education and training categories projected to have faster than average employment growth re quire a postsecondary vocational or academic award (chart 4). These seven categories will account for two-fifths of all employ ment growth over the 2000-10 period. Employment in occupations requiring at least a bachelor’s degree is expected to grow 21.6 percent and account for five out of the six fastest growing education or training categories. Two categories—jobs requiring an associate degree, projected to grow 32 percent over the 2000-10 period, faster than any other cat egory, and jobs requiring a postsecondary vocational award— together will grow 24.1 percent. The four categories of occupations requiring work-related training are projected to in crease 12.4 percent, compared with 15.2 percent for all occupa tions combined. Education is essential in getting a high-paying job. In fact, all but two of the 50 highest paying occupations require a college degree. Air traffic controllers and nuclear power reactor opera Chart 3. Percent of labor force by age group, 2000 and projected 2010 Percent of labor force [22 yAW/AWA https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Age group 2010 55 and over Chart 4. Percent change in number of jobs by most significant source of education or training, projected 2000-10 Associate degree Doctoral degree Master’s degree Bachelor’s degree Work experience, plus bachelor's degree or higher First professional degree Postsecondary vocational award Short-term on-the-job training Moderate-term on-the-job training Work experience in a related occupation Long-term on-the-job training Percent change tors are the only occupations of the 50 highest paying that do not require a college degree. Employment Total employment is expected to increase from 146 million in 2000 to 168 million in 2010, or by 15.2 percent. The 22 million jobs that will be added by 2010 will not be evenly distributed across major industrial and occupational groups. Changes in consumer demand, technology, and many other factors will con tribute to the continually changing employment structure in the U.S. economy. The following two sections examine projected employment change from both industrial and occupational perspectives. The industrial profile is discussed in terms of primary wage and sal ary employment. Primary employment excludes secondary jobs for those who hold multiple jobs. The exception is employment in agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers in addition to wage and salary workers. The occupational profile is viewed in terms of total employ ment—including primary and secondary jobs for wage and sal ary, self-employed, and unpaid family workers. Of the nearly 146 million jobs in the U.S. economy in 2000, wage and salary workers accounted for 134 million; self-employed workers ac counted for 11.5 million; and unpaid family workers accounted for about 169,000. Secondary employment accounted for 1.8 million of all jobs. Self-employed workers held 9 out of 10 secondary jobs; wage and salary workers held most of the remainder. Industry The long-term shift from goods-producing to service-producing employment is expected to continue (chart 5). Service-produc ing industries—including finance, insurance, and real estate; government; services; transportation, communications, and utili ties; and wholesale and retail trade—are expected to account for approximately 20.2 million of the 22.0 million new wage and salary jobs generated over the 2000-10 period. The services and Tomorrow’s Jobs 3 Chart 5. Percent change in wage and salary employment, service-producing industry divisions, 1990-2000 and projected 2000-10 Percent change 40 r 1990-2000 77\ 2000-10 Services Transportation, Wholesale communications, and retail and public utilities trade Finance, Government insurance, and real estate retail trade industry divisions will account for nearly three-fourths of total wage and salary job growth, a continuation of the em ployment growth pattern of the 1990-2000 period. Services. This is the largest and fastest growing major indus try group and is expected to add 13.7 million new jobs by 2010, accounting for 3 out of every 5 new jobs created in the U.S. economy. Over two-thirds of this projected job growth is con centrated in three sectors of services industries—business, health, and social services. Business services—including personnel supply services and computer and data processing services, among other detailed industries—will add 5.1 million jobs. The personnel supply ser vices industry, consisting of employment agencies and tempo rary staffing services, is projected to be the largest source of numerical employment growth in the economy, adding 1.9 mil lion new jobs. However, employment in computer and data proc essing services—which provides prepackaged and specialized software, data and computer systems design and management, and computer-related consulting services—is projected to grow by 86 percent between 2000 and 2010, ranking as the fastest growing industry in the economy. Health services—including home healthcare services, hospi tals, and offices of health practitioners—will add 2.8 million new j obs as demand for healthcare increases because of an aging popu lation and longer life expectancies. Social services—including child daycare and residential care services—will add 1.2 million jobs. As more women enter the labor force, demand for childcare services is expected to grow, leading to the creation of 300,000 jobs. An elderly population seeking alternatives to nursing homes and hospital care will boost employment in residential care services, which is projected to grow 63.5 percent and add 512,000 jobs by 2010. Transportation, communications, and utilities. Overall em ployment is expected to increase by 1.3 million jobs, or by 17.9 percent. Employment in the transportation sector is expected to increase by 20.7 percent, from 4.5 million to 5.5 million jobs. Trucking and warehousing will provide the most new jobs in Digitized fortransportation FRASER the sector, adding 407,000 jobs by 2010. Due to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis population growth and urban sprawl, local and interurban pas senger transit is expected to increase 31 percent over the 2000 10 period, the fastest growth among all the transportation sectors. Employment in the communications sector is expected to in crease by 16.9 percent, adding 277,000 jobs by 2010. Half of these new jobs—139,000—will be in the telephone communica tions industry; however, cable and other pay television will be the fastest growing segment of the sector over the next decade, with employment expanding by 50.6 percent. Increased demand for residential and business wireline and wireless services, cable service, and high-speed Internet connections will fuel the growth in communications industries. Employment in the utilities sector is projected to increase by only 4.9 percent through 2010. Despite increased output, em ployment in electric services, gas production and distribution, and combination utility services is expected to decline through 2010 due to improved technology that increases worker produc tivity. The growth in the utilities sector will be driven by water supply and sanitary services, in which employment is expected to increase 45.1 percent by 2010. Jobs are not easily eliminated by technological gains in this industry because water treatment and waste disposal are very labor-intensive activities. Wholesale and retail trade. Employment is expected to in crease by 11.1 percent and 13.3 percent, respectively, growing from 7 million to 7.8 million in wholesale trade and from 23.3 million to 26.4 million in retail trade. Increases in population, personal income, and leisure time will contribute to employment growth in these industries as consumers demand more goods. With the addition of 1.5 million jobs, the eating and drinking places segment of the retail trade industry is projected to have the largest numerical increase in employment within the trade industry group. Finance, insurance, and real estate. Overall employment is expected to increase by 687,000 jobs, or 9.1 percent, by 2010. The finance sector of the industry—including depository and nondepository institutions and securities and commodity bro kers—will account for one-third of these jobs. Security and com modity brokers and dealers are expected to grow the fastest among the finance segments; the projected 20.3-percent employment increase by 2010 reflects the increased number of baby boomers in their peak savings years, the growth of tax-favorable retire ment plans, and the globalization of the securities markets. How ever, employment in depository institutions should continue to decline due to an increase in the use of Internet banking, ATM machines, and debit cards. The insurance sector—including insurance carriers and in surance agents and brokers—is expected to add 152,000 new jobs by 2010. The majority ofjob growth in the insurance carri ers segment will be attributable to medical service and health insurance, in which employment is projected to increase by 16 percent. The number of jobs with insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about 14.3 percent by 2010, as many insur ance carriers downsize their sales staffs and as agents set up their own businesses. The real estate sector is expected to add the most jobs out of the three sectors, 272,000 by 2010. As the population grows, demand for housing also will grow. Government. Between 2000 and 2010, government employ ment, excluding public education and hospitals, is expected to increase by 6.9 percent, from 10.2 million to 10.9 million jobs. Growth in government employment will be fueled by growth at the State and local levels, in which the number of jobs will in crease by 12.2 and 11.2 percent, respectively, through 2010. Growth at these levels is due mainly to an increased demand for 4 Occupational Outlook Handbook services and the shift of responsibilities from the Federal Gov ernment to the State and local governments. Federal Govern ment employment is expected to decline by 7.6 percent as the Federal Government continues to contract out many government jobs to private companies. Employment in the goods-producing industries has been rela tively stagnant since the early 1980s. Overall, this sector is ex pected to grow 6.3 percent over the 2000-10 period. Although employment is expected to increase more slowly than in the ser vice-producing industries, projected growth within the goodsproducing sector varies considerably (chart 6). Construction. Employment in construction is expected to increase by 12.3 percent, from 6.7 million to 7.5 million. De mand for new housing and an increase in road, bridge, and tun nel construction will account for the bulk of job growth in this industry. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Overall employment in agriculture, forestry, and fishing is expected to increase by 19.3 percent, from 2.2 million to 2.6 million. Three-fourths of this growth will come from veterinary services and landscape and horticultural services, which will add 96,000 and 229,000 jobs, respectively. Employment in crops, livestock, and livestock prod ucts is expected to continue to decline due to advancements in technology. The numbers ofjobs in forestry and in fishing, hunt ing, and trapping are expected to grow only 1.9 percent by 2010. Manufacturing. Rebounding from the 1990-2000 decline of 607,000 manufacturing jobs, employment in this sector is ex pected to grow modestly, by 3.1 percent, by 2010, adding 577,000 jobs. The projected employment growth is attributable mainly to the industries that manufacture durable goods. Durable goods manufacturing is expected to grow 5.7 percent, to 11.8 million jobs, over the next decade. Despite gains in productivity, the growing demand for computers, electronic components, motor vehicles, and communications equipment will contribute to this employment growth. Nondurable manufacturing, on the other hand, is expected to decline by less than 1 percent, shedding 64,000 jobs overall. The majority of employment declines are expected to be in apparel Chart 6. Percent change in wage and salary employment, goods-producing industry divisions, 1990-2000 and projected 2000-10 Y7\ Construction Agriculture, forestry, and fishing https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Manufacturing 2000-10 Mining and other textile products and leather and leather products in dustries, which together are expected to shed 131,000 jobs by 2010 because of increased j ob automation and international com petition. On the other hand, drug manufacturing is expected to grow 23.8 percent due to an aging population and increasing life expectancies. Mining. Employment in mining is expected to decrease 10.1 percent, or by some 55,000 jobs, by 2010. The majority of the decline will come from coal mining, in which employment is expected to decrease by 30 percent. The numbers of jobs in metal mining and nonmetallic mineral mining also are expected to decline by 13.8 and 3.2 percent, respectively. Employment decreases in these industries are attributable mainly to technol ogy gains that boost worker productivity, growing international competition, restricted access to Federal lands, and strict envi ronmental regulations that require cleaning of burning fuels. Oil and gas field services is the only mining industry in which employment is projected to grow, by 3.7 percent, through 2010. Employment growth is due chiefly to the downsizing of the crude petroleum, natural gas, and gas liquids industry, which contracts out production and extraction jobs to companies in oil and gas field services. Occupation Expansion of the service-producing sector is expected to con tinue, creating demand for many occupations. However, projected job growth varies among major occupational groups (chart 7). Professional and related occupations. Professional and re lated occupations will grow the fastest and add more new jobs than any other major occupational group. Over the 2000-10 pe riod, a 26-percent increase in the number of professional and related jobs is projected, a gain of 6.9 million. Professional and related workers perfonn a wide variety of duties, and are em ployed throughout private industry and government. Nearly threequarters of the job growth will come from three groups of professional occupations—computer and mathematical occupa tions, healthcare practitioners and technical occupations, and education, training, and library occupations—which will add 5.2 million jobs combined. Service occupations. Service workers perform services for the public. Employment in service occupations is projected to increase by 5.1 million, or 19.5 percent, the second largest nu merical gain and second highest rate of growth among the major occupational groups. Food preparation and serving related oc cupations are expected to add the most jobs among the service occupations, 1.6 million by 2010. However, healthcare support occupations are expected to grow the fastest, 33.4 percent, add ing 1.1 million new jobs. Transportation and material moving occupations. Transpor tation and material moving workers transport and transfer people and materials by land, sea, or air. These occupations should grow 15.2 percent and add 1.5 million jobs by 2010. Among trans portation occupations, motor vehicle operators will add the most jobs, 745,000. Rail transportation occupations are the only group in which employment is projected to decline, by 18.6 percent, through 2010. Material moving occupations will grow 14 per cent and will add 681,000 jobs. Management, business, and financial occupations. Workers in management, business, and financial occupations plan and di rect the activities of business, government, and other organiza tions. Employment is expected to increase by 2.1 million, or 13.6 percent, by 2010. Among managers, the numbers of computer and information systems managers and of public relations man agers will grow the fastest, by 47.9 and 36.3 percent, respectively. Tomorrow’s Jobs 5 Chart 7. Percent change in total employment by major occupational group, projected 2000-10 Professional and related Service Transportation and material moving Management, business, and financial Construction and extraction Sales and related Installation, maintenance, and repair Office and administrative support Production Farming, fishing, and forestry 10 15 20 30 Percent change . . fnt °Peratlons managers will add the most new jobs, 363.000 by 2010. Agricultural managers and purchasing man agers are the only workers in this group whose numbers are ex pected to decline, losing 325,000 jobs combined. Among business and financial occupations, accountants and auditors and management analysts will add the most jobs, 326,000 combined. Management analysts also will be one of the fastest growing oc cupations in this group, along with personal financial advisors, with job increases of 28.9 and 34 percent, respectively. Construction and extraction occupations. Construction and extraction workers construct new residential and commercial buildings, and also work in mines, quarries, and oil and gas fields. Employment of these workers is expected to grow 13.3 percent, adding 989,000 new jobs. Construction trades and related workers will account for the majority of these newjobs, 862.000 by 2010. Most extraction jobs will decline, reflecting overall employment losses in the mining and oil and gas extrac tion industries. Sales and related occupations. Sales and related workers transfer goods and services among businesses and consumers. Sales and related occupations are expected to add 1.9 million newjobs by 2010, growing by 11.9 percent. The majority of these jobs will be among retail salespersons and cashiers, occu pations that will add almost 1 million jobs combined. Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Workers in installation, maintenance, and repair occupations install new equipment and maintain and repair older equipment. These oc cupations will add 662,000 jobs by 2010, growing by 11.4 per cent. Automotive service technicians and general maintenance and repair workers will account for 3 in 10 new installation, maintenance, and repair jobs. The fastest growth rate will be among telecommunications line installers and repairers, an oc cupation that is expected to grow 27.6 percent over the 2000-10 period. Office and administrative support occupations. Office and administrative support workers perform the day-to-day activi ties of the office, such as preparing and filing documents, deal ing with the public, and distributing information. Employment https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in these occupations is expected to grow by 9.1 percent, adding 2.2 million new jobs by 2010. Customer service representatives will add the most new jobs, 631,000. Desktop publishers will be among the fastest growing occupations, growing 66.7 percent over the decade. Order clerks, tellers, and insurance claims and policy processing clerks will be among the jobs with the largest employment losses. Production occupations. Production workers are employed mainly in manufacturing, assembling goods and operating plants. Production occupations will grow 5.8 percent and add 750,000 jobs by 2010. Metal and plastics workers and assemblers and fabricators will add the most production jobs, 249,000 and 171,000, respectively. Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupa tions will account for much of the job losses among production occupations. Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations. Farming, fish ing, and forestry workers cultivate plants, breed and raise live stock, and catch animals. These occupations will have the slowest job growth among the major occupational groups, 5.3 percent, adding 74,000 newjobs by 2010. Farmworkers account for nearly 3 out of 4 new jobs in this group. The numbers of both fishing and logging workers are expected to decline, by 12.2 and 3.5 percent, respectively. Computer occupations are expected to grow the fastest over the projection period (chart 8). In fact, these jobs account for 8 out of the 20 fastest growing occupations in the economy. In addition to high growth rates, these eight occupations combined Chart 8. Percent change in employment in occupations projected to grow fastest, 2000-10 Computer software engineers, applications Computer support specialists Computer software engineers, systems software Network and computer systems administrators Network systems and data communications analysts Desktop publishers Database administrators Personal and home care aides Computer systems analysts Medical assistants Social and human service assistants Physician assistants Medical records and health information technicians Computer and information systems managers Home health aides Physical therapist aides Occupational therapist aides Physical therapist assistants Audiologists Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors 15 30 45 60 Percent change 75 90 6 Occupational Outlook Handbook will add more than 1.9 million new jobs to the economy. Health occupations comprise most of the remaining fastest growing oc cupations. High growth rates among computer and health occu pations reflect projected faster-than-average growth in the computer and data processing and health services industries. The 20 occupations listed in chart 9 will account for over one-third of all new jobs, 8 million combined, over the 2000-10 period. The occupations with the largest numerical increases cover a wider range of occupational categories than those occu pations with the fastest growth rates. Computer and health occu pations will account for some of these increases in employment, as well as occupations in education, sales, transportation, office and administrative support, and food service. Many of these occupations are very large, and will create more new jobs than those with high growth rates. Only 4 out of the 20 fastest grow ing occupations—computer software engineers, applications; computer software engineers, systems software; computer sup port specialists; and home health aides—also are projected to be among the 20 occupations with the largest numerical increases in employment. Table 1 lists occupations projected to grow the fastest and to generate the largest numbers of new jobs over the 2000-10 pe riod, by level of education or training required. Declining occupational employment stems from declining industry employment, technological advancements, changes in business practices, and other factors. For example, increased productivity and farm consolidations are expected to result in a decline of 328,000 farmers over the 2000-10 period (chart 10). The majority of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical decreases are office and administrative support and production occupations, which are affected by increasing automation and the implementation of office technology that reduces the needs for these workers. For example, the increased use of ATM ma chines and Internet banking will reduce the number of tellers. Total Job Openings Job openings stem from both employment growth and replace ment needs (chart 11). Replacement needs arise as workers leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupations while others retire, return to school, or quit to assume household responsibili ties. Replacement needs are projected to account for 60 percent of the approximately 58 million job openings between 2000 and 2010. Thus, even occupations with little or no change in em ployment still may offer many job openings. Professional and related occupations are projected to grow faster and add more jobs than any other major occupational group, with 7 million new jobs by 2010. Three-fourths of this job growth is expected among computer and mathematical occupations; healthcare practitioners and technical occupations; and educa tion, training, and library occupations. With 5.2 million job open- Chart 10. Job declines in occupations with the largest numerical decreases in employment, projected 2000-10 Chart 9. Job increases in occupations with the largest numerical increases in employment, projected 2000-10 Farmers and ranchers Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food Cleaners and servants, private household Customer service representatives Order clerks Registered nurses Tellers Retail salespersons Insurance claims and policy processing clerks Computer support specialists Word processors and typists Cashiers, except gaming Sewing machine operators Office clerks, general Dishwashers Security guards Switchboard operators, including answering service Computer software engineers, applications Loan interviewers and clerks Waiters and waitresses Computer operators General and operations managers Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers Truckdrivers, heavy and tractor-trailer Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants Machine feeders and offbearers Janitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners Telephone operators Postsecondary teachers Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive Teacher assistants Prepress technicians and workers Home health aides Laborers and freight, stock, and material movers, hand Office machine operators, except computer Cutting, punching, and press machine setters, operators, and tenders, metal and plastic Computer software engineers, systems software Postal Service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators Landscaping and groundskeeping workers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 100 200 300 400 Thousands 500 600 700 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 Thousands Tomorrow’s Jobs 7 Chart 11. Number of job openings due to growth and replacement needs by major occupational group, projected 2000-10 Chart 12. Number of job openings due to growth and replacement needs by most significant source of education or training, projected 2000-10 Short-term on-the-job training s-ice )I^^^V///////////////A Office and administrative support Sales and related 7V77//////////////A Moderate-term on-the-job training Professional and related Bachelor’s degree W////////A &///////A Long-term on-the-job training Work experience in a related occupation Management, business, and financial Postsecondary vocational award Transportation and material moving Work experience, plus bachelor's degree or higher Production Associate degree Construction and extraction Doctoral degree Installation, maintenance, and repair WM Growth Growth I/A Replacement needs Farming, fishing, and forestry \//\ Replacement needs Master’s degree 6 8 Millions 10 12 14 ings due to replacement needs, professional and related occupa tions are the only major group projected to generate more open ings from job growth than from replacement needs. Due to high replacement needs, service occupations are pro jected to have the largest number of total job openings, 13.5 million. A large number of replacements are expected to arise as young workers leave food preparation and service occupa tions. Replacement needs generally are greatest in the largest occupations and in those with relatively low pay or limited train ing requirements. Office automation will significantly affect many individual office and administrative support occupations. Overall, these occupations are projected to grow more slowly than the average, while some are projected to decline. Office and administrative support occupations are projected to create 7.7 million job open ings over the 2000-10 period, ranking third behind service and professional and related occupations. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing occupations are projected to have the fewest job openings, approximately 500,000. Be cause job growth is expected to be slow, and levels of retirement and job turnover high, more than 80 percent of these projected https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis First professional degree 10 15 Millions job openings are due to replacement needs. Employment in occupations requiring an associate degree is projected to increase 32 percent, faster than any other occupa tional group categorized by education or training. However, this category ranks only eighth among the 11 education and training categories in terms of job openings. The largest number of job openings will be among occupations requiring short-term onthe-job training (chart 12). Almost two-thirds ofthe projectedjob openings over the 2000 10 period will be in occupations that require on-the-job training, and arise mostly from replacement needs. These jobs will ac count for 37.3 million of the projected 57.9 million total job openings through 2010. However, many of these jobs typically offer low pay and benefits; this is more true of jobs requiring only short-term on-the-job training, which will account for 24.8 million openings, than of the occupations in any other education or training category. Jobs requiring a bachelor’s degree, and which usually offer higher pay and benefits, will account for about 7.3 million job openings through 2010. Most of these openings will result from job growth. 8 Occupational Outlook Handbook Table 1. Fastest growing occupations and occupations projected to have the largest numerical increases in employment between 2000 and 2010, by level of education or training Education/training Fastest growing occupations Occupations having the largest numerical First-professional degree Lawyers Physicians and surgeons Pharmacists Clergy Veterinarians Veterinarians Pharmacists Chiropractors Optometrists Lawyers Doctoral degree Postsecondary teachers Biological scientists Computer and information scientists, research Medical scientists Astronomers and physicists_________________ Computer and information scientists, research Medical scientists Postsecondary teachers Biological scientists Astronomers and physicists________________ Master’s degree Audiologists Speech-language pathologists Mental health and substance abuse social workers Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors Physical therapists____________________________ _ Bachelor’s or higher degree, plus work Computer and information systems managers Public relations managers Advertising and promotions managers Sales managers Medical and health services managers _____ Bachelor’s degree Computer software engineers, applications Computer software engineers, systems software Network and computer systems administrators Network systems and data communications analysts Database administrators _________ Educational, vocational, and school counselors Physical therapists Speech-language pathologists Psychologists Mental health and substance abuse social workers experience General and operations managers Computer and information systems managers Management analysts Financial managers Sales managers_________________________ Computer software engineers, applications Computer software engineers, systems software Computer systems analysts Elementary schoolteachers, except special education Network and computer systems administrators______ Associate degree Registered nurses Computer support specialists Medical records and health information technicians Paralegals and legal assistants Dental hygienists_________________________ __ Computer support specialists Medical records and health information technicians Physical therapist assistants Occupational therapist assistants Veterinary technologists and technicians__________ Desktop publishers Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors Surgical technologists Respiratory therapy technicians Gaming dealers ____________________ Postsecondary vocational award Automotive service technicians and mechanics Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses Welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists Fitness trainers and aerobics instructors Work experience in a related occupation First-line supervisors/managers of correctional officers First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers Aircraft cargo handline sunervisors First-line supervisors/managers of construction trades and extraction workers First-line supervisors/managers of protective service workers, First-line supervisors/managers of office and administrative support workers except police, fire, and corrections First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers Private detectives and investigators First-line supervisors/managers of mechanics, installers, and repairers Transportation, storage, and distribution managers________________________________________________________ Long-term on-the-job training (more than 12 months) Telecommunications line installers and repairers Cooks, restaurant Actors Police and sheriff’s patrol officers Recreational vehicle service technicians Electricians Interpreters and translators Carpenters Maintenance and repair workers, general Police and sheriff’s patrol officers ____________________________________ _ Moderate-term on-the-job training (1 to 12 months) Customer service representatives Medical assistants Truckdrivers, heavy and tractor-trailer Social and human service assistants Medical assistants Dental assistants Executive secretaries and administrative assistants Pharmacy technicians Social and human service assistants Ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians Personal and home care aides Short-term on-the-job training (0 to 1 months) Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food Home health aides Physical therapist aides Occupational therapist aides Veterinary assistants and laboratory animal caretakersSecurity guards https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Retal! salespersons Cashiers, except gaming Office clerks, general ___________________________ Sources of Career Information This section identifies sources of information about career plan ning, counseling, training, education, and financial aid. Hand book statements also include a section on sources of additional information, which lists organizations that can be contacted for more information about particular occupations including, in some cases, the required training and education. Career information Listed below are several places to begin collecting information on careers and job opportunities. Personal contacts. The people close to you—your family and friends—can be extremely helpful in providing career informa tion. They may be able to answer your questions directly or put you in touch with someone else who can. Networking can lead to meeting someone who can answer your questions about a spe cific career or company and provide inside information and other helpful hints. It is an effective way to learn the type of training necessary for a certain position, how someone in that position entered the field, the prospects for advancement, and what they like and dislike about the work. • Counseling services offered by community organizations • Private counseling agencies and private practices • State employment service offices Before employing the services of a private counselor or agency, you may want to seek recommendations and check their creden tials. The International Association of Counseling Services (IACS) accredits counseling services throughout the country. To receive a listing of accredited services for your region, send a self-addressed, stamped, business-size envelope to: > IACS, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 211, Alexandria, VA 22304. Phone: (703) 823-9800. Internet: http://www.iacsinc.org The Directory of Counseling Services, an IACS publication providing employment counseling and other assistance, may be available in your library or school career counseling center. A list of certified career counselors by city or State is available from: >• National Board of Certified Counselors, 3 Terrace Way, Suite D, Greensboro, NC 27403-3660. Phone: (336) 547-0607. Internet: http://www.nbcc.org Public libraries, career centers, and guidance offices. These institutions maintain a great deal of up-to-date material. To begin your library search, look at the computer listings under “vocations” or “careers” and then under specific fields. Check the periodicals section, where trade and professional magazines and journals about specific occupations and industries are located. Become familiar with the concerns and activities of potential employers by skimming their annual reports and other public documents. Occupational information on video cassettes and computerized information systems or the Internet can be valuable. Don’t forget the librarians; they can be a great source and can save you valuable time by directing you to relevant information. Check your school’s career centers for resources such as indi vidual counseling and testing, guest speakers, field trips, books, career magazines, and career days. Always assess career guidance materials carefully. The in formation should be current and objective. Beware of materials that seem to glamourize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exaggerate the demand for workers. Counselors. These professionals are trained to help you dis cover your strengths and weaknesses, evaluate your goals and values, and help you determine what you would like in a career. Counselors will not tell you what to do. However, they may administer interest inventories and aptitude tests, interpret the results, and help you explore various options. Counselors also may discuss local job markets and the entry requirements and costs of schools, colleges, or training programs. Counselors are found in: • • • High school guidance offices College career planning and placement offices Placement offices in private vocational or technical schools and institutions • Vocational rehabilitation agencies https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Internet networks and resources. The growth of online listings has made countless resources instantly available at any time. Most companies, professional societies, academic institutions, and government agencies maintain Internet sites that highlight the organization’s latest information and activities. Listings may include information such as government docu ments, schedules of events, and job openings. Corporate and government websites often provide job application information, including links for submitting resumes. Listings for academic institutions often provide links to career counseling and place ment services through career resource centers, as well as infor mation on financing your education. Colleges and universities also offer online guides to campus facilities and admission requirements and procedures. The variety of career information available through the Internet provide much of the same information available through libraries, career centers, and guidance offices. However, no single network or resource will contain all desired information, so be prepared to search a variety of places. As in a library search, look through various lists by field or discipline, or by using keywords. Career sites can be an excellent place to obtain information about job opportunities. They provide a forum for employers to list job openings and for individuals to post their resumes. Some Internet sites also may provide an opportunity to research a par ticular industry or company. America’s Career InfoNet provides ideal information for any one exploring different careers. It provides data on employment growth and wages by occupation; the knowledge, skills, and abili ties requied by an occupation; and links to employers. Internet: http://www.acinet.org/acinet. America’s Job Bank (AJB), administered by the U.S. Depart ment of Labor, lists more than 1 million job openings on any given day. These job openings are compiled by State employ ment service offices throughout the Nation. AJB is accessible at: http://www.ajb.dni.us. 9 10 Occupational Outlook Handbook Professional societies, trade associations, labor unions, busi ness firms, and educational institutions. These organizations provide a variety of free or inexpensive career material. Many of these are listed in the sources of additional information sec tion at the end of individual Handbook statements. For informa tion on occupations not covered in the Handbook, consult directories in your library’s reference section for the names of potential sources. You may start with The Guide to American Directories or The Directory ofDirectories. Another useful re source is The Encyclopedia ofAssociations, an annual publica tion listing trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations. The National Technical Information Service Audiovisual Center, a central source for audiovisual material produced by the U.S. Government, sells material on jobs and careers. For a catalog, contact: >■ NTIS Audiovisual Center, Springfield, VA 22161. Phone: (800) 553-6847. Internet: http://www.ntis.gov/nac Federal Government Information on employment with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Man agement (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov Organizations for specific groups. The organizations listed below provide information on career planning, training, or job opportunities prepared for specific groups. Consult directories in your library’s reference center or a career guidance office for information on additional organizations associated with specific groups. Disabled workers: Counseling, training, and placement services for those with dis abilities is available from: >■ National Business and Disability Council, 2011.U. Willets Rd., Albertson, NY 11507. Phone:(516)465-1515. Internet: http://www.business-disability.com Blind workers: Infonnation on the free national reference and referral service for the blind can be obtained by contacting: >- National Federation of the Blind, Job Opportunities for the Blind (JOB), 1800 Johnson St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Phone:(410)659-9314. Internet: http://www.nfb.org Older workers: ► National Council on the Aging, 409 3rd St. SW., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20024. Phone:(202)479-1200. Internet: http://www.ncoa.org >- National Caucus and Center on Black Aged, Inc., Senior Employment Pro grams, 1220 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 637-8400. Fax: (202) 347-0895. Internet: http://www.ncba-aged.org ► Asociacion Nacional por Personas Mayores (National Association for His panic Elderly), 234 East Colorado Blvd., Suite 300, Pasadena, CA 91101. Phone: (626) 564-1988. E-mail: anppm@aol.com https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterans: Contact the nearest regional office of the U.S. Department of Labor Veterans’ Employment and Training Service or: >- Veterans’ Employment and Training Service (VETS), 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Room S-1316, Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 693-4738. Internet: http://umet-vets.dol.gov Women: ► Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau Clearinghouse, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (800) 827-5335. Internet: http://www.dol.gov/dol/wb >■ Wider Opportunities for Women, 815 15th St. NW., Suite 916, Washington, DC 20005. Phone: (202) 638-3143. Internet: http://www.wowonline.org Federal laws, executive orders, and selected Federal grant programs bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Information on how to file a charge of discrimination is available from U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under U.S. Government, EEOC. Internet: http://www.eeoc.gov Education and training information Colleges, schools, and training institutes readily reply to requests for information about their programs. When contacting these institutions, you may want to keep in mind the following items: • Admission requirements • • Courses offered Certificates or degrees awarded • • • Cost Available financial aid Location and size of school • Placement rate of graduates Check with professional and trade associations for lists of schools that offer career preparation in a field in which you are interested. High school guidance offices and libraries usually have copies of the directories listed below, as well as college cata logs that can provide more information on specific institutions. America’s Learning Exchange, a Department of Labor website, is a valuable resource for anyone searching for specific training courses. It provides a searchable database that includes more than 6,000 training providers, offering more that 350,000 pro grams, seminars, and courses. Internet: http://www.alx.org The Department of Education’s IPEDS (Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System) program has an interac tive school search system. You can search for any postsecondary school, focusing your search for a school based upon many fac tors: number of students, type of school (two-year colleges, fouryear colleges, trade schools), public or privately funded institutions, instructional programs and fields of study (majors), accreditation, and geographic location. Once you’ve narrowed your choices, the site provides more detailed infonnation on spe cific schools, including contact information. There also are links to helpful sites. Internet: http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/cool/index.asp The Directory ofPrivate Career Schools and Colleges ofTech nology, put out by the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, is a helpful resource. Be sure to Sources of Career Information 11 use the latest edition because these directories and catalogs are revised periodically. Information about home or correspondence study programs appears in the Directory ofAccredited Institutions. Send requests for the Directory and a list of other publications to: >- Distance Education and Training Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009-2529. Phone:(202) 234-5100. Internet: http://www.detc.org ► Phone: (800) 433-3243. Internet: http://www.collegeispossible.org The Armed Forces have several educational assistance pro grams. These include the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), the new G.I. bill, and tuition assistance. Information can be obtained from military recruiting centers, located in most cities. >■ Internet: http://www.defenselink.mil/other_info/careers.html Information about apprenticeships is available from local la bor unions, school guidance counselors, and State employment offices or from: >■ Apprenticeship Training, Employer and Labor Services, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Phone: (202) 693-3812. Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/individ/apprent.asp Completing an internship is an excellent way for students and others to learn about an occupation and to make valuable con tacts. Many employers offer internships that provide short-term or part-time job experience that can lead to a permanent posi tion. Contact your school’s career guidance center or employers directly regarding internship opportunities. Financial aid information Information about financial aid is available from a variety of sources. Contact your high school guidance counselor and col lege financial aid officer for information concerning qualifica tions and applications for scholarships, fellowships, grants, loans, and work-study programs. Every State administers financial aid programs; contact State Departments of Education for informa tion. Banks and credit unions will provide information about student loans. You also may want to consult the directories and guides available in guidance offices and public libraries for sources of student financial aid. The Federal Government provides grants, loans, work-study programs, and other benefits to students. Information about pro grams administered by the U.S. Department of Education is pre sented in The Student Guide to Federal Financial Aid Programs, updated annually. To receive a copy, write to: ► Federal Student Aid Information Center, c/o Federal Student Aid Programs, P.O.Box84,Washington,DC20044-0084. Phone:(800)433-3243. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSFAP/Students The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services offers student loan, scholarship, and faculty loan repayment programs. For information, contact: >- HRSA, Bureau of Health Professions, Division of Student Assistance, Parklawn Bldg., Room 8-34, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857. Phone: (888) 275-4772. Internet: http://www.bhpr.hrsa.gov/dsa/index.htm Copies of The Student Guide, a guide to financial aid, are available from the U.S. Department of Education, Federal Stu dent Aid Information Center. >- Phone: (800) 433-3243. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/prog_info/SFA/StudentGuide College is Possible—a resource guide prepared by the Coali tion of America’s Colleges and Universities and the U.S. De partment of Education—lists books, pamphlets, and Internet sites to help students prepare for, choose, and pay for college. It in cludes information on scholarships and is available in English Digitized for Spanish. FRASER and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis State and local information The Handbook provides information for the Nation as a whole. State or local area information is available from: State employment security agencies. These agencies develop detailed information about local labor markets, such as current and projected employment by occupation and industry, charac teristics of the work force, and changes in State and local area economic activity. Listed below are the Internet addresses of these agencies and addresses and telephone numbers of the di rectors of research and analysis in these agencies. Most States have career information delivery systems (CIDS). Look for these systems in secondary schools, postsecondaiy in stitutions, libraries, job training sites, vocational rehabilitation centers, and employment service offices. The public can use the systems’ computers, printed material, microfiche, and toll free hotlines to obtain information on occupations, educational op portunities, student financial aid, apprenticeships, and military careers. Ask counselors for specific locations. State occupational projections also are available on the Internet: http://www.dws.state.ut.us/bls Alabama Chief, Labor Market Information, Alabama Department of Industrial Relations, 649 Monroe St., Room 422, Montgomery, AL 36130. Phone: (334) 242-8800. Internet: http://www.dir.state.al.us/lmi Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis, Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development, P.O. Box 25501, Juneau, AK 99802-5501. Phone: (907) 465 4500. Internet: http://www.labor.state.ak.us Arizona Research Administrator, Arizona Department of Economic Security, Site Code 733A, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, AZ 85005. Phone:(602) 542-3871. Internet: http://www.de.state.az.us/links/economic/webpage/page6.html Arkansas Robert Mantione, LMI Director, Arkansas Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, AR 72203-2981. Phone: (501) 682-3159. Internet: http://www.state.ar.us/esd California Chief, Labor Market Information Division, California Employment Develop ment Department, P.O. Box 826880, MIC 57, Sacramento, CA 94280-0001. Phone: (916) 262-2160. Internet: http://www.calmis.cahwnet.gov Colorado Colorado Department of Labor and Employment, Labor Market Information, 1515 Arapahoe St., Tower 2, Suite 400, Denver, CO 80202-2117. Phone: (303) 318-8850. Internet: http://lmi.cdle.state.co.us Connecticut Director, Office of Research and Information, Connecticut Labor Department, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Wethersfield, CT 06109-1114. Phone: (860) 263-6255. Internet: http ://www.ctdoI.state.ct.us/Imi/index.htm Delaware Office of Occupational and Labor Market Information, Delaware Department of Labor, P.O. Box 9965., Wilmington, DE 19809-0965. Phone: (302) 761 8060. Internet: http://www.oolmi.net 12 Occupational Outlook Handbook District of Columbia Chief of Labor Market Information, District of Columbia Department of Em ployment Services, 500 C St. NW„ Room 201, Washington, DC 20001. Phone: (202) 724-7213. Internet: http://does.dc.gov/info/labor_mkt.shtm Michigan Director, Office of Labor Market Information, Department of Career Develop ment, Employment Service Agency, 7310 Woodward Ave., Room 520, Detroit, MI 48202. Phone: (313) 872-0990. Internet: http://www.michlmi.org Florida Agency for Workforce Innovation, Labor Market Statistics, Commerce Indus trial Center Building B, 367 Marpan Lane, Tallahassee, FL 32305. Phone: (850)488-1048. Internet: http://www.labormarketinfo.com Minnesota Director, BLS Programs, Research and Statistical Office, Minnesota Depart ment of Economic Security, 390 North Robert St., 5th Floor, St. Paul, MN 55104. Phone:(651)296-4087. Internet: http://www.mnworkforcecentcr.org/lmi/careers/index.htm Georgia Director, Labor Market Information, Georgia Department of Labor, 148 Inter national Boulevard NE., Atlanta, GA 30303-1751. Phone: (404) 656-3177. Internet: http://www.dol.state.ga.us/lmi Guam Administrator, Department of Labor, Guam Employment Services, P.O. Box 9970, Tamuning, Guam 96931-9970. Phone: (671) 647-7066. Internet: http://gu.jobsearch.org Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics Office, Hawaii Department of Labor and Indus trial Relations, 830 Punchbowl St., Room 304, Honolulu, HI 96813. Phone: (808) 586-8999. Internet: http://dlir.state.hi.us Idaho . Bureau Chief, Research and Analysis, Idaho Department of Labor, 317 Main St., Boise, ID 83735-0001. Phone: (208) 332-3570 x3136. Internet: http://www.sde.state.id.us/cis Illinois Economic Information and Analysis Manager, Illinois Department of Employ ment Security, 401 South State St., Suite 743, Chicago, IL 60605. Phone: (312) 793.-2316. Internet: http://www.ioicc.state.il.us/LMI/default.htm Indiana Director, Labor Market Information, Indiana Department of Workforce Devel opment, Indiana Government Center South, E211,10 North Senate Ave., India napolis, IN 46204-2277. Phone:(317)232-7460. Internet: http://www.dwd.state.in.us Division Administrator, Research and Information Services, Iowa Workforce Development, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, IA 50319-0209. Phone: (800) JOB-IOWA. Internet: http://www.state.ia.us/iwd Kansas Chief, Labor Market Information Services, Kansas Department of Human Re sources, 401 SW Topeka Blvd., Topeka, KS 66603-3182. Phone: (785) 296 5058. Internet: http://laborstats.hr.state.ks.us Kentucky Manager, LMI Branch, Division of Administration/Financial Management, Department of Employment Services, 275 East Main St., Suite 2-C, Frankfort, KY 40621. Phone:(800)542-8840. Internet: http://www.des.state.ky.us/agencies/wforce/des/lmi/lmi.htm Mississippi . Labor Market Information Director, Mississippi Employment Security Com mission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, MS 39215-1699. Phone: (601) 961-7424. Internet: http://208.137.131.31/lmi/index.html Missouri Department of Economic Development, Division of Workforce Development, Labor Market Information Section, P.O. Box 1087, Jefferson City, MO 65102. Phone: (573) 751-3595. Internet: http://www.works.state.mo.us/lmi Montana Research and Analysis Bureau, Job Services Division, Montana Department of Labor and Industry, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, MT 59624-1728. Phone: (406) 444-2430; within Montana at (800) 633-0229; outside Montana at (800) 541 3904. Internet: http://rad.dli.state.mt.us Nebraska Labor Market Information Administrator, Nebraska Department of Labor, 550 South 16th St., P.O. Box 94600, Lincoln, NE 68509-4600. Phone: (402) 471 2600. Internet: http://www.dol.state.ne.us/nelmi.htm Nevada Chief, DETR, Bureau of Research and Analysis, Information Development and Processing Division, 500 East Third St., Carson City, NV 89713-0001. Phone: (775) 684-0450. Internet: http://detr.state.nv.us/lmi/index.htm New Hampshire Director, Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau, New Hampshire Department of Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, NH 03301. Phone: (603) 228-4123. Internet: http://www.nhworks.state.nh.us/lmipage.htm New Jersey Assistant Commissioner, Labor Planning and Analysis, New Jersey Department of Labor, P.O. Box 56, 5th Floor, Trenton, NJ 08625-0056. Phone: (609) 292 2643. Internet: http://www.state.nj.us/labor/lra New Mexico Economic Research and Analysis Bureau, New Mexico Department of Labor, 401 Broadway Blvd. NE, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquerque, NM 87103. Phone: (505) 841-8645. Internet: http://www3.state.nm.us/dol/dol_lmif.html New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, New York Department of Labor, State Office Building Campus, Room 400, Albany, NY 12240. Phone: (518) 457-6369. Internet: http://www.labor.state.ny.us/html/career/lmi.htm Louisiana Louisiana Department of Labor, Office of Occupational Information, Research and Statistics Division, P.O. Box 94094, Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9094. Phone: (888) 302-7662. Internet: http://www.ldol.state.la.us/LMIQM.asp North Carolina Director, Labor Market Information, North Carolina Employment Security Com mission,P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, NC 27611. Phone: (919)733-2936. Internet: Maine Director, Labor Market Information Services, Maine Department of Labor, 20 Union St., Augusta, ME 04330. Phone:(207)287-2271. Internet: http://www.state.me.us/labor/lmis/frdef.htm North Dakota Program Support Area Manager, Job Service North Dakota, 1000 East Divide Ave., P.O. Box 5507, Bismarck, ND 58506-5507. Phone: (701) 328-2868. Internet: http://www.jobsnd.com Maryland Director, Office of Labor Market Analysis and Information, Maryland Depart ment of Labor, Licensing and Regulations, 1100 North Eutaw St., Room 601, Baltimore, MD 21201. Phone:(410) 767-2250. Internet: http://www.dllr.state.md.us/lmi/index.htm Ohio Director, Ohio Department of Job and Family Services, ORAA, LMI Bureau, 4300 Kimberly Pkwy., 3rd Floor, Qolumbus, OH 43232. Phone: (614) 752 9494. Internet: http://lmi.state.oh.us Massachusetts Labor Market Information and Research Director, Massachusetts Division of Employment and Training, 19 Stamford St., 2nd Floor, Boston, MA 02114. Phone: (617) 626-5744. Internet: http://www.detma.org/lmi https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis http://www.esc.state.nc.us Oklahoma Director, Labor Market Information, Economic Research and Analysis Divi sion, Oklahoma Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 52003, Okla homa City, OK 73152-2003. Phone:(405)525-7265. Internet: http://www.oesc.state.ok.us/lmi/default.htm Sources of Career Information 13 Oregon Labor Market Information Director, Oregon Employment Department, 875 Union St. NE„ Salem, OR 97311. Phone: (503) 947-1212. Internet: http ://olmis.emp.state.or.us Utah Director, Labor Market Information, Utah Department of Workforce Services, 140 East 300 South, P.O. Box 45249, Salt Lake City, UT 84145-0249. Phone: (801) 526-9675. Internet: http://www.dws.state.ut.us Pennsylvania Director, Center for Workforce Information and Analysis, Pennsylvania De partment of Labor and Industry, 7th and Forester Streets., Room 220, Labor and Industry Building, Harrisburg, PA 17120-0001. Phone: (877) 4WF-DATA. Internet: http://www.dli.state.pa.us/workforceinfo Vermont Chief, Research and Analysis, Vermont Department of Employment and Train ing, 5 Green Mountain Dr., P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, VT 05601-0488. Phone: (802) 828-4153. Internet: http://www.det.state.vt.us Puerto Rico Director, Research and Statistics Division, Puerto Rico Bureau of Employment Security, 505 Munoz Rivera Ave., 17th Floor, Hato Rey, PR 00918. Phone: (787) 754-5385. Internet: http://www.interempleo.org Virgin Islands Chief, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Virgin Islands Department of Labor, 53 A and 54A&B Kronprindsens Gade, Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas, VI00802. Phone: (340) 776-3700. Internet: http//www.vidol.org Rhode Island Director, Labor Market Information, Rhode Island Department of Labor and Training, Building 73, 2nd Floor, 1511 Pontiac Ave., Cranston, RI 02920-4407. Phone: (401) 462-8740. Internet: http://www.det.state.ri.us/webdev/lmi/lmihome.htmI Virginia Director, Economic Information and Services Division, Virginia Employment Commission, 703 East Main St., P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, VA 23218-1358. Phone: (804) 786-8223. Internet: http://www.vec.state.va.us/lbrmkt/lmi.htm South Carolina Director, Labor Market Information, South Carolina Employment Security Com mission, 631 Hampton St., P.O. Box 995, Columbia, SC 29202. Phone: (803) 737-2660. Internet: http://www.sces.org/lmi/index.htm Washington Director, Labor Market and Economic Analysis, Employment Security Divi sion, Mail Stop 6000—P.O. Box 9046, Olympia, WA 98507-9046. Phone: (800) 215-1617. Internet: http://www.wa.gov/esd/lmea South Dakota Director, Labor Market Center, South Dakota Department of Labor, P.O. Box 4730, Aberdeen, SD 57402-4730. Phone:(605) 626-2314. Internet: http://www.state.sd.us/dol/lmic/index.htm West Virginia Director, Research, Information and Analysis, West Virginia Bureau of Em ployment Programs, 112 California Ave., Charleston, WV 25305-0112. Phone: (304) 558-2660. Internet: http://www.state.wv.us/bep/lmi/default.htm Tennessee Director, Research and Statistics Division, Tennessee Department of Labor and Workforce Development, 500 James Robertson Pkwy., Davy Crockett Tower, 11th Floor, Nashville, TN 37245-1000. Phone: (615) 741-2284. Internet: http://www.state.tn.us/esdiv.html Wisconsin Chief, LMI Data Development, Wisconsin Department of Workforce Develop ment, 201 East Washington Ave., Room G200, Madison, WI 53702. Phone: (608) 266-2930. Internet: http://www.dwd.state.wi.us/Imi Texas Director of Labor Market Information, Texas Workforce Commission, 9001 IH-35 North, Suite 103A, Austin, TX 78753. Phone: (866) 938-4444. Internet: http://www.texasworkforce.org/lmi/lfs/lfshome.html Wyoming Manager, Research and Planning, Employment Resources Division, Wyoming Department of Employment, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, WY 82602-2760. Phone: (307) 473-3801. Internet: http://wydoe.state.wy.us https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Finding a Job and Evaluating a Job Offer Finding information on available jobs It takes some people a great deal of time and effort to find a job they enjoy. Others may walk right into an ideal employment situation. Do not be discouraged if you have to pursue many leads. Friends, neighbors, teachers, and counselors may know of available jobs in your field of interest. Read the classified ads. Consult State employment service offices and consider private employment agencies. You also may contact employers directly. Where To Learn About Job Openings Personal contacts School career planning and placement offices Employers Classified ads —National and local newspapers —Professional journals —Trade magazines Internet networks and resources State employment service offices Federal Government Professional associations Labor unions Private employment agencies and career consultants Community agencies Job search methods Personal contacts. Your family, friends, and acquaintances may offer one of the most effective ways to find a job. They may help you directly or put you in touch with someone else who can. Such networking can lead to information about specific job open ings, many of which may not be publically posted. School career planning and placement offices. High school and college placement offices help their students and alumni find jobs. They set up appointments and allow recruiters to use their facilities for interviews. Placement offices usually have a list of part-time, temporary, and summer jobs offered on campus. They also may have lists of jobs for regional, nonprofit, and govern ment organizations. Students can receive career counseling and testing and job search advice. At career resource libraries they may attend workshops on such topics as job search strategy, re sume writing, letter writing, and effective interviewing; critique drafts of resumes and watch videotapes of mock interviews; ex plore files of resumes and references; and attend job fairs con ducted by the placement office. Employers. Through your library and Internet research, develop a list of potential employers in your desired career field. Em ployer websites often contain lists of job openings. Websites and business directories can provide you with information on how to apply for a position or whom to contact. Even if no open positions are posted, do not hesitate to contact the employer and the relevant department. Set up an interview with someone work ing in the same area you wish to work. Ask them how they got 14 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis started, what they enjoy or dislike about the work, what type of qualifications are necessary for the job, and what type of person ality succeed in that position. Even if they don’t have a postion available, they may be able to put you in contact with other people who might hire you and they can keep you in mind if a position opens up. Make sure to send them your resume and a cover letter. If you are able to obtain an interview, be sure to send a thank you note. Directly contacting employers is one of the most successful means ofjob hunting. Classified ads. The “Help Wanted” ads in newspapers list nu merous jobs. You should realize, however, that many other job openings are not listed, and that the classified ads sometimes do not give all of the important information. They may offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. They may simply give a post office box to which you can mail your resume, making follow-up inquiries very difficult. Some ads offer out-of-town jobs; others advertise employment agencies rather than actual employment opportunities. When using classified ads, keep the following in mind: • Do not rely solely on the classifieds to find a job; follow other leads as well. • Answer ads promptly, because openings may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops appearing in the paper. • Read the ads every day, particularly the Sunday edition, which usu ally includes the most listings. • Beware of “no experience necessary” ads. These ads often signal low wages, poor working conditions, or commission work. • Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded, including the specific skills, educational background, and personal qualifications required for the position. Internet networks and resources. The Internet provides a vari ety of information, includingjob listings and job search resources and techniques. However, no single website or resource will contain all of the information available on employment or career opportunities, so be prepared to search for what you need. Re member that job listings may be posted by field or discipline, so begin your search using keywords. Some websites provide Na tional or local classified listings and allow job seekers to post their resumes online. Other sites offer advice on how to search for a job, prepare for an interview, or write your resume. When searching employment databases on the Internet, it usually is possible to send your resume to an employer by e-mail or to post it online. State employment service offices. The State employment ser vice, sometimes called Job Service, operates in coordination with the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Ad ministration . Local offices, found nationwide, help job seekers find jobs and help employers find qualified workers at no cost to either. To find the office nearest you, look in the State govern ment telephone listings under “Job Service” or “Employment.” Job matching and referral. At the State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are “job ready or if Finding and Evaluating a Job Offer 15 you need help from counseling and testing services to assess your occupational aptitudes and interests and to help you choose and prepare for a career. After you are “job ready,” you may examine available job listings and select openings that interest you. A staff member can then describe the job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. America’s Job Bank, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor, is an Internet site that allows you to search through a da tabase of over one million jobs Nationwide, create and post your resume online, and set up an automated job search. The data base contains a wide range of mostly full-time private sector jobs that are available all over the country. Job seekers can access America’s Job Bank at: http://www.ajb.org. Computers with access to the Internet are available to the public in any local pub lic employment service office, school, library, and military in stallation. Tips for Finding the Right Job, a U.S. Department of Labor pamphlet, offers advice on determining your job skills, organiz ing your job search, writing a resume, and making the most of an interview. Job Search Guide: Strategies For Professionals, an other U.S. Department of Labor publication, discusses specific steps that job seekers can follow to identify employment oppor tunities. This publication includes sections on handling job loss, managing personal resources, assessing personal skills and inter ests, researching the job market, conducting the job search, and networking. Many Department of Labor publications for job seek ers are available at: http://safetynet.doIeta.gov/netsourc.htm. Check with your State employment service office, or order a copy of these and other publications from the U.S. Government Print ing Office’s Superintendent of Documents. Phone: (202)5121800. Internet: http://bookstore.gpo.gov or http://www.doleta.gov/etaindex.asp. Services for special groups. By law, veterans are entitled to priority for job placement at State employment service centers. If you are a veteran, a veterans’ employment representative can in form you of available assistance and help you deal with problems. State service centers refer youths between 16 and 21 and eco nomically disadvantaged applicants to opportunities available under the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) of 1982. They also help prepare individuals facing employment barriers for jobs. Federal Government. Information on obtaining a position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Person nel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Professional associations. Many professions have associations that offer employment information, including career planning, educational programs, job listings, and job placement. To use these services, associations usually require that you be a mem ber of their association; information can be obtained directly from an association through the Internet, by telephone, or by mail. Labor unions. Labor unions provide various employment ser vices to members, including apprenticeship programs that teach a specific trade or skill. Contact the appropriate labor union or State council for more information. Digitized forapprenticeship FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Private employment agencies and career consultants. These agencies can be helpful, but they are in business to make money. Most operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a percentage of the salary paid to a successful applicant. You or the hiring company will pay a fee. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying associated fees before using the service. Although employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise might be difficult to locate, the costs may outweigh the benefits if you are responsible for the fee. Contacting employers directly often will generate the same type of leads that a private employment agency will provide. Consider any guarantees the agency offers when determining if the service is worth the cost. Community agencies. Many nonprofit organizations, including religious institutions and vocational rehabilitation agencies, of fer counseling, career development, and job placement services, generally targeted to a particular group, such as women, youth, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers. Applying for a job Resumes and application forms. Resumes and application forms are two ways to provide employers with written evidence of your qualifications and skills. Generally, the same information ap pears on both the resume and the application form, but the way it is presented differs. Some employers prefer a resume and others require an application form. The accompanying box presents the basic information you should include in your resume. There are many ways of organizing a resume. Depending on the job, you should choose the format that best highlights your skills, training, and experience. It may be helpful to look in a variety of books and publications at your local library or book store for different examples. What Usually Goes Into a Resume • Name, address, e-mail address, and telephone number. • Employment objective. State the type of work or specific job you are seeking. • Education, including school name and address, dates of attendance, curriculum, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. Consider including any courses or areas of focus that might be relevant to the position. • Experience, paid and volunteer. For each job, include the job title, name and location of employer, and dates of employment. Briefly describe your job duties. • Special skills, computer skills, proficiency in foreign languages, achievements, and membership in organizations. • References, only when requested. • Keep it short; only one page for less experienced applicants. • Avoid long paragraphs; use bullets to highlight key skills and accomplishments. • Have a friend review your resume for any spelling or grammatical errors. • Print it on high quality paper. When you fill out an application form, make sure you fill it out completely and follow all instructions. Do not omit any re quested information and make sure that the information you pro vide is correct. 16 Occupational Outlook Handbook Cover letters. A cover letter is sent with a resume or applica tion form, as a way of introducing yourself to prospective em ployers. It should capture the employer’s attention, follow a business letter format, and usually should include the following information: • The name and address of the specific person to whom the letter is addressed. • The reason for your interest in the company or position. • Your main qualifications for the position. • A request for an interview. • Your home and work phone numbers. Interviewing. An interview gives you the opportunity to show case your qualifications to an employer, so it pays to be well prepared. The information in the accompanying box provides some helpful hints. Job Interview Tips Preparation: Learn about the organization. Have a specific job or jobs in mind. Review your qualifications for the job. Prepare answers to broad questions about yourself. Review your resume. Practice an interview with a friend or relative. Arrive before the scheduled time of your interview. Personal Appearance: Be well groomed. Dress appropriately. Do not chew gum or smoke. The Interview: Relax and answer each question concisely. Respond promptly. Use good manners. Learn the name of your interviewer and shake hands as you meet. Use proper English—avoid slang. Be cooperative and enthusiastic. Ask questions about the position and the organization. Thank the interviewer when you leave and, as a follow up, in writing. Test (if employer gives one): Listen closely to instructions. Read each question carefully. Write legibly and clearly. Budget your time wisely and don’t dwell on one question. Information to Bring to an Interview: Social Security card. Government-issued identification (driver’s license). Resume. Although not all employers require applicants to bring a resume, you should be able to furnish the interviewer information about your education, training, and previous employment. References. Employers typically require three references. Get permission before using anyone as a reference. Make sure they will give you a good reference. Try to avoid using relatives. Evaluating a job offer Once you receive a job offer, you are faced with a difficult deci Digitizedsion for FRASER and must evaluate the offer carefully. Fortunately, most https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis organizations will not expect you to accept or reject an offer immediately. There are many issues to consider when assessing a job offer. Will the organization be a good place to work? Will the job be interesting? Are there opportunities for advancement? Is the salary fair? Does the employer offer good benefits? If you have not already figured out exactly what you want, the following dis cussion may help you develop a set of criteria for judging job offers, whether you are starting a career, reentering the labor force after a long absence, or planning a career change. The organization. Background infonnation on an organization can help you decide whether it is a good place for you to work. Factors to consider include the organization’s business or activ ity, financial condition, age, size, and location. You generally can get background information on an organi zation, particularly a large organization, on its Internet site or by telephoning its public relations office. A public company’s an nual report to the stockholders tells about its corporate philoso phy, history, products or services, goals, and financial status. Most government agencies can furnish reports that describe their pro grams and missions. Press releases, company newsletters or magazines, and recruitment brochures also can be useful. Ask the organization for any other items that might interest a pro spective employee. If possible, speak to current or former em ployees of the organization. Background information on the organization may be avail able at your public or school library. If you cannot get an annual report, check the library for reference directories that may pro vide basic facts about the company, such as earnings, products and services, and number of employees. Some directories widely available in libraries include: • Dun & Bradstreet’s Million Dollar Directory • Standard and Poor‘s Register of Corporations • Moody’s Industrial Manual • Thomas ’ Register ofAmerican Manufacturers • Ward s Business Directory Stories about an organization in magazines and newspapers can tell a great deal about its successes, failures, and plans for the future. You can identify articles on a company by looking under its name in periodical or computerized indexes in librar ies. However, it probably will not be useful to look back more than 2 or 3 years. The library also may have government publications that present projections of growth for the industry in which the orga nization is classified. Long-term projections of employment and output for detailed industries, covering the entire U.S. economy, are developed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and revised ev ery 2 years—see the November 2001 Monthly Labor Review for the most recent projections, covering the 2000-10 period, on the Internet: http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/mlrhome.htm. The U.S. Industry and Trade Outlook, published annually by the U.S. Department of Commerce, presents detailed analyses of U.S. industries. The 2001 edition is available through the Depart ment of Commerce’s website: http://home.doc.gov. Trade maga zines also may include articles on the trends for specific industries. Career centers at colleges and universities often have in formation on employers that is not available in libraries. Ask a career center representative how to find out about a particular organization. Finding and Evaluating a Job Offer 17 Does the organization’s business or activity match your own interests and beliefs? It is easier to apply yourself to the work if you are enthusiastic about what the organization does. How will the size of the organization affect you? Large firms generally offer a greater variety of training programs and career paths, more managerial levels for advancement, and better employee benefits than small firms. Large employers also may have more advanced technologies. However, many jobs in large firms tend to be highly specialized. Jobs in small firms may offer broader authority and responsi bility, a closer working relationship with top management, and a chance to clearly see your contribution to the success of the or ganization. Should you work for a relatively new organization or one that is well established? New businesses have a high failure rate, but for many people, the excitement of helping create a company and the potential for sharing in its success more than offset the risk ofjob loss. How ever, it may be just as exciting and rewarding to work for a young firm that already has a foothold on success. Does it make a difference if the company is private or public? An individual or a family may control a privately owned com pany and key jobs may be reserved for relatives and friends. A board of directors responsible to the stockholders controls a pub licly owned company and key jobs usually are open to anyone. Is the organization in an industry with favorable long-term prospects? The most successful firms tend to be in industries that are grow ing rapidly. Nature of the job. Even if everything else about the job is at tractive, you will be unhappy if you dislike the day-to-day work. Determining in advance whether you will like the work may be difficult. However, the more you find out about the job before accepting or rejecting the offer, the more likely you are to make the right choice. Actually working in the industry and, if pos sible, for the company would provide considerable insight. You can gain work experience through part-time, temporary, or sum mer jobs, or through internship or work-study programs while in school, all of which can lead to permanent job offers. Where is the job located? If the job is in another section of the country, you need to con sider the cost of living, the availability of housing and transpor tation, and the quality of educational and recreational facilities in that section of the country. Even if the job location is in your area, you should consider the time and expense of commuting. Does the work match your interests and make good use of your skills? The duties and responsibilities of the job should be explained in enough detail to answer this question. How important is the job in this company? An explanation of where you fit in the organization and how you are supposed to contribute to its overall objectives should give youfor anFRASER idea of the job’s importance. Digitized https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Are you comfortable with the hours? Most jobs involve regular hours—for example, 40 hours a week, during the day, Monday through Friday. Other jobs require night, weekend, or holiday work. In addition, some jobs routinely re quire overtime to meet deadlines or sales or production goals, or to better serve customers. Consider the effect the work hours will have on your personal life. How long do most people who enter this job stay with the company? High turnover can mean dissatisfaction with the nature of the work or something else about the job. Opportunities offered by employers. A good job offers you opportunities to leam new skills, increase your earnings, and rise to positions of greater authority, responsibility, and prestige. A lack of opportunities can dampen interest in the work and result in frustration and boredom. The company should have a training plan for you. What valu able new skills does the company plan to teach you? The employer should give you some idea of promotion possi bilities within the organization. What is the next step on the career ladder? If you have to wait for a job to become vacant before you can be promoted, how long does this usually take? When opportunities for advancement do arise, will you compete with applicants from outside the company? Can you apply for jobs for which you qualify elsewhere within the organization, or is mobility within the firm limited? Salaries and benefits. Wait for the employer to introduce these subjects. Some companies will not talk about pay until they have decided to hire you. In order to know if their offer is rea sonable, you need a rough estimate of what the job should pay. You may have to go to several sources for this information. Try to find family, friends, or acquaintances who recently were hired in similar jobs. Ask your teachers and the staff in placement offices about starting pay for graduates with your qualifications. Help-wanted ads in newspapers sometimes give salary ranges for similar positions. Check the library or your school’s career center for salary surveys such as those conducted by the Na tional Association of Colleges and Employers or various pro fessional associations. If you are considering the salary and benefits for a job in an other geographic area, make allowances for differences in the cost of living, which may be significantly higher in a large met ropolitan area than in a smaller city, town, or rural area. You also should leam the organization’s policy regarding over time. Depending on the job, you may or may not be exempt from laws requiring the employer to compensate you for over time. Find out how many hours you will be expected to work each week and whether you receive overtime pay or compensa tory time off for working more than the specified number of hours in a week. Also take into account that the starting salary is just that—the start. Your salary should be reviewed on a regular basis; many organizations do it every year. How much can you expect to earn after 1, 2, or 3 or more years? An employer cannot be specific about the amount of pay if it includes commissions and bonuses. Benefits also can add a lot to your base pay, but they vary widely. Find out exactly what the benefit package includes and how much of the costs you must bear. National, State, and metropolitan area data from the National Compensation Survey, which integrates data from three existing 18 Occupational Outlook Handbook Bureau of Labor Statistics programs—the Employment Cost In dex, the Occupational Compensation Survey, and the Employee Benefits Survey—are available from: >- Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Compensation Levels and Trends, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 4175, Washington, DC 20212-0001. Tele phone: (202) 691-6199. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/ncs/. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Data on earnings by detailed occupation from the Occupa tional Employment Statistics (OES) Survey are available from: ► Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Occupational Statistics and Employ ment Projections, 2 Massachusetts Ave. NE., Room 2135, Washington, DC 20212-0001. Telephone: (202) 691-6569. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/oes/. Occupational Information Included in the Handbook The Occupational Outlook Handbook is best used as a refer ence; it is not meant to be read from cover to cover. Instead, start by looking at the table of contents, where related occupa tions are grouped in clusters, or look in the alphabetical index in the back of the Handbook for specific occupations that interest you. For any occupation that sounds interesting, use the Hand book to learn about the type of work; working conditions; edu cation and training requirements and advancement possibilities; earnings; job outlook; and related occupations. Each occupa tional statement, or description, in the Handbook follows a stan dard format, making it easier for you to compare occupations. Two previous sections—Tomorrow’s Jobs and Sources of Career Information—highlight the forces that are likely to deter mine employment opportunities in industries and occupations through the year 2010, and indicate where to obtain additional information. This section is an overview of how the occupa tional statements are organized. It highlights information pre sented in each section of a Handbook statement, gives examples of specific occupations in some cases, and offers some hints on how to interpret the information provided. Unless otherwise noted, the source of employment and earnings data presented in the Handbook is the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Nearly all Handbook statements cite employ ment and earnings data from the Occupational Employment Sta tistics (OES) survey. Some statements include data from outside sources. OES data may be used to compare earnings among occupations; however, outside data may not be used in this man ner because characteristics of these data vary widely. About those numbers at the beginning of each statement The numbers in parentheses that appear just below the title of every detailed occupational statement are from the Occupational Information Network (0*NET)—a system used by State employ ment service offices to classify applicants and job openings, and by some career information centers and libraries to file occupational information. Occupational Information Network Coverage, a section begin ning on page 609, cross-references 0*NET codes to occupations covered in the Handbook. 0*NET codes are based on the 2000 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system. Significant Points This section highlights key occupational characteristics. Nature of the Work This section discusses what workers do. Individual job duties may vary by industry or employer. For instance, workers in larger firms tend to be more specialized whereas those in smaller firms often have a wider variety of duties. Most occupations have sev eral levels of skills and responsibilities through which workers may progress. Beginners may start as trainees performing rou tine tasks under close supervision. Experienced workers usually undertake more difficult tasks and are expected to perform with less supervision. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The influence of technological advancements on the way work is done is mentioned. For example, the Internet allows purchas ers to acquire supplies with a click of the mouse, saving time and money. This section of Handbook statements also discusses emerging specialties. For instance, webmasters—who are respon sible for all technical aspects involved in operating a website— comprise a specialty within systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators. Working Conditions This section identifies the typical hours worked, the workplace environment, physical activities and susceptibility to injury, spe cial equipment, and the extent of travel required. In many occu pations, people work regular business hours—40 hours a week, Monday through Friday—but many do not. For example, wait ers and waitresses often work evenings and weekends. The work setting can range from a hospital, to a mall, to an off-shore oil rig. Truckdrivers might be susceptible to injury, while paramedics have high job-related stress. Semiconductor processors may wear protective clothing or equipment, some construction laborers do physically demanding work, and top executives may travel frequently. Employment This section reports the number ofjobs the occupation provided in 2000 and the key industries where these jobs are found. When significant, the geographic distribution of jobs and the propor tion of part-time (less than 35 hours a week) and self-employed workers in the occupation are mentioned. Self-employed work ers accounted for nearly eight percent of the work force in 2000; however, they were concentrated in a small number of occupa tions, such as farmers and ranchers, childcare workers, lawyers, health practitioners, and the construction trades. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement After knowing what a job is all about, it is important to under stand how to train for it. This section describes the most signifi cant sources of education and training, including the education or training preferred by employers, the typical length of training, and advancement possibilities. Job skills sometimes are acquired through high school, informal on-the-job training, formal train ing (including apprenticeships), the U.S. Armed Forces, home study, hobbies, or previous work experience. For example, sales experience is particularly important for many sales jobs. Many professional jobs, on the other hand, require formal postsecondary education—postsecondary vocational or technical training, or college, postgraduate, or professional education. In addition to training requirements, the Handbook also men tions desirable skills, aptitudes, and personal characteristics. For some entry-level jobs, personal characteristics are more impor tant than formal training. Employers generally seek people who read, write, and speak well; compute accurately; think logically; learn quickly; get along with others; and demonstrate depend ability. Some occupations require certification or licensing to enter the field, to advance, or to practice independently. Certification 19 20 Occupational Outlook Handbook Key phrases in the Handbook This box explains how to interpret the key phrases used to describe projected changes in employment. It also explains the terms used to describe the relationship between the number of job openings and the number ofjob seekers. The descriptions of this relationship in a particular occupation reflects the knowledge and judgment of econo mists in the Bureau’s Office of Occupational Statistics and Employ ment Projections. Changing employment between 2000 and 2010 If the statement reads: Employment is projected to: Grow much faster than average Grow faster than average Grow about as fast as average Grow more slowly than average Little or no change Decline increase 36 percent or more increase 21 to 35 percent increase 10 to 20 percent increase 3 to 9 percent increase 0 to 2 percent decrease 1 percent or more Opportunities and competition for jobs If the statement reads: Very good to excellent opportunities Good or favorable opportunities May face or can expect keen competition Job openings compared to job seekers may be: More numerous In rough balance Fewer or licensing generally involves completing courses and passing examinations. Many occupations increasingly have continuing education or skill improvement requirements to keep up with the changing economy or to improve advancement opportunities. characterized by a surplus of applicants, leading to keen compe tition for jobs. Limited training facilities, salary regulations, or undesirable aspects of the work—as in the case of private house hold workers—can result in an insufficient number of entrants to fill all job openings. On the other hand, glamorous or poten tially high paying occupations, such as actors or musicians, gen erally have surpluses ofjob seekers. Variation in job opportunities by industry, size of firm, or geographic location also may be dis cussed. Even in crowded fields, job openings do exist. Good students or well-qualified individuals should not be deterred from undertaking training or seeking entry. Susceptibility to layoffs due to imports, slowdowns in eco nomic activity, technological advancements, or budget cuts also are addressed in this section. For example, employment of con struction trades workers is sensitive to slowdowns in construc tion activity, while employment of government workers is sensitive to budget cuts. Earnings This section discusses typical earnings and how workers are com pensated—annual salaries, hourly wages, commissions, piece rates, tips, or bonuses. Within every occupation, earnings vary by experience, responsibility, performance, tenure, and geo graphic area. Earnings data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics and, in some cases, from outside sources are included. Data may cover the entire occupation or a specific group within the occupation. Benefits account for a significant portion of total compensa tion costs to employers. Benefits such as paid vacation, health insurance, and sick leave may not be mentioned because they are so widespread. Though not as common as traditional benefits, employers may offer flexible hours and profit-sharing plans to attract and retain highly qualified workers. Less common ben efits also include childcare, tuition for dependents, housing as sistance, summers off, and free or discounted merchandise or services. Job Outlook In planning for the future, it is important to consider potential job opportunities. This section describes the factors that will result in growth or decline in the number ofjobs. In some cases, the Handbook mentions that an occupation is likely to provide numerous job openings or relatively few openings. Occupations which are large and have high turnover, such as food and bever age serving occupations, generally provide the most job open ings—reflecting the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working. Some Handbook statements discuss the relationship between the number of job seekers and job openings. In some occupa tions, there is a rough balance between job seekers and job open ings, resulting in good opportunities. In some occupations, employers may report difficulty finding qualified applicants, resulting in excellent job opportunities. Other occupations are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Occupations involving similar duties, skills, interests, education, and training are listed. Sources of Additional Information No single publication can completely describe all aspects of an occupation. Thus, the Handbook lists mailing addresses for as sociations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide occupational information. In some cases, tollfree phone numbers and Internet addresses also are listed. Free or relatively inexpensive publications offering more information may be mentioned; some of these also may be available in librar ies, school career centers, guidance offices, or on the Internet. For additional sources of information, also read the earlier chapter, Sources of Career Information. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations Accountants and Auditors (0*NET 13-2011.01, 13-2011.02) Significant Points • • • Most jobs require at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a related field. Jobseekers who obtain professional recognition through certification or licensure, a master’s degree, proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or specialized expertise will have an advantage in the job market. Competition will remain keen for the most prestigious jobs in major accounting and business firms. Nature of the Work Accountants and auditors help to ensure that the Nation’s firms are mn more efficiently, its public records kept more accurately, and its taxes paid properly and on time. They perform these vital functions by offering an increasingly wide array of business and accounting services to their clients. These services include public, manage ment, and government accounting, as well as internal auditing. However, accountants and auditors are broadening the services they offer to include budget analysis, financial and investment planning, information technology consulting, and limited legal services. Be yond the fundamental tasks of the occupation—preparing, analyz ing, and verifying financial documents in order to provide information to clients—many accountants now are required to pos sess a wide range of knowledge and skills. Specific job duties vary widely among the four major fields of accounting. Public accountants perform a broad range of account ing, auditing, tax, and consulting activities for their clients, who may be corporations, governments, nonprofit organizations, or in dividuals. For example, some public accountants concentrate on tax matters, such as advising companies of the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions and preparing individual income tax returns. Others are consultants who offer advice in ar eas such as compensation or employee healthcare benefits, the de sign of accounting and data-processing systems, and the selection of controls to safeguard assets. Some specialize in forensic ac counting—investigating and interpreting bankruptcies and other complex financial transactions. Still others audit clients’ financial statements and report to investors and authorities that the statements have been correctly prepared and reported. Public accountants, many of whom are Certified Public Accountants (CPAs), generally have their own businesses or work for public accounting firms. Management accountants—also called industrial, corporate, or private accountants—record and analyze the financial information of the companies for which they work. Other responsibilities in clude budgeting, performance evaluation, cost management, and asset management. Usually, management accountants are part of executive teams involved in strategic planning or new-product de velopment. They analyze and interpret the financial information that corporate executives need to make sound business decisions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis They also prepare financial reports for non-management groups, including stockholders, creditors, regulatory agencies, and tax au thorities. Within accounting departments, they may work in vari ous areas including financial analysis, planning and budgeting, and cost accounting. Many persons with an accounting background work in the pub lic sector. Government accountants and auditors maintain and ex amine the records of government agencies and audit private businesses and individuals whose activities are subject to govern ment regulations or taxation. Accountants employed by Federal, State, and local governments guarantee that revenues are received and expenditures are made in accordance with laws and regulations. Those who are employed by the Federal Government may work as Internal Revenue Service agents or in financial management, finan cial institution examination, or budget analysis and administration. Internal auditing is an increasingly important area of accounting and auditing. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization’s records and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. Specifically, they examine and evaluate their firms’ finan cial and information systems, management procedures, and inter nal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review com pany operations—evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and gov ernment regulations. There are many types of highly specialized auditors, such as electronic data processing, environmental, engi neering, legal, insurance premium, bank, and healthcare auditors. As computer systems make information more timely, internal audi tors help managers to base their decisions on actual data, rather than personal observation. Internal auditors also may recommend controls for their organization’s computer system to ensure the reli ability of the system and the integrity of the data. Computers are rapidly changing the nature of the work for most accountants and auditors. With the aid of special software pack ages, accountants summarize transactions in standard formats for financial records and organize data in special formats for financial Accountants and auditors prepare, analyze, and verify financial information for individuals and businesses. 21 22 Occupational Outlook Handbook analysis. These accounting packages greatly reduce the amount of tedious manual work associated with data management and recordkeeping. Personal and laptop computers enable accountants and auditors to be more mobile and to use their clients’ computer systems to extract information from large mainframe computers. As a result, a growing number of accountants and auditors have extensive computer skills and specialize in correcting problems with software or in developing software to meet unique data manage ment and analytical needs. Accountants also are beginning to per form more technical duties, such as implementing, controlling, and auditing systems and networks, and developing technology plans and budgets. Accountants also are increasingly assuming the role of a per sonal financial advisor. They not only provide clients with account ing and tax help, but also help them develop a personal budget, manage assets and investments, plan for retirement, and recognize and reduce exposure to risks. This role is a response to demands by clients for one trustworthy individual or firm to meet all of their financial needs. (See the Handbook statement on financial analysts and personal financial advisors.) Working Conditions Most accountants and auditors work in a typical office setting. Selfemployed accountants may be able to do part of their work at home. Accountants and auditors employed by public accounting firms and government agencies may travel frequently to perform audits at branches of their firm, clients’ places of business, or government facilities. Most accountants and auditors generally work a standard 40hour week, but many work longer hours, particularly if they are self-employed and have numerous clients. Tax specialists often work long hours during the tax season. Employment Accountants and auditors held about 976,000 jobs in 2000. They worked throughout private industry and government, but almost 1 out of 4 salaried accountants worked for accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping firms. Approximately 3 out of 25 accountants or au ditors were self-employed. Many accountants and auditors are unlicensed management ac countants, internal auditors, or government accountants and audi tors; however, a large number are licensed Certified Public Accountants. Most accountants and auditors work in urban areas, where public accounting firms and central or regional offices of businesses are concentrated. Some individuals with backgrounds in accounting and auditing are full-time college and university faculty; others teach part time while working as self-employed accountants or as salaried accoun tants for private industry or government. (See the Handbook state ment on teachers—postsecondary.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most accountant and internal auditor positions require at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a related field. Beginning ac counting and auditing positions in the Federal Government, for ex ample, usually require four years of college (including 24 semester hours in accounting or auditing) or an equivalent combination of education and experience. Some employers prefer applicants with a master’s degree in accounting or with a master’s degree in busi ness administration with a concentration in accounting. Previous experience in accounting or auditing can help an ap plicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an opportunity to gain experience through summer or part-time internship programs conducted by public accounting or business firms. In addition, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis practical knowledge of computers and their applications in account ing and internal auditing is a great asset for jobseekers in the account ing field. Professional recognition through certification or licensure pro vides a distinct advantage in the job market. All CPAs must have a certificate, and any partners in their firm must have licenses issued by a State Board of Accountancy. The vast majority of States re quire CPA candidates to be college graduates, but a few States sub stitute a number of years of public accounting experience for a college degree. Based on recommendations made by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 38 States currently re quire CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of college coursework—an additional 30 hours beyond the usual 4-year bachelor’s degree. Most States have adopted similar legislation that will become effective in the future. Many schools have altered their curricula accordingly, and prospective accounting majors should carefully research accounting curricula and the requirements of any States in which they hope to become licensed. All States use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination prepared by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). The 2-day CPA examination is rigorous, and only about one-quar ter of those who take it each year pass every part they attempt. Can didates are not required to pass all four parts at once, but most States require candidates to pass at least two parts for partial credit and to complete all four sections within a certain period. Most States also require applicants for a CPA certificate to have some accounting experience. The AICPA also offers members with valid CPA certificates the option to receive the Accredited in Business Valuation (ABV), Cer tified Information Technology Professional (CITP), or Personal Financial Specialist (PFS) designations. The addition of these des ignations to the CPA distinguishes those accountants with a certain level of expertise in the nontraditional areas of business valuation, technology, or personal financial planning, in which accountants are practicing more frequently. The ABV designation requires a written exam, as well as completion of a minimum of 10 business valuation projects that demonstrate a candidate’s experience and competence. The CITP requires payment of a fee, a written state ment of intent, and the achievement of a set number of points awarded for business experience and education. Those who do not meet the required number of points may substitute a written exam. Candidates for the PFS designation also must achieve a certain level of points, based on experience and education, and must pass a writ ten exam and submit references, as well. Nearly all States require CPAs and other public accountants to complete a certain number of hours of continuing professional edu cation before their licenses can be renewed. The professional as sociations representing accountants sponsor numerous courses, seminars, group study programs, and other forms of continuing education. Accountants and auditors also can seek to obtain other forms of credentials from professional societies on a voluntary basis. Vol untary certification can attest to professional competence in a spe cialized field of accounting and auditing. It also can certify that a recognized level of professional competence has been achieved by accountants and auditors who acquired some skills on the job, with out the formal education or public accounting work experience needed to meet the rigorous standards required to take the CPA examination. The Institute of Management Accountants (IMA) confers the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) designation upon appli cants who complete a bachelor’s degree or attain a minimum score on specified graduate school entrance exams. Applicants also must pass a four-part examination, agree to meet continuing education Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 23 requirements, comply with standards of professional conduct, and have worked at least 2 years in management accounting. The CMA program is administered by the Institute of Certified Management Accountants, an affiliate of the IMA. Graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have worked for 2 years as internal auditors and have passed a four-part examination may earn the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) desig nation from the Institute of Internal Auditors. Similarly, the Infor mation Systems Audit and Control Association confers the Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) designation upon candidates who pass an examination and have 5 years of experience in audit ing electronic data-processing systems. Auditing or data-processing experience and a college education may be substituted for up to 2 years ofwork experience in this program. The Accreditation Coun cil for Accountancy and Taxation, a satellite organization of the National Society of Public Accountants, confers three designa tions—Accredited in Accountancy (AA), Accredited Tax Advisor (ATA), and Accredited Tax Preparer (ATP). Candidates for the AA must pass an exam, while candidates for the ATA and ATP must complete the required coursework and pass an exam. Often, a prac titioner will hold multiple licenses and designations. For instance, an internal auditor might be a CPA, CIA, and CISA. The Association of Government Accountants grants the Certi fied Government Financial Manager (CGFM) designation for ac countants, auditors, and other government financial personnel at the Federal, State, and local levels. Candidates must have a mini mum of a bachelor’s degree, 24 hours of study in financial manage ment, and 2 years’ experience in government, and must pass a series of three exams. The exams cover topics in governmental environ ment; governmental accounting, financial reporting, and budget ing; and financial management and control. Persons planning a career in accounting should have an aptitude for mathematics and be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures quickly. They must be able to clearly communicate the results of their work to clients and managers. Accountants and au ditors must be good at working with people, as well as with busi ness systems and computers. Because millions of financial statement users rely on their services, accountants and auditors should have high standards of integrity. Capable accountants and auditors may advance rapidly; those having inadequate academic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find promotion difficult. Many graduates of junior col leges and business and correspondence schools, as well as book keepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience requirements set by their employers, can obtain junior accounting positions and advance to positions with more responsi bilities by demonstrating their accounting skills on the job. Beginning public accountants usually start by assisting with work for several clients. They may advance to positions with more re sponsibility in 1 or 2 years, and to senior positions within another few years. Those who excel may become supervisors, managers, or partners; open their own public accounting firms; or transfer to ex ecutive positions in management accounting or internal auditing in private firms. Management accountants often start as cost accountants, junior internal auditors, or trainees for other accounting positions. As they rise through the organization, they may advance to accounting man ager, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presi dents, chief financial officers, or corporation presidents. Many se nior corporation executives have a background in accounting, internal auditing, or finance. In general, public accountants, management accountants, and internal auditors have much occupational mobility. Practitioners https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis often shift into management accounting or internal auditing from public accounting, or between internal auditing and management accounting. However, it is less common for accountants and audi tors to move from either management accounting or internal audit ing into public accounting. Job Outlook Accountants and auditors who have earned professional recogni tion through certification or licensure should have the best job pros pects. For example, Certified Public Accountants should continue to enjoy a wide range ofjob opportunities, especially as more States require candidates to have 150 hours of college coursework, mak ing it more difficult to obtain this certification. Similarly, Certified Management Accountants should be in demand as their manage ment advice is increasingly sought. Applicants with a master’s de gree in accounting, or a master’s degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting, also will have an advantage in the job market. Proficiency in accounting and auditing computer software, or expertise in specialized areas such as international business, spe cific industries, or current legislation, also may be helpful in land ing certain accounting and auditing jobs. In addition, employers increasingly seek applicants with strong interpersonal and commu nication skills. Because many accountants work on teams with oth ers from different backgrounds, they must be able to communicate accounting and financial information clearly and concisely. Re gardless of one’s qualifications, however, competition will remain keen for the most prestigious jobs in major accounting and busi ness firms. Employment of accountants and auditors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addition to openings resulting from growth, the need to replace accountants and auditors who retire or transfer to other oc cupations will produce numerous job openings annually in this large occupation. As the economy grows, the number of business establishments will increase, requiring more accountants and auditors to set up books, prepare taxes, and provide management advice. As these businesses grow, the volume and complexity of information devel oped by accountants and auditors regarding costs, expenditures, and taxes will increase as well. More-complex requirements for ac countants and auditors also arise from changes in legislation re lated to taxes, financial reporting standards, business investments, mergers, and other financial matters. The growth of international business also has led to more demand for accounting expertise and services related to international trade and accounting rules, as well as to international mergers and acquisitions. These trends should create more jobs for accountants and auditors. The changing role of accountants and auditors also will spur job growth. In response to market demand, these financial specialists will offer more financial management and consulting services as they take on a greater advisory role and develop more sophisticated and flexible accounting systems. By focusing on analyzing opera tions, rather than simply providing financial data, accountants will help to boost demand for their services. Also, internal auditors will increasingly be needed to discover and eliminate waste and fraud. However, these trends will be offset somewhat by a decrease in the demand for traditional services and by the growing use of ac counting software. Accountants will spend less time performing audits, due to potential liability and relatively low profits, and will shift away from tax preparation, due to the increasing popularity of tax preparation firms and software. As computer programs con tinue to simplify some accounting-related tasks, clerical staff will increasingly handle many routine calculations. 24 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings In 2000, the median annual earnings of accountants and auditors were $43,500. The middle half of the occupation earned between $34,290 and $56,190. The top 10 percent of accountants and audi tors earned more than $73,770, and the bottom 10 percent earned less than $28,190. In 2000, median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of accountants and auditors > Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation, lOlONorthFairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.acatcredentials.org were: >- The Information Systems Audit and Control Association, 3701 Algonquin Rd., Suite 1010, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. Internet: http://www.isaca.org Computer and data processing services............................................ $47,110 Accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping.............................................. 45,890 Federal government.................................................................................. 44,380 Local government..................................................................................... 41,240 State government...................................................................................... 40,780 According to a salary survey conducted by the National Asso ciation of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in accounting received starting offers averaging $39,397 a year in 2001; master’s degree candidates in accounting were initially offered $43,272. According to a 2001 salary survey conducted by Robert Half International, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, accountants and auditors with up to 1 year of experience earned between $29,250 and $40,250. Those with 1 to 3 years of experience earned between $33,500 and $47,750. Senior accoun tants and auditors earned between $39,250 and $59,500; managers earned between $46,750 and $76,750; and directors of accounting and auditing earned between $60,500 and $106,500 a year. The variation in salaries reflects differences in size of firm, location, level of education, and professional credentials. In the Federal Government, the starting annual salary for junior accountants and auditors was $21,947 in 2001. Candidates who had a superior academic record might start at $27,185, while appli cants with a master’s degree or 2 years of professional experience usually began at $33,254. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Accountants employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions averaged $64,770 a year in 2001; auditors averaged $67,180. Related Occupations Accountants and auditors design internal control systems and ana lyze financial data. Others for whom training in accounting is in valuable include budget analysts; cost estimators; loan officers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents; bill and account collectors; and book keeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. Recently, accountants increasingly have taken on the role of management analyst. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in certified public accounting and CPA standards and examinations may be obtained from: >- American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.aicpa.org Information on CPA licensure requirements by State may be ob tained from: >- National Association of State Boards of Accountancy, 150 Fourth Ave. North, Suite 700, Nashville, TN 37219-2417. Internet: http://www.nasba.org Information on careers in management accounting and the CMA designation may be obtained from: > Institute of Management Accountants, 10 Paragon Dr., Montvale, NJ 07645-1760. Internet: http://www.imanet.org Information on the Accredited in Accountancy, Accredited Busi ness Accountant, Accredited Tax Advisor, or Accredited Tax Preparer designations may be obtained from: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information on careers in internal auditing and the CIA designa tion may be obtained from: ► The Institute of Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, FL 32701-4201. Internet: http://www.theiia.org Information on careers in information systems auditing and the CISA designation may be obtained from: Information on careers in government accounting and on the CGFM designation may be obtained from: >- Association of Government Accountants, 2208 Mount Vernon Ave., Alex andria, VA 22301. Internet: http://www.agacgfm.org Information on obtaining an accounting position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first num ber is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is avail able from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Administrative Services Managers (C)**NET 11-3011.00) • • Significant Points Administrative services managers work in private industry and government and have varied responsibilities, experience, earnings, and education. Competition should remain keen due to the substantial supply of competent, experienced workers seeking managerial jobs; however, demand should be strong for facility managers and for administrative services managers in management consulting. Nature of the Work Administrative services managers perform a broad range of duties in virtually every sector of the economy. They coordinate and di rect support services to organizations as diverse as insurance com panies, computer manufacturers, and government offices. These workers manage the many services that allow organizations to op erate efficiently, such as secretarial and reception, administration, payroll, conference planning and travel, information and data pro cessing, mail, materials scheduling and distribution, printing and reproduction, records management, telecommunications manage ment, security, parking, and personal property procurement, sup ply, and disposal. Specific duties for these managers vary by degree of responsi bility and authority. First-line administrative services managers di rectly supervise a staff that performs various support services. Mid-level managers, on the other hand, develop departmental plans, set goals and deadlines, implement procedures to improve produc tivity and customer service, and define the responsibilities of su pervisory-level managers. Some mid-level administrative services managers oversee first-line supervisors from various departments, including the clerical staff. Mid-level managers also may be in volved in the hiring and dismissal of employees, but they generally have no role in the formulation of personnel policy. Some of these managers advance to upper level positions, such as vice president Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 25 mi - Administrative services managers ensure that their organization's building and grounds are properly maintained. of administrative services, which are discussed in the Handbook statement on top executives. In small organizations, a single administrative services manager may oversee all support services. In larger ones, however, first-line administrative services managers often report to mid-level manag ers who, in turn, report to owners or top-level managers. As the size of the firm increases, administrative services managers are more likely to specialize in specific support activities. For example, some administrative services managers work primarily as office manag ers, contract administrators, or unclaimed property officers. In many cases, the duties ofthese administrative services managers are similar to those of other managers and supervisors, some of which are dis cussed in other Handbook statements. Because of the range of administrative services required by or ganizations, the nature of these managerial jobs also varies signifi cantly. Administrative services managers who work as contract administrators, for instance, oversee the preparation, analysis, ne gotiation, and review of contracts related to the purchase or sale of equipment, materials, supplies, products, or services. In addition, some administrative services managers acquire, distribute, and store supplies, while others dispose of surplus property or oversee the disposal of unclaimed property. Facility managers have duties similar to those of administrative services managers, but also plan, design, and manage buildings and grounds in addition to people. They are responsible for coordinat ing the aspects of the physical workplace with the people and work of an organization. This task requires integrating the principles of business administration, architecture, and behavioral and engineer ing science. Although the specific tasks assigned to facility manag ers vary substantially depending on the organization, the duties fall into several categories, relating to operations and maintenance, real estate, project planning and management, communication, finance, quality assessment, facility function, and management of human and environmental factors. Tasks within these broad categories may include space and workplace planning, budgeting, purchase and sale of real estate, lease management, renovations, or architectural plan ning and design. Facility managers may suggest and oversee reno vation projects for a variety of reasons, ranging from improving efficiency to ensuring that facilities meet government regulations and environmental, health, and security standards. Additionally, facility managers continually monitor the facility to ensure that it remains safe, secure, and well-maintained. Often, the facility man ager is responsible for directing staff, including maintenance, grounds, and custodial workers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Administrative services managers generally work in comfortable offices. Managers involved in contract administration and personal property procurement, use, and disposal may travel between their home office, branch offices, vendors’ offices, and property sales sites. Also, facility managers who are responsible for the design of workspaces may spend time at construction sites and may travel between different facilities while monitoring the work of mainte nance, grounds, and custodial staffs. However, new technology has increased the number of managers who telecommute from home or other offices, and teleconferencing has reduced the need for travel. Most administrative services managers work a standard 40-hour week. However, uncompensated overtime frequently is required to resolve problems and meet deadlines. Facility managers often are on call to address a variety of problems that can arise in a facil ity during non-work hours. Because of frequent deadlines and the challenges of managing staff and resources, the work of adminis trative services and facility managers can be stressful. Employment Administrative services managers held about 362,000 jobs in 2000. About half worked in service industries, including engineering and management, business, educational, social, and health services. The remaining workers were widely dispersed throughout the economy. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for these managers vary widely, depend ing on the size and complexity of the organization. In small organi zations, experience may be the only requirement needed to enter a position as office manager. When an opening in administrative ser vices management occurs, the office manager may be promoted to the position based on past performance. In large organizations, however, administrative services managers normally are hired from outside, and each position has formal education and experience re quirements. Some administrative services managers have advanced degrees. Specific requirements vary by job responsibility. For first-line administrative services managers of secretarial, mailroom, and re lated support activities, many employers prefer an associate degree in business or management, although a high school diploma may suffice when combined with appropriate experience. For managers of audiovisual, graphics, and other technical activities, postsecondary technical school training is preferred. Managers of highly complex services, such as contract administration, generally need at least a bachelor’s degree in business, human resources, or finance. Re gardless of major, the curriculum should include courses in office technology, accounting, business mathematics, computer applica tions, human resources, and business law. Most facility managers have an undergraduate or graduate degree in engineering, architec ture, construction management, business administration, or facility management. Many have a background in real estate, construction, or interior design, in addition to managerial experience. Whatever the manager’s educational background, it must be accompanied by related work experience reflecting demonstrated ability. For this reason, many administrative services managers have advanced through the ranks of their organization, acquiring work experience in various administrative positions before assuming first-line su pervisory duties. All managers who oversee departmental supervisors should be familiar with office procedures and equip ment. Managers of personal property acquisition and disposal need experience in purchasing and sales, and knowledge of a vari ety of supplies, machinery, and equipment. Managers concerned with supply, inventory, and distribution should be experienced in receiving, warehousing, packaging, shipping, transportation, and 26 Occupational Outlook Handbook related operations. Contract administrators may have worked as contract specialists, cost analysts, or procurement specialists. Man agers of unclaimed property often have experience in insurance claims analysis and records management. Persons interested in becoming administrative services or facil ity managers should have good communication skills and be able to establish effective working relationships with many different people, ranging from managers, supervisors, and professionals, to clerks and blue-collar workers. They should be analytical, detail-oriented, flexible, and decisive. They must also be able to coordinate several activities at once, quickly analyze and resolve specific problems, and cope with deadlines. Most administrative services managers in small organizations advance by moving to other management positions or to a larger organization. Advancement is easier in large firms that employ several levels of administrative services managers. Attainment of the Certified Administrative Manager (CAM) designation offered by the Institute of Certified Professional Managers through work experience and successful completion of examinations can increase a manager’s advancement potential. In addition, a master’s degree in business administration or related field enhances a first-level manager’s opportunities to advance to a mid-level management position, such as director of administrative services, and eventu ally to a top-level management position, such as executive vice president for administrative services. Those with the required capi tal and experience can establish their own management consulting firm. Advancement of facility managers is based on the practices and size of individual companies. Some facility managers transfer from other departments within the organization or work their way up from technical positions. Others advance through a progression of facility management positions that offer additional responsibili ties. Completion of the competency-based professional certifica tion program offered by the International Facility Management Association can give prospective candidates an advantage. In or der to qualify for this Certified Facility Manager (CFM) designa tion, applicants must meet certain educational and experience requirements. Earnings Earnings of administrative services managers vary greatly depend ing on the employer, the specialty, and the geographic area. In gen eral, however, median annual earnings of administrative services managers in 2000 were $47,080. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,550 and $67,630. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,800, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,120. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of these workers in 2000 are shown below: Job Outlook Employment of administrative services managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Like other managerial positions, there are more competent, experienced workers seeking jobs than there are positions available. However, demand should be strong for facility managers because businesses increasingly are realizing the importance of maintaining and effi ciently operating their facilities, which are very large investments for most organizations. Administrative services managers employed in management services and management consulting also should be in demand, as public and private organizations continue to con tract out and streamline their administrative services functions in an effort to cut costs. Many additional job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or stop working for other reasons. Continuing corporate restructuring and increasing utilization of office technology should result in a flatter organizational structure with fewer levels of management, reducing the need for some middle management positions. This should adversely affect administra tive services managers who oversee first-line mangers. Because many administrative managers have a variety of functions, how ever, the effects of these changes on employment should be less severe than for other middle managers who specialize in only cer Digitized FRASER tainforfunctions. >- The Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers, 1643 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2818. Internet: http://www.appa.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer and data processing services............................................ $54,700 Colleges and universities..................................................................... 51,470 Local government...................................................................................... 48,470 Management and public relations.......................................................... 44,420 State government................................................................................... 43,710 In the Federal Government, contract specialists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average of $60,310 a year in 2000. Corresponding averages were $58,050 for facilities managers, $57,360 for industrial property managers, $53,830 for property disposal specialists, $57,400 for administrative officers, and $48,410 for support services administrators. Related Occupations Administrative services managers direct and coordinate support services and oversee the purchase, use, and disposal of personal property. Occupations with similar functions include office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers; cost esti mators; property, real estate, and community association manag ers; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; and top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in facility management, facility man agement education and degree programs, and the Certified Facility Manager designation, contact: >- International Facility Management Association, 1 East Greenway Plaza, Suite 1100, Houston, TX 77046-0194. Internet: http://www.ifma.org General information regarding facility management and a list of facility management educational and degree programs may be ob tained from: For information about the Certified Administrative Manager des ignation, contact: >- Institute of Certified Professional Managers, James Madison University, College of Business, Harrisonburg, VA 22807. Internet: http://cob.jmu.edu/icpm Advertising, Marketing, Promotions, Public Relations, and Sales Managers (0*NET 11-2011.00, 11-2021.00, 11-2022.00, 11-2031.00) Significant Points • Employment is projected to increase rapidly, but competition for jobs is expected to be intense. • College graduates with related experience, a high level of creativity, and strong communication skills should have the best job opportunities. • High earnings, substantial travel, and long hours, including evenings and weekends, are common. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 27 Nature of the Work The objective of any firm is to market and sell its products or ser vices profitably. In small firms, the owner or chief executive of ficer might assume all advertising, promotions, marketing, sales, and public relations responsibilities. In large firms, which may of fer numerous products and services nationally or even worldwide, an executive vice president directs overall advertising, promotions, marketing, sales, and public relations policies. (Executive vice presi dents are included in the Handbook statement on top executives.) Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers coordinate the market research, marketing strategy, sales, advertising, promotion, pricing, product development, and public relations activities. Managers oversee advertising and promotion staffs, which usu ally are small, except in the largest firms. In a small firm, managers may serve as a liaison between the finn and the advertising or pro motion agency to which many advertising or promotional functions are contracted out. In larger firms, advertising managers oversee in-house account, creative, and media services departments. The account executive manages the account services department, as sesses the need for advertising and, in advertising agencies, main tains the accounts of clients. The creative services department develops the subject matter and presentation of advertising. The creative director oversees the copy chief, art director, and their re spective staffs. The media director oversees planning groups that select the communication media—for example, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, Internet, or outdoor signs—to disseminate the advertising. Promotion managers supervise staffs of promotion specialists. They direct promotion programs combining advertising with pur chase incentives to increase sales. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—dealers, distributors, or consumers—pro motion programs may involve direct mail, telemarketing, television or radio advertising, catalogs, exhibits, inserts in newspapers, Internet advertisements or Web sites, instore displays or product endorse ments, and special events. Purchase incentives may include dis counts, samples, gifts, rebates, coupons, sweepstakes, and contests. Marketing managers develop the firm’s detailed marketing strat egy. With the help of subordinates, including product development managers and market research managers, they determine the de mand for products and services offered by the firm and its competi tors. In addition, they identify potential markets—for example, business firms, wholesalers, retailers, government, or the general public. Marketing managers develop pricing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm’s share of the market and its profits while ensuring that the firm’s customers are satisfied. In collabora tion with sales, product development, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and promotion managers to promote the firm’s prod ucts and services and to attract potential users. Public relations managers supervise public relations specialists. (See the Handbook statement on public relations specialists.) These managers direct publicity programs to a targeted public. They of ten specialize in a specific area, such as crisis management—or in a specific industry, such as healthcare. They use every available com munication medium in their effort to maintain the support of the specific group upon whom their organization’s success depends, such as consumers, stockholders, or the general public. For ex ample, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firm’s point of view on health or environmental issues to community or special interest groups. Public relations managers also evaluate advertising and promo tion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis "ns#*; ;;;ggr * . ■ Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers design advertisements. serve as the eyes and ears of top management. They observe social, economic, and political trends that might ultimately affect the firm and make recommendations to enhance the firm’s image based on those trends. Public relations managers may confer with labor relations man agers to produce internal company communications—such as news letters about employee-management relations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. They assist company ex ecutives in drafting speeches, arranging interviews, and maintain ing other forms of public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to information requests. In addition, some handle special events such as sponsorship of races, parties introducing new prod ucts, or other activities the firm supports in order to gain public attention through the press without advertising directly. Sales managers direct the firm’s sales program. They assign sales territories, set goals, and establish training programs for the sales representatives. (See the Handbook statement on sales repre sentatives, wholesale and manufacturing.) Managers advise the sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their staffs. Sales managers maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of customers. Such information is vital to develop products and maximize profits. Working Conditions Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales man agers are provided with offices close to those of top managers. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are common. Almost 38 percent of advertising, marketing, and public relations managers worked 50 hours or more a week in 2000. Working under pressure is unavoidable when schedules change and problems arise, but dead lines and goals must still be met. Substantial travel may be involved. For example, attendance at meetings sponsored by associations or industries often is manda tory. Sales managers travel to national, regional, and local offices 28 Occupational Outlook Handbook and to various dealers and distributors. Advertising and promotion managers may travel to meet with clients or representatives of com munications media. At times, public relations managers travel to meet with special interest groups or government officials. Job trans fers between headquarters and regional offices are common, par ticularly among sales managers. Employment Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales man agers held about 707,000 jobs in 2000. The following tabulation shows the distribution of jobs by occupational specialty. Sales managers...................................................................................... Marketing managers............................................................................. Advertising and promotions managers............................................. Public relations managers.................................................................... 343,000 190,000 100,000 74,000 These managers were found in virtually every industry. Sales managers held almost half of the jobs; most were employed in whole sale and retail trade, manufacturing, and services industries. Mar keting managers held more than one-fourth of the jobs; services and manufacturing industries employed about two-thirds of mar keting managers. Half of advertising and promotions managers worked in services industries, including advertising, computer and data processing, and engineering and management services. More than two-thirds of public relations managers were found in services industries, such as educational services, management and public relations, and social services. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications A wide range of educational backgrounds are suitable for entry into advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales mana gerial jobs, but many employers prefer those with experience in related occupations plus a broad liberal arts background. A bachelor’s degree in sociology, psychology, literature, journalism, or philosophy, among other subjects, is acceptable. However, re quirements vary, depending upon the particular job. For marketing, sales, and promotion management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in business administration with an emphasis on marketing. Courses in busi ness law, economics, accounting, finance, mathematics, and statis tics are advantageous. In highly technical industries, such as computer and electronics manufacturing, a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science, combined with a master’s degree in busi ness administration, is preferred. For advertising management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor’s degree in advertising or journalism. A course of study should include marketing, consumer behavior, market research, sales, communication methods and technology, and visual arts— for example, art history and photography. For public relations management positions, some employers pre fer a bachelor’s or master’s degree in public relations or journal ism. The applicant’s curriculum should include courses in advertising, business administration, public affairs, public speak ing, political science, and creative and technical writing. For all these specialties, courses in management and comple tion of an internship while in school are highly recommended. Familiarity with word processing and database applications also is important for many positions. Computer skills are vital be cause interactive marketing, product promotion, and advertising on the Internet are increasingly common. The ability to commu nicate in a foreign language may open up employment opportuni ties in many rapidly growing niche markets around the country, especially in large cities and in areas with large Spanish-speaking populations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales management positions are filled by promoting experienced staff or related professional or technical personnel. For example, many managers are former sales representatives, purchasing agents, buyers, product or brand specialists, advertising specialists, promo tion specialists, and public relations specialists. In small firms, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a management position usually comes slowly. In large firms, promotion may oc cur more quickly. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement can be accelerated by participation in man agement training programs conducted by many large firms. Many firms also provide their employees with continuing education op portunities, either in-house or at local colleges and universities, and encourage employee participation in seminars and conferences, of ten provided by professional societies. In collaboration with col leges and universities, numerous marketing and related associations sponsor national or local management training programs. Courses include brand and product management, international marketing, sales management evaluation, telemarketing and direct sales, inter active marketing, promotion, marketing communication, market research, organizational communication, and data processing sys tems procedures and management. Many firms pay all or part of the cost for those who successfully complete courses. Some associations (listed under sources of additional informa tion) offer certification programs for advertising, marketing, sales, and public relations managers. Certification—a sign of compe tence and achievement in this field—is particularly important in a competitive job market. While relatively few advertising, market ing, and public relations managers currently are certified, the num ber of managers who seek certification is expected to grow. For example, Sales and Marketing Executives International offers a management certification program based on education and job per formance. The Public Relations Society of America offers an ac creditation program for public relations practitioners based on years of experience and an examination. Persons interested in becoming advertising, marketing, promo tions, public relations, and sales managers should be mature, cre ative, highly motivated, resistant to stress, flexible, and decisive. The ability to communicate persuasively, both orally and in writ ing, with other managers, staff, and the public is vital. These man agers also need tact, good judgment, and exceptional ability to establish and maintain effective personal relationships with super visory and professional staff members and client firms. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, ad vertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales man agers often are prime candidates for advancement to the highest ranks. Well-trained, experienced, successful managers may be pro moted to higher positions in their own, or other, firms. Some be come top executives. Managers with extensive experience and sufficient capital may open their own businesses. Job Outlook Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales man ager jobs are highly coveted and will be sought by other managers or highly experienced professional and technical personnel, result ing in keen competition. College graduates with related experi ence, a high level of creativity, and strong communication skills should have the best job opportunities. Those who have new media and interactive marketing skills will be particularly sought after. Employment of advertising, marketing, promotions, public rela tions, and sales managers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Increasingly intense do mestic and global competition in products and services offered to Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 29 consumers should require greater marketing, promotional, and public relations efforts by managers. The number of management and public relations firms may experience particularly rapid growth as businesses increasingly hire contractors for these services instead of additional full-time staff. Projected employment growth varies by industry. For example, employment of advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers is expected to grow much faster than average in most business services industries, such as computer and data pro cessing, and in management and public relations firms, while little or no change is projected in manufacturing industries. Earnings Median annual earnings in 2000 for advertising and promotions managers were $53,360; marketing managers, $71,240; sales man agers, $68,520; and public relations managers, $54,540. Earnings ranged from less than $27,840 for the lowest 10 percent of adver tising and promotions managers, to more than $ 137,780 for the high est 10 percent of sales managers. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of advertising and promotions managers in 2000 were as follows: Computer and data processing services............................................ Advertising............................................................................................. $79,970 58,890 Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of marketing managers in 2000 were as follows: Computer and data processing services............................................ Advertising.............................................................................................. Management and public relations...................................................... $85,750 72,590 70,170 Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales managers in 2000 were as follows: Computer and data processing services............................................ Professional and commercial equipment......................................... New and used car dealers.................................................................... Hotels and motels.................................................................................. $86,690 84,770 80,680 42,210 Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of public relations managers in 2000 were as follows: Management and public relations...................................................... Colleges and universities..................................................................... $57,380 50,200 According to a National Association of Colleges and Employers survey, starting salaries for marketing majors graduating in 2001 averaged $35,000; those for advertising majors averaged $29,700. Salary levels vary substantially, depending upon the level of managerial responsibility, length of service, education, firm size, location, and industry. For example, manufacturing firms usually pay these managers higher salaries than nonmanufacturing firms do. For sales managers, the size of their sales territory is another important determinant of salary. Many managers earn bonuses equal to 10 percent or more of their salaries. Related Occupations Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales man agers direct the sale of products and services offered by their firms and the communication of information about their firms’ activities. Other workers involved with advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales include actors, producers, and directors; artists and related workers; demonstrators, product promoters, and models; economists and market and survey researchers; public rela tions specialists; sales representatives, wholesale and manufactur Digitizeding; for FRASER and writers and editors. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information about careers and certification in sales and market ing management, contact: >■ Sales and Marketing Executives International, 5500 Interstate North Pkwy., No. 545, Atlanta, GA 30328-4662. Internet: http://www.smei.org For information about careers in advertising management, con tact: >- American Association of Advertising Agencies, 405 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10174-1801. Internet: http://www.aaaa.org Information about careers and certification in public relations management is available from: >- Public Relations Society of America, 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003-2376. Internet: http://www.prsa.org Budget Analysts (0**NET 13-2031.00) Significant Points • • • Two out of five budget analysts work in Federal, State, and local governments. A bachelor’s degree generally is the minimum educational requirement; however, some employers require a master’s degree. Competition for jobs should remain keen due to the substantial number of qualified applicants; those with a master’s degree should have the best prospects. Nature of the Work Deciding how to efficiently distribute limited financial resources is an important challenge in all organizations. In most large and com plex organizations, this task would be nearly impossible were it not for budget analysts. These professionals play the primary role in the development, analysis, and execution of budgets, which are used to allocate current resources and estimate future financial requirements. Without effective analysis of and feedback about budgetary prob lems, many private and public organizations could become bankrupt. Budget analysis can be found in private industry, nonprofit or ganizations, and the public sector. In private sector firms, a budget analyst examines, analyzes, and seeks new ways to improve effi ciency and increase profits. Although analysts working in non profit and governmental organizations usually are not concerned with profits, they still try to find the most efficient distribution of funds and other resources among various departments and programs. Budget analysts have many responsibilities in these organiza tions, but their primary task is providing advice and technical assis tance in the preparation of annual budgets. At the beginning of each budget cycle, managers and department heads submit proposed operational and financial plans to budget analysts for review. These plans outline expected programs, including proposed monetary in creases and new initiatives, estimated costs and expenses, and capi tal expenditures needed to finance these programs. Analysts examine the budget estimates or proposals for com pleteness, accuracy, and conformance with established procedures, regulations, and organizational objectives. Sometimes, they employ cost-benefit analysis to review financial requests, assess program trade-offs, and explore alternative funding methods. They also ex amine past and current budgets and research economic and finan cial developments that affect the organization’s spending. This process enables analysts to evaluate proposals in terms of the organization’s priorities and financial resources. 30 Occupational Outlook Handbook mm effectiveness. Analysts also may be involved in long-range plan ning activities such as projecting future budget needs. The budget analyst’s role has broadened as limited funding has led to downsizing and restructuring throughout private industry and government. Not only do they develop guidelines and policies gov erning the formulation and maintenance of the budget, but they also measure organizational performance, assess the effect of various programs and policies on the budget, and help draft budget-related legislation. In addition, budget analysts sometimes conduct train ing sessions for company or government agency personnel regard ing new budget procedures. Working Conditions Budget analysts usually work in a comfortable office setting. Long hours are common among these workers, especially during the ini tial development and mid-year and final reviews of budgets. The pressure of deadlines and tight work schedules during these peri ods can be extremely stressful, and analysts usually are required to work more than the routine 40 hours a week. Budget analysts spend the majority of their time working inde pendently, compiling and analyzing data, and preparing budget pro posals. Nevertheless, their schedule sometimes is interrupted by special budget requests, meetings, and training sessions. Some budget analysts travel to obtain budget details and explanations of various programs from coworkers, or to personally observe fund ing allocation. Employment Budget analysts held about 70,000 jobs throughout private industry and government in 2000. Federal, State, and local governments are major employers, accounting for two-fifths of all budget analyst jobs. The U.S. Department of Defense employed 7 of every 10 budget analysts working for the Federal Government. Other major employers include schools, hospitals, and banks. Budget analysts must determine the most appropriate allocation of financial resources for an organization. After this initial review process, budget analysts consolidate the individual departmental budgets into operating and capital bud get summaries. These summaries contain comments and support ing statements that support or argue against funding requests. Budget summaries then are submitted to senior management or, as is often the case in local and State governments, to appointed or elected officials. Budget analysts then help the chief operating officer, agency head, or other top managers analyze the proposed plan and devise possible alternatives if the projected results are unsatisfactory. The final decision to approve the budget, how ever, usually is made by the organization head in a private firm or by elected officials in government, such as the State legislative body. Throughout the remainder of the year, analysts periodically monitor the budget by reviewing reports and accounting records to determine if allocated funds have been spent as specified. If devi ations appear between the approved budget and actual performance, budget analysts may write a report explaining the causes of the variations along with recommendations for new or revised budget procedures. In order to avoid or alleviate deficits, they may rec ommend program cuts or reallocation of excess funds. They also inform program managers and others within their organization of the status and availability of funds in different budget accounts. Before any changes are made to an existing program or a new one is implemented, a budget analyst assesses its efficiency and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Private firms and government agencies generally require candidates for budget analyst positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree. Within the Federal Government, a bachelor’s degree in any field is sufficient for an entry-level budget analyst position. State and local governments have varying requirements, but a bachelor’s degree in one of many areas—accounting, finance, business or public admin istration, economics, political science, statistics, or a social science such as sociology—may qualify one for entry into the occupation. Sometimes, a field closely related to the employing industry or organization, such as engineering, may be preferred. An increasing number of State governments and other employers require a candi date to possess a master’s degree to ensure adequate analytical and communication skills. Some firms prefer candidates with back grounds in business because business courses emphasize quantita tive and analytical skills. Occasionally, budget and financial experience can be substituted for formal education. Because developing a budget involves manipulating numbers and requires strong analytical skills, courses in statistics or account ing are helpful, regardless of the prospective budget analyst’s ma jor field of study. Financial analysis is automated in almost every organization and, therefore, familiarity with word processing and the financial software packages used in budget analysis often is required. Software packages commonly used by budget analysts include electronic spreadsheet, database, and graphics software. Employers usually prefer job candidates who already possess these computer skills. In addition to analytical and computer skills, those seeking a career as a budget analyst also must be able to work under strict Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 31 time constraints. Strong oral and written communication skills are essential for analysts because they must prepare, present, and defend budget proposals to decision makers. Entry-level budget analysts may receive some formal training when they begin their jobs, but most employers feel that the best training is obtained by working through one complete budget cycle. During the cycle, which typically is one year, analysts become fa miliar with the various steps involved in the budgeting process. The Federal Government, on the other hand, offers extensive on-the-job and classroom training for entry-level trainees. In addition to onthe-job training, budget analysts are encouraged to participate in the various classes offered throughout their careers. Some budget analysts employed in the Federal, State, or local level may choose to receive the Certified Government Financial Manager (CGFM) designation granted by the Association of Gov ernment Accountants. Other government financial officers also may receive this designation. Candidates must have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, 24 hours of study in financial management, 2 years’ experience in government, and pass a series of 3 exams. The exams cover topics in governmental environment; governmental accounting, financial reporting, and budgeting; and financial man agement and control. Budget analysts start their careers with limited responsibilities. In the Federal Government, for example, beginning budget analysts compare projected costs with prior expenditures, consolidate and enter data prepared by others, and assist higher grade analysts by doing research. As analysts progress, they begin to develop and formulate budget estimates and justification statements, perform in-depth analyses of budget requests, write statements supporting funding requests, advise program managers and others on the status and availability of funds in different budget activities, and present and defend budget proposals to senior managers. Beginning analysts usually work under close supervision. Ca pable entry-level analysts can be promoted into intermediate-level positions within 1 to 2 years, and then into senior positions within a few more years. Progressing to a higher level means added budget ary responsibility and can lead to a supervisory role. Because of the importance and high visibility of their jobs, senior budget analysts are prime candidates for promotion to management positions in various parts of the organization. Job Outlook Competition for budget analyst jobs should remain keen due to the substantial number of qualified applicants. Candidates with a master’s degree should have the best job opportunities. Familiarity with computer financial software packages also should enhance a jobseeker’s employment prospects. Employment of budget analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Employment growth will be driven by the continuing demand for sound finan cial analysis in both public and private sector organizations. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace experienced budget analysts who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The expanding use of computer applications in budget analysis increases worker productivity by enabling analysts to process more data in less time. However, because analysts now have a greater supply of data available to them, their jobs are becoming more com plicated. In addition, as businesses become increasingly complex and specialization within organizations becomes more common, planning and financial control increasingly demand attention. These factors should offset any adverse effects of computer usage on em ployment of budget analysts. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In coming years, companies will continue to rely heavily on bud get analysts to examine, analyze, and develop budgets. Because the financial analysis performed by budget analysts is an important func tion in every large organization, the employment of budget analysts has remained relatively unaffected by downsizing in the Nation’s workplaces. In addition, because financial and budget reports must be completed during periods of economic growth and slowdowns, budget analysts usually are less subject to layoffs during economic downturns than many other workers. Earnings Salaries of budget analysts vary widely by experience, education, and employer. Median annual earnings of budget analysts in 2000 were $48,370. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,400 and $61,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,030. According to a 2001 survey conducted by Robert Half Interna tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and fi nance, starting salaries of budget and other financial analysts in small firms ranged from $29,750 to $35,500; in large organizations compensation ranged from $33,250 to $40,000. In small firms, analysts with 1 to 3 years of experience earned from $34,500 to $42,750; in large companies they made from $40,250 to $51,000. Senior analysts in small firms earned from $37,750 to $55,750; in large firms they made from $51,500 to $64,000. Earnings of man agers in this field ranged from $40,500 to $62,750 a year in small firms, while managers in large organizations earned between $63,500 and $81,250. In the Federal Government, budget analysts usually started as trainees earning $21,947 or $27,185 a year in 2001. Candidates with a master’s degree might begin at $33,254. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary in 2001 for budget analysts employed by the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $56,710. Related Occupations Budget analysts review, analyze, and interpret financial data; make recommendations for the future; and assist in the implementation of new ideas and financial strategies. Workers who use these skills in other occupations include accountants and auditors, cost estima tors, economists and market and survey researchers, financial ana lysts and personal financial advisors, financial managers, and loan counselors and officers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities as a budget analyst may be available from your State or local employment service. Information on careers in government financial management and the CGFM designation may be obtained from: ► Association of Government Accountants, 2208 Mount Vernon Ave., Al exandria, VA 22301. Internet: http://www.agacgfm.org Information on careers in budget analysis at the State govern ment level can be obtained from: ► National Association of State Budget Officers, Hall of the States Build ing, Suite 642,444 North Capitol St. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.nasbo.org Information on obtaining a budget analyst position with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Manage ment (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. 32 Occupational Outlook Handbook Claims Adjusters, Appraisers, Examiners, and Investigators (0*NET 13-1031.01, 13-1031.02, 13-1032.00) Significant Points • • • Adjusters and examiners investigate claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize payments, while investigators deal with claims in which fraud or criminal activity is suspected. Most employers prefer to hire college graduates. The greatest demand for adjusters will be in property and casualty, and health insurance; competition will remain keen for jobs as investigators because this occupation attracts many qualified people. Nature of the Work Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners and investigators perform a wide range of functions, but their most important role is acting as intermediaries with the public. Insurance companies and indepen dent adjusting firms employ adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators to deal with the challenges they face, such as handling claims, interpreting and explaining policies or regulations, and re solving billing disputes. Within insurance companies, claims representatives investigate claims, negotiate settlements, and authorize payments to claimants. When a policyholder files a claim for property damage or a hospital stay, for example, a claim representative must initially determine whether the customer’s insurance policy covers the loss and the amount of the loss covered. They then must determine the amount to pay the claimant. In life and health insurance companies, claim representatives typically are called claims examiners. Claims examiners usually specialize in group or individual insurance plans and in hospital, dental, or prescription drug claims. Examiners review health-re lated claims to see if the costs are reasonable based on the diagno sis. They check with guides that provide information on the average period of disability for various causes, expected treatments, and average hospital stay. Examiners will then either authorize the ap propriate payment or refer the claim to an investigator for a more thorough review. Claims examiners working in life insurance review the causes of death, particularly in the case of an accident, as most life insur ance companies pay additional benefits if the death is due to an accident. Claims examiners also may review new applications for life insurance to make sure applicants have no serious illnesses that would prevent them from qualifying for insurance. In property and casualty insurance, claims adjusters handle mi nor claims filed by automobile or homeowner policyholders. These workers contact claimants by telephone or mail to obtain informa tion on repair costs, medical expenses, or other details the company requires. Many companies centralize this operation through a claims center, where the cost of repair is determined and a check is issued immediately. More complex cases, usually involving bodily injury, are referred to senior adjusters. Some adjusters work with multiple types of insurance; however, most specialize in homeowner claims, business losses, automotive damage, product liability, or workers’ compensation. Some clients may choose to hire a public adjuster. They per form the same services as adjusters who work directly for compa nies. Public adjusters assist clients in preparing and presenting https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis claims to insurance companies and try to negotiate a fair settle ment. They work in the best interests of the client, rather than the insurance company. Claims adjusters primarily plan and schedule the work required to process a claim. They investigate claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, consulting police and hospital records, and inspecting property damage to determine the extent of the company’s liability. Claims adjusters and examiners may also consult with other professionals, who can offer a more expert evaluation of a claim. Some of these professionals include accountants, architects, construction workers, engineers, lawyers, and physicians. The in formation gathered, including photographs and written or taped statements, is included in a report that is then used to evaluate a claim. When the policyholder’s claim is legitimate, the claims adjuster negotiates with the claimant and settles the claim. When claims are contested, adjusters may testify in court and refer claims to an investigator. Auto damage appraisers usually are hired by insurance compa nies and independent adjusting firms to inspect auto damage after an accident and provide repair cost estimates. Auto damage ap praisers are valued by insurance companies because they can pro vide an unbiased judgment of repair costs. Otherwise, the companies would have to rely on auto mechanic estimates, which might be unreasonably high. Many claims adjusters and auto damage appraisers are equipped with laptop computers, from which they can download the neces sary forms and files from insurance company databases. Many ad justers and appraisers are equipped with digital cameras, which allow photographs of the damage to be sent to the company via the Internet or satellite. There also are new software programs that can give estimates of damage based on the information input directly into the computer. These new technologies allow for faster and more efficient processing of claims. Many insurance companies are emphasizing better customer ser vice. One way they are achieving this is by offering access to claims services at any time. Most larger companies use call centers, staffed with customer service representatives. (See the statements on cus tomer service representatives and insurance sales agents elsewhere in the Handbook.) These workers obtain information from policy holders regarding claims resulting from fire damage, personal in jury or illness, or an automobile accident, for example. They primarily are responsible for getting the necessary information on a claim, such as specific details of an accident. Once the information is entered, the customer service representative forwards the claim to a claims adjuster or examiner. This allows the adjusters or exam iners to concentrate on investigating the claim. However, claims adjusters and examiners working for small insurance companies may still answer phones and take claims information, and then handle the claims themselves. When adjusters or examiners suspect a case might involve fraud, they refer the claim to an investigator. Insurance investigators work in an insurance company’s Special Investigative Unit and handle claims in which a company suspects there might be fraudulent or criminal activity, such as arson cases, false workers’ disability claims, staged accidents, or unnecessary medical treatments. The severity of insurance fraud cases can vary greatly, from claimants simply overstating damage on a vehicle, to complicated fraud rings, often involving many claimants, fraudulent doctors and lawyers, and even insurance personnel. Investigators usually start with a database search to obtain back ground information on claimants and witnesses. Investigators can access personal infonnation and identify Social Security numbers, aliases, driver license numbers, addresses, phone numbers, crimi nal records, and past claims histories to establish if a claimant has Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 33 piK of such incidents. In general, adjusters are able to arrange their work schedule to accommodate evening and weekend appointments with clients. This accommodation may result in adjusters working 50 or 60 hours a week. Some report to the office every morning to get their assignments while others simply call from home and spend their days traveling to claim sites. New technology, such as laptop computers and cell phones, is making telecommuting easier for claims adjusters and auto damage appraisers. Many adjusters work inside their office only a few hours a week. Some adjusters’ busi ness is based entirely out of their home. Insurance investigators often work irregular hours because of the need to conduct surveillance and contact people who are not available during normal working hours. Early morning, evening, and weekend work is common. Some days investigators will spend all day in the office doing database searches and making phone calls. Other times, they may be away doing surveillance or inter viewing witnesses. Some of the work can involve confrontation with claimants and others involved in a case, so the job can be stress ful and dangerous. Employment Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators held about 207,000 jobs in 2000. Of these, almost 13,000 were auto damage insurance appraisers. Two percent of adjusters, appraisers, exam iners, and investigators were self-employed. Insurance companies employ the vast majority of claims adjust ers, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. Insurance sales agents and brokers and independent adjusting and claims processing firms employ them as well. Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators gather facts and ensure that clients’ claims are paid promptly. ever attempted insurance fraud. Then, investigators may visit claim ants and witnesses to obtain a recorded statement; take photographs; and inspect facilities, such as a doctor’s office, to determine whether it has a proper license. Investigators often consult with legal coun sel and can be expert witnesses in court cases. Often, investigators also will perform surveillance work. For example, in a case involving fraudulent workers’ compensation claims, an investigator may carry out long-tenn covert observation of the subject. If the investigator observes the subject performing an activity that contradicts injuries stated in a workers’ compensa tion claim, the investigator would take video or still photographs to document the activity and report it to the insurance company. Working Conditions Working environments of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators vary greatly. Most claims examiners working for life and health insurance companies work a standard 5-day, 40-hour week and work in a typical office environment. Claims adjusters and auto damage appraisers, on the other hand, often work outside the office, inspecting damaged buildings and automobiles. Damaged buildings provide potential hazards such as collapsed roofs and floors and weakened structures of which adjusters must be wary. Occasionally, experienced adjusters are away from home for days when they travel to the scene of a disaster—such as a tor nado, hurricane, or flood—to work with local adjusters and gov Digitizedernment for FRASER officials. Some adjusters are on emergency call in the case https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and entry requirements vary widely for claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. However, most compa nies prefer to hire college graduates. No specific college major is recommended. A claims adjuster, though, who has a business or an accounting background might specialize in claims of financial loss due to strikes, equipment breakdowns, or merchandise damage. College training in architecture or engineering is helpful in adjust ing industrial claims, such as damage from fires and other acci dents. Some claims adjusters and examiners who are professionals in their field might decide to use their expertise to adjust claims. A legal background can be beneficial to someone handling workers’ compensation and product liability cases. A medical background is useful for those examiners working on medical and life insurance claims. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, claims adjusters and examiners must be able to communicate effectively with others. Knowledge of com puter applications also is extremely important. Some companies require applicants to pass a series of written aptitude tests designed to measure communication, analytical, and general mathematical skills. About one-third of the States require independent, or public, adjusters to be licensed. Applicants in these States usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a licensing exami nation covering the fundamentals of adjusting; complete an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; furnish character references; be at least 20 or 21 years of age and a resident of the State; and file a surety bond. Claims adjusters working for companies usually can work under the company license and do not need to become li censed themselves. It is very important for claims adjusters and examiners to re ceive continuing education in claims. There frequently are new Federal and State laws and court decisions that affect how claims are handled or who is covered by insurance policies. Also, claims 34 Occupational Outlook Handbook examiners working on life and health claims must be familiar with new medical procedures and prescription drugs. Some States that require adjusters to be licensed also require a certain number of continuing education (CE) credits per year in order to renew the license. These credits can be obtained from a number of sources. Many companies offer training sessions to inform their employees of industry changes. Many schools and adjuster associations offer courses and seminars in various claims topics. Correspondence courses via the Internet are making long-distance learning possible. Adjusters also can earn CE credits by writing articles for claims publications or giving lectures and presentations. Many adjusters and examiners choose to pursue certain certifi cations and designations to distinguish themselves. The Insurance Institute of America offers an Associate in Claims (AIC) designa tion upon successful completion of four essay examinations. Ad justers can prepare for the examination through independent home study or company and public classes. The Institute also offers a certificate upon successful completion of the Introduction to Claims program and an examination. The Registered Professional Adjust ers, Inc., offers the Registered Professional Adjuster (RPA) desig nation. For public, adjusters specifically, The National Association of Public Insurance Adjusters offers both the Certified Professional Public Adjuster (CPPA) and Senior Professional Public Adjuster (SPPA) designations. For claims examiners in the life and health insurance industries, the International Claim Association offers the Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC) and the Fellow, Life and Health Claims (FLHC). Most designations require at least 5 to 10 years’ experience in the claims field, passing examinations, and earning a certain number of CE credits a year. Auto damage appraisers typically begin as auto-body repair work ers, and then get hired by insurance companies or independent ad justing firms. While auto-body workers do not require a college education, most companies require at least a bachelor’s degree. Only four States require auto damage appraisers to be licensed. Like adjusters and examiners, continuing education is very important because of the introduction of new car models and repair techniques. The Independent Automotive Damage Appraisers Association pro vides seminars and training sessions in different aspects of auto damage appraising. Most insurance companies prefer to hire former law enforce ment officers or private investigators as insurance investigators. Many experienced claims adjusters or examiners also can become investigators. Licensing requirements vary among States. Most employers look for individuals with ingenuity who are persistent and assertive. Investigators must not be afraid of confrontation, should communicate well, and should be able to think on their feet. Good interviewing and interrogation skills also are important and usually are acquired in earlier careers in law enforcement. Beginning claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investi gators work on small claims under the supervision of an experi enced worker. As they learn more about claims investigation and settlement, they are assigned larger, more complex claims. Train ees are promoted as they demonstrate competence in handling as signments and progress in their coursework. Employees who demonstrate competence in claims work or administrative skills may be promoted to claims approver or claims manager. Similarly, claims investigators may rise to supervisor or manager of the investiga tions department. Once they achieve a certain level of expertise, many choose to start their own independent adjusting or auto dam age appraising firms. Job Outlook Employment of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and inves tigators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis occupations over the 2000-10 period. Opportunities will be best in the areas of property and casualty insurance, and health insurance. Many job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Many insurance carriers are downsizing their claims staff in an effort to contain costs. Larger companies are relying more on customer service representatives in call centers to handle the re cording of the necessary details of the claim, allowing adjusters to spend more of their time investigating claims. New technol ogy also is reducing the amount of time it takes for an adjuster to complete a claim, therefore increasing the number of claims one adjuster can handle. However, so long as insurance policies are being sold, there will be a need for adjusters, appraisers, examin ers, and investigators. Despite recent gains in productivity re sulting from technological advances, these jobs are not easily automated. Adjusters still are needed to contact policyholders, inspect dam aged property, and consult with experts. The greatest demand for adjusters will be in the property and casualty field, as well as in health insurance. An increase in the number of auto and homeowners policies sold eventually will result in more claims. As Federal and State laws require health insurers to accept more applicants for in surance coverage, the number of policies sold will increase. And as the population ages, there will be a greater need for health care, resulting in more claims. Demand for insurance investigators should grow along with the number of claims in litigation and the number and complexity of insurance fraud cases. Competition for investigator jobs will re main keen, however, because this occupation attracts many quali fied people, including retirees from law enforcement and military careers. Many claims adjusters and examiners also choose to get their investigator license. Like that of claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators, em ployment of auto damage appraisers should grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Insurance companies and agents are selling more auto insurance policies, which eventually will lead to more claims being filed that will require the attention of an auto damage appraiser. This occupation is not easily automated, because most appraisal jobs require an onsite inspection. However, em ployment growth will be limited by industry downsizing and the implementation of new technology that is making auto damage ap praisers more efficient. Earnings Earnings of claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators vary sig nificantly. Median annual earnings were $41,080 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,960 and $54,300. The low est 10 percent earned less than $25,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,130. In 2000, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of claims adjusters, exam iners, and investigators were: Fire, marine, and casualty insurance................................................. State government.............................................................................. Life insurance......................................................................................... Insurance agents, brokers, and service............................................. Medical service and health insurance................................................ $45,060 41,620 39,850 38,960 34,560 Claims adjusters and appraisers working for insurance compa nies tend to earn slightly higher average earnings than independent adjusters because they have a steady income. Independent adjust ers receive a percentage of the insurance company’s settlement with Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 35 its clients. This can result in irregular income. Many claims ad justers receive additional bonuses or benefits as part of their job. Adjusters often are furnished a laptop computer, a cellular tele phone, and a company car or are reimbursed for use of their own vehicle for business purposes. Median annual earnings of insurance appraisers, auto damage, were $40,000 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,900 and $49,170. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,330. In 2000, median annual earnings in the industries employing the larg est number of insurance appraisers, auto damage were: Fire, marine, and casualty insurance................................................ Insurance agents, brokers, and service............................................. Information on careers in auto damage appraising can be ob tained from: >• Independent Automotive Damage Appraisers Association, P.O. Box 1166, Nixa, MO 65714. Internet: http://www.iada.org Computer and Information Systems Managers (0*NET 11-3021.00) $43,090 35,850 • Related Occupations Insurance adjusters and examiners must determine the validity of a claim and negotiate a settlement. They also are responsible for determining how much to reimburse the client. Similar occupa tions include cost estimators, bill and account collectors, medical records and health information technicians, billing and posting clerks, and bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. When determining the validity of a claim, insurance adjusters must inspect the damage in order to assess the magnitude of the loss. Workers who perform similar duties include fire inspectors and investigators, and construction and building inspectors. Insurance investigators detect and investigate fraudulent claims and criminal activity. Their work is similar to that of detective and criminal investigators and of private detectives and investigators. Like automotive body and related repairers and automotive ser vice technicians and mechanics, auto damage appraisers must be familiar with the structure and functions of different automobiles and parts. Other insurance-related occupations include insurance sales agents and insurance underwriters. Sources of Additional Information General information about a career as a claims adjuster, apprais er, examiner, or investigator is available from the home offices of many life, health, and property and casualty insurance companies. Information about licensing requirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. For information about the Associate in Claims (AIC) designa tion, or the Introduction to Claims program, contact: >■ Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org For information on the Certified Professional Public Adjuster (CPPA) and the Senior Professional Public Adjuster (SPPA) pro grams, contact: >- National Association of Public Insurance Adjusters, 112-J Elden St., Herndon, VA 20170. Internet: http://www.napia.com For information on the Registered Professional Adjuster (RPA) designation, contact: > Registered Professional Adjusters, Inc., P.O. Box 3239, Napa, CA 94558. Internet: http://www.rpa-adj uster.com For information on the Associate, Life and Health Claims (ALHC) and the Fellow, Life and Health Claims (FLHC) programs, contact: ► International Claim Association, 1255 23rd St. NW., Washington, DC 20037. Internet: http://www.claim.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • Significant Points Projected job growth stems primarily from rapid growth among computer-related occupations. Employers prefer managers with advanced technical knowledge acquired through computer-related work experience and formal education. Job opportunities should be best for applicants with a master’s degree in business administration with technology as a core component. Nature of the Work The need for organizations to incorporate existing and future tech nologies in order to remain competitive has become a more press ing issue over the last several years. As electronic commerce becomes more common, how and when companies use technology are critical issues. Computer and information systems managers play a vital role in the technological direction of their organiza tions. They do everything from constmcting the business plan to overseeing network and Internet operations. Computer and information systems managers plan, coordinate, and direct research and design the computer-related activities of firms. They determine technical goals in consultation with top management, and make detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goals. For example, working with their staff, they may de velop the overall concepts of a new product or identify computerrelated problems standing in the way of project completion. Computer and information systems managers direct the work of systems analysts, computer programmers, support specialists, and other computer-related workers. These managers plan and coordi nate activities such as the installation and upgrading of hardware and software, programming and systems design, the development of computer networks, and the implementation of Internet and intranet sites. They are increasingly involved with the upkeep and mainte nance of networks. They analyze the computer and information needs of their organization and determine personnel and equipment require ments. They assign and review the work of their subordinates, and stay abreast of the latest technology in order to purchase necessary equipment. The duties of computer and information systems managers vary with their specific titles. Chief technology officers, for example, evaluate the newest and most innovative technologies and deter mine how these can help their organization. The chief technology officer, who often reports to the organization’s chief information officer, manages and plans technical standards and tends to the daily information technology issues of their firm. (Chief information officers are covered in a separate Handbook statement on top ex ecutives.) Because of the rapid pace of technological change, chief technology officers must constantly be on the lookout for develop ments that could benefit their organization. They are responsible for demonstrating to a company how information technology can 36 Occupational Outlook Handbook nmfs§n Computer and information systems managers direct the technical work of their staff. be used as a competitive weapon that not only cuts costs, but also increases revenue. Management of information systems {MIS) directors manage information systems and computing resources for entire organiza tions. They also work under the chief information officer and deal directly with lower-level information technology employees. These managers oversee a variety of user services such as an organization’s help desk, which employees can call with questions or problems. MIS directors may also make hardware and software upgrade recommendations based on their experience with an organization’s technology. Computer and information system managers need strong com munication skills. They coordinate the activities of their unit with those of other units or organizations. They confer with top execu tives; financial, production, marketing, and other managers; and contractors and equipment and materials suppliers. Working Conditions Computer and information systems managers spend most of their time in an office. Most work at least 40 hours a week and may have to work evenings and weekends to meet deadlines or solve unexpected problems. Some computer and information systems managers may experience considerable pressure in meeting tech nical goals within short timeframes or tight budgets. As networks continue to expand and more work is done remotely, computer and information system managers have to communicate with and over see offsite employees using modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet. Like other workers who sit continuously in front of a keyboard, computer and information system managers are susceptible to eye strain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as car pal tunnel syndrome. Employment Computer and information systems managers held about 313,000 jobs in 2000. About 2 in 5 works in services industries, primarily for firms providing computer and data processing services. Other large employers include insurance and financial services firms, gov ernment agencies, and manufacturers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Strong technical knowledge is essential for computer and informa Digitized tion for FRASER systems managers, who must understand and guide the work https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of their subordinates, yet also explain the work in nontechnical terms to senior management and potential customers. Therefore, these management positions usually require work experience and formal education similar to that of other computer occupations. Many computer and information systems managers have experi ence as systems analysts; others may have experience as computer support specialists, programmers, or other information technology professionals. A bachelor’s degree is usually required for manage ment positions, although employers often prefer a graduate degree, especially a master’s degree in business administration (MBA) with technology as a core component. This degree differs from a tradi tional MBA in that there is a heavy emphasis on information tech nology in addition to the standard business curriculum. This becomes important because more computer and information systems manag ers make not only important technology decisions but also impor tant business decisions for their organizations. A few computer and information systems managers may have only an associate degree, provided they have sufficient experience and were able to learn ad ditional skills on the job. Computer and information systems managers need a broad range of skills. In addition to technical skills, employers also seek man agers with strong business skills. Employers want managers who have experience with the specific software or technology to be used on the job, as well as a background in either consulting or business management. The expansion of electronic commerce has elevated the importance of business insight, because many manag ers are called upon to make important business decisions. Man agers need a keen understanding of people, processes, and customer’s needs. Computer and information systems managers must possess strong interpersonal, communication, and leadership skills because they are required to interact not only with their employees, but also with people inside and outside their organization. They must also possess great team skills to work on group projects and other col laborative efforts. Computer and information systems managers increasingly interact with persons outside their organization, re flecting their emerging role as vital parts of their firm’s executive team. Computer and information systems managers may advance to progressively higher leadership positions in their field. Some may become managers in nontechnical areas such as marketing, human resources, or sales. In high technology firms, managers in nontech nical areas often must possess the same specialized knowledge as do managers in technical areas. Job Outlook Employment of computer and information systems managers is ex pected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Technological advancements will increase the employment of computer-related workers; as a result, the de mand for managers to direct these workers also will increase. In addition, job openings will result from the need to replace manag ers who retire or move into other occupations. Opportunities for obtaining a management position will be best for workers possess ing an MBA with technology as a core component, advanced tech nical knowledge, and strong communication and administrative skills. Rapid growth in employment can be attributed to the explosion in information technology and the fast-paced expansion of the com puter and data processing services industry. In order to remain com petitive, firms will continue to install sophisticated computer networks and set up more complex Internet and intranet sites. Keep ing a computer network running smoothly is essentia] to almost Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 37 every organization. Firms will be more willing to hire managers who can accomplish that. The security of computer networks will continue to increase in importance as more business is conducted over the Internet. Orga nizations need to understand how their systems are vulnerable and how to protect their infrastructure and Internet sites from hackers, viruses, and other acts of cyber-terrorism. As a result, there will be a high demand for managers proficient in computer security issues. Due to the explosive growth of electronic commerce and the ability of the Internet to create new relationships with customers, the role of computer and information systems managers will con tinue to evolve in the future. They will continue to become more vital to their companies and the environments in which they work. The expansion of e-commerce will spur the need for computer and information systems managers with both business savvy and tech nical proficiency. Opportunities for those who wish to become computer and in formation systems managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and the industries in which they are found. (See the statements on computer programmers; com puter software engineers; computer support specialists and systems administrators; and systems analysts, computer scientists, and data base administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings Earnings for computer and information systems managers vary by specialty and level of responsibility. Median annual earnings of these managers in 2000 were $78,830. The middle 50 percent earned between $59,640 and $100,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $44,090, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 127,460. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of computer and information systems managers in 2000 were: Professional and commercial equipment......................................... $92,270 Computer and data processing services............................................... 88,410 Commercial banks.................................................................................... 82,490 Management and public relations.......................................................... 73,930 64,460 Colleges and universities......................................................................... According to Robert Half International Consulting, average start ing salaries in 2001 for high-level information technology manag ers ranged from $92,250 to $152,500. According to a 2001 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for those with an MBA, a technical undergraduate de gree, and 1 year or less of experience averaged $61,196; for those with a master’s degree in management information systems/busi ness data processing, $57,225. In addition, computer and information systems managers, espe cially those at higher levels, often receive more benefits—such as expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses—than do nonmanagerial workers in their organizations. Related Occupations The work of computer and information systems managers is closely related to that of computer programmers, computer software engi neers; systems analysts, computer scientists, and database adminis trators; and computer support specialists and systems administrators. Computer and information systems managers also have some highlevel responsibilities similar to those of top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a computer and information sys tems manager, contact the sources of additional information for the various computer occupations discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Construction Managers (0*NET 11-9021.00) • • • • Significant Points Construction managers must be available—often 24 hours a day—to deal with delays, bad weather, or emergencies at the jobsite. Employers prefer individuals who combine construction industry work experience with a bachelor’s degree in construction science, construction management, or civil engineering. Excellent opportunities are expected for qualified managers. Employment can be sensitive to the short-term nature of many construction projects and cyclical fluctuations in construction activity. Nature of the Work Construction managers plan and direct construction projects. They may have job titles such as constmctor, constmction superinten dent, general superintendent, project engineer, project manager, general construction manager, or executive constmction manager. Constmction managers may be owners or salaried employees of a constmction management or contracting firm, or may work under contract or as a salaried employee of the owner, developer, contrac tor, or management firm overseeing the constmction project. The Handbook uses the term “constmction manager” to describe sala ried or self-employed managers who oversee constmction supervi sors and workers. In contrast with the Handbook definition, “constmction man ager” is defined more narrowly within the constmction industry to denote a management firm, or an individual employed by such a firm, involved in managerial oversight of a constmction project. Under this definition, constmction managers usually represent the owner or developer with other participants throughout the project. Although they usually play no direct role in the actual constmction of a structure, they typically schedule and coordinate all design and constmction processes, including the selection, hiring, and over sight of specialty trade contractors. Managers who work in the constmction industry, such as gen eral managers, project engineers, and others, increasingly are called constructors. Through education and past work experience, this broad group of managers manages, coordinates, and supervises the constmction process from the conceptual development stage through final constmction on a timely and economical basis. Given designs for buildings, roads, bridges, or other projects, constmctors over see the organization, scheduling, and implementation of the project to execute those designs. They are responsible for coordinating and managing people, materials, and equipment; budgets, sched ules, and contracts; and safety of employees and the general public. On large projects, constmction managers may work for a gen eral contractor—the firm with overall responsibility for all activi ties. There, they oversee the completion of all constmction in accordance with the engineer’s and architect’s drawings and speci fications and prevailing building codes. They arrange for trade contractors to perform specialized craftwork or other specified con stmction work. On small projects, such as remodeling a home, a self-employed constmction manager or skilled trades worker who directs and oversees employees often is referred to as the constmc tion “contractor.” 38 Occupational Outlook Handbook “Tf * Construction managers direct and monitor the progress of construction activities. Large construction projects, such as an office building or indus trial complex, are too complicated for one person to manage. These projects are divided into many segments: Site preparation, includ ing land clearing and earth moving; sewage systems; landscaping and road construction; building construction, including excavation and laying foundations, erection of structural framework, floors, walls, and roofs; and building systems, including fire-protection, electrical, plumbing, air-conditioning, and heating. Construction managers may be in charge of one or more of these activities. Con struction managers often team with workers in other occupations, such as engineers and architects. Construction managers evaluate various construction methods and determine the most cost-effective plan and schedule. They de termine the appropriate construction methods and schedule all re quired construction site activities into logical, specific steps, budgeting the time required to meet established deadlines. This may require sophisticated estimating and scheduling techniques and use of computers with specialized software. (See the statement on cost estimators elsewhere in the Handbook.) This also involves the selection and coordination of trade contractors hired to complete specific pieces of the project—which could include everything from structural metalworking and plumbing to painting and carpet in stallation. Construction managers determine the labor requirements and, in some cases, supervise or monitor the hiring and dismissal of workers. They oversee the performance of all trade contractors and are responsible for ensuring that all work is completed on schedule. Construction managers direct and monitor the progress of con struction activities, at times through other construction supervisors. They oversee the delivery and use of materials, tools, and equipment; and the quality of construction, worker productivity, and safety. They are responsible for obtaining all necessary permits and licenses and, depending upon the contractual arrangements, direct or monitor com pliance with building and safety codes and other regulations. They may have several subordinates, such as assistant managers or super intendents, field engineers, or crew supervisors, reporting to them. Construction managers regularly review engineering and archi tectural drawings and specifications to monitor progress and ensure compliance with plans and schedules. They track and control con struction costs against the project budget to avoid cost overruns. Based upon direct observation and reports by subordinate supervisors, man agers may prepare daily reports of progress and requirements for la bor, material, machinery, and equipment at the construction site. They meet regularly with owners, trade contractors, architects, and others Digitizedtoformonitor FRASER and coordinate all phases of the construction project. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Construction managers work out of a main office from which the overall construction project is monitored, or out of a field office at the construction site. Management decisions regarding daily con struction activities generally are made at the jobsite. Managers usu ally travel when the construction site is in another State or when they are responsible for activities at two or more sites. Management of overseas construction projects usually entails temporary residence in another country. Construction managers may be “on call”—often 24 hours a day— to deal with delays, bad weather, or emergencies at the site. Most work more than a standard 40-hour week because construction may proceed around-the-clock. They may have to work this type of sched ule for days, even weeks, to meet special project deadlines, espe cially if there are delays. Although the work usually is not considered inherently danger ous, construction managers must be careful while touring construc tion sites. Managers must establish priorities and assign duties. They need to observe job conditions and be alert to changes and potential problems, particularly those involving safety on the jobsite and adherence to regulations. Employment Construction managers held about 308,000 jobs in 2000. Around 75,000 were self-employed. About 59 percent of construction man agers were employed in the construction industry, about 24 percent by specialty trade contractors—for example, plumbing, heating and air-conditioning, and electrical contractors—and about 28 percent by general building contractors. Engineering, architectural, and con struction management services firms, as well as local governments, educational institutions, and real estate developers employed others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming a construction manager need a solid background in building science, business, and management, as well as related work experience within the construction industry. They need to understand contracts, plans, and specifications, and to be knowledgeable about construction methods, materials, and regula tions. Familiarity with computers and software programs for job costing, scheduling, and estimating also is important. Traditionally, persons advance to construction management po sitions after having substantial experience as construction craftworkers—carpenters, masons, plumbers, or electricians, for ex ample—or after having worked as construction supervisors or as owners of independent specialty contracting firms overseeing work ers in one or more construction trades. However, employers—par ticularly large construction firms—increasingly prefer individuals who combine industry work experience with a bachelor’s degree in construction science, construction management, or civil engineer ing. Practical industry experience also is very important, whether it is acquired through internships, cooperative education programs, or work experience in the industry. Construction managers should be flexible and work effectively in a fast-paced environment. They should be decisive and work well under pressure, particularly when faced with unexpected occurrences or delays. The ability to coordinate several major activities at once, while analyzing and resolving specific problems, is essential, as is an understanding of engineering, architectural, and other construc tion drawings. Good oral and written communication skills also are important, as are leadership skills. Managers must be able to estab lish a good working relationship with many different people, includ ing owners, other managers, designers, supervisors, and craftworkers. Advancement opportunities for construction managers vary depending upon an individual’s performance and the size and type of company for which they work. Within large firms, managers Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 39 may eventually become top-level managers or executives. Highly experienced individuals may become independent consultants; some serve as expert witnesses in court or as arbitrators in disputes. Those with the required capital may establish their own construction man agement services, specialty contracting, or general contracting firm. In 2000, more than 100 colleges and universities offered 4-year degree programs in construction management or construction sci ence. These programs include courses in project control and devel opment, site planning, design, construction methods, construction materials, value analysis, cost estimating, scheduling, contract ad ministration, accounting, business and financial management, build ing codes and standards, inspection procedures, engineering and architectural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and information tech nology. Graduates from 4-year degree programs usually are hired as assistants to project managers, field engineers, schedulers, or cost estimators. An increasing number of graduates in related fields— engineering or architecture, for example—also enter construction management, often after having had substantial experience on con struction projects or after completing graduate studies in construc tion management or building science. Around 20 colleges and universities offer a master’s degree pro gram in construction management or construction science. Master’s degree recipients, especially those with work experience in con struction, typically become construction managers in very large con struction or construction management companies. Often, individuals who hold a bachelor’s degree in an unrelated field seek a master’s degree in order to work in the construction industry. Some con struction managers obtain a master’s degree in business adminis tration or finance to further their career prospects. Doctoral degree recipients usually become college professors or conduct research. Many individuals also attend training and educational programs sponsored by industry associations, often in collaboration with post secondary institutions. A number of 2-year colleges throughout the country offer construction management or construction technology programs. Both the American Institute of Constructors (AIC) and the Con struction Management Association of America (CMAA) have es tablished voluntary certification programs for construction managers. Requirements combine written examinations with verification of professional experience. AIC awards the Associate Constructor (AC) and Certified Professional Constructor (CPC) designations to candidates who meet the requirements and pass appropriate con struction examinations. CMAA awards the Certified Construction Manager (CCM) designation to practitioners who meet the require ments in a construction management firm and pass a technical ex amination. Applicants for the CMAA certification also must complete a self-study course that covers a broad range of topics central to construction management, including the professional role of a construction manager, legal issues, and allocation of risk. Al though certification is not required to work in the construction in dustry, voluntary certification can be valuable because it provides evidence of competence and experience. Job Outlook Excellent employment opportunities for construction managers are expected through 2010 because the number ofjob openings arising from job growth and replacement needs is expected to exceed the number of qualified managers seeking to enter the occupation. Because the construction industry often is seen as having dirty, strenuous, and hazardous working conditions, even for managers, many potential managers choose other types of careers. Employment of construction managers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010, as the level and complexity of construction activity continues to grow. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Prospects in construction management, engineering and architec Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tural services, and construction contracting firms should be best for persons who have a bachelor’s or higher degree in construction sci ence, construction management, or construction engineering, as well as practical experience working in construction. Employers prefer applicants with previous construction work experience who can combine a strong background in building technology with proven supervisory or managerial skills. In addition to job growth, many openings should result annually from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The increasing complexity of construction projects should boost demand for management-level personnel within the construction industry, as sophisticated technology and the proliferation of laws setting standards for buildings and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and environmental protection have fur ther complicated the construction process. Advances in building materials and construction methods; the need to replace much of the Nation’s infrastructure; and the growing number of multipur pose buildings, electronically operated “smart” buildings, and en ergy-efficient structures will further add to the demand for more construction managers. However, employment of construction managers can be sensitive to the short-term nature of many projects and to cyclical fluctuations in construction activity. Earnings Earnings of salaried construction managers and self-employed in dependent construction contractors vary depending upon the size and nature of the construction project, its geographic location, and economic conditions. In addition to typical benefits, many salaried construction managers receive benefits such as bonuses and use of company motor vehicles. Median annual earnings of construction managers in 2000 were $58,250. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,710 and $76,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $102,860. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of managers in 2000 were: Electrical work...................................................................................... Nonresidential building construction............................................... Plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning......................................... Heavy construction, except highway................................................ Residential building construction...................................................... $60,300 59,470 58,500 57,280 53,510 According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, candidates with a bachelor’s degree in construction science/management received job offers averaging $40,740 a year. Related Occupations Construction managers participate in the conceptual development of a construction project and oversee its organization, scheduling, and implementation. Occupations in which similar functions are performed include architects, except landscape and naval; civil en gineers; cost estimators; landscape architects; and engineering and natural sciences managers. Sources of Information For information about constructor certification, contact: >• American Institute of Constructors, 466 94th Ave. North, St. Peters burg, FL 33702. Internet: http://www.aicnct.org For information about construction management and construc tion manager certification, contact: >• Construction Management Association of America, 7918 Jones Branch Dr., Suite 540, McLean, VA 22102-3307. Internet: http://www.cmaanet.org Information on accredited construction science and management programs and accreditation requirements is available from: >• American Council for Construction Education, 1300 Hudson Lane, Suite 3, Monroe, LA 71201. Internet: http://www.acce-hq.org 40 Occupational Outlook Handbook Cost Estimators (0*NET 13-1051.00) Significant Points • • • Fifty percent work in the construction industry, and another 20 percent are found in manufacturing industries. Growth of the construction industry will be the driving force behind the demand for cost estimators; employment of cost estimators in manufacturing should remain relatively stable. In construction and manufacturing, job prospects should be best for those with industry work experience and a degree in a related field. Nature of the Work Accurately forecasting the cost of future projects is vital to the sur vival of any business. Cost estimators develop the cost information that business owners or managers need to make a bid for a contract or to determine if a proposed new product will be profitable. They also determine which endeavors are making a profit. Regardless of the industry in which they work, estimators com pile and analyze data on all the factors that can influence costs— such as materials, labor, location, and special machinery requirements, including computer hardware and software. Job du ties vary widely depending on the type and size of the project. The methods of and motivations for estimating costs can vary greatly, depending on the industry. On a construction project, for example, the estimating process begins with the decision to submit a bid. After reviewing various preliminary drawings and specifica tions, the estimator visits the site of the proposed project. The esti mator needs to gather information on access to the site and availability of electricity, water, and other services, as well as on surface topography and drainage. The information developed dur ing the site visit usually is recorded in a signed report that is in cluded in the final project estimate. After the site visit is completed, the estimator determines the quantity of materials and labor the firm will need to furnish. This process, called the quantity survey or “takeoff,” involves complet ing standard estimating forms, filling in dimensions, number of units, and other information. A cost estimator working for a general con tractor, for example, will estimate the costs of all items the contrac tor must provide. Although subcontractors will estimate their costs as part of their own bidding process, the general contractor’s cost estimator often analyzes bids made by subcontractors as well. Also during the takeoff process, the estimator must make decisions con cerning equipment needs, sequence of operations, and crew size. Allowances for the waste of materials, inclement weather, shipping delays, and other factors that may increase costs also must be incor porated in the estimate. On completion of the quantity surveys, the estimator prepares a total project-cost summary, including the costs of labor, equipment, materials, subcontracts, overhead, taxes, insurance, markup, and any other costs that may affect the project. The chief estimator then prepares the bid proposal for submission to the owner. Construction cost estimators also may be employed by the project’s architect or owner to estimate costs or track actual costs relative to bid specifications as the project develops. In large con struction companies employing more than one estimator, it is com Digitizedmon for FRASER practice for estimators to specialize. For example, one may https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis estimate only electrical work and another may concentrate on exca vation, concrete, and forms. In manufacturing and other firms, cost estimators usually are assigned to the engineering, cost, or pricing departments. The estimators’ goal in manufacturing is to accurately estimate the costs associated with making products. The job may begin when management requests an estimate of the costs associated with a major redesign of an existing product or the development of a new prod uct or production process. When estimating the cost of developing a new product, for example, the estimator works with engineers, first reviewing blueprints or conceptual drawings to determine the machining operations, tools, gauges, and materials that would be required for the job. The estimator then prepares a parts list and determines whether it is more efficient to produce or to purchase the parts. To do this, the estimator must initiate inquiries for price information from potential suppliers. The next step is to determine the cost of manufacturing each component of the product. Some high technology products require a tremendous amount of com puter programming during the design phase. The cost of software development is one of the fastest growing and most difficult activi ties to estimate. Some cost estimators now specialize in estimating only computer software development and related costs. The cost estimator then prepares time-phase charts and learning curves. Time-phase charts indicate the time required for tool design and fabrication, tool “debugging”—finding and correcting all prob lems—manufacturing of parts, assembly, and testing. Learning curves graphically represent the rate at which performance improves with practice. These curves are commonly called “cost reduction” curves because many problems—such as engineering changes, re work, parts shortages, and lack of operator skills—diminish as the number of parts produced increases, resulting in lower unit costs. Using all of this information, the estimator then calculates the standard labor hours necessary to produce a predetermined number of units. Standard labor hours are then converted to dollar values, to which are added factors for waste, overhead, and profit to yield the unit cost in dollars. The estimator then compares the cost of purchasing parts with the firm’s cost of manufacturing them to de termine which is cheaper. Computers play an integral role in cost estimation because esti mating often involves complex mathematical calculations and requires advanced mathematical techniques. For example, to undertake a para metric analysis (a process used to estimate project costs on a per unit basis, subject to the specific requirements of a project), cost estima tors use a computer database containing information on costs and --------------------------------- Cost estimators compile and analyze data on all factors that can influence the costs involved in a project. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 41 conditions of many other similar projects. Although computers can not be used for the entire estimating process, they can relieve esti mators of much of the drudgery associated with routine, repetitive, and time-consuming calculations. Computers also are used to pro duce all of the necessary documentation with the help of word processing and spreadsheet software, leaving estimators more time to study and analyze projects. Operations research, production control, cost, and price analysts who work for government agencies also may do significant amounts of cost estimating in the course of their regular duties. In addition, the duties of construction managers also may include estimating costs. (For more information, see the statements on operations research analysts and construction managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Although estimators spend most of their time in an office, construc tion estimators must make visits to project worksites that can be dusty, dirty, and occasionally hazardous. Likewise, estimators in manufacturing must spend time on the factory floor where it also can be noisy and dirty. In some industries, frequent travel between a firm’s headquarters and its subsidiaries or subcontractors also may be required. Although estimators normally work a 40-hour week, overtime is common. Cost estimators often work under pressure and stress, especially when facing bid deadlines. Inaccurate estimating can cause a firm to lose out on a bid or lose money on a job that was not accurately estimated. Employment Cost estimators held about 211,000 jobs in 2000, about 50 percent of which were in the construction industry. Another 20 percent of cost estimators were employed in manufacturing industries. The remain der worked for engineering and architectural services firms and busi ness services firms, and throughout a wide range of other industries. Cost estimators work throughout the country, usually in or near major industrial, commercial, and government centers, and in cities and suburban areas undergoing rapid change or development. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry requirements for cost estimators vary by industry. In the con struction industry, employers increasingly prefer individuals with a degree in building construction, construction management, construc tion science, engineering, or architecture. However, most construc tion estimators also have considerable construction experience, gained through work in the industry, internships, or cooperative education programs. Applicants with a thorough knowledge of construction materials, costs, and procedures in areas ranging from heavy construction to electrical work, plumbing systems, or ma sonry work have a competitive edge. In manufacturing industries, employers prefer to hire individu als with a degree in engineering, physical science, operations re search, mathematics, or statistics; or in accounting, finance, business, economics, or a related subject. In most industries, great emphasis is placed on experience involving quantitative techniques. Cost estimators should have an aptitude for mathematics, be able to quickly analyze, compare, and interpret detailed and some times poorly defined information, and be able to make sound and accurate judgments based on this knowledge. Assertiveness and self-confidence in presenting and supporting their conclusions are important, as are strong communications and interpersonal skills, because estimators may work as part of a project team alongside managers, owners, engineers, and design professionals. Cost esti mators also need knowledge of computers, including word-pro cessing and spreadsheet packages. In some instances, familiarity https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis with special estimation software or programming skills also may be required. Regardless of their background, estimators receive much train ing on the job because every company has its own way of handling estimates. Working with an experienced estimator, they become familiar with each step in the process. Those with no experience reading construction specifications or blueprints first leam that as pect of the work. They then may accompany an experienced esti mator to the construction site or shop floor, where they observe the work being done, take measurements, or perform other routine tasks. As they become more knowledgeable, estimators leam how to tabu late quantities and dimensions from drawings and how to select the appropriate material prices. For most estimators, advancement takes the form of higher pay and prestige. Some move into management positions, such as project manager for a construction firm or manager of the industrial engi neering department for a manufacturer. Others may go into busi ness for themselves as consultants, providing estimating services for a fee to government, constmction, or manufacturing firms. Many colleges and universities include cost estimating as part of bachelor’s and associate degree curriculums in civil engineer ing, industrial engineering, and construction management or con stmction engineering technology. In addition, cost estimating is a significant part of many master’s degree programs in constmction science or constmction management. Organizations representing cost estimators, such as the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineers (AACE) International and the Society of Cost Esti mating and Analysis (SCEA), also sponsor educational and profes sional development programs. These programs help students, estimators-in-training, and experienced estimators stay abreast of changes affecting the profession. Specialized courses and programs in cost-estimating techniques and procedures also are offered by many technical schools, community colleges, and universities. Voluntary certification can be valuable to cost estimators be cause it provides professional recognition of the estimator’s com petence and experience. In some instances, individual employers may even require professional certification for employment. Both AACE International and SCEA administer certification programs. To become certified, estimators usually must have between 3 and 7 years of estimating experience and must pass an examination. In addition, certification requirements may include publication of at least one article or paper in the field. Job Outlook Overall employment of cost estimators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addition to openings created by growth, some job openings also will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Growth of the construction industry, in which half of all cost estimators are employed, will be the driving force behind the de mand for these workers. Construction and repair of highways and streets, bridges, and construction of more subway systems, airports, water and sewage systems, and electric power plants and transmis sion lines will stimulate demand for many more cost estimators. The increasing population and its changing demographics that will increase the demand for residential construction and remodeling also will spur demand for cost estimators. As the population ages, the demand for nursing and extended care facilities will increase. School construction and repair also will add to the demand for cost estimators. Job prospects in construction should be best for cost estimators with a degree in construction management or construc tion science, engineering, or architecture who have practical expe rience in various phases of construction or in a specialty craft area. 42 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment of cost estimators in manufacturing should remain relatively stable as firms continue to use their services to identify and control their operating costs. Experienced estimators with de grees in engineering, science, mathematics, business administration, or economics should have the best job prospects in manufacturing. Earnings Salaries of cost estimators vary widely by experience, education, size of firm, and industry. Median annual earnings of cost estima tors in 2000 were $45,800. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,040 and $59,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $75,460. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of cost estimators in 2000 were: Nonresidential building construction................................................ Electrical work...................................................................................... Plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning.......................................... Residential building construction....................................................... Miscellaneous special trade contractors........................................... $50,930 49,630 47,680 46,360 45,740 College graduates with degrees in fields that provide a strong background in cost estimating, such as engineering or construction management, could start at a higher level. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, bachelor’s degree candidates with degrees in construction sci ence/management received job offers averaging about $40,740 a year. Related Occupations Other workers who quantitatively analyze information include ac countants and auditors; budget analysts; claims adjusters, apprais ers, examiners, and investigators; economists and market and survey researchers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; in surance underwriters; loan counselors and officers; and operations research analysts. In addition, the duties of industrial production managers and construction managers also may involve analyzing costs. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, certification, educational programs, and cost-estimating techniques may be obtained from: Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering International, 209 Prairie Ave., Suite 100, Morgantown, WV 26501. Internet: http://www.aacei.org Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis, 101 S. Whiting St., Suite 201, Alexandria, VA 22304. Internet: http://www.eroIs.com/scea Education Administrators (Q*NET 11-9031.00, 11-9032.00, 11-9033.00, 11-9039.99) Significant Points • Most jobs require experience in a related occupation, such as teacher or admissions counselor, and a master’s or doctoral degree. • Strong interpersonal and communication skills are essential, because so much of an administrator’s job involves working and collaborating with others. • Job outlook is excellent, as a large proportion of education administrators are expected to retire over the next 10 years. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Smooth operation of an educational institution requires competent administrators. Education administrators provide direction, leader ship, and day-to-day management of educational activities in schools, preschools and daycare centers, colleges and universities, businesses, correctional institutions, museums, and job training and commu nity service organizations. (College presidents and school superin tendents are covered in the Handbook statement on general managers and top executives.) Education administrators set educational stan dards and goals and establish the policies and procedures to carry them out. They also supervise managers, support staff, teachers, counselors, librarians, coaches, and others. They develop academic programs; monitor students’ educational progress; train and moti vate teachers and other staff; manage guidance and other student services; administer recordkeeping; prepare budgets; handle rela tions with parents, prospective and current students, employers, and the community; and perform many other duties. In an organization such as a small daycare center, one administrator may handle all these functions. In universities or large school systems, responsi bilities are divided among many administrators, each with a spe cific function. Those who manage elementary and secondary schools are called principals. They set the academic tone and hire, evaluate, and help improve the skills of teachers and other staff. Principals confer with staff to advise, explain, or answer procedural ques tions. They visit classrooms, observe teaching methods, review instructional objectives, and examine learning materials. They actively work with teachers to develop and maintain high curricu lum standards, develop mission statements, and set performance goals and objectives. Principals must use clear, objective guide lines for teacher appraisals, because pay often is based on perfor mance ratings. Principals also meet and interact with other administrators, stu dents, parents, and representatives of community organizations. Decision-making authority has increasingly shifted from school district central offices to individual schools. Thus, parents, teach ers, and other members of the community play an important role in setting school policies and goals. Principals must pay atten tion to the concerns of these groups when making administrative decisions. Principals prepare budgets and reports on various subjects, in cluding finances and attendance, and oversee the requisitioning and allocation of supplies. As school budgets become tighter, many principals are more involved in public relations and fundraising to secure financial support for their schools from local businesses and the community. Principals must take an active role to ensure that students meet national academic standards. Many principals develop school/busi ness partnerships and school-to-work transition programs for stu dents. Increasingly, principals must be sensitive to the needs of the rising number of non-English speaking and culturally diverse students. Growing enrollments, which are leading to overcrowd ing at many existing schools, also are a cause for concern. When addressing problems of inadequate resources, administrators serve as advocates for the building of new schools or the repair of exist ing ones. Schools continue to be involved with students’ emotional wel fare as well as their academic achievement. As a result, principals face responsibilities outside the academic realm. For example, in response to the growing numbers of dual-income and single-par ent families and teenage parents, schools have established beforeand after-school child-care programs or family resource centers, which also may offer parenting classes and social service referrals. With the help of community organizations, some principals have Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 43 established programs to combat increases in crime, drug and alco hol abuse, and sexually transmitted disease among students. Assistant principals aid the principal in the overall administra tion of the school. Some assistant principals hold this position for several years to prepare for advancement to principal; others are career assistant principals. They are responsible for scheduling stu dent classes, ordering textbooks and supplies, and coordinating trans portation, custodial, cafeteria, and other support services. They usually handle discipline, attendance, social and recreational pro grams, and health and safety. They also may counsel students on personal, educational, or vocational matters. With site-based man agement, assistant principals play a greater role in developing cur riculum, evaluating teachers, and dealing with school-community relations—responsibilities previously assumed solely by the princi pal. The number of assistant principals a school employs may vary depending on the number of students. Administrators in school district central offices manage public schools under their jurisdiction. This group includes those who direct subject area programs such as English, music, vocational education, special education, and mathematics. They plan, evalu ate, standardize, and improve curriculums and teaching techniques, and help teachers improve their skills and leam about new methods and materials. They oversee career counseling programs, and test ing that measures students’ abilities and helps place them in appro priate classes. Central office administrators also include directors of programs such as guidance, school psychology, athletics, cur riculum and instruction, and professional development. With sitebased management, administrators have transferred primary responsibility for many of these programs to the principals, assis tant principals, teachers, and other staff. In colleges and universities, academic deans, deans offaculty, provosts, and university deans assist presidents, make faculty ap pointments, develop budgets, and establish academic policies and programs. They also direct and coordinate the activities of deans of individual colleges and chairpersons of academic departments. Fundraising also is becoming an essential part of their job. College or university department heads or chairpersons are in charge of departments such as English, biological science, or math ematics. In addition to teaching, they coordinate schedules of classes and teaching assignments; propose budgets; recruit, interview, and hire applicants for teaching positions; evaluate faculty members; encourage faculty development; sit on committees; and perform other administrative duties. In overseeing their departments, chairper sons must consider and balance the concerns of faculty, administra tors, and students. Higher education administrators also direct and coordinate the provision of student services. Vice presidents ofstudent affairs or student life, deans of students, and directors of student services may direct and coordinate admissions, foreign student services, health and counseling services, career services, financial aid, and housing and residential life, as well as social, recreational, and re lated programs. In small colleges, they may counsel students. In larger colleges and universities, separate administrators may handle each ofthese services. Registrars are custodians of students’ records. They register students, prepare student transcripts, evaluate academic records, assess and collect tuition and fees, plan and implement commencement, oversee the preparation of college catalogs and schedules of classes, and analyze enrollment and demographic sta tistics. Directors of admissions manage the process of recruiting, evaluating, and admitting students, and work closely withfinancial aid directors, who oversee scholarship, fellowship, and loan pro grams. Registrars and admissions officers must adapt to techno logical innovations in student information systems. For example, for those whose institutions present information—such as college https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ~ '*&*&-■* a Coordinating and interacting with faculty, parents, and students can be fast-paced and stimulating for education administrators, but also stressful. catalogs and schedules—on the Internet, knowledge of on-line re sources, imaging, and other computer skills is important. Athletic directors plan and direct intramural and intercollegiate athletic ac tivities, seeing to publicity for athletic events, preparation of bud gets, and supervision of coaches. Other increasingly important administrators direct fundraising, public relations, distance learn ing, and technology. Working Conditions Education administrators hold management positions with signifi cant responsibility. Most find working with students extremely re warding, but as the responsibilities of administrators have increased in recent years, so has the stress. Coordinating and interacting with faculty, parents, and students can be fast-paced and stimulating, but also stressful and demanding. Principals and assistant principals, whose main duty often is discipline, may find working with diffi cult students challenging and frustrating. And as the number of school-age children rises in some States, having to deal with over crowding and the lack of teachers has become a major issue in many jurisdictions. Many education administrators work more than 40 hours a week, including some nights and weekends during which they oversee school activities. Most administrators work 10 or 11 months a year, but some work year round. Some jobs include travel. 44 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Education administrators held about 453,000 jobs in 2000. About 9 out of 10 were in educational services, which includes elemen tary, secondary, and technical schools, and colleges and universi ties. The rest worked in child daycare centers, religious organizations, job training centers, State departments of education, and businesses and other organizations that provided training for their employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most education administrators begin their careers in related occu pations, and prepare for a job in education administration by com pleting a master’s or doctoral degree. Because of the diversity of duties and levels of responsibility, their educational backgrounds and experience vary considerably. Preschool directors, principals, assistant principals, central office administrators, and academic deans usually have held teaching positions before moving into ad ministration. Some teachers move directly into principal positions; others first become assistant principals, or gain experience in other central office administrative jobs at either the school or district level in positions such as department head, curriculum specialist, or subject matter advisor. In some cases, administrators move up from related staff jobs such as recruiter, guidance counselor, librarian, residence hall director, or financial aid or admissions counselor. To be considered for education administrator positions, workers must first prove themselves in their current jobs. In evaluating can didates, supervisors look for determination, confidence, innovativeness, motivation, and leadership. The ability to make sound decisions and to organize and coordinate work efficiently is essential. Because much of an administrator’s job involves inter acting with others—such as students, parents, and teachers— a per son in such a position must have strong interpersonal skills and be an effective communicator and motivator. Knowledge of manage ment principles and practices, gained through work experience and formal education, is important. A familiarity with computer tech nology is a plus for principals, who are becoming increasingly in volved in gathering information and coordinating technical resources for their students and classrooms. In most public schools, principals, assistant principals, and school administrators in central offices need a master’s degree in educa tion administration or educational supervision. Some principals and central office administrators have a doctorate or specialized degree in education administration. In private schools, which are not subject to State certification requirements, some principals and assistant principals hold only a bachelor’s degree; however, the majority have a master’s or doctoral degree. Most States require principals to be licensed as school administrators. License require ments vary by State. National standards for school leaders, includ ing principals and supervisors, were recently developed by the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium. Several States currently use these national standards as guidelines to assess begin ning principals for licensure, and many more States are expected to adopt the standards for this purpose. Some States require adminis trators to take continuing education courses to keep their certifica tion, thus ensuring that administrators have the most up-to-date skills. The number and types of courses required to maintain certification vary by State. Academic deans and chairpersons usually have a doctorate in their specialty. Most have held a professorship in their department before advancing. Admissions, student affairs, and financial aid directors and registrars sometimes start in related staff jobs with bachelor’s degrees—any field usually is acceptable—and obtain advanced degrees in college student affairs, counseling, or higher https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis education administration. A Ph.D. or Ed.D. usually is necessary for top student affairs positions. Computer literacy and a back ground in mathematics or statistics may be assets in admissions, records, and financial work. Advanced degrees in higher education administration, educa tional supervision, and college student affairs are offered in many colleges and universities. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education accredits these programs. Education admin istration degree programs include courses in school management, school law, school finance and budgeting, curriculum development and evaluation, research design and data analysis, community rela tions, politics in education, counseling, and leadership. Educational supervision degree programs include courses in supervision of in struction and curriculum, human relations, curriculum development, research, and advanced pedagogy courses. Education administrators advance by moving up an administra tive ladder or transferring to larger schools or systems. They also may become superintendents of school systems or presidents of educational institutions. Job Outlook Employment of education administrators is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. However, job opportunities will be excellent, as a large proportion of educa tion administrators are expected to retire over the next 10 years. Also, as education and training take on greater importance in everyone’s lives, the need for people to administer education pro grams will grow. Enrollments of school age children have a major impact on the demand for education administrators. The Department of Educa tion proj ects enrollment of preschool, elementary, and middle school students to be stable over the next 10 years. If mandatory preschool becomes more widespread, however, more preschool directors will be needed. The numbers of secondary and postsecondary school students are projected to grow more rapidly, creating more demand for administrators at these levels. In addition, enrollments are ex pected to increase the fastest in the West and South, where the popu lation is growing, and to decline or remain stable in the Northeast and the Midwest. School administrators also are in greater demand in rural and urban areas, where pay is generally lower than in the suburbs. Principals and assistant principals should have the best job pros pects. A sharp increase in responsibilities in recent years has made the job more stressful, and has discouraged teachers from taking positions in administration. Principals are now being held more accountable for the performance of students and teachers, while at the same time they are required to adhere to a growing number of government regulations. In addition, overcrowded classrooms, safety issues, and the teacher shortage all are creating additional pressures on principals and assistant principals. The increase in pay is often not high enough to entice people into the field. Job prospects also are favorable for college and university ad ministrators, particularly those seeking nonacademic positions. While competition for positions as academic deans and department heads remains keen, as faculty strive for these prestigious jobs, there is a shortage of applicants for nonacademic administrative jobs. For example, positions as directors of admissions or student affairs are difficult to fill. Furthermore, the requirement for a master’s or doctoral degree in education administration discourages many people—who can earn higher salaries elsewhere—from entering the profession. Colleges and universities are also adding administrators to handle an increasing number of tasks. Directors of technology and dis tance learning are being added to handle these functions. The need Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 45 to keep tuition costs down is also creating a growing need for direc tors of fundraising (also called development) and for public rela tions officials, whose mission is to boost community support and raise money. Earnings Salaries of education administrators depend on several factors, including the location and enrollment level in the school or school district. According to a survey of public schools, conducted by the Educational Research Service, average salaries for principals and assistant principals in the 1999-2000 school year were as follows: Directors, managers, coordinators, and supervisors...................... Principals: Elementary school............................................................................ Jr. high/middle school...................................................................... Senior high school............................................................................ Assistant principals: Elementary school............................................................................ Jr. high/middle school...................................................................... Senior high school............................................................................ NASPA, Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education, 1875 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Internet: http://www.naspa.org Engineering and Natural Sciences Managers (0**NET 11-9041.00, 11-9121.00) $73,499 • $69,407 73,877 79,839 $56,419 60,842 64,811 In 2000-01, according to the College and University Professional Association for Human Resources, median annual salaries for se lected administrators in higher education were as follows: Academic deans: Medicine............................................................................................. $272,200 Law....................................................................................................... 180,150 Engineering......................................................................................... 146,938 Business............................................................................................... 101,082 Education............................................................................................ 96,906 94,666 Arts and sciences............................................................................... Social sciences................................................................................... 72,877 Mathematics....................................................................................... 69,449 Other administrators: Dean, students.................................................................................... $67,000 Director, admissions and registrar................................................. 58,241 Director, annual giving.................................................................... 46,800 Director, student activities.............................................................. 39,292 Benefits for education administrators are generally very good. Many get 4 or 5 weeks vacation every year and have generous health and pension packages. Many colleges and universities offer free tuition to employees’ children. Related Occupations Education administrators apply organizational and leadership skills to provide services to individuals. Workers in related occupations include administrative services managers; office and administra tive support worker supervisors and managers; human resource, training, and labor relations managers and specialists; and archi vists, curators, and museum technicians. Education administrators also work with students and have backgrounds similar to those of counselors; librarians; instructional coordinators; teachers—pre school, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and teach ers—postsecondary. Sources of Additional Information For information on elementary school principals, contact: >- The National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1615 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3483. Internet: http://www.naesp.org For information on collegiate registrars and admissions officers, contact: >- American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Offic ers, One Dupont Circle NW., Suite 520, Washington, DC 20036-1171. Internet: http://www.aacrao.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on professional development and graduate pro grams for college student affairs administrators, contact: • Significant Points Most engineering and natural sciences managers have previous experience as engineers, scientists, or mathematicians. Employers prefer managers with advanced technical knowledge and strong communication and administrative skills. Nature of the Work Engineering and natural sciences managers plan, coordinate, and direct research, design, and production activities. They may super vise engineers, scientists, and technicians, along with support per sonnel. These managers use advanced technical knowledge of engineering and science to oversee a variety of activities. They determine scientific and technical goals within broad outlines pro vided by top executives, who are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book. These goals may include improving manufacturing processes, advancing scientific research, or redesigning aircraft. Managers make detailed plans to accomplish these goals—for example, they may develop the overall concepts of a new product or identify tech nical problems preventing the completion of a project. To perform effectively, they also must possess knowledge of ad ministrative procedures, such as budgeting, hiring, and supervision. These managers propose budgets for projects and programs and determine staff, training, and equipment purchases. They hire and assign scientists, engineers, and support personnel to carry out spe cific parts of each project. They also supervise the work of these employees, review their output, and establish administrative proce dures and policies—including environmental standards, for example. In addition, these managers use communication skills extensively. They spend a great deal of time coordinating the activities of their unit with those of other units or organizations. They confer with higher levels of management; with financial, production, market ing, and other managers; and with contractors and equipment and materials suppliers. Engineering managers supervise people who design and develop machinery, products, systems, and processes; or direct and coordi nate production, operations, quality assurance, testing, or mainte nance in industrial plants. Many are plant engineers, who direct and coordinate the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of equipment and machinery in industrial plants. Others manage research and development teams that produce new products and processes or improve existing ones. Natural sciences managers oversee the work of life and physical scientists, including agricultural scientists, chemists, biologists, ge ologists, medical scientists, and physicists. These managers direct research and development projects and coordinate activities such as testing, quality control, and production. They may work on basic research projects or on commercial activities. Science managers sometimes conduct their own research in addition to managing the work of others. 46 Occupational Outlook Handbook 9 bl . Managers oversee the design and installation of equipment and machinery in industrial plants. Working Conditions Engineering and natural sciences managers spend most of their time in an office. Some managers, however, also may work in laborato ries, where they may be exposed to the same conditions as research scientists, or in industrial plants, where they may be exposed to the same conditions as production workers. Most managers work at least 40 hours a week and may work much longer on occasion to meet project deadlines. Some may experience considerable pres sure to meet technical or scientific goals on a short deadline or within a tight budget. Employment Engineering and natural sciences managers held about 324,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly 3 out of 10 worked in services industries, primarily for firms providing computer and data processing, engineering and architectural, or research and testing services. Manufacturing indus tries employed one-third. Manufacturing industries with the largest employment include those producing industrial machinery and equip ment, electronic and other electrical equipment, transportation equip ment, instruments, and chemicals. Other large employers include government agencies and transportation, communications, and utili ties companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Strong technical knowledge is essential for engineering and natu ral sciences managers, who must understand and guide the work of their subordinates and explain the work in nontechnical terms to senior management and potential customers. Therefore, these management positions usually require work experience and for mal education similar to that of engineers, scientists, or mathema ticians. Most engineering managers begin their careers as engineers, after completing a bachelor’s degree in the field. To advance to higher level positions, engineers generally must assume manage ment responsibility. To fill management positions, employers seek engineers who possess administrative and communications skills in addition to technical knowledge in their specialty. Many engi neers gain these skills by obtaining a master’s degree in engineer ing management or a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Employers often pay for such training. In large firms, courses required in these degree programs may be offered Digitizedsome for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis onsite. Engineers who prefer to manage in technical areas should get a master’s degree in engineering management, while those in terested in nontechnical management should get an MBA. Many science managers begin their careers as scientists, such as chemists, biologists, geologists, or mathematicians. Most scien tists or mathematicians engaged in basic research have a Ph.D.; some in applied research and other activities may have a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Science managers must be specialists in the work they supervise. In addition, employers prefer managers with good communication and administrative skills. Graduate programs al low scientists to augment their undergraduate training with instruc tion in other fields, such as management or computer technology. Given the rapid pace of scientific developments, science managers must continuously upgrade their knowledge. Engineering and natural sciences managers may advance to pro gressively higher leadership positions within their discipline. Some may become managers in nontechnical areas such as marketing, human resources, or sales. In high technology firms, managers in nontechnical areas often must possess the same specialized knowl edge as managers in technical areas. For example, employers in an engineering firm may prefer to hire experienced engineers as sales workers because the complex services offered by the firm can be marketed only by someone with specialized engineering knowledge. Job Outlook Employment of engineering and natural sciences managers is ex pected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupa tions through the year 2010—in line with projected employment growth in engineering and most sciences. However, many addi tional jobs will result from the need to replace managers who re tire or move into other occupations. Opportunities for obtaining a management position will be best for workers with advanced tech nical knowledge and strong communication and administrative skills. The job outlook for engineering and natural sciences managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and the industries in which they are found. For example, opportunities for managers should be better in rapidly growing ar eas of engineering, such as electrical, computer, and biomedical engineering than in more slowly growing areas of engineering or physical science. (See the statements on engineers, and life and physical scientists, elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition, many employers are finding it more efficient to contract engineering and science management services to outside companies and consult ants, creating good opportunities for managers in management ser vices and management consulting firms. Earnings Earnings for engineering and natural sciences managers vary by specialty and level of responsibility. Median annual earnings of engineering managers were $84,070 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $66,420 and $105,630. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $52,350, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $130,350. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of engineering managers in 2000 were: Electronic components and accessories........................................... Computer and data processing services............................................ Aircraft and parts .................................................................................. Federal government............................................................................... Engineering and architectural services............................................. $98,940 98,890 88,620 83,840 83,390 Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 47 Median annual earnings of natural sciences managers were $75,880 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $56,320 and $100,760. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,110, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $128,090. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of natural sciences managers in 2000 were: Research and testing services............................................................. Federal government.............................................................................. $87,070 74,780 A survey of manufacturing firms, conducted by Abbot, Langer & Associates, found that engineering department managers and su perintendents earned a median annual income of $85,154 in 1999, while research and development managers earned $84,382. In addition, engineering and natural sciences managers, espe cially those at higher levels, often receive more benefits—such as expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses—than do nonmanagerial workers in their organizations. Related Occupations The work of engineering and natural sciences managers is closely related to that of engineers; mathematicians; and physical and life scientists, including agricultural and food scientists, biological and medical scientists, conservation scientists and foresters, atmospheric scientists, chemists and materials scientists, environmental scien tists and geoscientists, and physicists and astronomers. It also is related to the work of other managers, especially top executives. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as an engineering and natural sci ences manager, contact the sources of additional information for engineers, life scientists, and physical scientists that are listed in statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook. Farmers, Ranchers, and Agricultural Managers (0**NET 11-9011.01, 11-9011.02, 11-9011.03, 11-9012.00) • • Significant Points Modem farming requires college training in agriculture and work experience acquired through growing up on a farm or through a small number of internships now available. Overall employment is projected to decline because of increasing productivity and consolidation of farms. • Aquaculture should provide some new employment opportunities; in addition, developments in valueadded marketing and organic farming are making small-scale farming economically viable again. • Self-employed farmers’ and ranchers’ incomes vary greatly from year to year. Nature of the Work American farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers direct the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive agricul tural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to meet the needs of the United States and produce a surplus for export. Farmers and ranchers may be owners or tenants who rent the use of land. The type of farm they operate determines their specific https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis tasks. On crop farms—farms growing grain, cotton, and other fi bers, fruit, and vegetables—farmers are responsible for planning, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure the crops are properly packaged, stored, or marketed. Livestock, dairy, and poultry farmers must feed, plan, and care for the animals and keep barns, pens, coops, and other farm buildings clean and in good condition. They also oversee breeding and marketing activities. Horticultural specialty farmers oversee the production of ornamental plants, nursery prod ucts—such as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables grown in greenhouses. Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in marine, brackish, or fresh water, usually in ponds, floating net pens, raceways, or recirculating systems. They stock, feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life sold for consump tion or used for recreational fishing. Farmers and ranchers make many managerial decisions. Their farm output is strongly influenced by the weather, disease, fluctua tions in prices of domestic and foreign farm products, and Federal farm programs. In a crop operation, farmers usually determine the best time to plant seed, apply fertilizer and chemicals, harvest, and market. They use different strategies to protect themselves from un predictable changes in the markets for agricultural products. Many farmers carefully plan the combination of crops they grow so that if the price of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another to make up for the loss. Others, particularly operators of smaller farms, may choose to sell their goods directly through farm ers’ markets, or use cooperatives to reduce their financial risk and to gain a larger share of consumers’ expenditures on food. For ex ample, in Community Supported Agriculture (CSA), cooperatives sell to consumers shares of a harvest prior to the planting season, thus freeing the farmer from having to bear all the financial risks and ensuring the farmer a market for the produce of the coming season. Fanners and ranchers who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their livestock to take advantage of better prices later in the year. Those who participate in the risky futures market—in which contracts and options on futures contracts on commodities are traded through stockbrokers—try to anticipate or track changes in the supply of and demand for agricultural commodities, and thus changes in the prices of farm products. By buying or selling futures contracts, or by pricing their products in advance of future sales, they attempt to either limit their risk or reap greater profits than would normally be realized. They may have to secure loans from credit agencies to finance the purchase of machinery, fertilizer, live stock, and feed. Like other businesses, farming operations have become more complex in recent years, so many farmers use com puters to keep financial and inventory records. They also use com puter databases and spreadsheets to manage breeding, dairy, and other farm operations. Responsibilities of farmers and ranchers range from caring for livestock, to operating machinery, to maintaining equipment and facilities. The size of the farm or ranch often determines which of these tasks farmers and ranchers will handle themselves. Operators of small farms usually perform all tasks, physical and administra tive. They keep records for tax purposes, service machinery, main tain buildings, and grow vegetables and raise animals. Operators of large farms, on the other hand, have employees who help with the physical work that small-farm operators do themselves. Al though employment on most farms is limited to the farmer and one or two family workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more full-time and seasonal workers. Some of these em ployees are in nonfarm occupations, working as truck drivers, sales representatives, bookkeepers, and computer specialists. Agricultural managers guide and assist farmers and ranchers in maximizing the financial returns to their land by managing the day- 48 Occupational Outlook Handbook ... ■ MS! ins 1sts mm Managers of large farms direct employees who perform many of the tasks that small farmers must do themselves. to-day activities. Their duties and responsibilities vary widely. For example, the owner of a very large livestock farm may employ a manager to oversee a single activity, such as feeding the livestock. On the other hand, when managing a small crop farm for an absen tee owner, a manager may assume responsibility for all functions, from selecting the crops to participating in planting and harvesting. Farm management firms and corporations involved in agriculture employ highly trained professional farm managers who may man age farm operations or oversee tenant operators of several farms. In these cases, managers may establish output goals; determine finan cial constraints; monitor production and marketing; hire, assign, and supervise workers; determine crop transportation and storage require ments; and oversee maintenance of the property and equipment. There are several types of agricultural managers. Nursery and greenhouse managers make decisions about the type and quality of horticultural plants—trees, shrubs, flowers, or mushrooms, for ex ample—to be grown. They also select and purchase seed, fertiliz ers, and chemicals used for disease control. Crop farm managers and fish hatchery managers direct farmworkers involved in crop and fish hatchery production. (Farmworkers are discussed in the Handbook statement on agricultural workers.) Working Conditions The work of farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers is often strenuous; work hours are frequently long; and they rarely have days off during the planting, growing, and harvesting seasons. Never theless, for those who enter farming or ranching, these disadvan tages are outweighed by the quality of life in a rural area, working outdoors, being self-employed, and making a living working the land. Farmers and farm managers on crop farms usually work from sunrise to sunset during the planting and harvesting seasons. Dur ing the rest of the year they plan next season’s crops, market their output, and repair machinery; some may earn additional income by working a second job off the farm. On livestock producing fanns and ranches, work goes on through out the year. Animals, unless they are grazing, must be fed and watered every day, and dairy cows must be milked two or three times a day. Many livestock and dairy farmers monitor and attend to the health of their herds, which may include assisting in the birthing of animals. Such farmers rarely get the chance to get away unless they hire an assistant or arrange for a temporary substitute. Farmers who grow produce and perishables have different de mands on their time. For example, organic farmers must maintain https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis cover crops during the cold months, which keeps them occupied with farming beyond the typical growing season. Farm work also can be hazardous. Tractors and other farm ma chinery can cause serious injury, and workers must be constantly alert on the job. The proper operation of equipment and handling of chemicals is necessary to avoid accidents and protect the envi ronment. On very large farms, farmers spend substantial time meeting with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various activities. Professional farm managers overseeing several farms may divide their time between traveling to meet farmers or landowners and planning the farm operations in their offices. As farming practices and agricultural technology become more sophisticated, farmers and farm managers are spending more time in offices and at computers, where they electronically manage many aspects of their businesses. Some farmers also spend time at conferences, particularly during the winter months, exchanging information. Employment Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers held nearly 1.5 million jobs in 2000. About 86 percent were self-employed farmers and ranchers. Most farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers over see crop production activities, while others manage livestock and dairy production. A smaller number are involved in agricultural services, such as contract harvesting and farm labor contracting. The soil, topography of the land, and the climate of an area gen erally determine the type of farming and ranching done. For ex ample, California, Wisconsin, New York, and Pennsylvania lead the country in milk production, while Ohio, California, Pennsylvania, and Indiana lead in egg production. Texas, California, Georgia, and Mississippi are the biggest cotton producers, and Kansas, North Dakota, Montana, and Washington are the biggest wheat producers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Growing up on a family farm and participating in agricultural pro grams for young people (sponsored by the National FFA Organiza tion, formerly known as the Future Farmers of America, or the 4-H youth educational programs) are important sources of training for those interested in pursuing agriculture as a career. However, mod em farming requires increasingly complex scientific, business, and financial decisions. Therefore, even people who were raised on farms must acquire the appropriate education. Not all agricultural managers grew up on farms or ranches. For these people, a bachelor’s degree in business with a concentration in agriculture is important. In addition to formal education, they need several years of work experience in the different aspects of farm and ranch operations in order to qualify for an agricultural manager position. Students should select the college most appropriate to their spe cific interests and location. In the United States, all State univer sity systems have one land-grant university with a school of agriculture. Common programs of study include agronomy, dairy science, agricultural economics and business, horticulture, crop and fruit science, and animal science. For students interested in aquac ulture, formal programs are available, and include coursework in fisheries biology, fish culture, hatchery management and mainte nance, and hydrology. Whatever one’s interest, the college curricu lum should include courses in agricultural production, marketing, and economics. Professional status can be enhanced through voluntary certifica tion as an Accredited Farm Manager (AFM) by the American Soci ety of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers. Certification requires several years of farm management experience, the appropriate aca demic background—a bachelor’s degree or, preferably, a master’s Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 49 degree in a field of agricultural science—and the passing of courses and examinations relating to business, financial, and legal aspects of farm and ranch management. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers need to keep abreast of continuing advances in agricultural methods both in the United States and abroad, as well as changes in governmental regulations that may impact methods or markets for particular crops. Besides print journals that inform the agricultural community, the spread of the Internet allows quick access to the latest developments in areas such as agricultural marketing, legal arrangements, or growing crops, vegetables, and livestock. Electronic mail, on-line journals, and newsletters from agricultural organizations also speed the exchange of information directly between farming associations and individual farmers. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers also must have enough technical knowledge of crops, growing conditions, and plant diseases to make decisions ensuring the successful operation of their farms. A rudimentary knowledge of veterinary science, as well as animal husbandry, is important for livestock and dairy farmers. Knowledge of the relationship between farm operations—for ex ample, the use of pesticides—and environmental conditions is es sential. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to work with tools of all kinds are also valuable skills for the operator of a small farm, who often maintains and repairs machinery or farm structures. Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers need the manage rial skills necessary to organize and operate a business. A basic knowl edge of accounting and bookkeeping is essential in keeping financial records, while a knowledge of credit sources is vital for buying seed, fertilizer, and other inputs necessary for planting. It is also necessary to be familiar with complex safety regulations and requirements of governmental agricultural support programs. Computer skills are increasingly important, especially on large farms, where computers are widely used for recordkeeping and business analysis. For ex ample, some farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers use per sonal computers to access the Internet to get the latest information on prices of farm products and other agricultural news. High school training should include courses in mathematics and in biology and other life sciences. Completion of a 2-year degree, and preferably a 4-year bachelor’s degree program in a college of agriculture, is becoming increasingly important. But even after obtaining formal education, novices may need to spend time work ing under an experienced farmer to learn how to put into practice the skills learned through academic training. A small number of farms offer, on a formal basis, apprenticeships to help young people acquire such practical skills. Job Outlook Demand for food and fiber will increase due to growth in world population and in demand for U.S. agricultural exports as develop ing nations improve their economies and personal incomes. How ever, increasing productivity in the U.S. agricultural production industry is expected to meet domestic consumption needs and ex port requirements with fewer workers. Employment of farmers and ranchers, is expected to continue to decline through 2010, while employment for farm, ranch, and agricultural managers is expected to grow slower than average. The overwhelming majority of job openings for self-employed farmers and ranchers will result from the need to replace farmers who retire or leave the occupation for economic or other reasons. Market pressures will continue the long-term trend toward con solidation into fewer and larger farms over the 2000-10 period, fur ther reducing the number of jobs for farmers and ranchers, but increasing employment of agricultural managers. Some farmers ac quire farms by inheritance; however, purchasing a farm or additional https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis land is expensive and requires substantial capital. In addition, suf ficient funds are required to withstand the adverse effects of cli mate and price fluctuations upon farm output and income and to cover operating costs—livestock, feed, seed, and fuel. Also, the complexity of modem farming and keen competition among farm ers leaves little room for the marginally successful farmer. Despite the expected continued consolidation of farm land and the projected decline in overall employment of farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers, an increasing number of small-scale farm ers have developed successful market niches that involve personal ized, direct contact with their customers. Many are finding opportunities in organic food production, as more consumers de mand food grown without pesticides or chemicals. Others use farm ers’ markets that cater directly to urban and suburban consumers, allowing the farmers to capture a greater share of consumers’ food dollars. Some small-scale farmers, such as some dairy farmers, belong to collectively owned marketing cooperatives that process and sell their product. Other farmers participate in communitysupported agriculture cooperatives that allow consumers to directly buy a share of the farmer’s harvest. Aquaculture also should continue to provide some new employ ment opportunities over the 2000-10 period. Overfishing has re sulted in declining ocean catches, and the growing demand for certain seafood items—such as shrimp, salmon, and catfish—has spurred the growth of aquaculture farms. Aquaculture output increased strongly between the early 1980s and mid-1990s, and continued growth is expected. Earnings Incomes of farmers and ranchers vary greatly from year to year be cause prices of farm products fluctuate depending upon weather conditions and other factors that influence the quantity and quality of farm output and the demand for those products. A farm that shows a large profit in one year may show a loss in the following year. Under the 1996 Farm Act, Federal Government subsidy pay ments, which have traditionally shielded some grain producers from the ups and downs of the market, were set at fixed levels regardless of yields or prices. Consequently, these farmers may experience more income variability from year to year than in the past. The Act also phases out price supports for dairy farmers, and may result in lower incomes for dairy producers. Many farmers—primarily op erators of small farms—have income from off-farm business ac tivities, often greater than that of their farm income. Full-time, salaried farm managers, with the exception of horti cultural managers, had median weekly earnings of $542 in 2000. The middle half earned between $221 and $655. The highest paid 10 percent earned more than $756, and the lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $187. Horticultural specialty farm managers gen erally earn considerably more. Farmers and self-employed farm managers make their own pro visions for benefits. As members of farm organizations, they may derive benefits such as group discounts on health and life insurance premiums. Related Occupations Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers strive to improve the quality of agricultural products and the efficiency of farms. Others whose work is related to agricultural products include agricultural engineers, agricultural and food scientists, agricultural workers, and purchasing agents and buyers of farm products. Sources of Additional Information For general information about farming and agricultural occupations, contact: 50 Occupational Outlook Handbook > Center for Rural Affairs, RO. Box 406, Walthill, NE 68067. Internet: http://www.cfra.org For information about certification as an accredited farm man ager, contact: >- American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers, 950 Cherry St., Suite 508, Denver, CO 80222. Internet: http://www.asfmra.org ► Small Farm Program, U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Cooperative State, Research, Education, and Extension Service, Stop 2220, Washington, DC 20250-2220. Internet: http://www.reeusda.gov/agsys/smallfarm For information on aquaculture, education, training, or Commu nity Supported Agriculture, contact: >■ Alternative Farming System Information Center (AFSIC), National Ag ricultural Library USDA, 10301 Baltimore Ave., Room 132, Beltsville, MD 20705-2351. Internet: http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic >- Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas, P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702. Internet: http://www.attra.org Financial Analysts and Personal Financial Advisors (0**NET 13-2051.00, 13-2052.00) Significant Points • • • A college degree and good interpersonal skills are among the most important qualifications for these workers. Although both occupations will benefit from an increase in investing by individuals, personal financial advisors will benefit more. Financial analysts may face keen competition for jobs, especially at top securities firms, where pay can be lucrative. Nature of the Work Financial analysts and personal financial advisors provide invest ment analysis and guidance to businesses and individuals to help them with their investment decisions. They gather financial infor mation, analyze it, and make recommendations. However, their job duties differ because of the type of investment information they provide and the clients they work for. Financial analysts assess the economic performance of companies and industries for firms and institutions with money to invest. Personalfinancial advisors gen erally assess the financial needs of individuals, providing them a wide range of options. Financial analysts, also called security analysts and investment analysts, work for banks, insurance companies, mutual and pen sion funds, securities firms, and other businesses helping the com pany or their clients make investment decisions. They read company financial statements and analyze commodity prices, sales, costs, expenses, and tax rates in order to determine a company’s value and project future earnings. They often meet with company offi cials to get better insight into a company and determine managerial effectiveness. Usually financial analysts study an entire industry, assessing current trends in business practices, products, and indus try competition. They must keep abreast of new regulations or poli cies that may affect the industry, as well as monitor the economy to determine its effect on earnings. Financial analysts use spreadsheet and statistical software pack ages to analyze financial data, spot trends, and develop forecasts. Based on their results, they write reports and make presentations, usually making recommendations to buy or sell a particular invest ment or security. Senior analysts may actually make the decision https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to buy or sell for the company or client if they are the ones respon sible for managing the assets. Other analysts use the data to mea sure the financial risks associated with making a particular investment decision. Financial analysts in investment banking departments of securi ties or banking firms often work in teams analyzing the future pros pects of companies that want to sell shares to the public for the first time. They also ensure that the forms and written materials neces sary for compliance with Securities and Exchange Commission regu lations are accurate and complete. They may make presentations to prospective investors about the merits of investing in the new com pany. Financial analysts also work in mergers and acquisitions de partments, preparing analyses on the costs and benefits of a proposed merger or takeover. Some financial analysts, called ratings analysts, evaluate the ability of companies or governments issuing bonds to repay their debt. Based on their evaluation, a management team assigns a rat ing to a company’s or government’s bonds. Other financial ana lysts perform budget, cost, and credit analysis as part of their responsibilities. Personal financial advisors, also called financial planners orfi nancial consultants, use their knowledge of investments, tax laws, insurance, and real estate to recommend financial options to indi viduals based on their short-term and long-term goals. Some of the issues they address are retirement planning, estate planning, tax is sues, funding for college, and general investment options. While most planners offer advice on a wide range of topics, some special ize in areas such as estate planning or risk management. An advisor’s work begins with a consultation with the client, where the advisor obtains information on the client’s finances and financial goals. The advisor then develops a comprehensive finan cial plan that identifies problem areas, makes recommendations for improvement, and selects appropriate investments based on their goals, attitude toward risk, and expectations or needs for a return on the investment. Often, this plan is written, but it can be in the form of verbal advice. Financial advisors usually meet with established clients at least once a year to update them on potential investments Financial analysts research and analyze financial data, helping managers make sound investment decisions. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 51 and determine if there have been any life changes—such as mar riage, disability, or retirement—that might affect the clients’ finan cial goals. Financial advisors also answer questions from clients regarding changes in benefit plans or consequences of a job change. Some advisors buy and sell financial products, such as mutual funds or insurance, or refer clients to other companies for products and services such as preparation of taxes or wills. A number of advi sors take on the responsibility of managing the client’s investments for them. Finding clients and building a customer base is one of the most important parts of a financial advisor’s job. Many advisors contact potential clients by giving seminars or lectures or meeting clients through business and social contacts. Working Conditions Financial analysts and personal financial advisors usually work in doors in safe, comfortable offices or their own homes. Many of these workers enjoy the challenge of helping firms or people make financial decisions. Flowever, financial analysts may face long hours, frequent travel to visit companies and talk to potential investors, and deadline pressure. Much of their research must be done after office hours, because their day is filled with phone calls and meet ings. Personal financial advisors usually work standard business hours, but they also schedule meetings with clients in the evenings or on weekends. Many teach evening classes or put on seminars in order to bring in more clients. Employment Financial analysts and personal financial advisors held 239,000jobs in 2000; financial analysts accounted for about 6 in 10 of the total. Many financial analysts work at the headquarters of large financial companies, several of which are based in New York. One-fourth of financial analysts work for security and commodity brokers, ex changes, and investment services firms; and one-fifth work for de pository and nondepository institutions, including banks, credit institutions, and mortgage bankers and brokers. The remainder pri marily work for insurance carriers, computer and data processing services, and management and public relations firms. Approximately one fourth ofpersonal financial advisors are selfemployed, operating small investment advisory firms, usually lo cated in urban areas. The majority of salaried advisors—nearly 6 in 10—work for security and commodity brokers, exchanges, and in vestment services firms. About 1 in 7 personal financial advisors work for commercial banks, saving institutions, and credit unions. A small number work for insurance carriers and insurance agents, brokers, and services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education is required for financial analysts and strongly preferred for personal financial advisors. Most companies require financial analysts to have at least a bachelor’s degree in business administration, accounting, statistics, or finance. Coursework in statistics, economics, and business is required, and knowledge of accounting policies and procedures, corporate budgeting, and financial analysis methods is recommended. A master of business administration is desirable. Advanced courses in options pricing or bond valuation and knowledge of risk management are also suggested. Employers usually do not require a specific field of study for personal financial advisors, but a bachelor’s degree in accounting, finance, economics, business, mathematics, or law provides good preparation for the occupation. Courses in investments, taxes, es tate planning, and risk management also are helpful. Programs in financial planning are becoming more widely available in colleges https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and universities. Flowever, many financial planners enter the field after working in a related occupation, such as securities and finan cial services sales representative, insurance agent, accountant, or lawyer. Mathematical, computer, analytical, and problem-solving skills are all essential qualifications for financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Good communication skills also are necessary because these workers must present complex financial concepts and strategies in easy-to-understand language to clients and other pro fessionals. Self-confidence, maturity, and the ability to work inde pendently are important as well. Financial analysts must be detail-oriented, motivated to seek out obscure information, and familiar with the workings of the economy, tax laws, and money markets. For financial advisors, strong inter personal skills and sales ability are crucial to success. Certification, although not required for financial analysts or per sonal financial advisors to practice, can enhance professional stand ing and is strongly recommended by many financial companies. Financial analysts may receive the title Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA), sponsored by the Association of Investment Management and Research. To qualify for CFA designation, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree, 3 years of work experience in a related field, and pass a series of three examinations. The essay exams, administered once a year for 3 years, cover subjects such as ac counting, economics, securities analysis, asset valuation, and port folio management. Personal financial advisors may obtain a Certified Financial Plan ner (CFP) or Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation. Both designations demonstrate to potential customers that a plan ner has extensive training and competency in the area of financial planning. The CFP designation, issued by the CFP Board of Stan dards, requires relevant experience, completion of education require ments, passage of a comprehensive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. The ChFC designation, issued by the American College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, requires expe rience and completion of an eight-course study program. Both pro grams have a continuing education requirement. A license is not required to work as a personal financial advisor, but advisors who sell stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, or real estate, may need licenses to perform these additional services. Also, if legal advice is provided, a license to practice law may be required. Financial advisors that do not provide these additional services often refer clients to those qualified to provide them. Financial analysts may advance by becoming portfolio manag ers or financial managers, directing the investment policies of their companies or those of clients. Personal financial advisors who work in firms also may move into managerial positions, but most advisors advance by accumulating clients and managing more assets. Job Outlook Increased investment by businesses and individuals is expected to result in faster-than-average employment growth of financial ana lysts and personal financial advisors through 2010. Both occupa tions will benefit as baby boomers save for retirement and a generally better educated and wealthier population requires investment ad vice. In addition, people are living longer and must plan to finance more years of retirement. The rapid expansion of self-directed re tirement plans, such as the 401 (k) plans, is expected to continue. Most of the money in these plans is invested in mutual funds. As the number of mutual funds and the amount of assets invested in the funds increases, mutual fund companies will need increased numbers of financial analysts to recommend which financial prod ucts the funds should buy or sell. Growth in retirement plans will 52 Occupational Outlook Handbook also increase demand for personal financial advisors to provide advice on how to invest this money. Deregulation of the financial services industry is also expected to spur demand for financial analysts and personal financial advi sors. Since 1999, banks, insurance companies, and brokerage firms have been allowed to broaden their financial services. Many firms are adding investment advice to their list of services and are ex pected to increase their hiring of personal financial advisors. Many banks are now entering the securities brokerage and investment banking fields and will increasingly need the skills of financial ana lysts in these areas. The globalization of the securities markets as well as the in creased complexity of many financial products also will increase the need for analysts and advisors to help investors make financial choices. In addition, business mergers and acquisitions seem likely to continue, requiring the services of financial analysts. However, in the field of investment banking, the demand for financial ana lysts may fluctuate because investment banking is sensitive to changes in the stock market. And further consolidation in the fi nancial services industry may eliminate some financial analyst po sitions, somewhat dampening overall employment growth. Competition is expected to be keen for these highly lucrative posi tions, with many more applicants than jobs. Earnings Median annual earnings of financial analysts were $52,420 in 2000. The middle half earned between $40,210 and $70,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,880, and the top 10 percent earned more than $101,760. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of financial analysts in 2000 were: Security and commodity services......... Security brokers and dealers................... Management and public relations......... Computer and data processing services Commercial banks.................................... $65,920 54,650 52,690 51,680 46,910 Median annual earnings of personal financial advisors were $55,320 in 2000. The middle half earned between $34,420 and $96,360. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,110, and the top 10 percent earned more than $145,600. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of personal financial advisors in 2000 were: Security brokers and dealers............................................................... Security and commodity services...................................................... Commercial banks................................................................................. $66,150 61,430 49,880 Many financial analysts receive a bonus in addition to their sal ary, which can add substantially to their earnings. The bonus is usually based on how well their predictions compare to the actual performance of a benchmark investment. Personal financial advi sors who work for financial services firms are generally paid a sal ary plus bonus. Advisors who work for financial planning firms or who are self-employed either charge hourly fees for their services or charge one set fee for a comprehensive plan based on its complex ity. Advisors who manage a client’s assets usually charge a percent age of the assets under management. A majority of advisors receive commissions for financial products they sell in addition to a fee. Related Occupations Other jobs requiring expertise in finance and investments or sales of financial products include accountants, financial managers, in surance sales agents, real estate agents, and securities, commodities and financial services sales representatives. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in financial planning, contact: >- The Financial Planning Association, 1700 Broadway, Suite 708, Den ver, CO 80290. Internet: http://www.fpanet.org For information about the Certified Financial Planner certifica tion, contact: >- The Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, 1700 Broadway, Suite 2100, Denver, CO 80290-2101. Internet: http://www.cfp-board.org For information about the Chartered Financial Consultant des ignation, contact: >- The American College, 270 South Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. Internet: http://www.amercoll.edu For information on about the Chartered Financial Analyst desig nation, contact: >- Association of Investment Management and Research, P.O. Box 3668, 560 Ray C. Hunt Drive, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Internet: http://www.aimr.org Financial Managers (Q*NET 11-3031.01, 11-3031.02) Significant Points • • A bachelor’s degree in finance, accounting, or a related field is the minimum academic preparation, but many employers increasingly seek graduates with a master’s degree. The increasing need for financial expertise will spur employment growth. Nature of the Work Almost every firm, government agency, and organization has one or more financial managers who oversee the preparation of finan cial reports, direct investment activities, and implement cash man agement strategies. As computers are increasingly used to record and organize data, many financial managers are spending more time developing strategies and implementing the long-term goals of their organization. The duties of financial managers vary with their specific titles, which include controller, treasurer, credit manager, and cash man ager. Controllers direct the preparation of financial reports that summarize and forecast the organization’s financial position, such as income statements, balance sheets, and analyses of future earn ings or expenses. Controllers also are in charge of preparing spe cial reports required by regulatory authorities. Often, controllers oversee the accounting, audit, and budget departments. Treasurers andfinance officers direct the organization’s financial goals, objec tives, and budgets. They oversee the investment of funds and man age associated risks, supervise cash management activities, execute capital-raising strategies to support a firm’s expansion, and deal with mergers and acquisitions. Cash managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements to meet the business and investment needs of the firm. For example, cashflow projections are needed to deter mine whether loans must be obtained to meet cash requirements or whether surplus cash should be invested in interest-bearing instru ments. Risk and insurance managers oversee programs to mini mize risks and losses that may arise from financial transactions and business operations undertaken by the institution. They also man age the organization’s insurance budget. Credit managers oversee the firm’s issuance of credit. They establish credit-rating criteria, determine credit ceilings, and monitor the collections of past-due Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 53 accounts. Managers specializing in international finance develop financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. Financial institutions, such as commercial banks, savings and loan associations, credit unions, and mortgage and finance compa nies, employ additional financial managers who oversee various functions, such as lending, trusts, mortgages, and investments, or programs, including sales, operations, or electronic financial ser vices. These managers may be required to solicit business, autho rize loans, and direct the investment of funds, always adhering to Federal and State laws and regulations. (Chief information officers and other financial executives are included in the Handbook state ment on top executives.) Branch managers of financial institutions administer and man age all the functions of a branch office, which may include hiring personnel, approving loans and lines of credit, establishing a rap port with the community to attract business, and assisting custom ers with account problems. Financial managers who work for financial institutions must keep abreast of the rapidly growing ar ray of financial services and products. In addition to the general duties described above, all financial managers perform tasks unique to their organization or industry. For example, government financial managers must be experts on the government appropriations and budgeting processes, whereas healthcare financial managers must be knowledgeable about issues surrounding healthcare financing. Moreover, financial managers must be aware of special tax laws and regulations that affect their industry. Areas in which financial managers play an increasingly impor tant role involve mergers and consolidations, and global expansion and financing. These developments require extensive, specialized knowledge on the part of the financial manager to reduce risks and maximize profit. Financial managers increasingly are hired on a temporary basis to advise senior managers on these and other mat ters. In fact, some firms contract out all accounting and financial functions to companies that provide these services. The role of the financial manager, particularly in business, is changing in response to technological advances that have reduced the amount of time it takes to produce financial reports significantly. Financial managers now perform more data analysis and use it to offer senior managers ideas on how to maximize profits. They often work on teams, acting as business advisors to top management. iSBi mP ■ Financial managers oversee the preparation offinancial reports, direct investment activities, and implement cash management strategies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Financial managers need to keep abreast of the latest computer tech nology in order to increase the efficiency of their firm’s financial operations. Working Conditions Financial managers work in comfortable offices, often close to top managers and to departments that develop the financial data these managers need. They typically have direct access to state-of-theart computer systems and information services. Financial manag ers commonly work long hours, often up to 50 or 60 per week. They generally are required to attend meetings of financial and eco nomic associations and may travel to visit subsidiary firms or to meet customers. Employment Financial managers held about 658,000 jobs in 2000. Although these managers are found in virtually every industry, more than onefourth were employed by services industries, including business, health, social, and management services. About 3 out of 10 were employed by financial and related institutions, such as banks, sav ings institutions, finance companies, credit unions, insurance com panies, securities dealers, and real estate firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in finance, accounting, economics, or business administration is the minimum academic preparation for financial managers. However, many employers increasingly seek graduates with a master’s degree, preferably in business administration, eco nomics, finance, or risk management. These academic programs develop analytical skills and provide knowledge of the latest finan cial analysis methods and technology. Experience may be more important than formal education for some financial manager positions—notably, branch managers in banks. Banks typically fill branch manager positions by promoting experienced loan officers and other professionals who excel at their jobs. Other financial managers may enter the profession through formal management trainee programs offered by the company. Continuing education is vital for financial managers, reflecting the growing complexity of global trade, shifting Federal and State laws and regulations, and a proliferation of new and complex finan cial instruments. Firms often provide opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills by encouraging employees to take graduate courses at colleges and universities or attend confer ences related to their specialty. Financial management, banking, and credit union associations, often in cooperation with colleges and universities, sponsor numerous national and local training pro grams. Persons enrolled prepare extensively at home, then attend sessions on subjects such as accounting management, budget man agement, corporate cash management, financial analysis, interna tional banking, and information systems. Many firms pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete courses. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for promotion, advancement may be accelerated by this type of special study. In some cases, financial managers also may broaden their skills and exhibit their competency in specialized fields by attaining pro fessional certification. For example, the Association for Invest ment Management and Research confers the Chartered Financial Analyst designation on investment professionals who have a bachelor’s degree, pass three test levels, and meet work experience requirements. The National Association of Credit Management administers a three-part certification program for business credit professionals. Through a combination of experience and examina tions, these financial managers pass from the level of Credit Busi ness Associate to Credit Business Fellow and, finally, to Certified 54 Occupational Outlook Handbook Credit Executive. The Association for Financial Professionals (AFP) confers the Certified Cash Manager credential to those with a mini mum of 2 years of relevant experience who pass a computer-based exam, and the Certificate in International Cash Management to those who participate in a self-study and examination program. In part nership with the University of Michigan Business School, AFP also offers the Certificate in Finance and Treasury Management, which recognizes professionals who demonstrate competencies in finan cial and treasury management at the senior level. More recently, the Association of Government Accountants has begun to offer the Certified Government Financial Manager certification to those who have a bachelor’s degree, at least 2 years of relevant experience, and who pass three examinations. Financial managers who spe cialize in accounting may earn the Certified Public Accountant (CPA) or Certified Management Accountant (CMA) designations. (See the Handbook statement on accountants and auditors.) Candidates for financial management positions need a broad range of skills. Interpersonal skills are increasingly important be cause these jobs involve managing people and working as part of a team to solve problems. Financial managers must have excellent communication skills to explain complex financial data. Because financial managers work extensively with various departments in their firm, a broad overview of the business is essential. Financial managers should be creative thinkers and problemsolvers, applying their analytical skills to business. They must be comfortable with the latest computer technology. As financial opera tions increasingly are affected by the global economy, managers must have knowledge of international finance. Proficiency in a foreign language also may be important. Because financial management is critical for efficient business operations, well-trained, experienced financial managers who dis play a strong grasp of the operations of various departments within their organization are prime candidates for promotion to top man agement positions. Some financial managers transfer to closely related positions in other industries. Those with extensive experi ence and access to sufficient capital may start their own consulting firms. Job Outlook Employment of financial managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. While merg ers, acquisitions, and corporate downsizing will continue to ad versely affect employment of financial managers, growth of the economy and the need for financial expertise will ensure job growth. Candidates with expertise in accounting and finance, particularly those with a master’s degree, should enjoy the best job prospects. Strong computer skills and knowledge of international finance are increasingly important; so are excellent communication skills, be cause financial management jobs increasingly involve working on strategic planning teams. The banking industry, which employs more than 1 out of 8 fi nancial managers, is expected to continue to consolidate. Employ ment of bank branch managers, in particular, will grow very little or not at all as banks open fewer branches and promote electronic and Internet banking to cut costs. In contrast, the securities and com modities industry will hire more financial managers to handle in creasingly complex financial transactions and manage investments. Financial managers are being hired throughout industry to manage assets and investments, handle mergers and acquisitions, raise capi tal, and assess global financial transactions. Risk managers, who assess risks for insurance and investment purposes, are in especially great demand. companies may hire financial managers on a temporary Digitized forSome FRASER basis, to see the organization through a short-term crisis or to offer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis suggestions for boosting profits. Other companies may contract out all accounting and financial operations. Even in these cases, however, financial managers may be needed to oversee the contracts. Computer technology has reduced the time and staff required to produce financial reports. As a result, forecasting earnings, profits, and costs, and generating ideas and creative ways to increase prof itability will become the major role of corporate financial managers over the next decade. Financial managers who are familiar with computer software and applications that can assist them in this role will be needed. Earnings Median annual earnings of financial managers were $67,020 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,150 and $91,580. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $36,050, while the top 10 percent earned over $131,120. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of financial managers in 2000 are shown below: Security brokers and dealers.................... Accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping Computer and data processing services. Local government...................................... Commercial banks..................................... $112,140 83,380 79,850 59,000 55,960 According to a 2001 survey by Robert Half International, a staff ing services firm specializing in accounting and finance, directors of finance earned between $70,750 and $202,750, and corporate controllers earned between $53,500 and $150,250. The results of the Association for Financial Professionals’ 13th annual compensation survey are presented in table 1. The earnings listed in the table represent total compensation, including bonuses and deferred compensation, for 2001. Financial officers average total compensation was $122,170. Large organizations often pay more than small ones, and salary levels also can depend on the type of industry and location. Many financial managers in private industry receive additional compen sation in the fonn of bonuses, which also vary substantially by size of firm. Deferred compensation in the form of stock options also is becoming more common. Table 1. Average earnings for selected financial managers, 2001 Vice president of finance............ Treasurer......................................... Assistant vice president-finance Controller/comptroller................ Director........................................... Assistant treasurer....................... Assistant controller/comptroller Manager.......................................... Cash manager............................... $178,724 158,404 128,272 119,220 110,704 105,885 99,856 81,720 60,424 SOURCE: Association for Financial Professionals Related Occupations Financial managers combine formal education with experience in one or more areas of finance, such as asset management, lending, credit operations, securities investment, or insurance risk and loss control. Workers in other occupations requiring similar training and skills include accountants and auditors; budget analysts; credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; insurance underwriters; loan counselors and Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 55 officers; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; and real estate brokers and sales agents. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers and certification in financial man agement, contact: >• American Bankers Association, 1120 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.aba.com >• Financial Management Association International, College of Business Administration, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620-5500. Internet: http://www.fma.org For information about financial careers in business credit man agement; the Credit Business Associate, Credit Business Fellow, and Certified Credit Executive programs, contact: ► National Association of Credit Management, Credit Research Founda tion, 8840 Columbia 100 Pkwy., Columbia, MD 21045-2158. Internet: http://www.nacm.org For information about careers in financial and treasury manage ment and the Certified Cash Manager, Certified Financial and Trea sury Management, and Certified International Cash Management programs, contact: >■ Association for Financial Professionals, 7315 Wisconsin Ave., Suite 600 West, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.afponline.org For information about the Chartered Financial Analyst program, contact: ► Association for Investment Management and Research, P.O. Box 3668, 560 Ray Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22903. Internet: http://www.aimr.org For information about the Certified Government Financial Man ager designation, contact: ► Association of Government Accountants, 2208 Mount Vernon Ave., Alex andria, VA 22301-1314. Internet: http://www.agacgfm.org Food Service Managers (0*NET 11-9051.00) Significant Points • • • Although many experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers are promoted to fill managerial jobs, applicants with a bachelor’s or associate degree in restaurant and institutional food service management should have the best job opportunities. Most new jobs will arise in eating and drinking places as the number of establishments increases along with the population, personal incomes, and leisure time. As more restaurant managers are employed by larger companies to run establishments, job opportunities should be better for salaried managers than for selfemployed managers. Nature of the Work The daily responsibilities of many food service managers can of ten be as complicated as some of the meals prepared by a fine chef. In addition to the traditional duties of selecting and pricing menu items, using food and other supplies efficiently, and achiev ing quality in food preparation and service, managers now are re sponsible for a growing number of administrative and human resource tasks. For example, managers must carefully find and evaluate new ways of recruiting employees in a tight job market. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Once hired, managers also must find creative ways to retain expe rienced workers. In most restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the manager is assisted in these duties by one or more assistant manag ers, depending on the size and operating hours of the establishment. In most large establishments, as well as in many smaller ones, the management team consists of a general manager, one or more assis tant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is respon sible for the operation of the kitchen, while the assistant managers oversee service in the dining room and other areas. In smaller restau rants, the executive chef also may be the general manager, and some times an owner. In fast-food restaurants and other food service facilities open for long hours—often 7 days a week—several assis tant managers, each of whom supervises a shift of workers, aid the manager. (For additional information on these other workers, see the Handbook statements on top executives and chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers.) One of the most important tasks of food service managers is selecting successful menu items. This task varies by establishment because, although many restaurants rarely change their menu, oth ers make frequent alterations. Managers or executive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers and the past popularity of dishes. Other issues taken into consider ation when planning a menu include unserved food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety, and the seasonal availability of foods. Managers or executive chefs ana lyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, and over head costs, and to assign prices to various dishes. Menus must be developed far enough in advance that supplies can be ordered and received in time. On a daily basis, managers estimate food consumption, place orders with suppliers, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and beverages. They receive and check the content of deliveries, evalu ating the quality of meats, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods. To ensure good service, managers meet with sales represen tatives from restaurant suppliers to place orders replenishing stocks of tableware, linens, paper, cleaning supplies, cooking utensils, and furniture and fixtures. They also arrange for equipment mainte nance and repairs, and coordinate a variety of services such as waste removal and pest control. The quality of food dishes and services in restaurants depends largely on a manager’s ability to interview, hire, and, when neces sary, fire employees. This is especially true in tight labor markets, when many managers report difficulty in hiring experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Managers may at tend career fairs or arrange for newspaper advertising to expand their pool of applicants. Once a new employee is hired, managers explain the establishment’s policies and practices and oversee any necessary training. Managers also schedule the work hours of em ployees, making sure there are enough workers present to cover peak dining periods. If employees are unable to work, managers may have to fill in for them. Some managers regularly help with cooking, clearing of tables, or other tasks. Another fundamental responsibility of food service managers is supervising the kitchen and dining room. For example, managers often oversee all food preparation and cooking, examining the quality and portion sizes to ensure that dishes are prepared and garnished correctly and in a timely manner. They also investigate and resolve customers’ complaints about food quality or service. To maintain company and government sanitation standards, they direct the clean ing of the kitchen and dining areas and washing of tableware, kitchen utensils, and equipment. Managers also monitor the actions of their employees and patrons on a continual basis to ensure that health and safety standards and local liquor regulations are obeyed. 56 Occupational Outlook Handbook In addition to their regular duties, food service managers have a variety of administrative responsibilities. Although much of this work is delegated to a bookkeeper in a larger establishment, man agers in most smaller establishments, such as fast-food restaurants, must keep records of the hours and wages of employees, prepare the payroll, and fill out paperwork in compliance with licensing laws and reporting requirements of tax, wage and hour, unemploy ment compensation, and Social Security laws. Managers also main tain records of supply and equipment purchases and ensure that accounts with suppliers are paid on a regular basis. In addition, managers in full-service restaurants record the number, type, and cost of items sold to evaluate and discontinue dishes that may be unpopular or less profitable. Many managers are able to ease the burden of recordkeeping and paperwork through the use of computers. Point-of-service (POS) systems are used in many restaurants to increase employee productivity and allow managers to track the sales of specific menu items. Using a POS system, a server keys in the customer’s order, and the computer immediately sends the order to the kitchen so that preparation can begin. The same system totals checks, acts as a cash register and credit card authorizer, and tracks daily sales. To minimize food costs and spoilage, many managers use inventory tracking software to compare the record of daily sales from the POS with a record of present inventory. In some establishments, when supplies needed for the preparation of popular menu items run low, additional inventory can be ordered directly from the sup plier using the computer. Computers also allow restaurant and food service managers to more efficiently keep track of employee sched ules and pay. Technology also impacts the job of food service managers in many other ways, helping to enhance efficiency and productivity. According to the 2000 National Restaurant Association’s Tableservice Operator Survey, for example, Internet uses by food service managers included tracking industry news, finding recipes, conducting market research, purchasing supplies or equipment, re cruiting employees, and training staff. Internet access also makes service to customers more efficient. Many restaurants maintain websites that include menus and online promotions and provide information about the restaurant’s location and the option to make a reservation. Managers are among the first to arrive in the morning and the last to leave. At the conclusion of each day, or sometimes each shift, managers tally the cash and charge receipts received and bal ance them against the record of sales. In most cases, they are respon sible for depositing the day’s receipts at the bank or securing them in a safe place. Finally, managers are responsible for locking up, checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off, and switching on alarm systems. Working Conditions Evenings and weekends are popular dining periods, making night and weekend work common among managers. Many managers of institutional food service facilities work more conventional hours because factory and office cafeterias usually are open only on week days for breakfast and lunch. However, hours for many managers are unpredictable, as managers may have to fill in for absent workers on short notice. It is common for food service managers to work 50 or more hours per week, 7 days a week, and 12 to 15 hours per day. Managers often experience the pressure of simultaneously coor dinating a wide range of activities. When problems occur, it is the responsibility of the manager to resolve them with minimal disrup tion to customers. The job can be hectic during peak dining hours, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be stressful. Employment Food service managers held about 465,000jobs in 2000. Most man agers are salaried, but about 1 in 3 was self-employed. Most work in restaurants or for contract institutional food service companies, while a smaller number are employed by educational institutions, hospitals, nursing and personal care facilities, and civic, social, and fraternal organizations. Jobs are located throughout the country, with large cities and tourist areas providing more opportunities for full-service dining positions. Managers estimate food consumption, place orders with suppliers, Digitized for schedule FRASER the delivery offresh food and beverages. and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most food service management companies and national or regional restaurant chains recruit management trainees from 2- and 4-year college hospitality management programs. Food service and res taurant chains prefer to hire people with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but they often hire gradu ates with degrees in other fields who have demonstrated interest and aptitude. Some restaurant and food service manager positions, particularly self-service and fast food, are filled by promoting ex perienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food workers demonstrating potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs. Executive chefs Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 57 need extensive experience working as chefs, and general managers need experience as assistant managers. A bachelor’s degree in restaurant and food service management provides a particularly strong preparation for a career in this occupa tion. A number of colleges and universities offer 4-year programs in restaurant and hotel management or institutional food service man agement. For those not interested in pursuing a 4-year degree, com munity and junior colleges, technical institutes, and other institutions offer programs in these fields leading to an associate degree or other formal certification. Both 2- and 4-year programs provide instruc tion in subjects such as nutrition and food planning and prepara tion, as well as accounting, business law and management, and computer science. Some programs combine classroom and labora tory study with internships that provide on-the-job experience. In addition, many educational institutions offer culinary programs that provide food preparation training. This training can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for advancement to an executive chef position. Most restaurant chains and food service management compa nies have rigorous training programs for management positions. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, train ees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operations of a restaurant or institutional food service facility. Topics include food preparation, nutrition, sanitation, security, com pany policies and procedures, personnel management, recordkeeping, and preparation of reports. Training on use of the restaurant’s computer system is increasingly important as well. Usually after 6 months or a year, trainees receive their first perma nent assignment as an assistant manager. Most employers emphasize personal qualities when hiring man agers. For example, self-discipline, initiative, and leadership abil ity are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with customers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their staff. A neat and clean appearance is a must because they often are in close personal contact with the public. Food service management can be demanding, so good health and stamina also are important. The certified Foodservice Management Professional (FMP) des ignation is a measure of professional achievement for food service managers. Although not a requirement for employment or advance ment in the occupation, voluntary certification provides recogni tion of professional competence, particularly for managers who acquired their skills largely on the job. The Educational Founda tion of the National Restaurant Association awards the FMP desig nation to managers who achieve a qualifying score on a written examination, complete a series of courses that cover a range of food service management topics, and meet standards of work experience in the field. Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to positions with greater responsibility. Managers typically advance to larger establishments or regional management positions within restaurant chains. Some eventually open their own eating and drinking establishments. Others transfer to hotel management po sitions because their restaurant management experience provides a good background for food and beverage manager jobs in hotels and resorts. Job Outlook Employment of food service managers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. In addi tion to employment growth, the need to replace managers who trans fer to other occupations or stop working will create many job https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis openings. Applicants with a bachelor’s or associate degree in res taurant and institutional food service management should have the best job opportunities. Projected employment growth varies by industry. Most new jobs will arise in eating and drinking places as the number of establishments increases along with the population, personal in comes, and leisure time. In addition, manager jobs will increase in eating and drinking places as schools, hospitals, and other busi nesses contract out more of their food services to institutional food service companies within the eating and drinking industry. Food service manager jobs still are expected to increase in many of the latter industries, but growth will be slowed as contracting out be comes more common. Growth in the elderly population should result in more food service manager jobs in nursing homes and other healthcare institutions, and in residential-care and assistedliving facilities. Job opportunities should be better for salaried managers than for self-employed managers. New restaurants are increasingly affili ated with national chains rather than being independently owned and operated. As this trend continues, fewer owners will manage restaurants themselves, and more restaurant managers will be em ployed by larger companies to run establishments. Earnings Median annual earnings of food service managers were $31,720 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,500 and $41,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,200, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $53,090. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of food service managers in 2000 are shown below. Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services....................... Hotels and motels.................................................................................. Nursing and personal care facilities................................................. Eating and drinking places................................................................. Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... $37,000 36,460 31,400 31,380 28,310 In addition to typical benefits, most salaried restaurant and food service managers receive free meals and the opportunity for addi tional training, depending on their length of service. Related Occupations Food service managers direct the activities of businesses, which provide a service to customers. Other managers and supervisors in service-oriented businesses include lodging managers, medical and health services managers, sales worker supervisors, financial man agers, social and community service managers, and first line super visors/managers of food preparation and serving workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a food service manager, 2- and 4-year college programs in restaurant and food service management, and certification as a Foodservice Management Professional is avail able from: National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation, Suite 1400,250 South Wacker Dr., Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.edfound.org General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from: The International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 3205 Skipwith Rd., Richmond, VA 23294. Internet: http://www.chrie.org Additional information about job opportunities in food service management may be obtained from local employers and from local offices of the State employment service. 58 Occupational Outlook Handbook Funeral Directors (0*NET 11-9061.00, 39-4011.00) • • • Significant Points Funeral directors must be licensed by their State. Job opportunities should be good, but mortuary science graduates may have to relocate to find jobs as funeral directors. Job outlook should be best for those who also embalm. Nature of the Work Funeral practices and rites vary greatly among various cultures and religions. Among the many diverse groups in the United States, funeral practices usually share some common elements: Removal of the deceased to a mortuary, preparation of the remains, perfor mance of a ceremony that honors the deceased and addresses the spiritual needs of the family, and the burial or destruction of the remains. Funeral directors arrange and direct these tasks for griev ing families. Funeral directors also are called morticians or undertakers. This career may not appeal to everyone, but those who work as funeral directors take great pride in their ability to provide efficient and appropriate services. They also comfort the family and friends of the deceased. Funeral directors arrange the details and handle the logistics of funerals. They interview the family to leam what they desire with regard to the nature of the funeral, the clergy members or other persons who will officiate, and the final disposition of the remains. Sometimes the deceased leaves detailed instructions for their own funerals. Together with the family, funeral directors establish the location, dates, and times of wakes, memorial services, and burials. They arrange for a hearse to carry the body to the funeral home or mortuary. Funeral directors also prepare obituary notices and have them placed in newspapers, arrange for pallbearers and clergy, schedule the opening and closing of a grave with the cemetery, decorate and prepare the sites of all services, and provide transportation for the remains, mourners, and flowers between sites. They also direct preparation and shipment of remains for out-of-State burial. Most funeral directors also are trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers. Embalming is a sanitary, cosmetic, and preservative process through which the body is prepared for interment. If more than 24 hours elapses between death and interment, State laws usu ally require that the remains be refrigerated or embalmed. The embalmer washes the body with germicidal soap and re places the blood with embalming fluid to preserve the body. Em balmers may reshape and reconstruct disfigured or maimed bodies using materials, such as clay, cotton, plaster of Paris, and wax. They also may apply cosmetics to provide a natural appearance, and then dress the body and place it in a casket. Embalmers maintain records such as embalming reports, and itemized lists of clothing or valu ables delivered with the body. In large funeral homes, an embalm ing staff of two or more embalmers, plus several apprentices, may be employed. Funeral services may take place in a home, house of worship, funeral home or at the gravesite or crematory. Services may be nonreligious, but often they reflect the religion of the family, so funeral directors must be familiar with the funeral and burial cus toms of many faiths, ethnic groups, and fraternal organizations. For members of some religions seldom have the bodies of the Digitizedexample, for FRASER deceased embalmed or cremated. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Burial in a casket is the most common method of disposing of remains in this country, although entombment also occurs. Crema tion, which is the burning of the body in a special furnace, is in creasingly selected because it can be more convenient and less costly. Cremations are appealing because the remains can be easily shipped, kept at home, buried, or scattered. Memorial services can be held anywhere, and at any time, sometimes months later when all rela tives and friends can get together. Even when the remains are cre mated, many people still want a funeral service. A funeral service followed by cremation need not be any differ ent from a funeral service followed by a burial. Usually cremated remains are placed in some type of permanent receptacle, or urn, before being committed to a final resting place. The um may be buried, placed in an indoor or outdoor mausoleum or columbarium, or interred in a special um garden that many cemeteries provide for cremated remains. Funeral directors handle the paper work involved with the person’s death, such as submitting papers to State authorities so that a formal certificate of death may be issued and copies distributed to the heirs. They may help family members apply for veterans’ burial benefits, and notify the Social Security Administration of the death. Also, funeral directors may apply for the transfer of any pensions, insur ance policies, or annuities on behalf of survivors. Funeral directors also prearrange funerals. Increasingly, they arrange funerals in advance of need to provide peace of mind by ensuring that the client’s wishes will be taken care of in a way that is satisfying to the person and to those who will survive. Most funeral homes are small, family-run businesses, and the funeral directors either are owner-operators or employees of the operation. Funeral directors, therefore, are responsible for the suc cess and the profitability of their businesses. Directors keep records of expenses, purchases, and services rendered; prepare and send invoices for services; prepare and submit reports for unemployment insurance; prepare Federal, State, and local tax forms; and prepare itemized bills for customers. Funeral directors increasingly are us ing computers for billing, bookkeeping and marketing. Some are beginning to use the Internet to communicate with clients who are preplanning their funerals, or to assist clients by developing elec tronic obituaries and guest books. Directors strive to foster a coop erative spirit and friendly attitude among employees and a compassionate demeanor towards the families. A growing number of funeral directors also are involved in helping individuals adapt to changes in their lives following a death through postdeath sup port group activities. wHHI ' SSf! mmHmm ■mm Funeral directors explain burial options and arrange details of funerals with clients. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 59 Most funeral homes have a chapel, one or more viewing rooms, a casket-selection room, and a preparation room. An increasing number also have a crematory on the premises. Equipment may include a hearse, a flower car, limousines, and sometimes an ambu lance. They usually stock a selection of caskets and urns for fami lies to purchase or rent. Working Conditions Funeral directors often work long, irregular hours, and the occupa tion can be considered a very high-stress job. Many work on an oncall basis, because they may be needed to remove remains in the middle of the night. Shiftwork sometimes is necessary because funeral home hours include evenings and weekends. In smaller funeral homes, working hours vary, but in larger homes employees usually work 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. Funeral directors occasionally come into contact with the re mains of persons who had contagious diseases, but the possibility of infection is remote if strict health regulations are followed. To show proper respect and consideration for the families and the dead, funeral directors must dress appropriately. The profes sion usually requires short, neat haircuts and trim beards, if any, for men. Suits, ties, and dresses are customary for a conservative look. Employment Funeral directors held about 32,000 jobs in 2000. Almost 1 in 5 were self-employed. Nearly all worked in the funeral service and crematory industry. Embalmers held about 7,200 jobs in 2000. Most funeral directors also are trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Funeral directors must be licensed in all but one State, Colorado. Licensing laws vary from State to State, but most require appli cants to be 21 years old, have 2 years of formal education that in cludes studies in mortuary science, serve a 1-year apprenticeship, and pass a qualifying examination. After becoming licensed, new funeral directors may join the staff of a funeral home. Embalmers must be licensed in all States, and some States issue a single li cense for both funeral directors and embalmers. In States that have separate licensing requirements for the two positions, most people in the field obtain both licenses. Persons interested in a career as a funeral director should contact their State licensing board for spe cific requirements. College programs in mortuary science usually last from 2 to 4 years; the American Board of Funeral Service Education accredits 49 mortuary science programs. Two-year programs are offered by a small number of community and junior colleges, and a few col leges and universities offer both 2- and 4-year programs. Mortuary science programs include courses in anatomy, physiology, pathol ogy, embalming techniques, restorative art, business management, accounting and use of computers in funeral home management, and client services. They also include courses in the social sciences and legal, ethical, and regulatory subjects, such as psychology, grief counseling, oral and written communication, funeral service law, business law, and ethics. The Funeral Service Educational Foundation and many State as sociations offer continuing education programs designed for licensed funeral directors. These programs address issues in communica tions, counseling, and management. Thirty-two States have require ments that funeral directors receive continuing education credits in order to maintain their licenses. Apprenticeships must be completed under an experienced and licensed funeral director or embalmer. Depending on State regula tions, apprenticeships last from 1 to 3 years and may be served https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis before, during, or after mortuary school. Apprenticeships provide practical experience in all facets of the funeral service from em balming to transporting remains. State board licensing examinations vary, but they usually con sist of written and oral parts and include a demonstration of practi cal skills. Persons who want to work in another State may have to pass the examination for that State; however, some States have reci procity arrangements and will grant licenses to funeral directors from another State without further examination. High school students can start preparing for a career as a funeral director by taking courses in biology and chemistry and participat ing in public speaking or debate clubs. Part-time or summer jobs in funeral homes consist mostly of maintenance and cleanup tasks, such as washing and polishing limousines and hearses, but these tasks can help students become familiar with the operation of funeral homes. Important personal traits for funeral directors are composure, tact, and the ability to communicate easily with the public. They also should have the desire and ability to comfort people in their time of sorrow. Advancement opportunities are best in larger funeral homes— funeral directors may earn promotions to higher paying positions such as branch manager or general manager. Some directors even tually acquire enough money and experience to establish their own funeral home businesses. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in overall employment through 2010. Employment of funeral directors is projected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations as the number of deaths in crease, spurring demand for funeral services. Employment of em balmers, however, is expected to decline slightly since most funeral directors also are trained, licensed, and practicing embalmers. The need to replace funeral directors who retire or leave the oc cupation for other reasons will account for more job openings than employment growth. Typically, a number of mortuary science gradu ates leave the profession shortly after becoming licensed funeral directors to pursue other career interests, and this trend is expected to continue. Also, more funeral directors are 55 years old and over compared with workers in other occupations, and will be retiring in greater numbers between 2000 and 2010. Although employment opportunities for funeral directors are expected to be good, mortu ary science graduates may have to relocate to find jobs in funeral services. Earnings Median annual earnings for funeral directors were $41,110 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,680 and $57,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,140, and the top 10 percent more than $85,780. Salaries of funeral directors depend on the number of years of experience in funeral service, the number of services performed, the number of facilities operated, the area of the country, the size of the community, and the level of formal education. Funeral direc tors in large cities earned more than their counterparts in small towns and rural areas. Median annual earnings for embalmers were $32,870 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,840 and $41,760. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,840, and the top 10 percent more than $52,130. Related Occupations The job of a funeral director requires tact, discretion, and compas sion when dealing with grieving people. Others who need these 60 Occupational Outlook Handbook qualities include members of the clergy, social workers, psycholo gists, physicians and surgeons, and other health diagnosing and treat ing practitioners. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited mortuary science programs and information on the funeral service profession, write to: >- The National Funeral Directors Association, 13625 Bishop’s Dr., Brookfield, WI 53005. Internet: http://www.nfda.org For information about college programs in mortuary science, scholarships, and funeral service as a career, contact: > The American Board of Funeral Service Education, 38 Florida Ave., Portland, ME 04103. Internet: http://www.abfse.org/index.html For information on continuing education programs in funeral service, contact: >• The Funeral Service Educational Foundation, 13625 Bishop’s Dr., Brookfield, WI 53005. Internet: http://www.fsef.org Human Resources,Training, and Labor Relations Managers and Specialists ___ ______ (0*NET 11-3041.00, 11-3042.00, 11-3049.99, 13-1071.01, 13-1071.02, 13-1072.00, 13-1073.00) • • • Significant Points Employers usually seek college graduates for entrylevel jobs. Depending on the particular job, a strong background in human resources, business, technical, or liberal arts subjects may be preferred. Keen competition for jobs is expected due to the abundant supply of qualified college graduates and experienced workers. Nature of the Work Attracting the most qualified employees and matching them to the jobs for which they are best suited is important for the success of any organization. However, many enterprises are too large to per mit close contact between top management and employees. Hu man resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists provide this link. In the past, these workers have been associated with performing the administrative function of an organization, such as handling employee benefits questions or recruiting, interview ing, and hiring new personnel in accordance with policies and re quirements that have been established in conjunction with top management. Today’s human resources workers juggle these tasks and, increasingly, consult top executives regarding strategic plan ning. They have moved from behind-the-scenes staff work to lead ing the company in suggesting and changing policies. Senior management is recognizing the importance of the human resources department to their bottom line. In an effort to improve morale and productivity and limit job turnover, they also help their firms effectively use employee skills, provide training opportunities to enhance those skills, and boost employee satisfaction with their jobs and working conditions. Al though some jobs in the human resources field require only limited contact with people outside the office, dealing with people is an essential part of the job. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In a small organization, a human resources generalist may handle all aspects of human resources work, requiring a broad range of knowledge. The responsibilities of human resources generalists can vary widely, depending on their employer’s needs. In a large cor poration, the top human resources executive usually develops and coordinates personnel programs and policies. (Executives are included in the Handbook statement on top executives.) These poli cies are usually implemented by a director or manager of human resources and, in some cases, a director of industrial relations. The director of human resources may oversee several depart ments, each headed by an experienced manager, who most likely specializes in one personnel activity such as employment, compen sation, benefits, training and development, or employee relations. Employment and placement managers oversee the hiring and separation of employees and supervise various workers, including equal employment opportunity specialists and recruitment special ists. Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists recruit and place workers. Recruiters maintain contacts within the community and may travel extensively, often to college campuses, to search for promis ing job applicants. Recruiters screen, interview, and sometimes test applicants. They also may check references and extend job offers. These workers must be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies to discuss wages, working conditions, and promotional opportunities with prospective employees. They also must keep informed about equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action guidelines and laws, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act. EEO officers, representatives, or affirmative action coordina tors handle this area in large organizations. They investigate and resolve EEO grievances, examine corporate practices for possible violations, and compile and submit EEO statistical reports. Employer relations representatives, who usually work in gov ernment agencies, maintain working relationships with local em ployers and promote the use of public employment programs and services. Similarly, employment interviewers—whose many job titles include personnel consultants, personnel development spe cialists, and human resources coordinators—help match employ ers with qualified job seekers. Compensation, benefits, andjob analysis specialists conduct pro grams for employers and may specialize in specific areas such as position classifications or pensions. Job analysts, sometimes called position classifiers, collect and examine detailed information about job duties to prepare job descriptions. These descriptions explain the duties, training, and skills each job requires. Whenever a large organization introduces a new job or reviews existing jobs, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. Occupational analysts conduct research, usually in large firms. They are concerned with occupational classification systems and study the effects of industry and occupational trends upon worker relationships. They may serve as technical liaison between the firm and industry, government, and labor unions. Establishing and maintaining a firm’s pay system is the princi pal job of the compensation manager. Assisted by staff specialists, compensation managers devise ways to ensure fair and equitable pay rates. They may conduct surveys to see how their rates com pare with others and to see that the firm’s pay scale complies with changing laws and regulations. In addition, compensation manag ers often oversee their firm’s performance evaluation system, and they may design reward systems such as pay-for-performance plans. Employee benefits managers and specialists handle the company’s employee benefits program, notably its health insurance and pension plans. Expertise in designing and administering ben efits programs continues to gain importance as employer-provided Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 61 benefits account for a growing proportion of overall compensation costs, and as benefit plans increase in number and complexity. For example, pension benefits might include savings and thrift, profit sharing, and stock ownership plans; health benefits may include long-term catastrophic illness insurance and dental insurance. Fa miliarity with health benefits is a top priority, as more firms struggle to cope with the rising cost of health care for employees and retir ees. In addition to health insurance and pension coverage, some firms offer employees life and accidental death and dismember ment insurance, disability insurance, and relatively new benefits designed to meet the needs of a changing work force, such as pa rental leave, child and elder care, long-term nursing home care in surance, employee assistance and wellness programs, and flexible benefits plans. Benefits managers must keep abreast of changing Federal and State regulations and legislation that may affect employee benefits. Employee assistance plan managers, also called employee wel fare managers, are responsible for a wide array of programs cover ing occupational safety and health standards and practices; health promotion and physical fitness, medical examinations, and minor health treatment, such as first aid; plant security; publications; food service and recreation activities; car pooling and transportation pro grams, such as transit subsidies; employee suggestion systems; childcare and elder care; and counseling services. Child care and elder care are increasingly important due to growth in the number of dual-income households and the elderly population. Counseling may help employees deal with emotional disorders, alcoholism, or marital, family, consumer, legal, and financial problems. Some employers offer career counseling as well. In large firms, certain programs, such as security and safety, may be in separate depart ments headed by other managers. Training and development managers and specialists conduct and supervise training and development programs for employees. In creasingly, management recognizes that training offers a way of developing skills, enhancing productivity and quality of work, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is widely accepted as a method of improving employee morale, but this is only one of the reasons for its growing importance. Other factors include the complexity of the work environment, the rapid pace of organizational and tech nological change, and the growing number of jobs in fields that constantly generate new knowledge. In addition, advances in learn ing theory have provided insights into how adults leam, and how training can be organized most effectively for them. Training specialists plan, organize, and direct a wide range of training activities. Trainers conduct orientation sessions and ar range on-the-job training for new employees. They help rank-andfile workers maintain and improve their job skills, and possibly prepare for jobs requiring greater skill. They help supervisors im prove their interpersonal skills in order to deal effectively with employees. They may set up individualized training plans to strengthen an employee’s existing skills or teach new ones. Train ing specialists in some companies set up leadership or executive development programs among employees in lower level positions. These programs are designed to develop potential and current ex ecutives to replace those retiring. Trainers also lead programs to assist employees with transitions due to mergers and acquisitions, as well as technological changes. In government-supported train ing programs, training specialists function as case managers. They first assess the training needs of clients, then guide them through the most appropriate training method. After training, clients either may be referred to employer relations representatives or receive job placement assistance. Planning and program development is an important part of the training specialist’s job. In order to identify and assess training https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis needs within the firm, trainers may confer with managers and su pervisors or conduct surveys. They also periodically evaluate train ing effectiveness. Depending on the size, goals, and nature of the organization, trainers may differ considerably in their responsibilities and in the methods they use. Training methods include on-the-job training; schools in which shop conditions are duplicated for trainees prior to putting them on the shop floor; apprenticeship training; class room training; and electronic learning, which may involve interac tive Internet-based training, multimedia programs, distance learning, satellite training, videos and other computer-aided instructional tech nologies, simulators, conferences, and workshops. The director of industrial relations forms labor policy, oversees industrial labor relations, negotiates collective bargaining agree ments, and coordinates grievance procedures to handle complaints resulting from disputes with unionized employees. The director of industrial relations also advises and collaborates with the director of human resources, other managers, and members of their staff, because all aspects of personnel policy—such as wages, benefits, pensions, and work practices—may be involved in drawing up a new or revised contract. Labor relations managers and their staffs implement industrial labor relations programs. When a collective bargaining agreement is up for negotiation, labor relations specialists prepare information for management to use during negotiation, which requires familiar ity with economic and wage data as well as extensive knowledge of labor law and collective bargaining trends. The labor relations staff interprets and administers the contract with respect to grievances, wages and salaries, employee welfare, health care, pensions, union and management practices, and other contractual stipulations. As union membership is continuing to decline in most industries, in dustrial relations personnel are working more with employees who are not members of a labor union. Dispute resolution—attaining tacit or contractual agreements— has become increasingly important as parties to a dispute attempt Human resources workers have moved from behind-the-scenes of recruiting to leading the company in suggesting and changing policies. 62 Occupational Outlook Handbook to avoid costly litigation, strikes, or other disruptions. Dispute resolution also has become more complex, involving employees, management, unions, other firms, and government agencies. Spe cialists involved in dispute resolution must be highly knowledge able and experienced, and often report to the director of industrial relations. Conciliators, or mediators, advise and counsel labor and management to prevent and, when necessary, resolve disputes over labor agreements or other labor relation’s issues. Arbitrators, some times called umpires or referees, decide disputes that bind both labor and management to specific terms and conditions of labor contracts. Labor relations specialists who work for unions per form many of the same functions on behalf of the union and its members. Other emerging specialists include international human resources managers, who handle human resources issues related to a company’s foreign operations, and human resources information system specialists, who develop and apply computer programs to process personnel information, match job seekers with job open ings, and handle other personnel matters. Working Conditions Personnel work usually takes place in clean, pleasant, and com fortable office settings. Arbitrators and mediators may work out of their homes. Many human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists work a standard 35- to 40-hour week. However, longer hours might be necessary for some workers—for example, labor relations managers and specialists, arbitrators, and mediators—when contract agreements are being prepared and negotiated. Although most human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists work in the office, some travel exten sively. For example, recruiters regularly attend professional meet ings and visit college campuses to interview prospective employees; arbitrators and mediators often must travel to the site chosen for negotiations. Employment Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and spe cialists held about 709,000 jobs in 2000. The following tabulation shows the distribution of jobs by occupational specialty: Human resources managers............................................. Training and development specialists........................... Employment, recruitment, and placement specialists Compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists 219.000 204.000 199.000 87,000 Human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists were employed in virtually every industry. About 21,000 specialists were self-employed, working as consultants to public and private employers. The private sector accounted for about 90 percent of salaried jobs. Among these salaried jobs, services industries—including business, health, social, management, and educational services accounted for about 46 percent of jobs; personnel supply services, the largest employer among specific services industries, accounted for almost 10 percent of those. Manufacturing industries accounted for nearly 13 percent of salariedjobs; while finance, insurance, and real estate firms accounted for about 11 percent of jobs. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 11 per cent of human resources managers and specialists. They handled the recruitment, interviewing, job classification, training, salary Digitizedadministration, for FRASER benefits, employee relations, and related matters of https://fraser.stlouisfed.org the Nation’s public employees. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity of duties and level of responsibility, the educational backgrounds of human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists vary considerably. In filling en try-level jobs, employers usually seek college graduates. Many prefer applicants who have majored in human resources, personnel admini stration, or industrial and labor relations. Others look for college graduates with a technical or business background or a well-rounded liberal arts education. Many colleges and universities have programs leading to a degree in personnel, human resources, or labor relations. Some offer degree programs in personnel administration or human resources manage ment, training and development, or compensation and benefits. De pending on the school, courses leading to a career in human resources management may be found in departments of business administra tion, education, instructional technology, organizational development, human services, communication, or public administration, or within a separate human resources institution or department. Because an interdisciplinary background is appropriate in this field, a combination of courses in the social sciences, business, and behavioral sciences is useful. Some jobs may require a more tech nical or specialized background in engineering, science, finance, or law, for example. Most prospective human resources specialists should take courses in compensation, recruitment, training and de velopment, and performance appraisal, as well as courses in prin ciples of management, organizational structure, and industrial psychology. Other relevant courses include business administra tion, public administration, psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and statistics. Courses in labor law, collective bargain ing, labor economics, labor history, and industrial psychology also provide a valuable background for the prospective labor relations specialist. As in many other fields, knowledge of computers and information systems also is useful. An advanced degree is increasingly important for some jobs. Many labor relations jobs require graduate study in industrial or labor relations. A strong background in industrial relations and law is highly desirable for contract negotiators, mediators, and arbitra tors; in fact, many people in these specialties are lawyers. A back ground in law also is desirable for employee benefits managers and others who must interpret the growing number of laws and regula tions. A master’s degree in human resources, labor relations, or in business administration with a concentration in human resources management is highly recommended for those seeking general and top management positions. For many specialized jobs in the human resources field, previ ous experience is an asset; for more advanced positions, including managers as well as arbitrators and mediators, it is essential. Many employers prefer entry-level workers who have gained some ex perience through an internship or work-study program while in school. Personnel administration and human resources develop ment require the ability to work with individuals as well as a com mitment to organizational goals. This field also demands other skills people may develop elsewhere—using computers, selling, teach ing, supervising, and volunteering, among others. This field offers clerical workers opportunities for advancement to professional po sitions. Responsible positions sometimes are filled by experienced individuals from other fields, including business, government, edu cation, social services administration, and the military. The human resources field demands a range of personal quali ties and skills. Human resources, training, and labor relations man agers and specialists must speak and write effectively. The growing diversity of the workforce requires that they work with or supervise people with various cultural backgrounds, levels of education, and experience. They must be able to cope with conflicting points of Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 63 view, function under pressure, and demonstrate discretion, integ rity, fair-mindedness, and a persuasive, congenial personality. The duties given to entry-level workers will vary depending on whether they have a degree in human resource management, have completed an internship, or have some other type of human resources-related experience. Entry-level employees commonly learn the profession by performing administrative duties—helping to en ter data into computer systems, compiling employee handbooks, researching information for a supervisor, or answering the phone and handling routine questions. Entry-level workers often enter formal or on-the-job training programs in which they learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or administer employee benefits. They then are assigned to specific areas in the personnel depart ment to gain experience. Later, they may advance to a managerial position, overseeing a major element of the personnel program— compensation or training, for example. Exceptional human resources workers may be promoted to di rector of personnel or industrial relations, which can eventually lead to a top managerial or executive position. Others may join a con sulting firm or open their own business. A Ph.D. is an asset for teaching, writing, or consulting work. Most organizations specializing in human resources offer classes intended to enhance the marketable skills of their members. Some organizations offer certification programs, which are signs of com petence and can enhance one’s advancement opportunities. For example, the International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans confers the Certified Employee Benefit Specialist designation to persons who complete a series of college-level courses and pass exams covering employee benefit plans. The Society for Fluman Resources Management has two levels of certification—Professional in Human Resources, and Senior Professional in Human Resources; both require experience and a comprehensive exam. Job Outlook The abundant supply of qualified college graduates and experienced workers should create keen competition for jobs. Overall employ ment of human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition to openings due to growth, many job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Legislation and court rulings setting standards in various areas— occupational safety and health, equal employment opportunity, wages, health, pension, and family leave, among others—will in crease demand for human resources, training, and labor relations experts. Rising health care costs should continue to spur demand for specialists to develop creative compensation and benefits pack ages that firms can offer prospective employees. Employment of labor relations staff, including arbitrators and mediators, should grow as firms become more involved in labor relations, and attempt to resolve potentially costly labor-management disputes out of court. Additional job growth may stem from increasing demand for spe cialists in international human resources management and human resources information systems. Expected job growth varies by specialty. Many new jobs will stem from increasing efforts throughout industiy to recruit and re tain quality employees. As a result, employment, recruitment, and placement specialists are projected to grow as fast as average. Fur thermore, employers are expected to devote greater resources to jobspecific training programs in response to the increasing complexity of many jobs, the aging of the work force, and technological ad vances that can leave employees with obsolete skills. This should result in particularly strong demand for training and development specialists across all industries. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Demand should continue to be strong among firms involved in management, consulting, and personnel supply, as businesses in creasingly contract out personnel functions or hire personnel spe cialists on a temporary basis to meet the increasing cost and complexity of training and development programs. Demand also should increase in firms that develop and administer complex em ployee benefits and compensation packages for other organizations. Demand for human resources, training, and labor relations man agers and specialists also is governed by the staffing needs of the firms for which they work. A rapidly expanding business is likely to hire additional human resources workers—either as permanent employees or consultants—while a business that has experienced a merger or a reduction in its work force will require fewer human resources workers. Also, as human resources management becomes increasingly important to the success of an organization, some small and medium-size businesses that do not have a human resources department may assign employees various human resources duties together with other unrelated responsibilities. In any particular firm, the size and the job duties of the human resources staff are deter mined by the firm’s organizational philosophy and goals, skills of its work force, pace of technological change, government regula tions, collective bargaining agreements, standards of professional practice, and labor market conditions. Job growth could be limited by the widespread use of computer ized human resources information systems that make workers more productive. Similar to other workers, employment of human re sources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists, par ticularly in larger firms, may be adversely affected by corporate downsizing, restructuring, and mergers. Earnings Annual salary rates for human resources workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, and size of the firm, and whether they are union members. Median annual earnings of human resources managers were $59,000 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,600 and $80,390. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $33,360, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $104,020. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of human resources managers in 2000 were: Computer and data processing services........................................... Telephone communication................................................................... Local government.................................................................................. Management and public relations...................................................... Hospitals.................................................................................................. $75,140 71,340 61 730 57,240 55,490 Median annual earnings of training and development specialists were $40,830 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,450 and $54,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,230. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of training and development specialists in 2000 were: Computer and data processing services............................................ $48,660 Hospitals..................................................................................................... 44,460 Local government..................................................................................... 41,800 State government...................................................................................... 39,960 Commercial banks.................................................................................... 36,070 Median annual earnings of employment, recruitment, and place ment specialists were $36,480 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,040 and $51,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,040. Median annual earnings in 2000 in personnel supply ser vices, the industry employing the largest numbers of employment, recruitment, and placement specialists, were $34,680. 64 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median annual earnings of compensation, benefits, and job analy sis specialists were $41,660 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,120 and $53,620. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,170, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,480. Median annual earnings in 2000 in local government, the industry employing the largest numbers of compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists, were $46,430. According to a 2001 salary survey conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candi dates majoring in human resources, including labor relations, re ceived starting offers averaging $31,963 a year. According to a 2001 survey of compensation in the human re sources field, conducted by Abbott, Langer, and Associates of Crete, Illinois, the median total cash compensation for selected personnel and labor relations occupations were: Compensation directors.............................................................. Benefits directors.......................................................................... Training directors......................................................................... Compensation managers............................................................. Industrial and labor relations supervisors............................... Recruitment and interviewing managers................................ Regional/divisional/subsidiary human resources managers Human resources information systems supervisors............. Benefits supervisors.................................................................... Training material development specialists............................. Recruitment and interviewing specialists (executive, managerial, and professional jobs)................ Training generalists (computer)............................................... Job evaluation specialists........................................................... Classroom instructors................................................................ Human resources records specialists...................................... $109,975 105,865 84,516 79,958 72,800 70,000 66,504 64,209 60,393 58,403 51,669 43,388 43,155 37,740 32,732 The average salary for personnel managers employed by the Federal Government was $64,411 in 2001. The average salary for occupational analysis specialists was $63,713; for employee relations specialists, $57,621; for labor relations specialists, $65,498; and for employee development specialists, $62,234. Salaries were slightly higher in areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. There are no formal entry-level requirements for manage rial positions. Applicants must possess a suitable combination of educational attainment, experience, and record of accomplishment. Related Occupations All human resources occupations are closely related. Other work ers with skills and expertise in interpersonal relations include coun selors, education administrators, public relations specialists, lawyers, psychologists and other social scientists, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in employee training and develop ment, contact: >■ American Society for Training and Development, 1640 King St., Box 1443, Alexandria, VA 22313. Internet: http://www.astd.org For information about careers and certification in employee com pensation and benefits, contact: >■ World at Work, 14040 Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260. Internet: http://www.worldatwork.org ► International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans, 18700 W. Bluemound Rd., P.O. Box 69, Brookfield, WI 53008-0069. Internet: http ://www.ifebp.org For information about academic programs in industrial relations, write to: ► Industrial Relations Research Association, University of Wisconsin, 7226 Social Science Bldg., 1180 Observatory Dr., Madison, WI 53706. Internet: http ://w ww.irra.ssc.wisc.edu https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information about personnel careers in the healthcare industry is available from: ^ American Society for Healthcare Human Resources Administration, One North Franklin, 31st Floor, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.ashhra.org Industrial Production Managers (0*NET 11-3051.00) • • • Significant Points While there is no standard preparation, a college degree is required. Applicants with a college degree in industrial engineering, management, or business administration, and particularly those with an undergraduate engineering degree and a master’s degree in business administration or industrial management, enjoy the best job prospects. Projected slower-than-average growth in employment reflects increasing productivity. Nature of the Work Industrial production managers coordinate the resources and ac tivities required to produce millions of goods every year in the United States. Although their duties vary from plant to plant, industrial production managers share many of the same major responsibili ties. These responsibilities include production scheduling, staff ing, procurement and maintenance of equipment, quality control, inventory control, and the coordination of production activities with those of other departments. The primary mission of industrial production managers is plan ning the production schedule within budgetary limitations and time constraints. They do this by analyzing the plant’s personnel and capital resources to select the best way of meeting the production quota. Industrial production managers determine, often using math ematical formulas, which machines will be used, whether new ma chines need to be purchased, whether overtime or extra shifts are necessary, and what the sequence of production will be. They moni tor the production run to make sure that it stays on schedule and correct any problems that may arise. Industrial production managers also must monitor product stan dards. When quality drops below the established standard, they must determine why standards are not being maintained and how to improve the product. If the problem relates to the quality of work performed in the plant, the manager may implement better training programs, reorganize the manufacturing process, or institute em ployee suggestion or involvement programs. If the cause is sub standard materials, the manager works with the purchasing department to improve the quality of the product’s components. Because the work of many departments is interrelated, manag ers work closely with heads of other departments such as sales, procurement, and logistics to plan and implement company goals, policies, and procedures. For example, the production manager works with the procurement department to ensure that plant inven tories are maintained at their optimal level. This is vital to a firm s operation because maintaining the inventory of materials necessary for production ties up the firm’s financial resources, yet insuffi cient quantities cause delays in production. A breakdown in com munications between the production manager and the purchasing department can cause slowdowns and a failure to meet production schedules. Just-in-time production techniques have reduced inven- Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 65 electronic and electrical equipment, fabricated metal products, in struments and related products, and food and kindred products in dustries, or are self-employed. Production managers work in all parts of the country, but jobs are most plentiful in areas where manu facturing is concentrated. Most industrial production managers have a college degree. tory levels, making constant communication among the manager, suppliers, and purchasing departments even more important. Com puters play an integral part in this coordination. They also are used to provide up-to-date information on inventory, the status of work in progress, and quality standards. Production managers usually report to the plant manager or the vice president for manufacturing, and may act as liaison between executives and first-line supervisors. (Information about top ex ecutives can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) In many plants, one production manager is responsible for all aspects of produc tion. In large plants with several operations—aircraft assembly, for example—there are managers in charge of each operation, such as machining, assembly, or finishing. Working Conditions Most industrial production managers divide their time between pro duction areas and their offices. While in the production area, they must follow established health and safety practices and wear the required protective clothing and equipment. The time in the office, which often is located near production areas, usually is spent meet ing with subordinates or other department managers, analyzing pro duction data, and writing and reviewing reports. Most industrial production managers work more than 40 hours a week, especially when production deadlines must be met. In facili ties that operate around-the-clock, managers often work late shifts and may be called at any hour to deal with emergencies. This could mean going to the plant to resolve the problem, regardless of the hour, and staying until the situation is under control. Dealing with production workers as well as superiors when working under the pressure of production deadlines or emergency situations can be stressfiil. Restructuring has eliminated levels of management and support staff, thus shifting more responsibilities to production man agers and compounding this stress. Employment Industrial production managers held about 255,000 jobs in 2000. Almost all are employed in manufacturing industries, including the industrial machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because ofthe diversity of manufacturing operations and job require ments, there is no standard preparation for this occupation. How ever, a college degree is required, even for those who have worked their way up the ranks. Many industrial production managers have a college degree in business administration, management, indus trial technology, or industrial engineering. Others have a master’s degree in industrial management or business administration (MBA). Some are former production-line supervisors who have been pro moted. Although many employers prefer candidates with a busi ness or engineering background, some companies hire well-rounded liberal arts graduates. As production operations become more sophisticated, increas ing numbers of employers are looking for candidates with graduate degrees in industrial management or business administration. Com bined with an undergraduate degree in engineering, either of these graduate degrees is considered particularly good preparation. Man agers who do not have graduate degrees often take courses in deci sion sciences, which provide them with techniques and mathematical formulas that can be used to maximize efficiency. Companies also are placing greater importance on a candidate’s interpersonal skills. Because the job requires the ability to compromise, persuade, and negotiate, successful production managers must be well-rounded and have excellent communication skills. Those who enter the field directly from college or graduate school often are unfamiliar with the firm’s production process. As a re sult, they may spend their first few months on the job in the company’s training program. These programs familiarize trainees with the production line, company policies, and the requirements of the job. In larger companies, they also may include assignments to other departments, such as purchasing and accounting. A num ber of companies hire college graduates as first-line supervisors and later promote them. Some industrial production managers have worked their way up the ranks, perhaps after having worked as first-line supervisors. These workers already have an intimate knowledge of the produc tion process and the firm’s organization. To be selected for promo tion, however, they must obtain a college degree, must demonstrate leadership qualities, and usually must take company-sponsored courses in management skills and communication techniques. In addition to formal training, industrial production managers must keep informed of new production technologies and manage ment practices. Many belong to professional organizations and at tend trade shows at which new equipment is displayed; they also attend industry conferences and conventions at which changes in production methods and technological advances are discussed. Industrial production managers with a proven record of superior performance may advance to plant manager or vice president for manufacturing. Others transfer to jobs with more responsibilities at larger firms. Opportunities also exist for consultants. (For more information, see the statement on management analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Employment of industrial production managers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. How ever, a number of job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. 66 Occupational Outlook Handbook Applicants with a college degree in industrial engineering, manage ment, or business administration, and particularly those with an un dergraduate engineering degree and a master s degree in business administration or industrial management, enjoy the best job pros pects. Employers also are likely to seek candidates who have excel lent communication skills and who are personable, flexible, and eager to enhance their knowledge and skills through ongoing training. Although manufacturing output is projected to rise, growing pro ductivity among industrial production managers and the workers they supervise will limit growth in employment of these managers. Productivity gains will stem from the increasing use of computers for scheduling, planning, and coordination. In addition, more em phasis on quality in the production process has redistributed some of the production manager’s oversight responsibilities to supervi sors and workers on the production line. Because production man agers are so essential to the efficient operation of a plant, they have not been greatly affected by recent efforts to flatten management structures. Nevertheless, this trend has led production managers to assume more responsibilities and has discouraged the creation of more employment opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings for industrial production managers were $61,660 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,290 and $81,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $106,020. Median annual earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest num bers of industrial production managers in 2000 were: Motor vehicles and equipment............................................... Electronic components and accessories............................... Miscellaneous plastics products, not elsewhere classified Commercial printing.................................................................. Fabricated structural metal products..................................... $74,400 71,150 55,800 54,200 53,630 Related Occupations Industrial production managers oversee production staff and equip ment, ensure that production goals and quality standards are being met, and implement company policies. Occupations requiring simi lar training and skills are engineers, management analysts, opera tions research analysts, and top executives. Sources of Additional Information Information on industrial production management can be obtained from: >■ American Management Association, 1601 Broadway, lOthFloor, New York, NY 10019. Internet: http://www.amanet.org Insurance Underwriters (0*NET 13-2053.00) Significant Points • Little or no change in employment is projected as insurance companies increasingly use computer underwriting software that automatically analyzes and rates insurance applications. • Most large insurance companies prefer college graduates who have a degree in business administration or finance with courses in accounting; however, a bachelor’s degree in any field—plus courses in business law and accounting—may be sufficient to qualify. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Insurance companies protect individuals and organizations from fi nancial loss by assuming billions of dollars in risks each year. Un derwriters are needed to identity and calculate the risk of loss from policyholders, establish appropriate premium rates, and write poli cies that cover these risks. An insurance company may lose busi ness to competitors if the underwriter appraises risks too conservatively, or it may have to pay excessive claims if the under writing actions are too liberal. With the aid of computers, underwriters analyze information in insurance applications to determine if a risk is acceptable and will not result in a loss. Applications are often supplemented with reports from loss-control consultants, medical reports, data ven dors, and actuarial studies. Underwriters then must decide whether to issue the policy and the appropriate premium to charge. In making this determination, underwriters serve as the main link between the insurance carrier and the insurance agent. On occa sion, they accompany sales agents to make presentations to pro spective clients. Technology plays an important role in an underwriter’s job. Underwriters use computer applications called “smart systems to manage risks more efficiently and accurately. These systems au tomatically analyze and rate insurance applications, recommend acceptance or denial of the risk, and adjust the premium rate in accordance with the risk. With these systems, underwriters are better equipped to make sound decisions and avoid excessive losses. The Internet also has affected the work of underwriters. Many insurance carriers’ computer systems are now linked to different databases on the Internet that allow immediate access to informa tion—such as driving records—necessary in determining a poten tial client’s risk. This reduces the amount of time and paperwork necessary for an underwriter to complete a risk assessment. Most underwriters specialize in one of three major categories of insurance—life, health, or property and casualty. Life and health insurance underwriters may further specialize in group or individual policies. The increased complexity of insurance plans and atten tion to the “bottom line” is changing the nature of underwriting. In the past, insurance agents acting as underwriters, particularly in the life and health fields, could accept or reject applications. Now this underwriting role is done mostly by full-time underwriters in the home or field office of the insurance company. Property and casualty underwriters usually specialize in either commercial or personal insurance, and then by type of risk insured, such as fire, homeowners, automobile, marine, liability, or work ers’ compensation. In cases where casualty companies provide in surance through a single “package” policy, covering various types of risks, the underwriter must be familiar with different lines of insurance. For business insurance, the underwriter often must be able to evaluate the firm’s entire operation in appraising its applica tion for insurance. An increasing proportion of insurance sales, particularly in life and health insurance, is being made through group contracts. A standard group policy insures everyone in a specified group through a single contract at a standard premium rate. The group under writer analyzes the overall composition of the group to assure that the total risk is not excessive. Another type of group policy pro vides members of a group—a labor union, for example—with indi vidual policies reflecting their needs. These usually are casualty policies, such as those covering automobiles. The casualty under writer analyzes the application of each group member and makes individual appraisals. Some group underwriters meet with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies avail able to their group. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 67 | jjjl fc^T I 7J Insurance underwriters review insurance applications and determine the appropriate premium to charge a customer. Working Conditions Underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical activ ity. Their offices usually are comfortable and pleasant. Although underwriters typically work a standard 40-hour week, more are working longer hours due to the downsizing of many insurance companies. Most underwriters are based in a home or regional branch office, but they occasionally attend meetings away from home for several days. Construction and marine underwriters frequently travel to inspect worksites and assess risks. Employment Insurance underwriters held about 107,000 jobs in 2000. The fol lowing tabulation shows the percent distribution of employment by industry: Property and casualty insurance carriers.................................................... 38 Insurance agents, brokers, and services...................................................... 22 Life insurance carriers.................................................................................... 16 Medical service and health insurance carriers ......................................... 10 Pension funds and miscellaneous insurance carriers................................. 6 All other industries.................................................................................. The majority ofunderwriters work for insurance companies called “carriers.” Of these underwriters, most work for property and casu alty insurance carriers; many others work for life insurance carriers. Most of the remaining underwriters work in insurance agencies or for organizations that offer insurance services to insurance compa nies and policyholders. A small number of underwriters work in agencies owned and operated by banks, mortgage companies, and real estate firms. Most underwriters are based in the insurance company’s home office, but some, mostly in the property and casualty area, work out of regional branch offices of the insurance company. These under writers usually have the authority to underwrite most risks and de termine an appropriate rating without consulting the home office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For entry-level underwriting jobs, most large insurance companies prefer college graduates who have a degree in business administra tion or finance, with courses or experience in accounting. How ever, a bachelor’s degree in almost any field—plus courses in business law and accounting—provides a good general background and may be sufficient to qualify. Because computers are an integral Digitized partforofFRASER most underwriters’ jobs, computer skills are essential. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis New employees usually start as underwriter trainees or assistant underwriters. They may help collect information on applicants and evaluate routine applications under the supervision of an experi enced risk analyst. Property and casualty trainees study claim files to become familiar with factors associated with certain types of losses. Many larger insurers offer work-study training programs, lasting from a few months to a year. As trainees gain experience, they are assigned policy applications that are more complex and cover greater risks. These require the use of computers for more efficient analysis and processing. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for people who enjoy analyzing information and paying attention to detail. In addition, underwriters must possess good judgment in order to make sound decisions. Excellent communication and interpersonal skills also are essential, as much of the underwriter’s work involves dealing with agents and other insurance professionals. Continuing education is necessary for advancement. Insurance companies usually pay tuition for underwriting courses that their trainees successfully complete; some also offer salary incentives. Independent study programs for experienced property and casu alty underwriters also are available. The Insurance Institute of America offers a program called “Introduction to Underwriting” for beginning underwriters, and the specialty designation, Associ ate in Commercial Underwriting (AU), the second formal step in developing a career in underwriting business insurance policies. Those interested in developing a career underwriting personal in surance policies may earn the Associate in Personal Insurance (API) designation. To earn either the AU or API designation, underwrit ers complete a series of courses and examinations that generally lasts 1 to 2 years. The American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Under writers awards the designation, CPCU, or Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriter, the third and final stage of development for an underwriter. Earning the more advanced CPCU designation takes about 5 years, and requires passing 10 examinations cover ing personal and commercial insurance, risk management, busi ness and insurance law, accounting, finance, management, economics, and ethics. Although CPCU’s may be underwriters, the CPCU is intended for everyone working in all aspects of prop erty and casualty insurance. The American College offers the Char 8tered Life Underwriter (CLU) designation and the Registered Health Underwriter (RHU) designation for all life and health insurance professionals. Experienced underwriters who complete courses of study may advance to senior underwriter or underwriting manager positions. Some underwriting managers are promoted to senior managerial jobs. Some employers require a master’s degree to achieve this level. Other underwriters are attracted to the earnings potential of sales and therefore obtain State licenses to sell insurance and re lated financial products as agents or brokers. Job Outlook Little or no change in employment of underwriters is expected through 2010. Computer software that helps underwriters analyze policy applications more quickly and accurately has made them more productive and capable of taking on a greater workload. Most job openings are likely to stem from the need to replace underwrit ers who transfer or leave the occupation, although some new job openings are being created for underwriters in the area of product development. These underwriters help set the premiums for new insurance products, such as those in the growing field of long-term care insurance. The best job prospects will be for underwriters with the right skills and credentials, such as excellent computer and communication 68 Occupational Outlook Handbook skills coupled with a background in finance. Job prospects may be better in health insurance than in property and casualty and life in surance. As Federal and State laws require health insurers to ac cept more applicants for insurance, the number of policies sold will increase. Also, as the population ages, there will be a greater need for health and long-term care insurance. Because insurance is considered a necessity for people and busi nesses, there will always be a need for underwriters. It is a profes sion that is less subject to recession and layoffs than other fields. A broad knowledge of insurance is desirable, so that underwriters can transfer to another underwriting specialty if downsizing were to Loan Counselors and Officers______ (0*NET 13-2071.00, 13-2072.00) Significant Points • Loan officer positions generally require a bachelor’s degree in finance, economics, or a related field; training or experience in banking, lending, or sales is • occur. Earnings Median annual earnings of insurance underwriters were $43,150 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,300 and $57,280 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,280, while the highest 10 percent earned over $74,060. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of insurance under writers in 2000 were: Fire, marine, and casualty insurance ... Life insurance.......................................... Insurance agents, brokers, and service Medical service and health insurance. $44,360 42,900 42,140 38,060 Insurance companies usually provide better than average ben efits, including employer-financed group life, health, and retirement plans. Related Occupations Underwriters make decisions on the basis of financial and statisti cal data. Other workers with the same type of responsibility in clude accountants and auditors, actuaries, budget analysts, cost estimators, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, fi nancial managers, loan counselors and officers, and credit analysts. Other jobs in the insurance industry include insurance sales agents and claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as an insurance underwriter is available from the home offices of many life, health, and property-casualty insurance companies. Information about the property-casualty insurance field can be obtained by contacting: ► The Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org Information on careers in the health insurance field can be ob tained from: ► Health Insurance Association of America, 555 13th St. NW., Suite 600 East, Washington, DC 20004-1109. Internet: http://www.hiaa.org Information on careers in the life insurance field can be obtained from: ► LIMRA International, P.O. Box 203, Hartford, CT 06141. Internet: http ://www.limra.com Information on the underwriting function and the CPCU and AU designations can be obtained from: >- The American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwrit ers/Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org Information on the CLU and RHU designations can be obtained from: ► The American College, 270 South Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA, 19010-2196. Internet: http://www.amercoll.edu https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • advantageous. Slower than average employment growth for loan officers is expected because technology is making loan processing and approval simpler and faster. Earnings often fluctuate with the number of loans generated, rising substantially when the economy is good and interest rates are low. Nature of the Work For many individuals, taking out a loan may be the only way to afford a house, car, or college education. Likewise for businesses, loans are essential to start many companies, purchase inventory, or invest in capital equipment. Loan officers facilitate this lending by seeking potential clients and assisting them in applying for loans. Loan officers also gather information about clients and businesses to ensure that an informed decision is made regarding the quality of the loan and the probability of repayment. Loan officers usually specialize in commercial, consumer, or mortgage loans. Commercial or business loans help companies pay for new equipment or expand operations; consumer loans include home equity, automobile, and personal loans; mortgage loans are made to purchase real estate or to refinance an existing mortgage. As banks and other financial institutions begin to offer new types of loans and a growing variety of financial services, loan officers will have to keep abreast of these new product lines so that they can meet their customers’ needs. In many instances, loan officers act as salespeople. Commercial loan officers, for example, contact firms to determine their needs for loans. If a firm is seeking new funds, the loan officer will tty to persuade the company to obtain the loan from their institution. Simi larly, mortgage loan officers develop relationships with commeror firm buys a property, the real estate agent might recommend con tacting a specific loan officer for financing. Once this initial contact has been made, loan officers guide cli ents through the process of applying for a loan. This process be gins with a formal meeting or telephone call with a prospective client, during which the loan officer obtains basic information about the purpose of the loan and explains the different types of loans and credit terms that are available to the applicant. Loan officers an swer questions about the process and sometimes assist clients in filling out the application. After a client completes the application, the loan officer begins the process of analyzing and verifying the application to determine the client’s creditworthiness. Often, loan officers can quickly ac cess the client’s credit history by computer and obtain a credit “score. This score represents the creditworthiness of a person or business as assigned by a software program that makes the evaluation. In cases where a credit history is not available or where unusual finan cial circumstances are present, the loan officer may request addi tional financial information from the client or, in the case of commercial loans, copies of the company’s financial statements. With this information, loan officers who specialize in evaluating a Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 69 institutions, and credit unions. Others were employed by nonbank financial institutions, such as mortgage banking and brokerage firms and personal credit firms. Loan officers are employed throughout the Nation, but most work in urban and suburban areas. At some banks, particularly in rural areas, the branch or assistant manager often handles the loan appli cation process. Loan officers guide clients through the process ofapplyingfor loans. client’s creditworthiness—often called loan underwriters—may con duct a financial analysis or other risk assessment. Loan officers include this information and their written comments in a loan file, which is used to analyze whether the prospective loan meets the lending institution’s requirements. Loan officers then decide, in consultation with their managers, whether to grant the loan. If the loan is approved, a repayment schedule is arranged with the client. A loan may be approved that would otherwise be denied if the customer can provide the lender with appropriate collateral—prop erty pledged as security for the repayment of a loan. For example, when lending money for a college education, a bank may insist that borrowers offer their home as collateral. If the borrowers were ever unable to repay the loans, the homes would be seized under court order and sold to raise the necessary money. Loan counselors, also called loan collection officers, contact bor rowers with delinquent loan accounts to help them find a method of repayment to avoid their defaulting on the loan. If a repayment plan cannot be developed, the loan counselor initiates collateral liq uidation, in which the collateral used to secure the loan—a home or car, for example—is seized by the lender and sold to repay the loan. A loan officer may also perform this function. Working Conditions Working as a loan officer usually involves considerable travel. For example, commercial and mortgage loan officers frequently work away from their offices and rely on laptop computers, cellular phones, and pagers to keep in contact with their offices and clients. Mort gage loan officers often work out of their home or car, visiting of fices or homes of clients while completing loan applications. Commercial loan officers sometimes travel to other cities to prepare complex loan agreements. Consumer loan officers and loan coun selors, however, are likely to spend most of their time in an office. Most loan officers and counselors work a standard 40-hour week, but many work longer, depending on the number of clients and the demand for loans. Mortgage loan officers can work especially long hours because they are free to take on as many customers as they choose. Loan officers usually carry a heavy caseload and some times cannot accept new clients until they complete current cases. They are especially busy when interest rates are low, a condition that triggers a surge in loan applications. Employment Loan counselors and officers held about 265,000 jobs in 2000. Approximately half were employed by commercial banks, savings https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Loan officer positions generally require a bachelor’s degree in fi nance, economics, or a related field. Most employers prefer appli cants who are familiar with computers, and their applications in banking. For commercial or mortgage loan officer jobs, training or experience in sales is highly valued by potential employers. Loan officers without college degrees usually have reached their posi tions by advancing through the ranks of an organization and acquir ing several years of work experience in various other occupations, such as teller or customer service representative. The American Institute of Banking, which is affiliated with the American Bankers Association, offers correspondence courses and college and university classes for students interested in lending, as well as for experienced loan officers who want to keep their skills current. The Mortgage Bankers Association’s School of Mortgage Banking also offers classes, both classroom- and Internet-based, for people involved in real estate lending. Completion of these courses and programs enhances one’s employment and advance ment opportunities. Persons planning a career as a loan officer or counselor should be capable of developing effective working relationships with oth ers, confident in their abilities, and highly motivated. For public relations purposes, loan officers must be willing to attend commu nity events as representatives of their employer. Capable loan officers and counselors may advance to larger branches of the firm or to managerial positions, while less capable workers—and those having inadequate academic preparation— could be assigned to smaller branches and might find promotion difficult. Advancement beyond a loan officer position usually in cludes supervising other loan officers and clerical staff. Job Outlook Automation of many financial services and the growing use of online mortgage brokers are expected to have a significant impact on the demand for lending professionals. However, population growth and the increasing variety of loans and other financial services that loan officers promote will ensure modest employment increases for these professionals. Employment of loan officers is projected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. In contrast, loan counselors are expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010 as requirements for filing for bankruptcy tighten, forcing many to seek counseling to manage their debt. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire or otherwise leave the occupation permanently. As in the past, college graduates and those with bank ing, lending, or sales experience should have the best job prospects. The use of credit scoring has made the loan evaluation process much simpler than in the past, and even unnecessary in some cases. Credit scoring allows loan officers, particularly loan underwriters, to evaluate many more loans in much less time, thus increasing loan officers’ efficiency. In addition, the mortgage application pro cess has become highly automated and standardized. This simplifi cation has enabled online mortgage loan vendors to offer loan shopping services over the Internet. Online vendors accept loan applications from customers over the Internet and determine which lenders have the best interest rates for that particular loan. With 70 Occupational Outlook Handbook this knowledge, customers can go directly to the lending institu tion, thereby bypassing mortgage loan brokers. Shopping for loans on the Internet—though currently not a widespread practice—is expected to become more common over the next 10 years, particu larly for mortgages, thus reducing demand for loan officers. Employment in banking generally is less affected by the upturns and downturns of the economy than is employment in other indus tries, contributing to job stability in banking occupations. Although loans remain a major source of revenue for banks, demand for new loans fluctuates and affects the income and employment opportuni ties of loan officers. When the economy is on the upswing or when interest rates decline dramatically, there is a surge in real estate buy ing and mortgage refinancing that requires loan officers to work long hours processing applications and induces lenders to hire ad ditional loan officers. Loan officers often are paid by commission on the value of the loans they place and some have high earnings when demand for mortgages is high. When the real estate market slows, loan officers often suffer a decline in earnings and may even be subject to layoffs. The same applies to commercial loan offic ers, whose workloads increase during good economic times as com panies seek to invest more in their businesses. In difficult economic conditions, loan counselors are likely to see an increase in the num ber of delinquent loans. Earnings Median annual earnings of loan counselors were $32,160 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,290 and $43,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,850, while the top 10 per cent earned more than $62,380. Median annual earnings of loan officers were $41,420 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,610 and $57,250. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,200, while the top 10 per cent earned more than $82,640. Median annual earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of loan officers in 2000 were: Commercial banks.................... Savings institutions................... Mortgage bankers and brokers Personal credit institutions..... Credit unions............................. $43,370 42,760 42,100 35,040 29,700 The form of compensation for loan officers varies. Most loan officers are paid a commission that is based on the number of loans they originate. In this way, commissions are used to motivate loan officers to bring in more loans. Some institutions pay only salaries, while others pay their loan officers a salary plus a commission or bonus, based on the number of loans originated. Banks and other lenders sometimes offer their loan officers free checking privileges and somewhat lower interest rates on personal loans. According to a salary survey conducted by Robert Half Interna tional, a staffing services firm specializing in accounting and fi nance, mortgage loan officers earned between $36,000 and $48,000 in 2000; consumer loan officers with 1 to 3 years of experience, between $42,250 and $56,750; and commercial loan officers with 1 to 3 years of experience, between $48,000 and $64,750. With over 3 years of experience, commercial loan officers could make between $66,000 and $95,250, and consumer loan officers can make between $55,500 and $75,500. Smaller banks ordinarily paid 15 percent less than larger banks. Loan officers who are paid on a commission basis usually earn more than those on salary only. Related Occupations Loan officers help the public manage financial assets and secure loans. Occupations that involve similar functions include securi ties and financial services sales representatives, personal financial https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis advisors, real estate brokers and sales agents, and insurance sales agents. Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a mortgage loan officer can be ob tained from: > Mortgage Bankers Association of America, 1125 15th St. NW., Wash ington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.mbaa.org State bankers’ associations can furnish specific information about job opportunities in their State. Also, individual banks can supply information about job openings and the activities, responsibilities, and preferred qualifications of their loan officers. Lodging Managers (0*NET 11-9081.00) Significant Points • Employment is projected to grow more slowly than • average. College graduates with degrees in hotel or restaurant management should have the best job opportunities. Nature of the Work A comfortable room, good food, and a helpful staff can make being away from home an enjoyable experience for both vacationing fami lies and business travelers. While most lodging managers work in traditional hotels and motels, some work in other lodging establish ments, such as camps, inns, boardinghouses, dude ranches, and rec reational resorts. In full-service hotels, lodging managers help their guests have a pleasant stay by providing many of the comforts of home, including cable television, fitness equipment, and voice mail, as well as specialized services such as health spas. For business travelers, lodging managers often schedule available meeting rooms and electronic equipment, including slide projectors and fax machines. Lodging managers are responsible for keeping their establish ments efficient and profitable. In a small establishment with a lim ited staff, the manager may oversee all aspects of operations. However, large hotels may employ hundreds of workers, and the general manager usually is aided by a number of assistant managers assigned to the various departments of the operation. In hotels of every size, managerial duties vary significantly by job title. The general manager, for example, has overall responsibility for the operation of the hotel. Within guidelines established by the owners of the hotel or executives of the hotel chain, the general manager sets room rates, allocates funds to departments, approves expenditures, and establishes expected standards for guest service, decor, housekeeping, food quality, and banquet operations. Man agers who work for chains also may organize and staff a newly built hotel, refurbish an older hotel, or reorganize a hotel or motel that is not operating successfully. In order to fill low-paying ser vice and clerical jobs in hotels, some managers attend career fairs. Resident managers live in hotels and are on call 24 hours a day to resolve problems or emergencies. In general, though, they typi cally work an 8-hour day and oversee the day-to-day operations of the hotel. In many hotels, the general manager also is the resident manager. Executive housekeepers ensure that guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms, and public areas are clean, orderly, and well main tained. They also train, schedule, and supervise the work of house keepers; inspect rooms; and order cleaning supplies. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 71 Employment Lodging managers held about 68,000 jobs in 2000. Self-employed managers—primarily owners of small hotels and motels—held about half of these jobs. Companies that manage hotels and motels under contract employed some managers. Lodging managers are responsiblefor keeping the operation oftheir establishments efficient and profitable. Front office managers coordinate reservations and room assign ments, as well as train and direct the hotel’s front desk staff. They ensure that guests are treated courteously, complaints and problems are resolved, and requests for special services are carried out. Front office managers often have authorization to adjust charges posted on a customer’s bill. Convention services managers coordinate the activities of large hotels’ various departments for meetings, conventions, and special events. They meet with representatives of groups or organizations to plan the number of rooms to reserve, the desired configuration of hotel meeting space, and the banquet services. During the meeting or event, they resolve unexpected problems and monitor activities to ensure that hotel operations conform to the expectations of the group. Assistant managers help run the day-to-day operations of the hotel. In large hotels, they may be responsible for activities such as personnel, accounting, office administration, marketing and sales, purchasing, security, maintenance, and pool, spa, or recreational facilities. In smaller hotels, these duties may be combined into one position. Some hotels allow an assistant manager to make deci sions regarding hotel guest charges when a manager is unavailable. Computers are used extensively by lodging managers and their assistants to keep track of the guest’s bill, reservations, room as signments, meetings, and special events. In addition, computers are used to order food, beverages, and supplies, as well as to pre pare reports for hotel owners and top-level managers. Managers work with computer specialists to ensure that the hotel’s computer system functions properly. Should the hotel’s computer system fail, managers must continue to meet guests’ needs. Working Conditions Because hotels are open around the clock, night and weekend work is common. Many lodging managers work more than 40 hours per week. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, but they may be called to work at any time. Some em ployees of resort hotels are managers during the busy season and have other duties during the rest of the year. Lodging managers sometimes experience the pressures of coor dinating a wide range of functions. Conventions and large groups of tourists may present unusual problems. Moreover, dealing with irate guests can be stressful. The job can be particularly hectic for front office managers during check-in and check-out time. Com puter failures can further complicate an already busy time. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Hotels increasingly emphasize specialized training. Postsecondary training in hotel or restaurant management is preferred for most hotel management positions, although a college liberal arts degree may be sufficient when coupled with related hotel experience. In ternships or part-time or summer work are an asset to students seek ing a career in hotel management. The experience gained and the contacts made with employers can greatly benefit students after graduation. Most bachelor’s degree programs include work-study opportunities. In the past, many managers were promoted from the ranks of front desk clerks, housekeepers, waiters, chefs, and hotel sales work ers. Although some employees still advance to hotel management positions without education beyond high school, postsecondary education is preferred. Restaurant management training or experi ence also is a good background for entering hotel management because the success of a hotel’s food service and beverage opera tions often is of great importance to the profitability of the entire establishment. Community colleges, junior colleges and some universities of fer associate, bachelor’s, and graduate degree programs in hotel or restaurant management. When combined with technical institutes, vocational and trade schools, and other academic institutions, over 800 educational facilities have programs leading to formal recogni tion in hotel or restaurant management. Hotel management pro grams include instruction in hotel administration, accounting, economics, marketing, housekeeping, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Computer training also is an integral part of hotel management training due to the wide spread use of computers in reservations, billing, and housekeeping management. Lodging managers must be able to get along with many differ ent people, even in stressful situations. They must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. Initiative, self-discipline, ef fective communication skills, and the ability to organize and direct the work of others also are essential for managers at all levels. Most hotels promote employees who have proven their ability and completed formal education in hotel management. Graduates of hotel or restaurant management programs usually start as trainee assistant managers. Some large hotels sponsor specialized on-thejob management training programs allowing trainees to rotate among various departments and gain a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Other hotels may help finance formal training in hotel management for outstanding employees. Newly built hotels, par ticularly those without well-established on-the-job training pro grams, often prefer experienced personnel for managerial positions. Large hotel and motel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than small, independently owned establishments, but relocation every several years often is necessary for advancement. The large chains have more extensive career ladder programs and offer managers the opportunity to transfer to another hotel or motel in the chain or to the central office. Career advancement can be accelerated by completion of certification programs offered by the associations listed below. These programs usually require a combi nation of coursework, examinations, and experience. Outstanding lodging managers may advance to higher level manager positions. (For more information, see the statement on top executives else where in the Handbook.) 72 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Employment of lodging managers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Additional job openings are expected to occur as experienced managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force, in part because of the long hours and stressful working conditions. Job opportunities in hotel management are expected to be best for persons with college degrees in hotel or restaurant management. Increasing business travel and domestic and foreign tourism will drive employment growth of lodging managers. Managerial jobs are not expected to grow as rapidly as the hotel industry overall, however. As the industry consolidates, many chains and franchises will acquire independently owned establishments and increase the numbers of economy-class rooms to accommodate bargain-con scious guests. Economy hotels offer clean, comfortable rooms and front desk services without costly extras like restaurants and room service. Because there are not as many departments in these hotels, fewer managers will be needed. Similarly, the increasing number of extended-stay hotels will temper demand for managers because in these establishments, management is not required to be available 24 hours a day. In addition, front desk clerks increasingly are as suming some responsibilities previously reserved for managers, further limiting the growth of managers and their assistants. Additional demand for managers, however, is expected in suite hotels as some guests, especially business customers, are willing to pay higher prices for rooms with kitchens and suites that provide the space needed to conduct meetings. In addition, large full-ser vice hotels—offering restaurants, fitness centers, large meeting rooms, and play areas for children, among other amenities—will continue to offer many trainee and managerial opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of lodging managers were $30,770 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,670 and $41,830. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,080, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,050. Salaries of lodging managers vary greatly according to their re sponsibilities and the segment of the hotel industry in which they are employed. Managers may earn bonuses of up to 25 percent of their basic salary in some hotels and also may be furnished with lodging, meals, parking, laundry, and other services. In addition to typical benefits, some hotels offer profit-sharing plans and educa tional assistance to their employees. Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with organizing and directing a business where customer service is the cornerstone of their success include food service managers, gaming managers, sales worker supervisors, and property, real estate, and community association managers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and scholarships in hotel management, contact: ► American Hotel and Lodging Association, 1201 New York Ave. NW., #600, Washington, DC 20005-3931. Internet: http://www.ahlaonline.org Information on careers in the lodging industry and professional development and training programs may be obtained from: ► Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging Association, 800 N. Magnolia Ave., Suite 1800, Orlando, FL 32853-1126. Internet: http://www.ei-ahma.org For information on educational programs, including correspon dence courses, in hotel and restaurant management, write to: >- International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 3205 Skipwith Rd., Richmond, VA 23294-4442. Internet: http://www.chrie.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information on careers in housekeeping management may be obtained from: >- International Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081. Internet: http://www.ieha.org Management Analysts ___ (0**NET 13-1111.00) • • • Significant Points Thirty-three percent are self-employed, about twice the average for other management, business, and financial occupations. Most positions in private industry require a master’s degree and 5 years of specialized experience; a bachelor’s degree is sufficient for entry-level government jobs. Despite projected faster-than-average employment growth, intense competition is expected for jobs. Nature of the Work As business becomes more complex, the Nation’s firms are con tinually faced with new challenges. Firms increasingly rely on man agement analysts to help them remain competitive amidst these changes. Management analysts, often referred to as management consultants in private industry, analyze and propose ways to im prove an organization’s structure, efficiency, or profits. For example, a small but rapidly growing company that needs help improving the system of control over inventories and expenses may decide to em ploy a consultant who is an expert in just-in-time inventory man agement. In another case, a large company that has recently acquired a new division may hire management analysts to help reorganize the corporate structure and eliminate duplicate or nonessential jobs. In recent years, information technology and electronic commerce have provided new opportunities for management analysts. Companies hire consultants to develop strategies for entering and remaining competitive in the new electronic marketplace. (For information on computer specialists working in consulting, see the statements on computer software engineers, as well as systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Firms providing management analysis range in size from a single practitioner to large international organizations employing thousands of consultants. Some analysts and consultants specialize in a spe cific industry while others specialize by type of business function, such as human resources or information systems. In government, management analysts tend to specialize by type of agency. The work of management analysts and consultants varies with each cli ent or employer, and from project to project. Some projects require a team of consultants, each specializing in one area. In otherprojects, consultants work independently with the organization’s managers. In all cases, analysts and consultants collect, review, and analyze information in order to make recommendations to managers. Both public and private organizations use consultants for a vari ety of reasons. Some lack the internal resources needed to handle a project, while others need a consultant’s expertise to determine what resources will be required and what problems may be encountered if they pursue a particular opportunity. To retain a consultant, a company first solicits proposals from a number of consulting firms specializing in the area in which it needs assistance. These propos als include the estimated cost and scope of the project, staffing requirements, references from a number of previous clients, and a Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 73 Employment Management analysts held about 501,000jobs in 2000. Thirty three percent of these workers were self-employed, almost twice the average for other management, business, and financial occupations. Management analysts are found throughout the country, but employ ment is concentrated in large metropolitan areas. Most work in management consulting and computer and data processing firms, and for Federal, State, and local governments. The majority of those working for the Federal Government are in the U.S. Department of Defense. C25"'~ Management analysts suggest ways to make an organization’s operations more efficient. completion deadline. The company then selects the proposal that best suits its needs. After obtaining an assignment or contract, management analysts first define the nature and extent of the problem. During this phase, they analyze relevant data, which may include annual revenues, em ployment, or expenditures, and interview managers and employees while observing their operations. The analyst or consultant then develops solutions to the problem. In the course of preparing their recommendations, they take into account the nature of the organi zation, the relationship it has with others in the industry, and its internal organization and culture. Insight into the problem often is gained by building and solving mathematical models. Once they have decided on a course of action, consultants report their findings and recommendations to the client. These sugges tions usually are submitted in writing, but oral presentations re garding findings also are common. For some projects, management analysts are retained to help implement the suggestions they have made. Management analysts in government agencies use the same skills as their private-sector colleagues to advise managers on many types of issues, most of which are similar to the problems faced by pri vate firms. For example, if an agency is planning to purchase per sonal computers, it must first determine which type to buy, given its budget and data processing needs. In this case, management ana lysts would assess the prices and characteristics of various machines and determine which best meets the agency’s needs. Working Conditions Management analysts usually divide their time between their of fices and the client’s site. In either situation, much of an analyst’s time is spent indoors in clean, well-lit offices. Because they must spend a significant portion of their time with clients, analysts travel frequently. Analysts and consultants generally work at least 40 hours a week. Uncompensated overtime is common, especially when project dead lines are approaching. Analysts may experience a great deal of stress as a result of trying to meet a client’s demands, often on a tight schedule. Self-employed consultants can set their workload and hours and work at home. On the other hand, their livelihood depends on their ability to maintain and expand their client base. Salaried consult ants also must impress potential clients to get and keep clients for their company. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for entry-level jobs in this field vary widely between private industry and government. Most employers in pri vate industry generally seek individuals with a master’s degree in business administration or a related discipline. Some employers also require at least 5 years of experience in the field in which they plan to consult in addition to a master’s degree. Most government agencies hire people with a bachelor’s degree and no pertinent work experience for entry-level management analyst positions. Many fields of study provide a suitable educational background for this occupation because of the wide range of areas addressed by management analysts. These include most academic programs in business and management, as well as computer and information sciences and engineering. In addition to the appropriate formal education, most entrants to this occupation have years of experi ence in management, human resources, information technology, or other specialties. Analysts also routinely attend conferences to keep abreast of current developments in their field. Management analysts often work with minimal supervision, so they need to be self-motivated and disciplined. Analytical skills, the ability to get along with a wide range of people, strong oral and written communication skills, good judgment, time management skills, and creativity are other desirable qualities. The ability to work in teams also is an important attribute as consulting teams become more common. As consultants gain experience, they often become solely re sponsible for a specific project, taking on more responsibility and managing their own hours. At the senior level, consultants may supervise lower level workers and become more involved in seek ing out new business. Those with exceptional skills may eventu ally become a partner in the firm. Others with entrepreneurial ambition may open their own firm. A high percentage of management consultants are self-employed, partly because business startup costs are low. Self-employed con sultants also can share office space, administrative help, and other resources with other self-employed consultants or small consulting firms, thus reducing overhead costs. Because many small consult ing firms fail each year for lack of managerial expertise and cli ents, those interested in opening their own firm must have good organizational and marketing skills and several years of consulting experience. The Institute of Management Consultants USA, Inc. (IMC USA) offers a wide range of professional development programs and re sources, such as meetings and workshops, that can be helpful for management consultants. The IMC USA also offers the Certified Management Consultant (CMC) designation to those who pass an examination and meet minimum levels of education and experience. Certification is not mandatory for management consultants, but it may give a jobseeker a competitive advantage. Job Outlook Despite projected rapid employment growth, keen competition is expected for jobs as management analysts. Because analysts can 74 Occupational Outlook Handbook come from such diverse educational backgrounds, the pool of ap plicants from which employers can draw is quite large. Further more, the independent and challenging nature of the work, combined with high earnings potential, makes this occupation attractive to many. Job opportunities are expected to be best for those with a graduate degree, industry expertise, and a talent for salesmanship and public relations. Employment of management analysts is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as industry and government increasingly rely on outside expertise to improve the performance of their organizations. Job growth is projected in very large consulting firms with international expertise and in smaller consulting firms that specialize in specific areas, such as biotech nology, healthcare, information technology, human resources, en gineering, and telecommunications. Growth in the number of individual practitioners may be hindered, however, by increasing use of consulting teams, which permits examination of a variety of different issues and problems within an organization. Employment growth of management analysts and consultants has been driven by a number of changes in the business environ ment that have forced finns to take a closer look at their operations. These changes include developments in information technology and the growth of electronic commerce. Traditional companies hire ana lysts to help design intranets or company Web sites, or establish online businesses. New Internet start-up companies hire analysts not only to design Web sites, but also to advise them in more tradi tional business practices, such as pricing strategies, marketing, and inventory and human resource management. In order to offer cli ents better quality and a wider variety of services, consulting firms are partnering with traditional computer software and technology firms. Also, many computer firms are developing consulting prac tices of their own in order to take advantage of this expanding mar ket. Although information technology consulting should remain one of the fastest growing consulting areas, the volatility of the computer and data processing services industry necessitates that the most successful management analysts have knowledge of traditional business practices in addition to computer applications, systems inte gration, and Web design and management skills. The growth of international business also has contributed to an increase in demand for management analysts. As U.S. firms ex pand their business abroad, many will hire management analysts to help them form the right strategy for entering the market; advise on legal matters pertaining to a specific countries; or help with organi zational, administrative, and other issues, especially if the U.S. com pany is involved in a partnership or merger with a local firm. These trends provide management analysts with more opportunities to travel or work abroad, but also require that they have a more com prehensive knowledge of international business and foreign cul tures and languages. Furthermore, as international and domestic markets have become more competitive, firms have needed to use resources more effi ciently. Management analysts increasingly are sought to help re duce costs, streamline operations, and develop marketing strategies. As this process continues and businesses downsize, even more op portunities will be created for analysts to perform duties that previ ously were handled internally. Finally, management analysts also will be in greater demand in the public sector, as Federal, State, and local government agencies seek ways to become more efficient. Earnings Salaries for management analysts vary widely by experience, edu cation, and employer. Median annual earnings of management ana lysts in 2000 were $55,040. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,970 and $72,630. The lowest 10 percent earned less than https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $32,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $98,210. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of management analysts and consultants in 2000 were: Accounting, auditing, and bookkeeping........................................... Management and public relations....................................................... Federal government............................................................................... Computer and data processing services............................................ State government................................................................................... $62,230 61,290 59,780 56,070 43,470 According to a 2000 survey by the Association of Management Consulting Firms, earnings—including bonuses and profit sharing— for research associates in member firms averaged $39,200; for en try-level consultants, $58,000; for management consultants, $76,300; for senior consultants, $100,300; for junior partners, $133,500; and for senior partners, $259,500. Salaried management analysts usually receive common benefits such as health and life insurance, a retirement plan, vacation, and sick leave, as well as less common benefits such as profit sharing and bonuses for outstanding work. In addition, all travel expenses usually are reimbursed by the employer. Self-employed consultants have to maintain their own office and provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Management analysts collect, review, and analyze data; make rec ommendations; and implement their ideas. Others who use similar skills include systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators; operations research analysts; economists and mar ket and survey researchers; and financial analysts and personal finan cial advisors. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities in management consulting is available from: >- The Association of Management Consulting Firms, 380 Lexington Ave., Suite 1700, New York, NY 10168. Internet: http://www.amcf.org Information about the Certified Management Consultant desig nation can be obtained from: >- The Institute of Management Consultants USA, Inc., 2025 M St. NW., Suite 800, Washington DC 20036. Internet: http://www.imcusa.org Information on obtaining a management analyst position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Medical and Health Services Managers_______ _________ ___ (0**NET 11-9111.00) Significant Points • • • Earnings of medical and health services managers are high, but long work hours are common. A master’s degree is the standard credential for most positions, although a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some entry-level positions in smaller facilities. Employment will grow fastest in residential care facilities and practitioners’ offices and clinics. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 75 Nature of the Work Healthcare is a business and, like every other business, it needs good management to keep it running smoothly. The term “medical and health services manager” encompasses all individuals who plan, direct, coordinate, and supervise the delivery of healthcare. Medi cal and health services managers include specialists and general ists. Specialists are in charge of specific clinical departments or services, while generalists manage or help to manage an entire fa cility or system. The structure and financing of healthcare is changing rapidly. Future medical and health services managers must be prepared to deal with evolving integrated healthcare delivery systems, techno logical innovations, an increasingly complex regulatory environ ment, restructuring of work, and an increased focus on preventive care. They will be called upon to improve efficiency in healthcare facilities and the quality of the healthcare provided. Increasingly, medical and health services managers will work in organizations in which they must optimize efficiency of a variety of interrelated ser vices, for example, those ranging from inpatient care to outpatient follow-up care. Large facilities usually have several assistant administrators to aid the top administrator and to handle daily decisions. They may direct activities in clinical areas such as nursing, surgery, therapy, medical records, or health information. (Managers in nonhealth areas such as administrative services, computer and information systems, finance, and human resources, are not included in this state ment. For information about them, see the statements on manage rial occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) In smaller facilities, top administrators handle more of the de tails of daily operations. For example, many nursing home admin istrators manage personnel, finance, facility operations, and admissions, and have a larger role in resident care. Clinical managers have more specific responsibilities than gen eralists, and have training or experience in a specific clinical area. For example, directors of physical therapy are experienced physical therapists, and most health information and medical record admin istrators have a bachelor’s degree in health information or medical record administration. These managers establish and implement policies, objectives, and procedures for their departments; evaluate personnel and work; develop reports and budgets; and coordinate activities with other managers. In group practices, managers work closely with physicians. Whereas an office manager may handle business affairs in small medical groups, leaving policy decisions to the physicians themselves, larger groups usually employ a full-time administra tor to advise on business strategies and coordinate day-to-day business. A small group of 10 or 15 physicians might employ one admin istrator to oversee personnel matters, billing and collection, bud geting, planning, equipment outlays, and patient flow. A large practice of 40 or 50 physicians may have a chief administrator and several assistants, each responsible for different areas. Medical and health services managers in managed care settings perform functions similar to those in large group practices, except their staffs may be larger. In addition, they may do more work in the areas of community outreach and preventive care than manag ers of a group practice. Some medical and health services managers oversee the activi ties of a number of facilities in health systems. Such systems may contain both inpatient and outpatient facilities and offer a wide range Digitized of forpatient FRASER services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Medical and health services managers are called upon to improve efficiency in healthcare facilities and the quality of the healthcare provided. Working Conditions Most medical and health services managers work long hours. Fa cilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and administrators and managers may be called at all hours to deal with problems. They also may travel to attend meetings or inspect satellite facilities. Some managers work in comfortable, private offices; others share space with other managers or staff. They may spend considerable time walking, to consult with coworkers. Employment Medical and health services managers held about 250,000 jobs in 2000. Almost 2 out of 5 jobs were in hospitals. About 1 in 5 were in nursing and personal care facilities or offices and clinics of physicians. The remainder worked mostly in home health agen cies, ambulatory facilities run by state and local governments, offices of dentists and other health practitioners, medical and den tal laboratories, residential care facilities, and other social service agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical and health services managers must be familiar with man agement principles and practices. A master’s degree in health services administration, long-term care administration, health sciences, public health, public administration, or business admin istration is the standard credential for most generalist positions in this field. However, a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some entry-level positions in smaller facilities and at the departmental level within healthcare organizations. Physicians’ offices and some other facilities may substitute on-the-job experience for formal education. For clinical department heads, a degree in the appropriate field and work experience may be sufficient for entry. However, a master’s degree in health services administration or a related field may be required to advance. For example, nursing service administrators usually are chosen from among supervisory registered nurses with administrative abilities and a graduate degree in nursing or health services administration. Bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree programs in health ad ministration are offered by colleges, universities, and schools of 76 Occupational Outlook Handbook public health, medicine, allied health, public administration, and business administration. In 2001, 67 schools had accredited pro grams leading to the master’s degree in health services administra tion, according to the Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration. Some graduate programs seek students with undergraduate de grees in business or health administration; however, many gradu ate programs prefer students with a liberal arts or health profession background. Candidates with previous work experience in healthcare also may have an advantage. Competition for entry to these programs is keen, and applicants need above-average grades to gain admission. Graduate programs usually last between 2 and 3 years. They may include up to 1 year of supervised administra tive experience, and course work in areas such as hospital organi zation and management, marketing, accounting and budgeting, human resources administration, strategic planning, health eco nomics, and health information systems. Some programs allow students to specialize in one type of facility—hospitals, nursing homes, mental health facilities, or medical groups. Other pro grams encourage a generalist approach to health administration education. New graduates with master’s degrees in health services admin istration may start as department managers or as staff employees. The level of the starting position varies with the experience of the applicant and size of the organization. Hospitals and other health facilities offer postgraduate residencies and fellowships, which usu ally are staff positions. Graduates from master’s degree programs also take jobs in large group medical practices, clinics, mental health facilities, multifacility nursing home corporations, and consulting firms. Graduates with bachelor’s degrees in health administration usu ally begin as administrative assistants or assistant department heads in larger hospitals. They also may begin as department heads or assistant administrators in small hospitals or nursing homes. All States and the District of Columbia require nursing home administrators to have a bachelor’s degree, pass a licensing exami nation, complete a State-approved training program, and pursue continuing education. A license is not required in other areas of medical and health services management. Medical and health services managers often are responsible for millions of dollars of facilities and equipment and hundreds of employees. To make effective decisions, they need to be open to different opinions and good at analyzing contradictory informa tion. They must understand finance and information systems, and be able to interpret data. Motivating others to implement their decisions requires strong leadership abilities. Tact, diplomacy, flex ibility, and communication skills are essential because medical and health services managers spend most of their time interacting with others. Medical and health services managers advance by moving into more responsible and higher paying positions, such as assistant or associate administrator, or by moving to larger facilities. Hospitals will continue to employ the most managers, although the number ofjobs will grow slowly compared with other areas. As hospitals continue to consolidate, centralize, and diversify functions, competition will increase at all job levels. Medical and health ser vices managers with experience in large facilities will enjoy the best job opportunities as hospitals become larger and more complex. Employment will grow the fastest in residential care facilities and practitioners’ offices and clinics. Many services previously provided in hospitals will continue to shift to these sectors, espe cially as medical technologies improve. Demand in medical group practice management will grow as medical group practices become larger and more complex. Medical and health services managers will need to deal with the pressures of cost containment and finan cial accountability, as well as with the increased focus on preven tive care. They also will become more involved in trying to improve the health of their communities. Managers with specialized experi ence in a particular field, such as reimbursement, should have good opportunities. Medical and health services managers also will be employed by healthcare management companies who provide management ser vices to hospitals and other organizations, as well as specific de partments such as emergency, information management systems, managed care contract negotiations, and physician recruiting. Job Outlook Employment of medical and health services managers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010 as the health services industry continues to expand and diversify. Op portunities for managers will be closely related to growth in the industry in which they are employed. Opportunities will be espe cially good in home healthcare, long-term care, and nontraditional health organizations, such as managed care operations and consult ing firms. Managers with work experience in the healthcare field and strong business and management skills should have the best opportunities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Related Occupations Medical and health services managers have training or experience in both health and management. Workers in other occupations re quiring knowledge of both fields are insurance underwriters and social and community service managers. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of medical and health services managers were $56,370 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,460 and $72,550. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $97,900. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and health services managers in 2000 were as follows: Hospitals.................................................................................................. Local government.................................................................................. Offices and clinics of medical doctors............................................. Health and allied services, not elsewhere classified...................... Nursing and personal care facilities.................................................. $60,360 56,800 53,430 51,800 51,240 Earnings of medical and health services managers vary by type and size of the facility, as well as by level of responsibility. For example, the Medical Group Management Association reported that median salaries in 2000 for administrators by group practice size were $65,125 in practices with fewer than 7 physicians; $83,022 in practices with 7 to 25 physicians; and $96,402 in practices with more than 26 physicians. According to a survey by Modem Healthcare magazine, median annual compensation in 2001 for managers of the following clini cal departments was $67,200 in respiratory therapy, $69,900 in home healthcare, $71,400 in physical therapy, $76,500 in radiology, $77,100 in clinical laboratory, $79,700 in rehabilitation services, $85,200 in ambulatory and outpatient services, and $113,800 in nursing services. Salaries also varied according to size of facility and geographic region. Sources of Additional Information Information about undergraduate and graduate academic programs in this field is available from: ► Association of University Programs in Health Administration, 730 11th St. NW., Washington, DC 20001-4510. Internet: http://www.aupha.org Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 77 For a list of accredited graduate programs in medical and health services administration, contact: >• Accrediting Commission on Education for Health Services Administration, 730 11th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20001-4510. Internet: http://www.acehsa.org For information about career opportunities in long-term care administration, contact: > American College of Health Care Administrators, 1800 Diagonal Rd., Suite 355, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.achca.org For information about career opportunities in medical group prac tices and ambulatory care management, contact: >- Medical Group Management Association, 104 Inverness Terrace East, Englewood, CO 80112-5306. For information about medical and healthcare office managers, contact: > Professional Association of Health Care Office Management, 461 East Ten Mile Rd., Pensacola, FL 32534-9712. Internet: http://www.pahcom.com Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers (0**NET 11-9141.00) • • • Significant Points Many enter the occupation as onsite managers of apartment buildings, office complexes, or community associations, or as employees of property management firms or community association management companies. Almost half of all property and real estate managers were self-employed, compared with only 8 percent of all workers combined. Opportunities should be best for those with college degrees in business administration or related fields, as well as professional designations. Nature of the Work Buildings can be homes, stores, or offices to those who use them. To businesses and investors, properly managed real estate is a po tential source of income and profits, and to homeowners, it is a way to preserve and enhance resale values. Property, real estate, and community association managers maintain and increase the value of real estate investments. Property and real estate managers over see the performance of income-producing commercial or residen tial properties, and ensure that real estate investments achieve their expected revenues. Community association managers manage the common property and services of condominiums, cooperatives, and planned communities through their homeowners’ or community associations. When owners of apartments, office buildings, or retail or indus trial properties lack the time or expertise needed for day-to-day man agement of their real estate investments or homeowners’ associations, they often hire a property or real estate manager, or community association manager. The manager is employed either directly by the owner or indirectly through a contract with a property manage ment firm. Generally, property and real estate managers handle the finan cial operations of the property, ensuring that mortgages, taxes, in surance premiums, payroll, and maintenance bills are paid on time. DigitizedInfor FRASER associations, however, homeowners pay their own community https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis real estate taxes and mortgages. Some property managers, called assetproperty managers, supervise the preparation of financial state ments and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, dates of lease expirations, and other matters. Often, property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, se curity, groundskeeping, trash removal, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers solicit bids from several contractors and recommend to the owners which bid to ac cept. They monitor the performance of contractors and investigate and resolve complaints from residents and tenants when services are not properly provided. Managers also purchase supplies and equipment for the property and make arrangements with specialists for repairs that cannot be handled by regular property maintenance staff. In addition to these duties, property managers must understand and comply with provisions of legislation, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Fair Housing Amendment Act, as well as local fair housing laws. They must ensure that their rent ing and advertising practices are not discriminatory and that the property itself complies with all of the local, State, and Federal regu lations and building codes. Onsite property managers are responsible for day-to-day opera tions for one piece of property, such as an office building, shopping center, community association, or apartment complex. To ensure that the property is safe and properly maintained, onsite managers routinely inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment to deter mine if repairs or maintenance are needed. They meet not only with current residents when handling requests for repairs or trying to resolve complaints, but also with prospective residents or ten ants to show vacant apartments or office space. Onsite managers also are responsible for enforcing the terms of rental or lease agree ments, such as rent collection, parking and pet restrictions, and termination-of-lease procedures. Other important duties of onsite managers include keeping accurate, up-to-date records of income and expenditures from property operations and submitting regular expense reports to the asset property manager or owners. Property managers who do not work onsite act as a liaison be tween the onsite manager and the owner. They also market vacant space to prospective tenants through the use of a leasing agent, ad vertising, or by other means, and establish rental rates in accor dance with prevailing local economic conditions. Some property and real estate managers, often called real estate asset managers, act as the property owners’ agent and adviser for the property. They plan and direct the purchase, development, and disposition of real estate on behalf of the business and investors. These managers focus on long-term strategic financial planning rather than on day-to-day operations of the property. When deciding to acquire property, real estate asset managers take several factors into consideration, such as property values, taxes, zoning, population growth, transportation, and traffic volume and patterns. Once a site is selected, they negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the property, securing the most beneficial terms. Real estate asset managers periodically review their company’s real estate holdings and identify properties that are no longer financially profitable. They then negotiate the sale or termination of the lease of such properties. (For more information, see the statement on real estate brokers and sales agents, located elsewhere in the Hand book.) Property and real estate managers who work for homebuilders, real estate developers, and land development companies acquire land and plan construction of shopping centers, houses, apartments, office buildings, or industrial parks. They negotiate with represen tatives of local governments, other businesses, community and public 78 Occupational Outlook Handbook interest groups, and public utilities to eliminate obstacles to the development of land and to gain support for a planned project. It sometimes takes years to win approval for a project and, in the pro cess, managers may have to modify plans for the project many times. Once cleared to proceed with a project, managers may help to ne gotiate short-term loans to finance the construction of the project, and later negotiate long-term permanent mortgage loans. They then help choose, assist, and advise the architectural firms that draw up detailed plans and the construction companies that build the project. In many respects, the work of community association managers parallels that of property managers. They collect monthly assess ments, prepare financial statements and budgets, negotiate with contractors, and help resolve complaints. In other respects, how ever, the work of community association managers differs from that of other residential property and real estate managers. They inter act on a daily basis with homeowners and other residents, rather than with renters. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the association, community association managers administer the daily affairs, and oversee the maintenance of property and facilities that the homeowners own and use jointly through the association. They also assist the board and owners in complying with association and government rules and regulations. Some associations encompass thousands of homes and employ their own onsite staff and managers. In addition to administering the associations’ financial records and budget, managers may be responsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, and ■if V--. Property, real estate, and community association managers are Digitizedresponsible for FRASER for landscaping and parking areas. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis community centers, and for the maintenance of landscaping and parking areas. Community association managers also may meet with the elected boards of directors to discuss and resolve legal issues or disputes between neighbors, as well as to review any pro posed changes or improvements by homeowners to their proper ties, to make sure they fit within community guidelines. Working Conditions Offices of most property, real estate, and community association managers are clean, modem, and well-lighted. However, many man agers spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Onsite managers, in particular, may spend a large portion of their workday away from their office, visiting the building engineer, show ing apartments, checking on the janitorial and maintenance staff, or investigating problems reported by tenants. Property and real es tate managers frequently visit the properties they oversee, some times on a daily basis when contractors are doing major repair or renovation work. Real estate asset managers may spend time away from home while traveling to company real estate holdings or search ing for properties to acquire. Property, real estate, and community association managers often must attend meetings in the evening with residents, property own ers, community association boards of directors, or civic groups. Not surprisingly, many managers put in long workweeks, especially be fore financial and tax reports are due. Some apartment managers are required to live in apartment complexes where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs, even when they are off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off for working nights or weekends. Many apartment managers receive time off during the week so that they are available on weekends to show apartments to prospective residents. Employment Property, real estate, and community association managers held about 270,000 jobs in 2000. Two of every 5 worked for real estate agents and managers, real estate operators and lessors, or property man agement firms. Others worked for real estate development compa nies, government agencies that manage public buildings, and corporations with extensive holdings of commercial properties. Forty-eight percent of property and real estate managers were selfemployed, compared with only 8 percent for all workers combined. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for property man agement positions. Entrants with degrees in business administra tion, accounting, finance, real estate, public administration, or related fields are preferred, but those with degrees in the liberal arts also may qualify. Good speaking, writing, computer, and financial skills, as well as an ability to tactfully deal with people, are essential in all areas of property management. Many people enter property management as onsite managers of apartment buildings, office complexes, or community associations, or as employees of property management firms or community asso ciation management companies. As they acquire experience work ing under the direction of a property manager, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility at larger properties. Those who excel as onsite managers often transfer to assistant property man ager positions in which they can acquire experience handling a broad range of property management responsibilities. Previous employment as a real estate sales agent may be an asset to onsite managers because it provides experience useful in show ing apartments or office space. In the past, those with backgrounds in building maintenance have advanced to onsite manager positions on the strength of their knowledge of building mechanical systems, Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 79 but this is becoming less common as employers place greater empha sis on administrative, financial, and communication abilities for managerial jobs. Although many people entering jobs such as assistant property manager do so by having previously gained onsite management experience, employers increasingly hire inexperienced college gradu ates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in business administration, accounting, finance, or real estate for these positions. Assistants work closely with a property manager and learn how to prepare budgets, analyze insurance coverage and risk options, market prop erty to prospective tenants, and collect overdue rent payments. In time, many assistants advance to property manager positions. The responsibilities and compensation of property, real estate, and community association managers increase as they manage more and larger properties. Most property managers are responsible for several properties at a time. As their careers advance, they gradu ally are entrusted with larger properties whose management is more complex. Many specialize in the management of one type of prop erty, such as apartments, office buildings, condominiums, coopera tives, homeowner associations, or retail properties. Managers who excel at marketing properties to tenants may specialize in managing new properties, while those who are particularly knowledgeable about buildings and their mechanical systems might specialize in the management of older properties requiring renovation or more frequent repairs. Some experienced managers open their own prop erty management firms. Persons most commonly enter real estate asset manager jobs by transferring from positions as property managers or real estate bro kers. Real estate asset managers must be good negotiators, adept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data in or der to assess the fair market value of property or its development potential. Resourcefulness and creativity in arranging financing are essential for managers who specialize in land development. Many employers encourage attendance at short-term formal train ing programs conducted by various professional and trade associa tions active in the real estate field. Employers send managers to these programs to improve their management skills and expand their knowledge of specialized subjects, such as the operation and main tenance of building mechanical systems, enhancement of property values, insurance and risk management, personnel management, busi ness and real estate law, community association risks and liabilities, tenant relations, communications, and accounting and financial con cepts. Managers also participate in these programs to prepare them selves for positions of greater responsibility in property management. Completion of these programs, related job experience, and a satis factory score on a written examination lead to certification, or the formal award of a professional designation, by the sponsoring asso ciation. (Some organizations offering such programs are listed at the end of this statement.) In addition to these qualifications, some asso ciations require their members to adhere to a specific code of ethics. In some States, community association managers must be licensed. Managers of public housing subsidized by the Federal Govern ment are required to be certified, but many property, real estate, and community association managers, who work with all types of property, choose to earn a professional designation voluntarily be cause it represents formal industry recognition of their achieve ments and status in the occupation. Real estate asset managers who buy or sell property are required to be licensed by the State in which they practice. Job Outlook Employment of property, real estate, and community association managers is projected to increase faster than the average for all oc Digitizedcupations for FRASER through the year 2010. Many job openings are expected https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis to occur as managers transfer to other occupations or leave the la bor force. Opportunities should be best for those with a college degree in business administration, real estate, or a related field, and for those who attain a professional designation. Job growth among onsite property managers in commercial real estate is expected to accompany the projected expansion in several industry groups: Wholesale and retail trade; finance, insurance, and real estate; and services. Additional employment growth will stem from expansion of existing buildings. An increase in the Nation’s stock of apartments, houses, and offices also should require more property managers. Developments of new homes increasingly are being organized with community or homeowner associations that provide community services and over see jointly owned common areas, requiring professional manage ment. To help properties become more profitable or to enhance the resale values of homes, more commercial and residential property owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of pro fessional managers. The changing demographic composition of the population also should create more jobs for property, real estate, and community association managers. The number of older people will grow dur ing the 2000-10 projection period, increasing the need for various types of suitable housing, such as assisted-living facilities and re tirement communities. Accordingly, there will be demand for prop erty and real estate managers to operate these facilities, and especially for those who have a background in the operation and administra tive aspects of running a health unit. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried property, real estate, and com munity association managers were $36,020 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,100 and $53,780 a year. The low est 10 percent earned less than $16,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,360 a year. Median annual earnings of sala ried property, real estate, and community association managers in 2000 were as follows: Local government................................................................................. Real estate agents and managers....................................................... Real estate operators and lessors....................................................... $50,410 36,070 30,150 Many resident apartment managers and onsite association man agers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Managers often are reimbursed for the use of their per sonal vehicles, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in the projects they develop. According to a survey conducted by the Community Associa tion Institute, the median annual salary for community managers was $42,000 in 2000, with the middle 50 percent earning between $34,000 and $55,000 a year. For assistant community managers, the median annual salary was $30,000, with the middle 50 percent earning between $25,000 and $38,000 a year. Related Occupations Property, real estate, and community association managers plan, or ganize, staff, and manage the real estate operations of businesses. Workers who perform similar functions in other fields include ad ministrative services managers, education administrators, food ser vice managers, lodging managers, medical and health services managers, real estate brokers and sales agents, and urban and re gional planners. Sources of Additional Information General information about education and careers in property man agement is available from: 80 Occupational Outlook Handbook >- Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.irem.org For information on careers and certification programs in com mercial property management, contact: >■ Building Owners and Managers Institute, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012. Internet: http://www.bomi-edu.org For information on careers and professional designation and cer tification programs in residential property and community associa tion management, contact: ► Community Associations Institute, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 300, Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.eaionline.org ► National Board of Certification for Community Association Managers, P.O. Box 25037, Alexandria, VA22313. Internet: http://www.nbccam.org Purchasing Managers, Buyers, and Purchasing Agents______ ______ (0**NET 11-3061.00, 13-1021.00, 13-1022.00, 13-1023.00) Significant Points • • • More than half were employed in wholesale trade or manufacturing establishments. Some firms promote qualified employees to these positions, while other employers recruit college graduates; regardless of academic preparation, new employees must learn the specifics of their employers’ business. Overall employment is expected to experience little or no change due to productivity improvements brought about by the increasing use of computers and the Internet; however, employment will vary by occupational specialty. Nature of the Work Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents seek to obtain the highest quality merchandise at the lowest possible purchase cost for their employers. In general, purchasers buy goods and services for their company or organization, whereas buyers typically buy items for resale. Purchasers and buyers determine which commodi ties or services are best, choose the suppliers of the product or ser vice, negotiate the lowest price, and award contracts that ensure that the correct amount of the product or service is received at the appropriate time. In order to accomplish these tasks successfully, purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents study sales records and inventory levels of current stock, identify foreign and domestic suppliers, and keep abreast of changes affecting both the supply of and demand for needed products and materials. Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents evaluate suppliers based upon price, quality, service support, availability, re liability, and selection. To assist them in their search, they review catalogs, industry and company publications, directories, and trade journals. Much of this information is now available on the Internet. They research the reputation and history of the suppliers and may advertise anticipated purchase actions in order to solicit bids. At meetings, trade shows, conferences, and suppliers’ plants and dis tribution centers, they examine products and services, assess a supplier’s production and distribution capabilities, and discuss other technical and business considerations that influence the purchasing decision. Once all the necessary information on suppliers is gath Digitizedered, for FRASER orders are placed and contracts are awarded to those suppliers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis who meet the purchasers’ needs. Contracts often are for several years and may stipulate the price or a narrow range of prices, allow ing purchasers to reorder as necessary. Other specific job duties and responsibilities vary by employer and by the type of commodi ties or services to be purchased. Purchasing specialists employed by government agencies or manufacturing firms usually are called purchasing directors, man agers, or agents; buyers or industrial buyers; or contract specialists. These workers acquire materials, parts, machines, supplies, services, and other materials used in the production of a final product. Some purchasing managers specialize in negotiating and supervising sup ply contracts and are called contract or supply managers. Purchas ing agents and managers obtain items ranging from raw materials, fabricated parts, machinery, and office supplies to construction ser vices and airline tickets. The flow of work—or even the entire production process—can be slowed or halted if the right materials, supplies, or equipment are not on hand when needed. To be effec tive, purchasing specialists must have a working technical knowl edge of the goods or services to be purchased. In large industrial organizations, a distinction often is drawn be tween the work of a buyer or purchasing agent and that of a pur chasing manager. Purchasing agents and buyers commonly focus on routine purchasing tasks, often specializing in a commodity or group of related commodities, such as steel, lumber, cotton, grains, fabricated metal products, or petroleum products. Purchasing agents usually track market conditions, price trends, or futures markets. Purchasing managers usually handle the more complex or critical purchases and may supervise a group of purchasing agents han dling other goods and services. Whether a person is titled purchas ing manager, buyer, or purchasing agent depends more on specific industry and employer practices than on specific job duties. Changing business practices have altered the traditional roles of purchasing or supply management specialists in many industries. For example, manufacturing companies increasingly involve pur chasing workers at most stages of product development because of their ability to forecast a part’s or material’s cost, availability, and suitability for its intended purpose. Furthermore, potential prob lems with the supply of materials may be avoided by consulting the purchasing department in the early stages of product design. Businesses also might enter into integrated supply contracts. These contracts increase the importance of supplier selection be cause agreements are larger in scope and longer in duration. Inte grated supply incorporates all members of the supply chain including the supplier, transportation companies, and the retailer. A major responsibility of most purchasers is to work out problems that may occur with a supplier because the success of the relationship affects the buying firm’s performance. Purchasing specialists often work closely with other employees in their own organization when deciding on purchases, an arrange ment sometimes called team buying. For example, they may dis cuss the design of custom-made products with company design engineers, quality problems in purchased goods with quality assur ance engineers and production supervisors, or shipment problems with managers in the receiving department before submitting an order. Contract specialists and managers in various levels of govern ment award contracts for an array of items, including office and building supplies, services for the public, and construction projects. For example, they may oversee the contract for cleaning services of a government office building to verify that the work is being done on schedule and on budget, even though the cleaners are not gov ernment employees. They may use sealed bids to award contracts, but usually establish negotiated agreements for complex items. Often, purchasing specialists in government place solicitations for Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 81 services and accept bids and offers through the Internet. Govern ment purchasing agents and managers must follow strict laws and regulations in their work to avoid any appearance of impropriety. These legal requirements are occasionally changed, so agents and contract specialists must stay informed about the latest regulations. Other purchasing specialists, who buy finished goods for resale, are employed by wholesale and retail establishments where they commonly are known as buyers or merchandise managers. Whole sale and retail buyers are an integral part of a complex system of distribution and merchandising that caters to the vast array of con sumer needs and desires. Wholesale buyers purchase goods di rectly from manufacturers or from other wholesale firms for resale to retail firms, commercial establishments, institutions, and other organizations. In retail firms, buyers purchase goods from whole sale firms or directly from manufacturers for resale to the public. Buyers largely determine which products their establishment will sell. Therefore, it is essential that they have the ability to accurately predict what will appeal to consumers. They must constantly stay informed of the latest trends because failure to do so could jeopar dize profits and the reputation of their company. Buyers also fol low ads in newspapers and other media to check competitors’ sales activities and watch general economic conditions to anticipate con sumer buying patterns. Buyers working for large and medium-sized firms usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of merchan dise, whereas buyers working for small stores may purchase their complete inventory. The use of private-label merchandise and the consolidation of buying departments have increased the responsibilities of retail buy ers. Private-label merchandise, produced for a particular retailer, requires buyers to work closely with vendors to develop and obtain the desired product. The downsizing and consolidation of buying departments increases the demands placed on buyers because, al though the amount of work remains unchanged, there are fewer people to accomplish it. The result is an increase in the workloads and levels of responsibility. Many merchandise managers assist in the planning and imple mentation of sales promotion programs. Working with merchan dise executives, they determine the nature of the sale and purchase accordingly. They may work with advertising personnel to create an ad campaign. For example, they may determine in which media the advertisement will be placed—newspapers, direct mail, televi sion, or some combination of these. In addition, merchandise man agers often visit the selling floor to ensure that the goods are properly displayed. Often, assistant buyers are responsible for placing or ders and checking shipments. Computers continue to have a major effect on the jobs of pur chasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents. In manufacturing and service industries, computers handle most of the routine tasks, enabling purchasing workers to concentrate mainly on the analytical and qualitative aspects of the job. Computers are used to obtain instant and accurate product and price listings, to track inventory levels, to process orders, and to help determine when to make pur chases. Computers also maintain lists of bids and offers, record the history of supplier performance, and issue purchase orders. Computerized systems have dramatically simplified many of the acquisition functions and improved the efficiency of determin ing which products are selling. For example, cash registers con nected to computers, known as point-of-sale terminals, allow organizations to maintain instant access to current sales and inven tory records. This information can then be used to produce sales reports that reflect customer buying habits. The ability to quickly know which products or combination of products are selling well provides powerful data that buyers and supply managers can use to increase sales and reduce costs. Buyers can gain instant access to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Reviewing contract bids is an important task for purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents. the specifications for thousands of commodities, inventory records, and their customers’ purchase records to avoid overpaying for goods and to avoid shortages of popular goods or surpluses of goods that do not sell as well. Firms are linked with manufacturers and whole salers by electronic purchasing systems, the Internet, or extranets. These systems improve the speed for selection, customization, and ordering, and they provide information on availability and ship ment—allowing buyers to better concentrate on the selection of goods and suppliers. Working Conditions Most purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents work in comfortable, well-lighted offices. They frequently work more than the standard 40-hour week because of special sales, conferences, or production deadlines. Evening and weekend work also is common. For those working in retail trade, this is especially true prior to holi day and back-to-school seasons. Consequently, many retail firms discourage the use of vacation time during peak periods. Buyers and merchandise managers often work under great pres sure. Because wholesale and retail stores are so competitive, buy ers need physical stamina to keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work. Many purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents travel at least several days a month. Purchasers for worldwide manufac turing companies and large retailers, and buyers of high fashion, may travel outside the United States. Employment Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents held about 536,000 jobs in 2000. More than one-half worked in wholesale trade or manufacturing establishments such as distribution centers or factories, and another one-sixth worked in retail trade establish ments such as grocery or department stores. The remainder worked mostly in service establishments or different levels of government. A small number were self-employed. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by occupational specialty: Purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products. 237,000 Wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products....................... 148,000 Purchasing managers............................................................................ 132,000 Purchasing agents and buyers, farm products................................ 20,000 82 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualified persons may begin as trainees, purchasing clerks, expe diters, junior buyers, or assistant buyers. Retail and wholesale firms prefer to hire applicants who have a college degree, and are familiar with the merchandise they sell and with wholesaling and retailing practices. Some retail firms promote qualified employ ees to assistant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates as assistant buyers. Most employers use a combination of methods. Educational requirements tend to vary with the size of the organization. Large stores and distributors, especially those in wholesale and retail trade, prefer applicants who have completed a bachelor’s degree program with a business emphasis. Many manu facturing firms put a greater emphasis on formal training. They prefer applicants with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in engi neering, business, economics, or one of the applied sciences. Regardless of academic preparation, new employees must learn the specifics of their employers’ business. Training periods vary in length, with most lasting 1 to 5 years. In wholesale and retail estab lishments, most trainees begin by selling merchandise, supervising sales workers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping track of stock. As they progress, retail trainees are given increased buying-related responsibilities. In manufacturing, new purchasing employees often are enrolled in company training programs and spend a considerable amount of time learning about company operations and purchasing practices. They work with experienced purchasers to learn about commodi ties, prices, suppliers, and markets. In addition, they may be as signed to the production planning department to learn about the material requirements system and the inventory system the com pany uses to keep production and replenishment functions working smoothly. Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents must know how to use word processing as well as spreadsheet software and the Internet. Other important qualities include the ability to analyze technical data in suppliers’ proposals; good communication, nego tiation, and mathematical skills; knowledge of supply-chain man agement; and the ability to perform financial analyses. Persons who wish to become wholesale or retail buyers should be good at planning and decision making and have an interest in merchandising. Anticipating consumer preferences and en suring that goods are in stock when they are needed require resourcefulness, good judgment, and self-confidence. Buyers must be able to quickly make decisions and to take risks. Marketing skills and the ability to identify products that will sell also are very impor tant. Employers often look for leadership ability because buyers spend a large portion of their time supervising assistant buyers and dealing with manufacturers’ representatives and store executives. Experienced buyers may advance by moving to a department that manages a larger volume or by becoming a merchandise manager. Others may go to work in sales for a manufacturer or wholesaler. An experienced purchasing agent or buyer may become an as sistant purchasing manager in charge of a group of purchasing pro fessionals before advancing to purchasing manager, supply manager, or director of materials management. At the top levels, duties may overlap with other management functions such as production, plan ning, logistics, and marketing. Regardless of industry, continuing education is essential for advancement. Many purchasers participate in seminars offered by professional societies and take college courses in supply management. Professional certification is increasingly important. In private industry, recognized marks of experience and profes Digitizedsional for FRASER competence are the Accredited Purchasing Practitioner (APP) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and Certified Purchasing Manager (CPM) designations, conferred by the Institute for Supply Management, and the Certified Purchas ing Professional (CPP) designation and the Certified Professional Purchasing Manager (CPPM), conferred by the American Purchas ing Society. In Federal, State, and local government, the indica tions of professional competence are Certified Professional Public Buyer (CPPB) and Certified Public Purchasing Officer (CPPO), conferred by the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing. Most of these certifications are awarded only after work-related experience and education requirements are met, and written or oral exams are successfully completed. Job Outlook Overall employment of purchasing managers, buyers, and purchas ing agents is expected to experience little or no change through the year 2010. Demand for these workers will not keep up with the rising level of economic activity because the increasing use of com puters has allowed the paperwork involved in ordering and procur ing supplies to be eliminated, reducing the demand for lower level buyers who perform these duties and for the managers who super vise them. In addition, the increased use of credit cards by some employees to purchase supplies without using the services of the procurement or purchasing office, combined with the growing num ber of buys being made electronically, will restrict demand for pur chasing agents. Despite little or no change in employment, some job openings will result from the need to replace workers who trans fer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Projected employment varies by occupational specialty. Em ployment of purchasing managers is expected to decline through 2010. The use of the Internet to conduct electronic commerce has made information easier to obtain, thus increasing the productivity of purchasing managers. The Internet also allows both large and small companies to bid on contracts. Exclusive supply contracts and long-term contracting have allowed companies to negotiate with fewer suppliers less frequently, further reducing demand for pur chasing managers. Employment of wholesale and retail buyers, except farm prod ucts, also is projected to decline. In retail trade, mergers and acqui sitions have forced the consolidation of buying departments, hence eliminating jobs. In addition, larger retail stores are removing their buying departments from geographic markets and centralizing them at their headquarters, thus eliminating more jobs. Employment of purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and farm products, is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Despite the greater use of elec tronic transactions, purchases of complex equipment is more diffi cult to automate, or transact electronically. Employment of purchasing agents and buyers, farm products, also is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations, as the more technical nature of farm products limits the ease of making pur chases electronically. Persons who have a bachelor’s degree in business should have the best chance of obtaining a buyer job in wholesale or retail trade or within government. A bachelor’s degree, combined with indus try experience and knowledge of a technical field, will be an advan tage for those interested in working for a manufacturing or industrial company. Government agencies and larger companies usually re quire a master’s degree in business or public administration for toplevel purchasing positions. Earnings Median annual earnings of purchasing managers were $53,030 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,770 and $71,480 Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 83 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $93,040 a year. Median annual earnings for purchasing agents and buyers, farm products were $37,560 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $29,150 and $52,600 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,320 a year. Median annual earnings for wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products were $37,200 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,480 and $51,560 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,570, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,750 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of wholesale and retail buyers, except farm products in 2000 were as follows: Groceries and related products........................................................... Electrical goods..................................................................................... Machinery, equipment, and supplies................................................ Miscellaneous shopping goods stores.............................................. Grocery stores......................................................................................... $53 010 49,430 40,880 40 330 32’goo Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents receive the same benefits package as other workers, including vacations, sick leave, life and health insurance, and pension plans. In addition to standard benefits, retail buyers often earn cash bonuses based on their performance and may receive discounts on merchandise bought from their employer. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing and the ability to assess consumer demand include advertising, mar keting, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; insurance sales agents; material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and dis tributing occupations, except postal workers; sales engineers; and sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing. Sources of Additional Information Further information about education, training, employment, and cer tification for purchasing careers is available from: ► American Purchasing Society, North Island Center, Suite 203, 8 East Galena Blvd., Aurora, IL 60506. Internet: http://www.american-purchasing.com >- Institute for Supply Management, P.O. Box 22160, Tempe, AZ 85285 2160. Internet: http://www.napm.org ► National Institute of Governmental Purchasing, Inc., 151 Spring St., Suite 300, Herndon, VA 20170-5223. Internet: http://www.nigp.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (0*NET 13-2081.00) Significant Points • Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents work for Federal, State, and local governments. • Long hours may be required during income tax season, from January to April. • A bachelor’s degree in accounting is becoming the standard source of training for tax examiners, although some prospective workers may be able to enter the occupation with only a high school diploma and a few months of general work experience. • Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. $41,020 38 220 35,170 33,730 29 650 Median annual earnings for purchasing agents, except whole sale, retail, and farm products were $41,370 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,050 and $53,830 a year. The low est 10 percent earned less than $25,650, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,980 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of purchasing agents, ex cept wholesale, retail, and farm products in 2000 were as follows: Federal Government............................................................................. Aircraft and parts .................................................................................. Electronic components and accessories........................................... Local government.................................................................................. Hospitals.................................................................................................. Tax Examiners, Collectors, and Revenue Agents Nature of the Work Taxes are one of the certainties of life. And, as long as govern ments collect taxes, there will be jobs for tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents. These workers ensure that governments obtain revenues from businesses and citizens by reviewing tax returns, conducting audits, identifying taxes payable, and collecting over due tax dollars. The work of tax examiners is similar at the Federal, State, and local government levels. They review filed tax returns for accuracy and determine whether tax credits and deductions are allowed by law. Because many States assess individual income taxes based on the taxpayer’s reported Federal adjusted gross income, tax examin ers working for the Federal Government report to the States any adjustments or corrections they make. State tax examiners then determine whether the adjustments affect the taxpayer’s State tax liability. At the local level, tax examiners often have additional duties, but an integral part of the work still includes the need to determine the factual basis for claims for refunds. Tax examiners usually deal with the simplest tax returns—those filed by individual taxpayers with few deductions or those filed by small businesses. At the entry level, many tax examiners perform clerical duties, such as reviewing tax returns and entering them into a computer system for processing. If there is a problem, tax exam iners may contact the taxpayer to resolve the problem. Tax examiners also review returns for accuracy, checking tax payers’ math and making sure the amounts they report match those reported from other sources, such as employers and banks. In ad dition, they verify that social security numbers match names and that taxpayers have correctly interpreted the instructions on the tax forms. Much of a tax examiner’s job involves making sure that tax credits and deductions claimed by taxpayers are legitimate. Tax examiners contact the taxpayer by mail or telephone to address discrepancies and request supporting documentation. They may notify the tax payer of any overpayment or underpayment and either issue a re fund or request further payment. If a taxpayer owes additional taxes, tax examiners adjust the total amount by assessing fees, interest, and penalties and notify the taxpayer of the total liability. Although most tax examiners deal with uncomplicated returns, some may work in more complex tax areas such as pensions or business net-operat ing losses. 84 Occupational Outlook Handbook Revenue agents specialize in tax-related accounting work for the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and for equivalent agen cies at the State and local government levels. Similar to tax exam iners, they audit returns for accuracy. However, revenue agents handle complicated income, sales, and excise tax returns of busi nesses and large corporations. As a result, their work differs in a number of ways from that of tax examiners. Entry-level revenue agents at the Federal level usually audit tax returns of small businesses whose market specializations are simi lar. As they develop expertise in an industry, such as construction, retail sales, or finance, insurance, and real estate, revenue agents work with tax returns of larger corporations. Many experienced revenue agents specialize; for example, they may focus exclusively on multinational businesses. But all rev enue agents working for the Federal Government must keep abreast of the lengthy, complex, and frequently changing tax code. Com puter technology has simplified the research process, allowing rev enue agents Internet access to relevant legal bulletins, IRS notices, and tax-related court decisions. At the State level, revenue agents have duties similar to those of their counterparts in the Federal Government. State revenue agents use revenue adjustment reports forwarded by the IRS to determine whether adjustments made by Federal revenue agents affect a taxpayer’s taxable income in the eyes of the States. In addition, State agents factor in the sales and income taxes for their own States. At the local level, revenue agents have varying titles and duties, but they still perform field audits or office audits of financial records for business firms. In some cases, local revenue agents also exam ine financial records of individuals. These local agents, like their State counterparts, rely on the information contained in Federal tax returns. However, local agents also must be knowledgeable enough to apply local tax laws regarding income, utility fees, or school taxes. Collectors, also called revenue officers in the IRS, deal with de linquent accounts. The process of collecting on a delinquent ac count starts with the revenue agent or tax examiner sending a report to the taxpayer. If the latter makes no effort to resolve the delin quent account, the case is assigned to a collector. When a collector takes a case, he or she first sends the taxpayer a notice. The collec tor then works with the taxpayer on how to settle the debt. In cases in which taxpayers fail to file a tax return, Federal col lectors may request that the IRS prepare the return on a taxpayer’s behalf. In other instances, collectors are responsible for verifying claims that delinquent taxpayers cannot pay their taxes. They investi gate these claims by researching court information for the status of liens, mortgages, or financial statements; locating assets through third parties, such as neighbors or local Departments of Motor Vehicles; and requesting legal summonses for other records. Ulti mately, collectors must decide whether the IRS should take a lien, or a claim on an asset—such as a bank account, real estate, or an automobile—to settle a debt. Collectors also have the discretion to garnish wages in order to collect on owed taxes. A big part of a collector’s job at the Federal level is imposing and following up on delinquent taxpayers’ payment deadlines. For each case file, collectors also must maintain records including con tacts, telephone numbers, and actions taken. Like tax examiners and revenue agents, collectors use comput ers to maintain files. Computer technology also gives collectors data access to help them identify high-risk debtors—those who are unlikely to pay or are likely to flee. Collectors at the IRS usually work independently. However, they call on experts when tax examiners or revenue agents find fraudulent returns, or when a property seizure will involve complex legal steps. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A tax collector’s primary responsibility involves imposing and following up on delinquent taxpayers’ payment deadlines. At the State level, collectors decide whether to take action on the basis of their own States’ tax returns. Collection work may be handled over the telephone or be turned over to a collector who specializes in obtaining settlements. These collectors contact people directly and have authority to issue subpoenas and request seizures of property. At the local levels, collectors have less power than their State and Federal counterparts. Although they can start the processes leading to seizure of property and garnishment of wages, they must go through the local court system. Working Conditions Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents generally work a 40hour week, although some overtime might be needed during the tax season. State and local tax examiners, who also may review sales, gasoline, and cigarette taxes, may have a steadier workload yearround. Stress may result from the need to work under a deadline in checking returns and evaluating taxpayer claims. Collectors also must face the unpleasant task of confronting delinquent taxpayers. Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents work in clean, well-lighted offices either in cubicles or desks. Sometimes travel is necessary. Revenue agents at both the Federal and State levels spend a significant portion of their time in the offices of private firms accessing tax-related records. Some agents may be permanently stationed in the offices of large corporations with complicated tax structures. Agents at the local level usually work in city halls or Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 85 municipal buildings. Collectors travel to local courthouses; county and municipal seats of government; businesses; and taxpayers’ homes to look up records, search for assets, and settle delinquent accounts. Employment In 2000, tax examiners, revenue agents, and collectors held about 79,000 jobs at all levels of government. Half worked for the Fed eral Government; 1 in 3 worked for State governments; and about 1 in 6 worked for local governments. Among those in the IRS, tax examiners and revenue agents predominate because of the need to examine or audit all tax returns. Collectors make up a smaller pro portion, because most disputed tax liabilities do not require enforced collection. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents work with confiden tial financial and personal information; therefore, trustworthiness is crucial for maintaining confidentiality for individuals and busi nesses. Applicants for Federal Government jobs must submit to a background investigation. Tax examiners must be able to understand fundamental tax regu lations and procedures, pay attention to detail, and cope well with deadlines. A bachelor’s degree in accounting is becoming the stan dard source of training for tax examiners, although some prospec tive workers may be able to enter the occupation with only a high school diploma and a few months of general work experience. For more advanced entry-level positions, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree; demonstrate some specialized experience work ing with tax records, tax laws and regulations, documents, financial accounts, or similar records; or have some combination of posthigh school education and specialized experience. After they are hired, tax examiners receive some formal training. Additionally, annual employer-provided updates keep tax examiners current with changes in procedures or regulations. Revenue agents need strong analytical, organizational, and time management skills. They also must be able to work independently because they spend so much time away from their home office, and must keep current with changes in the tax code and laws. Revenue agents handle complex tax returns, so the usual minimum educa tional requirement for revenue agent positions is a bachelor’s de gree with at least 30 credits in accounting; or 24 credits in accounting plus 6 hours of business law, economics, financial management, or statistics; or a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) certificate. Although difficult, it also is possible to qualify for entry-level rev enue agent jobs with some combination of experience and educa tion. Newly hired revenue agents expand their accounting knowledge and remain up to date by consulting auditing manuals and other sources for detailed information about individual indus tries. Additionally, employers continually offer training in new auditing techniques and tax-related issues and court decisions. Collectors need good interpersonal and communication skills because they deal directly with the public and because their reports are scrutinized when the IRS must legally justify attempts to seize assets. They also must be able to act independently and to exercise good judgment for deciding when and how to collect a debt. Ap plicants for collector jobs need experience demonstrating knowl edge and understanding of business and financial practices or knowledge of credit operations and practices related to the collec tion of delinquent accounts. They also may qualify with a bachelor’s degree or CPA certificate. Entry-level collectors receive formal and on-the-job training under an instructor’s guidance before working independently. Col Digitizedlectors for FRASER usually complete initial training by the end of their second https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis year of service but may receive advanced technical instruction as they gain seniority and take on more difficult cases. Also, collec tors are encouraged to continue their professional education by at tending meetings to exchange information about how changes in tax laws affect collection methods. Advancement potential within Federal, State, and local agen cies varies for tax examiners, revenue agents, and collectors. For related jobs outside the government, experienced workers can take a licensing exam administered by the Federal Government to be come enrolled agents—nongovernment tax professionals authorized to represent taxpayers before the IRS. Tax examiners’ duties expand with experience and training to include reviewing more difficult tax returns and making more deci sions independently. Formal education beyond high school is not required for advancement, but a bachelor’s degree helps. Collegelevel training in accounting affords the most possibilities, includ ing moving into revenue agent positions. As revenue agents gain experience, they may specialize in an industry, work with larger corporations, and cover increasingly com plex tax returns. Many revenue agents also specialize in criminal investigations, auditing the books of known or suspected criminals such as drug dealers or money launderers; some agents work with grand juries to help secure indictments. Others become interna tional agents, assessing taxes on companies with subsidiaries abroad. Collectors who demonstrate leadership skills and a thorough knowledge of collection activities may advance to supervisory or managerial collector positions, in which they oversee the activities of other collectors. It is only these higher supervisors and manag ers who may authorize the more serious actions against individuals and businesses. Additionally, the more complex collection attempts, which usually are directed at larger businesses, are reserved for col lectors at these higher levels. Job Outlook Employment of tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations between 2000 and 2010. Opportunities at the Federal level will arise from the relaxing of budget constraints imposed on the IRS, the primary employer of these workers. Also, labor force growth during the 2000-10 projection period will mean more taxpayers— and therefore, more tax returns. Dampening these effects, how ever, is a decrease in the proportion of tax returns selected for audit and collection. As taxpayers increasingly file their tax returns elec tronically, computers can examine a larger number of returns. Be cause much of the work done by IRS tax examiners and revenue agents is now computerized, productivity has increased, leading to smaller employment gains. At the State and local levels, employment should remain steady, with openings stemming primarily from the need to replace those who retire or leave the occupation. States and municipalities usu ally try to avoid downsizing their revenue departments but also re frain from expanding their workforces. Employment growth is more likely to occur in Southern and Western States that are experiencing large population increases. Earnings In 2000, median annual earnings for all tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents was $40,180. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,370 and $55,410. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $22,190, and the top 10 percent earned more than $68,820. However, median earnings vary considerably depending on the level of government. At the Federal level, 2000 median annual earnings for tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents were $48,640; at the State level, $38,890; and at the local level, $26,420. 86 Occupational Outlook Handbook Earnings also vary by occupational specialty. For example, in the Federal Government in 2001, the U.S. Office of Personnel Man agement reported that tax examiners earned an average of $31,065, revenue agents earned $69,121, and collectors earned $60,513. Related Occupations Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents analyze and interpret financial data. Occupations with similar responsibilities include accountants and auditors, budget analysts, cost estimators, finan cial managers, and loan counselors and officers. Sources of Additional Information Information on obtaining a position as a tax examiner, collector, or revenue agent with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. State or local government personnel offices can provide infor mation about tax examiner, collector, or revenue agent jobs at those levels of government. Top Executives __ _____ (0*NET 11-1011.01, 11-1011.02, 11-1021.00, 11-1031.00) Significant Points • • • Top executives are among the highest paid workers; however, long hours and considerable travel often are required. > Keen competition is expected because the prestige and high pay attract a large number of qualified applicants. Most government chief executives and legislators are elected; local government managers are appointed. Nature of the Work All organizations have specific goals and objectives that they strive to meet. Top executives devise strategies and fonnulate policies to ensure that these objectives are met. Although they have a wide range of titles—such as chief executive officer, board chair, presi dent, vice president, school superintendent, county administrator, and tax commissioner—all formulate policies and direct the opera tions of businesses and corporations, nonprofit institutions, gov ernments, and other organizations. A corporation’s goals and policies are established by the chief executive officer in collaboration with other top executives, who are overseen by a board of directors. In a large corporation, the chief executive officer meets frequently with subordinate execu tives to ensure that operations are implemented in accordance with these policies. The chief executive officer of a corporation retains overall accountability; however, a chief operating officer may be delegated several responsibilities, including the authority to over see executives who direct the activities of various departments and implement the organization’s policies on a day-to-day basis. In publicly held and nonprofit corporations, the board of directors is ultimately accountable for the success or failure of the enterprise, and the chief executive officer reports to the board. nature of other high-level executives’ responsibilities de Digitized forThe FRASER pends upon the size of the organization. In large organizations, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their duties are highly specialized. Managers of cost and profit centers, for instance, are responsible for the overall performance of one aspect of the organization, such as manufacturing, marketing, sales, purchasing, finance, personnel, training, administrative ser vices, electronic data processing, property management, transpor tation, or the legal services department. (Some of these and other managerial occupations are discussed elsewhere in this section of the Handbook.) In smaller organizations, such as independent retail stores or small manufacturers, a partner, owner, or general manager often is re sponsible for purchasing, hiring, training, quality control, and dayto-day supervisory duties. Chieffinancial officers direct the organization’s financial goals, objectives, and budgets. They oversee the investment of funds and manage associated risks, supervise cash management activities, ex ecute capital-raising strategies to support a firm s expansion, and deal with mergers and acquisitions. Chief information officers are responsible for the overall tech nological direction of their organizations. They are increasingly involved in the strategic business plan of a firm as part of the ex ecutive team. To perform effectively, they also need knowledge of administrative procedures, such as budgeting, hiring, and supervi sion. These managers propose budgets for projects and programs, and make decisions on staff training and equipment purchases. They hire and assign computer specialists, information technology work ers, and support personnel to carry out specific parts of the projects. They supervise the work of these employees, review their output, and establish administrative procedures and policies. Chief infor mation officers also provide organizations with the vision to master information technology as a competitive tool. Chief executives and legislators at the Federal, State, and local levels direct government activities and pass laws that affect us daily. These officials consist of the President and Vice President of the United States; members of Congress; State governors and lieuten ant governors; members of the State legislators; county chief executives and commissioners; city, town and township council members; mayors; and city, county, town, and township managers. (Many small communities have top government officials who are volunteers and receive no salary. These individuals are not in cluded in the employment or salary data cited in this Handbook statement.) Most chief executives are elected by their constituents, but many managers are hired by a local government executive, council, or commission, to whom they are directly responsible. These officials formulate and establish government policy and develop Federal, State, or local laws and regulations. Chiefexecutives, government—like their counterparts in the pri vate sector—have overall responsibility for the performance of their organizations. Working with legislators, they set goals and orga nize programs to attain them. These executives also appoint de partment heads, who oversee the civil servants who carry out programs enacted by legislative bodies. As in the private sector, government chief executives oversee budgets and insure that re sources are used properly and programs are carried out as planned. Chief executive officers carry out a number of other important functions, such as meeting with legislators and constituents to de termine the level of support for proposed programs. In addition, they often nominate citizens to boards and commissions, encour age business investment, and promote economic development in their communities. To do all of these varied tasks effectively, chiel executives of large governments rely on a staff of highly skilled aides and assistants to research issues that concern the public. Ex ecutives that control small governmental bodies, however, often do this work by themselves. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 87 Top executives devise strategies and formulate policies to ensure that specific goals and objectives are met. Legislators are elected officials who develop, enact, or amend laws. They include U.S. Senators and Representatives, State sena tors and representatives, and county, city, and town commissioners and council members. Legislators introduce, examine, and vote on bills to pass official legislation. In preparing such legislation, they study staff reports and hear testimony from constituents, represen tatives of interest groups, board and commission members, and oth ers with an interest in the issue under consideration. They usually must approve budgets and the appointments of nominees for lead ership posts who are submitted by the chief executive. In some bodies, the legislative council appoints the city, town, or county manager. General and operations managers plan, direct, or coordinate the operations of companies or public and private sector organiza tions. The duties include formulating policies, managing daily op erations, and planning the use of materials and human resources, but are too diverse and general in nature to be classified in any one area of management or administration, such as personnel, purchas ing, or administrative services. In some organizations, the duties of general and operations managers may overlap the duties of chief executive officers. Working Conditions Top executives typically have spacious offices and support staff. General managers in large firms or nonprofit organizations usually have comfortable offices close to the top executives to whom they report. Long hours, including evenings and weekends, are standard for most top executives and general managers, though their sched ules may be flexible. Substantial travel between international, national, regional, and local offices to monitor operations and meet with customers, staff, and other executives often is required of managers and executives. Many managers and executives also attend meetings and confer ences sponsored by various associations. The conferences provide an opportunity to meet with prospective donors, customers, con tractors, or government officials and allow managers and execu tives to keep abreast of technological and managerial innovations. In large organizations, frequent job transfers between local of fices or subsidiaries are common. Top executives are under intense pressure to earn higher profits, provide better service, or attain fundraising and charitable goals. Executives in charge of poorly performing organizations or departments usually find their jobs in jeopardy. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The working conditions of chief executives and legislators vary with the size and budget of the governmental unit. Time spent at work ranges from a few hours a week for some local leaders to stressful weeks of 60 or more hours for members of the U.S. Con gress. Similarly, some jobs require only occasional out-of-town travel, while others involve long periods away from home, such as when attending sessions of the legislature. U.S. Senators and Representatives, governors and lieutenant gov ernors, and chief executives and legislators in municipalities work full time, year-round, as do most county and city managers. Many State legislators work full time on government business while the legislature is in session (usually for 2 to 6 months a year or every other year) and work only part time when the legislature is not in session. Some local elected officials work a schedule that is offi cially designated as part time, but actually is the equivalent of a full-time schedule when unpaid duties are taken into account. In addition to their regular schedules, most chief executives are on call to handle emergencies. Employment Top executives held about 3 million jobs in 2000. Employment was distributed as follows: General and operations managers..................................................... 2,398,000 Chief executives................................................................................... 547 qoo Legislators............................................................................................. 54,000 Top executives are found in every industry, but the services, re tail trade, and manufacturing industries employ about 3 out of 5. Chief executives and legislators in the Federal Government con sist of the 100 Senators, 435 Representatives, and the President and Vice President. State governors, lieutenant governors, legislators, chief executives, professional managers, and council and commis sion members of local governments make up the remainder. Government chief executives and legislators who do not hold full-time, year-round positions often continue to work in the occu pation they held before being elected. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The formal education and experience of top executives varies as widely as the nature of their responsibilities. Many top executives have a bachelor’s or higher degree in business administration or liberal arts. College presidents typically have a doctorate in the field they originally taught, and school superintendents often have a master’s degree in education administration. (For information on lower-level managers in educational services, see the Handbook statement on education administrators.) A brokerage office man ager needs a strong background in securities and finance, and depart ment store executives generally have extensive experience in retail trade. Some top executives in the public sector have a background in public administration or liberal arts. Others might have a back ground related to their jobs. For example, a health commissioner might have a graduate degree in health services administration or business administration. (For information on lower level managers in health services, see the Handbook statement on medical and health services managers.) Since many top executive positions are filled by promoting ex perienced, lower level managers when an opening occurs, many are promoted from within the organization. In industries such as retail trade or transportation, for instance, it is possible for individuals without a college degree to work their way up within the company and become managers. Many companies prefer, however, that their top executives have specialized backgrounds and hire individuals who are managers in other organizations. 88 Occupational Outlook Handbook Top executives must have highly developed personal skills. An analytical mind able to quickly assess large amounts of information and data is very important, as is the ability to consider and evaluate the interrelationships of numerous factors. Top executives also must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively. Other qualities critical for managerial success include leadership, self-confidence, motivation, decisiveness, flexibility, sound business judgment, and determination. Advancement may be accelerated by participation in company training programs that impart a broader knowledge of company policy and operations. Managers also can help their careers by be coming familiar with the latest developments in management tech niques at national or local training programs sponsored by various industry and trade associations. Managers who have experience in a particular field, such as accounting or engineering, may attend executive development programs to facilitate their promotion to an even higher level. Participation in conferences and seminars can expand knowledge of national and international issues influencing the organization and can help develop a network of useful contacts. General managers may advance to top executive positions, such as executive vice president, in their own firm or they may take a corresponding position in another firm. They may even advance to peak corporate positions such as chief operating officer or chief executive officer. Chief executive officers often become members of the board of directors of one or more firms, typically as a director of their own firm and often as chair of its board of directors. Some top executives establish their own firms or become independent consultants. Apart from meeting minimum age, residency, and citizenship requirements, candidates for a legislative position have no estab lished training or qualifications. Candidates come from a wide va riety of occupations, but many do have some political experience as staffers or members of government bureaus, boards, or commis sions. Successful candidates usually become well-known through their political campaigns and some have built voter name recogni tion through their work with community religious, fraternal, or so cial organizations. Increasingly, candidates target information to voters through ad vertising paid for by their respective campaigns, so fundraising skills are essential for candidates. Management-level work experience and public service help develop the fundraising, budgeting, public speaking, and problem-solving skills that are needed to run an ef fective political campaign. Candidates must make decisions quickly, sometimes on the basis of limited or contradictory information. They also should be able to inspire and motivate their constituents and staff. Additionally, they must know how to reach compromises and satisfy conflicting demands of constituents. National, State, and some local campaigns require massive amounts of energy and stamina, traits vital to successful candidates. Virtually all town, city, and county managers have at least a bachelor’s degree, and the majority hold a master’s degree. A master’s degree in public administration is recommended, includ ing courses in public financial management and legal issues in pub lic administration. Working in management support positions in government is a prime source of the experience and personal con tacts required to eventually secure a manager position. For example, applicants often gain experience as management analysts or assis tants in government departments working for committees, coun cils, or chief executives. In this capacity, they leam about planning, budgeting, civil engineering, and other aspects of running a gov ernment. With sufficient experience, they may be hired to manage a small government. Generally, a town, city, or county manager is first hired by a smaller community. Advancement often takes the form of securing https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis positions with progressively larger towns, cities, or counties. A broad knowledge of local issues, combined with communication skills and the ability to compromise, are essential for advancement in this field. Advancement opportunities for elected officials are not clearly defined. Because elected positions normally require a period of residency and local public support is critical, officials usually ad vance to other offices only in the jurisdictions where they live. For example, council members may ran for mayor or for a position in the State government, and State legislators may run for governor or for Congress. Many officials are not politically ambitious, how ever, and do not seek advancement. Others lose their bids for re election or voluntarily leave the occupation. A lifetime career as a government chief executive or legislator is rare. Job Outlook Keen competition is expected for top executive positions because the prestige and high pay attract a large number of qualified appli cants. Because this is a large occupation, many openings will occur each year as executives transfer to other positions, start their own businesses, or retire. However, many executives who leave their jobs transfer to other executive positions, limiting the number of job openings for new entrants. Experienced managers whose accomplishments reflect strong leadership qualities and the ability to improve the efficiency or com petitive position of an organization will have the best opportuni ties. In an increasingly global economy, experience in international economics, marketing, information systems, and knowledge of sev eral languages also may be beneficial. Employment of top executives—including chief executives, gen eral and operations managers, and legislators—is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Be cause top managers are essential to the success of any organization, they should be more immune to automation and corporate restruc turing—factors which are expected to adversely affect employment of lower level managers. Projected employment growth of top ex ecutives varies by industry, reflecting the projected change in in dustry employment over the 2000-10 period. For example, employment growth is expected to be faster than average in ser vices industries overall, especially business services. However, employment is projected to grow more slowly than average in some finance, insurance, and real estate industries, and decline in some manufacturing industries. Few new governments at any level are likely to form, and the number of chief executives and legislators in existing governments rarely changes. However, some increase will occur at the local level as counties, cities, and towns take on professional managers or move from volunteer to paid, career executives to deal with population growth, Federal regulations, and long-range planning. Elections give newcomers the chance to unseat incumbents or to fill vacated positions. The level of competition in elections var ies from place to place. There tends to be less competition in small communities that offer part-time positions with low or no salaries and little or no staff compared to large municipalities with presti gious full-time positions offering high salaries, staff, and greater exposure. Earnings Top executives are among the highest paid workers. However, sal ary levels vary substantially depending upon the level of manage rial responsibility, length of service, and type, size, and location of the firm. For example, a top manager in a very large corporation can earn significantly more than a counterpart in a small firm. Management and Business and Financial Operations Occupations 89 Median annual earnings of general and operations managers in 2000 were $61,160. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,880 and $93,610. Because the specific responsibilities of general and operations managers vary significantly within industries, earnings also tend to vary considerably. Median annual earnings in the in dustries employing the largest numbers of general and operations managers in 2000 were: Computer and data processing services.............................................. $101 Management and public relations...................................................... 84 Local government.................................................................................. 54 Groceiy stores..................................................................................... 44 Eating and drinking places.................................................................. 3g 340 610 700 120 710 Median annual earnings of chief executives in 2000 were $ 113,810. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of chief executives in 2000 were: Management and public relations...................................................... $136,760 Engineering and architectural services............................................. 124 080 Commercial banks............................................................................ 120 840 Colleges and universities......................................................................... 94930 Local government..................................................................................... 69790 Salaries vary substantially by type and level of responsibilities and by industry. According to a survey by Abbott, Langer, & Asso ciates, the median income of chief executive officers in the non profit sector was $75,000 in 2000, but some of the highest paid made well over $450,000. In addition to salaries, total compensation often includes stock options, dividends, and other performance bonuses. The use of executive dining rooms and company cars, expense allowances, and company-paid insurance premiums and physical examinations also are among benefits commonly enjoyed by top executives in private industry. A number of chief executive officers also are provided with company-paid club memberships, a limousine with driver, and other amenities. Median annual earnings of legislators were $14,110 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12,530 and $34,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 11,560, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $62,860. Earnings of public administrators vary widely, depending on the size of the governmental unit and on whether the job is part time, full time and year round, or full time for only a few months a year. Salaries range from little or nothing for a small town council mem ber to $400,000 a year for the President of the United States. According to the International Personnel Management Associa tion, city managers earned an average of $92,338, and county man agers $107,500, in 2000. The National Conference of State Legislatures reports that the annual salary for rank and file legisla tors in the 40 States and the District of Columbia that paid an annual https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis salary ranged from $15,000 to more than $60,000. In eight States, legislators received a daily salary plus an additional allowance for living expenses while legislatures were in session. The Council of State Governments reports in their Book of the States, 2000-2001 that gubernatorial annual salaries ranged from a low of $65,000 in Nebraska to a high of $179,000 in New York. In addition to a salary, most governors received benefits such as trans portation and an official residence. The governor of Florida has the largest staff with 310, while the governor of Nebraska has the small est with 15. In 2001, U.S. Senators and Representatives earned $145,100, the Senate and House Majority and Minority leaders earned $161,200, and the Vice President was paid $181,000. Related Occupations Top executives plan, organize, direct, control, and coordinate the operations of an organization and its major departments or programs. The members of the board of directors and lower level managers also are involved in these activities. Many other managerial occu pations have similar responsibilities; however, they are concentrated in specific industries or are responsible for a specific department within an organization. A few examples are administrative ser vices managers, education administrators, financial managers, and food service managers. Sources of Additional Information For a variety of information on top executives, including educa tional programs and job listings, contact: >- American Management Association, 1601 Broadway, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10019. Internet: http://www.amanet.org > National Management Association, 2210 Arbor Blvd., Dayton, OH 45439. Internet: http://www.nmal.org >- International Personnel Management Association, 1617 Duke St., Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ipma-hr.org Information on appointed officials in local government can be obtained from: >- Council of State Governments, P.O. Box 11910, Iron Works Pike, Lex ington, KY 40578-1910. Internet: http://www.statesnews.org >- International City Management Association (ICMA), 777 North Capital St. NE., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20002. Internet: http://www.icma.org ► National Association of Counties, 440 First St. NW., 8th Floor, Wash ington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.naco.org >- National League of Cities, 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20004. Internet: http://www.nlc.org For information on executive financial management careers and certification, contact: ► Financial Executives International, 10 Madison Ave., P.O. Box 1938, Morristown, NJ 07962. Internet: http://www.fei.org > Financial Management Association International, College of Business Administration, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620-5500. Internet: http://www.fma.org Professional and Related Occupations Architects, Surveyors, and Cartographers __ Architects, Except Landscape and Naval ____ _____ ____ ___ (0*NET 17-1011.00) __________ Significant Points • More than 28 percent were self-employed—about four times the proportion for all professional and related occupations. • • Licensing requirements include a professional degree in architecture, a period of practical training and the passing of all divisions of the Architect Registration Examination. Architecture graduates may face competition, especially for jobs in the most prestigious firms; experience from working in a firm during school and knowledge of computer-aided design and drafting technology are advantages. Nature of the Work People need places in which to live, work, play, leam, worship, meet, govern, shop, eat. These places may be private or public, indoors or out; rooms, buildings, or complexes, and together com prise neighborhoods, towns, suburbs and cities. Architects—licensed professionals trained in the art and science of building design— transform these needs into concepts and then develop the concepts into building images and plans that can be constructed by others. Architects design the overall aesthetic and functional look of buildings and other structures. The design of a building involves far more than its appearance. Buildings also must be functional, safe, and economical, and must suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consideration when they design buildings and other structures. Architects provide professional services to individuals and or ganizations planning a construction project. They may be involved in all phases of development, from the initial discussion with the client through the entire construction process. Their duties require specific skills—designing, engineering, managing, supervising, and communicating with clients and builders. The architect and client discuss the objectives, requirements, and budget of a project. In some cases, architects provide various predesign services—conducting feasibility and environmental im pact studies, selecting a site, or specifying the requirements the de sign must meet. For example, they may determine space requirements by researching the number and type of potential users of a building. The architect then prepares drawings and a report presenting ideas for the client to review. After the initial proposals are discussed and accepted, architects develop final construction plans. These plans show the building’s appearance and details for its construction. Accompanying these are drawings of the structural system; air-conditioning, heating, and ventilating systems; electrical systems; plumbing; and possibly site and landscape plans. They also specify the building materials and, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in some cases, the interior furnishings. In developing designs, ar chitects follow building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances, such as those requiring easy access by disabled persons. Throughout the planning stage, they make necessary changes. Although they have traditionally used pencil and paper to produce design and construction drawings, architects are increas ingly turning to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) tech nology for these important tasks. Architects may also assist the client in obtaining construction bids, selecting a contractor, and negotiating the construction con tract. As construction proceeds, they may visit the building site to ensure the contractor is following the design, adhering to the sched ule, using the specified materials, and meeting quality work stan dards. The job is not complete until all construction is finished, required tests are made, and construction costs are paid. Some times, architects also provide postconstruction services, such as fa cilities management. They advise on energy efficiency measures, evaluate how well the building design adapts to the needs of occu pants, and make necessary improvements. Architects design a wide variety of buildings, such as office and apartment buildings, schools, churches, factories, hospitals, houses, and airport terminals. They also design complexes such as urban centers, college campuses, industrial parks, and entire communi ties. They also may advise on the selection of building sites, pre pare cost analysis and land-use studies, and do long-range planning for land development. Architects sometimes specialize in one phase of work. Some specialize in the design of one type of building for example, hos pitals, schools, or housing. Others focus on planning and predesign services or construction management, and do minimal design work. They often work with engineers, urban planners, interior designers, landscape architects, and other professionals. In fact, architects spend a great deal of their time in coordinating information from, and the work of, others engaged in the same project. Consequently, architects—particularly at larger firms—are now using the Internet . .... •' Architects increasingly use computer-aided design and drafting technology to produce design and construction drawings. Professional and Related Occupations 91 to update designs and communicate changes for the sake of speed and cost savings. During the required training period leading up to licensing as architects, entry-level workers are called interns. This training pe riod, which generally lasts 3 years, gives them practical work expe rience which aids interns in preparing for the Architect Registration Examination (ARE). Typical duties may include preparing con struction drawings on CADD, building models, or assisting in the design of one part of a project. Working Conditions Architects usually work in a comfortable environment. Most of their time is spent in offices consulting with clients, developing reports and drawings, and working with other architects and engi neers. However, they often visit construction sites to review the progress of projects. Architects may occasionally be under stress, working nights and weekends to meet deadlines. In 2000, almost half of all architects worked more than 40 hours a week, in contrast to about 1 in 4 work ers in all occupations combined. Employment Architects held about 102,000 jobs in 2000. The majority of jobs were in architectural firms—most of which employ fewer than 5 workers. A few worked for general building contractors, and for government agencies responsible for housing, planning, or com munity development, such as the U.S. Departments of Defense and Interior, and the General Services Administration. Nearly 3 in 10 architects were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be licensed (registered) before they may call themselves architects or contract to provide architectural services. Nevertheless, many ar chitecture school graduates work in the field while they are in the process of becoming licensed. However, a licensed architect is re quired to take legal responsibility for all work. Licensing require ments include a professional degree in architecture, a period of practical training or internship, and passage of all divisions of the ARE. In most States, the professional degree in architecture must be from one of the 111 schools of architecture with degree programs accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). However, State architectural registration boards set their own stan dards, so graduation from a nonNAAB-accredited program may meet the educational requirement for licensing in a few States. Three types of professional degrees in architecture are available through colleges and universities. The majority of all architectural degrees are from 5-year Bachelor of Architecture programs, intended for students entering from high school or with no previous architec tural training. In addition, a number of schools offer a 2-year Mas ter of Architecture program for students with a preprofessional undergraduate degree in architecture or a related area, or a 3- or 4year Master of Architecture program for students with a degree in another discipline. The choice of degree type depends upon each individual’s pref erence and educational background. Prospective architecture stu dents should consider the available options before committing to a program. For example, although the 5-year Bachelor of Architec ture program offers the fastest route to the professional degree, courses are specialized and, if the student does not complete the program, transferring to a nonarchitectural program may be diffi cult. A typical program includes courses in architectural history and theory, building design, structures, technology, construction https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis methods, professional practice, math, physical sciences, and liberal arts. Central to most architectural programs is the design studio, where students put into practice the skills and concepts learned in the classroom. During the final semester of many programs, stu dents devote their studio time to creating an architectural project from beginning to end, culminating in a 3-dimensional model of their design. Many schools of architecture also offer post-professional de grees for those who already have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in architecture or other areas. Although graduate education beyond the professional degree is not required for practicing architects, it may be for research, teaching, and certain specialties. Architects must be able to visually communicate their ideas to clients. Artistic and drawing ability is very helpful in doing this, but not essential. More important are a visual orientation and the ability to conceptualize and understand spatial relationships. Good communication skills, the ability to work independently or as part of a team, and creativity are important qualities for anyone inter ested in becoming an architect. Computer literacy also is required as most firms use computers for writing specifications, 2- and 3 dimensional drafting, and financial management. Knowledge of computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) is helpful and will become essential as architectural firms continue to adopt this tech nology. Recently, the profession recognized National CAD Stan dards (NCS); architecture students who master NCS may have an advantage in the job market. All State architectural registration boards require a training pe riod before candidates may sit for the ARE and become licensed. Most States have adopted the training standards established by the Intern Development Program, a program of the American Institute of Architects and the National Council of Architectural Registra tion Boards (NCARB). These standards stipulate broad and diver sified training under the supervision of a licensed architect over a 3-year period. New graduates usually begin as intem-architects in architectural firms, where they assist in preparing architectural docu ments or drawings. They also may do research on building codes and materials, or write specifications for building materials, instal lation criteria, the quality of finishes, and other related details. Graduates with degrees in architecture also enter related fields such as graphic, interior, or industrial design; urban planning; real estate development; civil engineering; or construction management. Af ter completing the on-the-job training period, interns are eligible to sit for the ARE. The examination tests candidates for their knowl edge, skills, and ability to provide the various services required in the design and construction of buildings. Candidates who pass the ARE and meet all standards established by their State board are licensed to practice in that State. After becoming licensed and gaining experience, architects take on increasingly responsible duties, eventually managing entire projects. In large firms, architects may advance to supervisory or managerial positions. Some architects become partners in estab lished firms; others set up their own practice. Several States require continuing education to maintain a license, and many more States are expected to adopt mandatory continuing education. Requirements vary by State, but usually involve the completion of a certain number of credits every year or two through seminars, workshops, formal university classes, conferences, self study courses, or other sources. A growing number of architects voluntarily seek certification by NCARB, which can facilitate their getting licensed to practice in additional States. Certification is awarded after independent verification of the applying architect’s educational transcripts, employment record, and professional refer ences. It is the primary requirement for reciprocity of licensing among State Boards that are NCARB members. 92 Occupational Outlook Handbook Job Outlook Prospective architects may face competition for entry-level posi tions, especially if the number of architectural degrees awarded re mains at current levels or increases. Employment of architects is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010 and additional job openings will stem from the need to replace architects who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. However, many individuals are attracted to this occupa tion, and the number of applicants often exceeds the number of available jobs, especially in the most prestigious firms. Prospec tive architects who gain career-related experience in an architec tural firm while in school and who know CADD technology (especially that which conforms to the new national standards) will have a distinct advantage in obtaining an intern-architect position after graduation. Employment of architects is strongly tied to the level of local construction, particularly nonresidential structures such as office buildings, shopping centers, schools, and healthcare facilities. Af ter a boom in nonresidential construction during the 1980s, build ing slowed significantly during the first half of the 1990s. This trend is expected to continue because of slower labor force growth and increases in telecommuting and flexiplace work. However, as the stock of buildings ages, demand for remodeling and repair work should grow considerably. The needed renovation and rehabilita tion of old buildings, particularly in urban areas where space for new buildings is becoming limited, is expected to provide many job opportunities for architects. In addition, demographic trends and changes in healthcare delivery are influencing the demand for certain institutional structures, and should also provide more jobs for architects in the future. For example, increases in the schoolage population have resulted in new school construction. Addi tions to existing schools (especially colleges and universities), as well as overall modernization, will continue to add to demand for architects through 2010. Growth is expected in the number of adult care centers, assisted-living facilities, and community health clin ics, all of which are preferable, less costly alternatives to hospitals and nursing homes. Because construction—particularly office and retail—is sensi tive to cyclical changes in the economy, architects will face par ticularly strong competition for jobs or clients during recessions, and layoffs may occur. Those involved in the design of institu tional buildings such as schools, hospitals, nursing homes, and cor rectional facilities will be less affected by fluctuations in the economy. Even in times of overall good job opportunities, however, there may be areas of the country with poor opportunities. Architects who are licensed to practice in one State must meet the licensing requirements of other States before practicing elsewhere. Obtain ing licensure in other States, after initially receiving licensure in one State, is known as “reciprocity , and is much easier if an archi tect has received certification from the National Council of Archi tectural Registration Boards. Median annual earnings of architects were $52,510 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,060 and $67,720. The low est 10 percent earned less than $32,540 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $85,670. Earnings of partners in established architectural firms may fluc tuate because of changing business conditions. Some architects may have difficulty establishing their own practices and may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income, requiring substantial financial resources. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Related Occupations Architects design buildings and related structures. Constmction managers, like architects, are also engaged in the planning and co ordinating of activities concerned with the construction and main tenance of buildings and facilities. Others who engage in similar work are landscape architects, civil engineers, urban and regional planners, and designers, including interior designers, commercial and industrial designers, and graphic designers. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and careers in architecture can be ob tained from: . >- Practice Management Professional Interest Area, The American Insti tute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.aiaonline.com > Intern Development Program, National Council of Architectural Regis tration Boards, Suite 1100K, 1801 K Street NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006 1310. Internet: http://www.ncarb.org >. Consortium for Design and Construction Careers, P.O. Box 1515, Oak Park, IL 60304-1515. Internet: http://www.archcareers.net Landscape Architects (0*NET 17-1012.00) Significant Points • • • Almost 26 percent are self-employed—nearly 4 times the proportion for all professionals. A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture is the minimum requirement for entry-level jobs; many employers prefer to hire landscape architects who have completed at least one internship. Because many landscape architects work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less generous than those provided to workers in large organizations. Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed residential areas, public parks and playgrounds, college campuses, shopping centers, golf courses, parkways, and industrial parks. Landscape architects design these areas so that they are not only functional, but also beautiful, and compatible with the natural environment. They plan the location of buildings, roads, and walkways, and the arrangement of flowers, shmbs, and trees. . Increasingly, landscape architects are becoming involved with projects in environmental remediation, such as preservation and res toration of wetlands. Historic preservation is another important objective to which landscape architects may apply their knowledge of the environment, as well as their design and artistic talents. Many types of organizations—from real estate development firms starting new projects to municipalities constructing airports or parks—hire landscape architects, who often are involved with the development of a site from its conception. Working with archi tects, surveyors, and engineers, landscape architects help determine the best arrangement of roads and buildings. They also collaborate with environmental scientists, foresters, and other professionals to find the best way to conserve or restore natural resources. Once these decisions are made, landscape architects create detailed plans indicating new topography, vegetation, walkways, and other land scaping details, such as fountains and decorative features. Professional and Related Occupations 93 In planning a site, landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the project and the funds available. They analyze the natural elements of the site, such as the climate, soil, slope of the land, drainage, and vegetation; observe where sunlight falls on the site at different times of the day and examine the site from vari ous angles; and assess the effect of existing buildings, roads, walk ways, and utilities on the project. After studying and analyzing the site, landscape architects pre pare a preliminary design. To account for the needs of the client as well as the conditions at the site, they frequently make changes be fore a final design is approved. They also take into account any local, State, or Federal regulations, such as those protecting wet lands or historic resources. Computer-aided design (CAD) has be come an essential tool for most landscape architects in preparing designs. Many landscape architects also use video simulation to help clients envision the proposed ideas and plans. For larger scale site planning, landscape architects also use geographic information systems technology, a computer mapping system. Throughout all phases of the planning and design, landscape architects consult with other professionals involved in the project. Once the design is complete, they prepare a proposal for the client. They produce detailed plans of the site, including written reports, sketches, models, photographs, land-use studies, and cost estimates,' and submit them for approval by the client and by regulatory agen cies. When the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all existing and proposed features. They also outline in detail the methods of construction and draw up a list of necessary materials. Although many landscape architects supervise the installation of their design, some are involved in the construction of the site. However, the developer or landscape contractor usually does this. Some landscape architects work on a variety of projects. Others specialize in a particular area, such as residential development, his toric landscape restoration, waterfront improvement projects, parks and playgrounds, or shopping centers. Still others work in regional planning and resource management; feasibility, environmental im pact, and cost studies; or site construction. Most landscape architects do at least some residential work, but relatively few limit their practice to individual homeowners. Resi dential landscape design projects usually are too small to provide suitable income compared with larger commercial or multiunit resi dential projects. Some nurseries offer residential landscape design services, but these services often are performed by lesser qualified landscape designers, or others with training and experience in re lated areas. Landscape architects who work for government agencies do site and landscape design for government buildings, parks, and other public lands, as well as park and recreation planning in national parks and forests. In addition, they prepare environmental impact statements and studies on environmental issues such as public landuse planning. Some restore degraded land, such as mines or land fills. Others architects use their skills in traffic-calming, the “art” of slowing traffic down through use of traffic design, enhancement of the physical environment, and greater attention to aesthetics. Working Conditions Landscape architects spend most of their time in offices creating plans and designs, preparing models and cost estimates, doing re search, or attending meetings with clients and other professionals involved in a design or planning project. The remainder of their time is spent at the site. During the design and planning stage, landscape architects visit and analyze the site to verify that the de sign can be incorporated into the landscape. After the plans and specifications are completed, they may spend additional time at the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis —rw atm After the plans and specifications for a project are complete, landscape architects may spend time at the site observing or supervising construction. site observing or supervising the construction. Those who work in large firms may spend considerably more time out of the office be cause of travel to sites outside the local area. Salaried employees in both government and landscape architec tural firms usually work regular hours; however, they may work overtime to meet a project deadline. Hours of self-employed land scape architects vary. Employment Landscape architects held about 22,000 jobs in 2000. About 1 out of 3 salaried workers were employed in firms that provide land scape architecture services. Architectural and engineering firms employed most of the rest. The Federal Government also employs these workers, primarily in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Defense, and Interior. About 1 of every 4 landscape architects were self-employed. Employment of landscape architects is concentrated in urban and suburban areas throughout the country; some landscape architects work in rural areas, particularly those employed by the Federal Government who plan and design parks and recreation areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor s or master’s degree in landscape architecture usually is necessary for entry into the profession. The bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture takes 4 or 5 years to complete. There are two types of accredited master’s degree programs. The master’s degree as a first professional degree is a 3-year program designed for students with an undergraduate degree in another discipline; this is the most common type. The master’s degree as the second professional degree is a 2-year program for students who have a bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture and wish to teach or specialize in some aspect of landscape architecture, such as regional planning or golf course design. In 2000, 58 colleges and universities offered 75 undergraduate and graduate programs in landscape architecture that were accred ited by the Landscape Architecture Accreditation Board of the American Society of Landscape Architects. College courses required in this field usually include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape design and construction, land scape ecology, site design, and urban and regional planning. Other courses include history of landscape architecture, plant and soil sci ence, geology, professional practice, and general management. Many 94 Occupational Outlook Handbook landscape architecture programs are adding courses that address environmental issues. In addition, most students at the undergradu ate level take a year of prerequisite courses such as English, math ematics, and social and physical sciences. The design studio is an important aspect of many landscape architecture curriculums. When ever possible, students are assigned real projects, providing them with valuable hands-on experience. While working on these projects, students become more proficient in the use of computer-aided de sign, geographic information systems, and video simulation. In 2000, 46 States required landscape architects to be licensed or registered. Licensing is based on the Landscape Architect Reg istration Examination (L.A.R.E.), sponsored by the Council of Land scape Architectural Registration Boards and administered over a 3-day period. Admission to the exam usually requires a degree from an accredited school plus 1 to 4 years of work experience, although standards vary from State to State. Currently, 16 States require the passage of a State examination in addition to the L. A.R.E. to satisfy registration requirements. State examinations, which usu ally are 1 hour in length and completed at the end of the L. A.R.E., focus on laws, environmental regulations, plants, soils, climate, and any other characteristics unique to the State. Because State requirements for licensure are not uniform, land scape architects may not find it easy to transfer their registration from one State to another. However, those who meet the national standards of graduating from an accredited program, serving 3 years of internship under the supervision of a registered landscape archi tect, and passing the L.A.R.E. can satisfy requirements in most States. Through this means, a landscape architect can obtain certi fication from the Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards, and so gain reciprocity (the right to work) in other States. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry positions should have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in landscape architecture. The Federal Government does not require its landscape architects to be licensed. Persons planning a career in landscape architecture should ap preciate nature, enjoy working with their hands, and possess strong analytical skills. Creative vision and artistic talent also are desir able qualities. Good oral communication skills are essential; land scape architects must be able to convey their ideas to other professionals and clients and to make presentations before large groups. Strong writing skills also are valuable, as is knowledge of computer applications of all kinds, including word processing, desk top publishing, and spreadsheets. Landscape architects use these tools to develop presentations, proposals, reports, and land impact studies for clients, colleagues, and superiors. The ability to draft and design using CAD software is essential. Many employers rec ommend that prospective landscape architects complete at least one summer internship with a landscape architecture firm in order to gain an understanding of the day-to-day operations of a small busi ness, including how to win clients, generate fees, and work within a budget. In States where licensure is required, new hires may be called “apprentices” or “intern landscape architects ’ until they become licensed. Their duties vary depending on the type and size of the employing firm. They may do project research or prepare working drawings, construction documents, or base maps of the area to be landscaped. Some are allowed to participate in the actual design of a project. However, interns must perform all work under the super vision of a licensed landscape architect. Additionally, all drawings and specifications must be signed and sealed by the licensed land scape architect, who takes legal responsibility for the work. After gaining experience and becoming licensed, landscape architects Digitized usually for FRASER can carry a design through all stages of development. After https://fraser.stlouisfed.org several years, they may become project managers, taking on the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis responsibility for meeting schedules and budgets, in addition to overseeing the project design; and later, associates or partners, with a proprietary interest in the business. Many landscape architects are self-employed because start-up costs, after an initial investment in CAD software, are relatively low. Self-discipline, business acumen, and good marketing skills are important qualities for those who choose to open their own busi ness. Even with these qualities, however, some may struggle while building a client base. . Those with landscape architecture training also qualify for jobs closely related to landscape architecture, and may, after gaining some experience, become construction supervisors, land or environmen tal planners, or landscape consultants. Job Outlook Employment of landscape architects is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Over all, several factors are expected to increase demand for landscape architectural services over the long run: Anticipated growth in resi dential, commercial, and heavy construction; continued emphasis on preservation and restoration of wetlands; and growth in land scape ecology, the use of techniques from landscape architecture to address environmental problems. Implementation of the Transportation Equity Act for the TwentyFirst Century is expected to spur employment for landscape archi tects, particularly in State and local governments. This Act, known as TEA-21, provides funds for surface transportation and transit programs, such as interstate highway maintenance and environmentfriendly pedestrian and bicycle trails. Also, growth in construction of residential and commercial building is expected to contribute to demand for landscape architects. However, opportunities will vary from year to year, and by geographic region, depending on local economic conditions. During a recession, when real estate sales and construction slow down, landscape architects may face layotfs and greater competition for jobs. The need to replace landscape architects who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons is expected to produce nearly as many job openings as employment growth. . As the cost of land rises, the importance of good site planning and landscape design grows. Increasingly, new development is con tingent upon compliance with environmental regulations and land use zoning, spurring demand for landscape architects to help plan sites and integrate man-made structures with the natural environ ment in the least disruptive way. Budget tightening in the Federal Government might restrict hir ing in the U.S. Forest Service and the National Park Service, agen cies that traditionally employ the most landscape architects in the Federal Government. Instead, such agencies may increasingly con tract out for landscape architecture services, providing additional employment opportunities in private landscape architecture firms. In addition to the work related to new development and con struction, landscape architects are expected to be involved in his toric preservation, land reclamation, and refurbishment of existing sites. Because landscape architects can work on many different types of projects, they may have an easier time than other design professionals finding employment when traditional construction slows down. . New graduates can expect to face competition for jobs in the largest and most prestigious landscape architecture firms. The num ber of professional degrees awarded in landscape architecture has remained steady over the years, even during times of fluctuating demand due to economic conditions. Opportunities will be best for landscape architects who develop strong technical skills—such as computer design—and communication skills, as well as knowledge Professional and Related Occupations 95 of environmental codes and regulations. Those with additional train ing or experience in urban planning increase their opportunities for employment in landscape architecture firms that specialize in site planning as well as landscape design. Many employers prefer to hire entry-level landscape architects who have internship experi ence, which significantly reduces the amount of on-the-job training required. Earnings In 2000, median annual earnings for landscape architects were $43,540. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,990 and $59,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,300 and the highest 10 percent earned over $74,100. Landscape and horticul tural services employed more landscape architects than any other industry, and their median annual earnings were $37,820 in 2000. In 2001, the average annual salary for all landscape architects in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and mana gerial positions was $62,824. Because many landscape architects work for small firms or are self-employed, benefits tend to be less generous than those pro vided to workers in large organizations. Related Occupations Landscape architects use their knowledge of design, construction, land-use planning, and environmental issues to develop a landscape project. Others whose work requires similar skills are architects, except landscape and naval; surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; civil engineers; and urban and regional planners. Landscape architects also know how to grow and use plants in the landscape. Some conservation scientists and foresters and biological and medical scientists study plants in gen eral and do related work, while environmental scientists and geo scientists work in the area of environmental remediation. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, including a list of colleges and universities offering accredited programs in landscape architecture, is available from: ► American Society of Landscape Architects, Career Information, 636 Eye St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.asla.org General information on registration or licensing requirements is available from: >- Council of Landscape Architectural Registration Boards, 12700 Fair Lakes Circle, Suite 110, Fairfax, VA22033. Internet: http://www.clarb.org Surveyors, Cartographers, Photogrammetrists, and Surveying Technicians (Q*NET 17-1021.00, 17-1022.00, 17-3031.01, 17-3031.02) • • Significant Points Four out of 5 are employed in engineering services and in government. Computer skills enhance employment opportunities. Nature of the Work Measuring and mapping the earth’s surface are the responsibilities of several different types of workers. Traditional land surveyors establish official land, air space, and water boundaries. They write of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents; descriptions https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis define air space for airports; and measure construction and mineral sites. Other surveyors provide data relevant to the shape, contour, location, elevation, or dimension of land or land features. Cartog raphers compile geographic, political, and cultural information and prepare maps of large areas. Photogrammetrists measure and ana lyze aerial photographs to prepare detailed maps and drawings. Surveying technicians assist land surveyors by operating survey in struments and collecting information in the field, and by perform ing computations and computer-aided drafting in offices. Mapping technicians calculate mapmaking information from field notes. They also draw topographical maps and verify their accuracy. Land surveyors manage survey parties who measure distances, directions, and angles between points and elevations of points, lines, and contours on, above, and below the earth’s surface. They plan the fieldwork, select known survey reference points, and determine the precise location of important features in the survey area. Sur veyors research legal records, look for evidence of previous bound aries, and analyze the data to determine the location of boundary lines. They also record the results of the survey, verify the accuracy of data, and prepare plots, maps, and reports. Surveyors who estab lish boundaries must be licensed by the State in which they work, and are known as Professional Land Surveyors. Professional Land Surveyors are sometimes called to provide expert testimony in court cases concerning surveying matters. A survey party gathers the information needed by the land sur veyor. A typical survey party consists of a party chief and one or more surveying technicians and helpers. The party chief, who may be either a land surveyor or a senior surveying technician, leads day-to-day work activities. Surveying technicians assist the party chief by adjusting and operating surveying instruments, such as the theodolite (used to measure horizontal and vertical angles) and elec tronic distance-measuring equipment. Surveying technicians or assistants position and hold the vertical rods, or targets, that the theodolite operator sights on to measure angles, distances, or eleva tions. They also may hold measuring tapes, if electronic distance measuring equipment is not used. Surveying technicians compile notes, make sketches, and enter the data obtained from surveying instruments into computers. Survey parties may include laborers or helpers who perform less-skilled duties, such as clearing brush from sight lines, driving stakes, or carrying equipment. New technology is changing the nature of the work of surveyors and surveying technicians. For larger projects, surveyors are in creasingly using the Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite system that precisely locates points on the earth by using radio sig nals transmitted via satellites. To use this system, a surveyor places a satellite signal receiver—a small instrument mounted on a tri pod—on a desired point. The receiver simultaneously collects in formation from several satellites to establish a precise position. The receiver also can be placed in a vehicle for tracing out road sys tems. Because receivers now come in different sizes and shapes and the cost of the receivers has fallen, much more surveying work is being done using GPS. Surveyors then must interpret and check the results produced by the new technology. Cartographers measure, map, and chart the earth’s surface, which involves everything from geographical research and data compila tion to actual map production. They collect, analyze, and interpret both spatial data—such as latitude, longitude, elevation, and dis tance—and nonspatial data—such as population density, land use patterns, annual precipitation levels, and demographic characteris tics. Cartographers prepare maps in either digital or graphic form, using information provided by geodetic surveys, aerial photographs, and satellite data. Photogrammetrists prepare detailed maps and drawings from aerial photographs, usually of areas that are inacces sible, difficult, or less cost-efficient to survey by other methods. 96 Occupational Outlook Handbook ... / trm,i After completing fieldwork, surveyors record the results of their survey as plots, maps, and reports. cartographers spend virtually all of their time in offices and sel dom visit the sites they are mapping. Employment Surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying tech nicians held about 121,000 jobs in 2000. Engineering and archi tectural services firms employed about 63 percent of these workers. Federal, State, and local governmental agencies employed an additional 16 percent. Major Federal Government employers are the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Bureau of Land Manage ment (BLM), the Army Corps of Engineers, the Forest Service (USFS), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Most surveyors in State and local government work for highway depart ments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Construc tion firms, mining and oil and gas extraction companies, and public utilities also employ surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. About 5,000 were self-employed in 2000. Map editors develop and verify map contents from aerial photo graphs and other reference sources. Some States require photogrammetrists to be licensed as Professional Land Surveyors. Some surveyors perform specialized functions that are closer to those of a cartographer than to those of a traditional surveyor. For example, geodetic surveyors use high-accuracy techniques, includ ing satellite observations (remote sensing), to measure large areas of the earth’s surface. Geophysical prospecting surveyors mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually petroleum related. Marine or hydrographic surveyors survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, water depth, and other features. The work of surveyors and cartographers is changing because of advancements in technology. These advancements include not only the GPS, but also new earth resources data satellites, improved aerial photography, and geographic information systems (GIS)—which are computerized data batiks of spatial data. From the older spe cialties of photogrammetrist and cartographer, a new type of map ping scientist is emerging. The geographic information specialist combines the functions of mapping science and surveying into a broader field concerned with the collection and analysis of geo graphic information. Working Conditions Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and may spend a lot of time outdoors. Sometimes they work longer hours during the summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. Seasonal demands for longer hours are re lated to demand for specific surveying services. Home purchases are traditionally related to the start and end of the school year; con struction is related to the materials to be used (concrete and asphalt are restricted by outside temperatures, unlike wood framing); and aerial photography is most effective when the leaves are off the _ trees. Land surveyors and technicians engage in active, and sometimes strenuous, work. They often stand for long periods, walk consider able distances, and climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and other equipment. They can also be exposed to all types of weather. Traveling often is part of the job; they may commute long distances, stay overnight, or temporarily relocate near a survey site. surveyors can spend considerable time indoors plan Digitized forWhile FRASER ning surveys, analyzing data, and preparing reports and maps, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people prepare for a career as a licensed surveyor by combin ing postsecondary school courses in surveying with extensive onthe-job training. However, as technology advances, a 4-year college degree is becoming more of a prerequisite. About 25 universities now offer 4-year programs leading to a B.S. degree in surveying. Junior and community colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in both surveying and surveying technology. All 50 States and all U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, Marianna Islands, and Virgin Islands) license land surveyors. For licensure, most State licensing boards require that individuals pass a written examination given by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying. Most States also require that sur veyors pass a written examination prepared by the State licensing board. In addition, they must meet varying standards of formal education and work experience in the field. In the past, many indi viduals started as members of survey crews and worked their way up to become licensed surveyors with little formal training in sur veying. However, because of advancing technology and rising licensing standards, formal education requirements are increas ing. At present, most States require some formal post-high school coursework and 10 to 12 years of surveying experience to gain licensure. However, requirements vary among States. Generally, the quickest route to licensure is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience (a few States do not require any), and passing the licensing examinations. An in creasing number of States require a bachelor’s degree in surveying or in a closely related field, such as civil engineering or forestry (with courses in surveying), regardless of the number of years of experience. High school students interested in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. High school graduates with no formal train ing in surveying usually start as apprentices. Beginners with postsecondary school training in surveying usually can start as tech nicians or assistants. With on-the-job experience and formal train ing in surveying—either in an institutional program or from a correspondence school—workers may advance to senior survey tech nician, then to party chief, and in some cases, to licensed surveyor (depending on State licensing requirements). Professional and Related Occupations 97 The National Society of Professional Surveyors, a member orga nization of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, has a voluntary certification program for surveying technicians. Techni cians are certified at four levels requiring progressive amounts of experience, in addition to the passing of written examinations. Al though not required for State licensure, many employers require cer tification for promotion to positions with greater responsibilities. Surveyors should have the ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and abstract forms. They must work with precision and accu racy because mistakes can be costly. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition because they work outdoors and often carry equipment over difficult terrain. They need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate verbally and manually (using hand signals). Surveying is a cooperative process, so good interpersonal skills and the ability to work as part of a team are important. Good office skills are also essential. Surveyors must be able to research old deeds and other legal documents and pre pare reports that document their work. Cartographers and photogrammetrists usually have a bachelor’s degree in a field such as engineering, forestry, geography, or a physi cal science. Although it is possible to enter these positions through previous experience as a photogrammetric or cartographic techni cian, most cartographic and photogrammetric technicians now have had some specialized postsecondary school training. With the de velopment of GIS, cartographers and photogrammetrists need ad ditional education and stronger technical skills—including more experience with computers—than in the past. The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sens ing has a voluntary certification program for photogrammetrists. To qualify for this professional distinction, individuals must meet work experience standards and pass an oral or written examination. Job Outlook Overall employment of surveyors, cartographers, photogramme trists, and surveying technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. The wide spread availability and use of advanced technologies, such as GPS, GIS, and remote sensing, are increasing both the accuracy and pro ductivity of survey, photogrammetric, and mapping work. How ever, job openings will continue to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force altogether. Prospects will be best for surveying and mapping technicians, whose numbers are expected to grow slightly faster than the aver age for all occupations through 2010. The short training period needed to leam to operate the equipment, the current lack of any formal testing or licensing, and the relatively lower wages all make for a healthy demand for these technicians, as well as for a readily available supply. As technologies become more complex, opportunities will be best for surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists who have at least a bachelor’s degree and strong technical skills. Increasing demand for geographic data, as opposed to traditional surveying services, will mean better opportunities for cartographers and pho togrammetrists involved in the development and use of geographic and land information systems. New technologies, such as GPS and GIS, also may enhance employment opportunities for surveyors and surveying technicians who have the educational background enabling them to use these systems, but upgraded licensing require ments will continue to limit opportunities for professional advance ment for those with less education. Opportunities for surveyors, cartographers, and photogramme Digitized for should FRASER trists remain concentrated in engineering, architectural, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis surveying services firms. However, nontraditional areas such as urban planning and natural resource exploration and mapping also should provide areas of employment growth, particularly with re gard to producing maps for management of natural emergencies and updating maps with the newly available technology. Contin ued growth in construction through 2010 should require surveyors to lay out streets, shopping centers, housing developments, facto ries, office buildings, and recreation areas, while setting aside flood plains, wetlands, wildlife habitats and environmentally sensitive areas for protection. However, employment may fluctuate from year to year along with construction activity, or mapping needs for land and resource management. Earnings Median annual earnings of surveyors were $36,700 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,480 and $49,030. The low est 10 percent earned less than $19,570, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,980. Median annual earnings of cartographers and photogrammetrists were $39,410 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,200 and $51,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,560 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,780. Median hourly earnings of surveying and mapping technicians were $ 13.48 in 2000. The middle 50 percent of all surveying tech nicians earned between $10.46 and $17.81 in 2000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.45, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.40. Median hourly earnings of surveying and map ping technicians employed in engineering and architectural services were $12.39 in 2000, while those employed by local governments had median hourly earnings of $15.77. In 2001, land surveyors in nonsupervisoiy, supervisory, and mana gerial positions in the Federal Government earned an average sal ary of $57,416; cartographers, $62,369; geodetic technicians, $53,143, surveying technicians, $34,623; and cartographic techni cians, $40,775. Related Occupations Surveying is related to the work of civil engineers, architects, and landscape architects, because an accurate survey is the first step in land development and construction projects. Cartography and geo detic surveying are related to the work of environmental scientists and geoscientists, who study the earth’s internal composition, sur face, and atmosphere. Cartography also is related to the work of geographers and urban and regional planners, who study and de cide how the earth’s surface is to be used. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, licensure requirements, and the surveying technician certification program is available from: >- National Society of Professional Surveyors, Suite #403, 6 Montgomery Village Ave., Gaithersburg, MD 20879. Internet: http ://www.acsm.net/nsps/index.html Information on a career as a geodetic surveyor is available from: >■ American Association of Geodetic Surveying (AAGS), Suite #403, 6 Montgomery Village Ave., Gaithersburg, MD 20879. Internet: http://www.acsm.net General information on careers in photogrammetry and remote sensing is available from: >■ ASPRS: The Imaging and Geospatial Information Society, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 210, Bethesda, MD 20814-2160. Internet: http://www.asprs.org 98 Occupational Outlook Handbook Drafters and Engineering Technicians Drafters__ ____ ____________ ____ (0*NET 17-3011.01, 17-3011.02,17-3012.01, 17-3012.02, 17-3013.00) Significant Points • • The type and quality of postsecondary drafting programs vary considerably; prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. Opportunities should be best for individuals who have at least 2 years of postsecondary training in drafting and considerable skill and experience using computeraided drafting (CAD) systems. Demand for particular drafting specializations varies geographically, depending on the needs of local • industry. Nature of the Work Drafters prepare technical drawings and plans used by production and construction workers to build everything from manufactured products, such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, or spacecraft, to structures, such as houses, office buildings, or oil and gas pipe lines. Their drawings provide visual guidelines, showing the tech nical details of the products and structures and specifying dimensions, materials to be used, and procedures and processes to be followed. Drafters fill in technical details, using drawings, rough sketches, specifications, codes, and calculations previously made by engineers, surveyors, architects, or scientists. For example, they use their knowledge of standardized building techniques to draw in the details of a structure. Some drafters use their knowledge of engineering and manufacturing theory and standards to draw the parts of a machine in order to determine design elements, such as the number and kind of fasteners needed to assemble it. They use technical handbooks, tables, calculators, and computers to do this. Traditionally, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices to prepare a drawing manually. Most drafters now use computeraided drafting (CAD) systems to prepare drawings. Consequently, some drafters are referred to as CAD operators. CAD systems em ploy computer workstations to create a drawing on a video screen. The drawings are stored electronically so that revisions or duplica tions can be made easily. These systems also permit drafters to easily and quickly prepare variations of a design. Although draft ers use CAD extensively, it is only a tool. Persons who produce technical drawings using CAD still function as drafters, and need the knowledge of traditional drafters—relating to drafting skills and standards—in addition to CAD skills. Despite the near-uni versal use of CAD systems, manual drafting still is used in certain applications. Drafting work has many specialties, and titles may denote a par ticular discipline of design or drafting. Aeronautical drafters pre pare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used for the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and related parts. Architectural drafters draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. They may specialize by the type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or by the kind of material used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis //■/// Drafters use computer-aided drafting systems to prepare drawings. Civil drafters prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major construction or civil engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood control projects, and water and sewage systems. Electrical drafters prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair electrical equipment and wir ing in communication centers, powerplants, electrical distribution systems, and buildings. Electronic drafters draw wiring diagrams, circuitboard assem bly diagrams, schematics, and layout drawings used in the manu facture, installation, and repair of electronic devices and components. Mechanical drafters prepare detail and assembly drawings of a wide variety of machinery and mechanical devices, indicating di mensions, fastening methods, and other requirements. Process piping or pipeline drafters prepare drawings used for layout, construction, and operation of oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems. Working Conditions Drafters usually work in comfortable offices furnished to accommo date their tasks. They may sit at adjustable drawing boards or draft ing tables when doing manual drawings, although most drafters work Professional and Related Occupations 99 at computer terminals much of the time. Because they spend long periods in front of computer terminals doing detailed work, draft ers may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems. Employment Drafters held about 213,000 jobs in 2000. More than 40 percent of drafters worked in engineering and architectural services firms that design construction projects or do other engineering work on a con tract basis for organizations in other industries. Another 29 percent worked in durable goods manufacturing industries, such as machin ery, electrical equipment, and fabricated metals. The remainder were mostly employed in the construction; government; transportation, communications, and utilities; and personnel-supply services in dustries. About 10,000 were self-employed in 2000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants who have completed postsecondary school training in drafting, which is offered by technical institutes, community colleges, and some 4-year colleges and universities. Employers are most interested in applicants who have well-devel oped drafting and mechanical drawing skills; a knowledge of draft ing standards, mathematics, science, and engineering technology; and a solid background in computer-aided drafting and design tech niques. In addition, communication and problem-solving skills are important. Individuals planning careers in drafting should take courses in math, science, computer technology, design or computer graphics, and any high school drafting courses available. Mechanical ability and visual aptitude also are important. Prospective drafters should be able to draw three-dimensional objects as well as draw freehand. They also should do detailed work accurately and neatly. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields, as is knowledge of manufacturing and construction methods. In addition, prospective drafters should have good interpersonal skills because they work closely with engineers, surveyors, architects, other professionals, and sometimes customers. Training and coursework differ somewhat within the drafting specialties. The initial training for each specialty is similar. All incorporate math and communication skills, for example, but coursework relating to the specialty varies. In an electronics draft ing program, for example, students learn the ways that electronic components and circuits are depicted in drawings. Entry-level or junior drafters usually do routine work under close supervision. After gaining experience, intermediate-level drafters progress to more difficult work with less supervision. They may be required to exercise more judgment and perform calculations when preparing and modifying drawings. Drafters may eventually ad vance to senior drafter, designer, or supervisor. Many employers pay for continuing education and, with appropriate college degrees, drafters may go on to become engineering technicians, engineers, or architects. Many types of publicly and privately operated schools provide some form of drafting training. The kind and quality of programs vary considerably. Therefore, prospective students should be care ful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, type and condition of instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training but less gen eral education than junior and community colleges. Certificates or diplomas based on completion of a certain number of course hours Digitized for be FRASER may rewarded. Many technical institutes offer 2-year associate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis degree programs, which are similar to, or part of, the programs of fered by community colleges or State university systems. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organiza tions, sometimes called proprietary schools. Their programs vary considerably in both length and type of courses offered. Community colleges offer curriculums similar to those in tech nical institutes but include more courses on theory and liberal arts. Often, there is little or no difference between technical institute and community college programs. However, courses taken at commu nity colleges are more likely to be accepted for credit at 4-year col leges than are those at technical institutes. After completing a 2-year associate degree program, graduates may obtain jobs as drafters or continue their education in a related field at 4-year colleges. Fouryear colleges usually do not offer drafting training, but college courses in engineering, architecture, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as a drafter. Area vocational-technical schools are postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Many offer introductory drafting instruction. Most require a high school diploma, or its equivalent, for admission. Technical training obtained in the Armed Forces also can be applied in civilian drafting jobs. Some additional training may be necessary, depending on the technical area or military specialty. The American Design Drafting Association (ADDA) has estab lished a certification program for drafters. Although drafters usu ally are not required to be certified by employers, certification demonstrates that the understanding of nationally recognized prac tices and knowledge standards have been met. Individuals who wish to become certified must pass the Drafter Certification Test, which is administered periodically at ADDA-authorized testsites! Applicants are tested on their knowledge and understanding of ba sic drafting concepts such as geometric construction, working draw ings, and architectural terms and standards. Job Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Industrial growth and increasingly complex design problems associated with new prod ucts and manufacturing processes will increase the demand for draft ing services. Further, drafters are beginning to break out of the traditional drafting role and increasingly do work traditionally per formed by engineers and architects, thus increasing the need for drafters. However, the greater use of CAD equipment by drafters, as well as by architects and engineers, should limit demand for lesserskilled drafters. In addition to those created by employment growth, many job openings are expected to arise as drafters move to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities should be best for individuals who have at least 2 years of postsecondary training in a drafting program that provides strong technical skills, and who have considerable skill and experi ence using CAD systems. CAD has increased the complexity of drafting applications while enhancing the productivity of drafters. It also has enhanced the nature of drafting by creating more possi bilities for design and drafting. As technology continues to ad vance, employers will look for drafters with a strong background in fundamental drafting principles, a higher level of technical sophis tication, and an ability to apply this knowledge to a broader range of responsibilities. Demand for particular drafting specialties varies throughout the country because employment usually is contingent upon the needs of local industry. Employment of drafters remains highly concen trated in industries that are sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy, such as engineering and architectural services and durable-goods manufacturing. During recessions, drafters may be 100 Occupational Outlook Handbook laid off. However, a growing number of drafters should continue to be employed on a temporary or contract basis, as more compa nies turn to the personnel-supply services industry to meet their changing needs. Earnings Earnings for drafters vary by specialty and level of responsibility. Median hourly earnings of architectural and civil drafters were $16.93 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.79 and $20.86. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.13. Median hourly earn ings of architectural and civil drafters in engineering and architec tural services in 2000 were $16.75. Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics drafters were $18.37 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.19 and $23.76. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.30, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.46. In engineering and architectural services, the average hourly earnings for electrical and electronics drafters were $17.30. Median hourly earnings of mechanical drafters were $18.19 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.43 and $23.20. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.70, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.69. The average hourly earnings for mechanical drafters in engineering and architectural services were $16.98. Related Occupations Other workers who prepare or analyze detailed drawings and make precise calculations and measurements include architects, except landscape and naval; landscape architects; designers; engineers; en gineering technicians; science technicians; and surveyors, cartog raphers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools offering programs in drafting and related fields is available from: >- Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org Information about certification is available from: >- American Design Drafting Association, P.O. Box 11937, Columbia, SC 29211. Internet: http://www.adda.org Engineering Technicians__ ______ (0*NET 17-3021.00, 17-3022.00, 17-3023.01, 17-3023.02, 17-3023.03, 17-3024.00, 17-3025.00, 17-3026.00, 17-3027.00) Significant Points • Electrical and electronic engineering technicians make up about 45 percent of all engineering technicians. • Because the type and quality of training programs vary considerably, prospective students should carefully investigate training programs before enrolling. Opportunities will be best for individuals with an associate degree or extensive job training in engineering technology. • Nature of the Work Digitized Engineering for FRASER technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve technical problems in research https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and development, manufacturing, sales, construction, inspection, and maintenance. Their work is more limited in scope and more practically oriented than that of scientists and engineers. Many en gineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and development. Others work in quality control—inspect ing products and processes, conducting tests, or collecting data. In manufacturing, they may assist in product design, development, or production. Although many workers who repair or maintain vari ous types of electrical, electronic, or mechanical equipment often are called technicians, these workers are covered in the Handbook section on installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Engineering technicians who work in research and development build or set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments, col lect data, calculate or record the results, and help engineers or sci entists in other ways, such as making prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in design work, often using computer-aided design equipment. Most engineering technicians specialize in certain areas, learn ing skills and working in the same disciplines as engineers. Occu pational titles, therefore, tend to follow the same structure as those of engineers. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians install, con struct, maintain, and test systems used to test, launch, or track air craft and space vehicles. They may calibrate test equipment and determine the cause of equipment malfunctions. Using computer and communications systems, aerospace engineering and operations technicians often record and interpret test data. Chemical engineering technicians usually are employed in in dustries producing pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and petroleum prod ucts, among others. They work in laboratories as well as processing plants. They help develop new chemical products and processes, test processing equipment and instrumentation, gather data, and monitor quality. Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures, and perform related surveys and studies. Some estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used, and some may even prepare drawings or perform land-surveying duties. Others may set up and monitor instruments used to study traffic conditions. (Separate statements on cost estimators; drafters; and surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying tech nicians can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electrical and electronics engineering technicians help design, develop, test, and manufacture electrical and electronic equipment such as communication equipment, radar, industrial and medical measuring or control devices, navigational equipment, and com puters. They may work in product evaluation and testing, using measuring and diagnostic devices to adjust, test, and repair equip ment. (Workers who only repair electrical and electronic equip ment are discussed in the statement on electrical and electronics installers and repairers found elsewhere in the Handbook. Many of these repairers often are referred to as electronics technicians.) Electrical and electronic engineering technology is also applied to a wide variety of systems such as communications and process controls. Electromechanical engineering technicians combine fun damental principles of mechanical engineering technology with knowledge of electrical and electronic circuits to design, develop, test, and manufacture electrical and computer-controlled mechani cal systems. Environmental engineering technicians work closely with en vironmental engineers and scientists in developing methods and devices used in the prevention, control, or correction of environ mental hazards. They inspect and maintain equipment affecting air pollution and recycling. Some inspect water and wastewater Professional and Related Occupations 101 — wmm Some engineering technicians help engineers by setting up equipment and conducting experiments. treatment systems to ensure that pollution control requirements are met. Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of per sonnel, materials, and machines in factories, stores, repair shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze produc tion costs. Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers design, de velop, test, and manufacture industrial machinery, consumer prod ucts, and other equipment. They may assist in product tests—by setting up instrumentation for auto crash tests, for example. They may make sketches and rough layouts, record data, make compu tations, analyze results, and write reports. When planning pro duction, mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment in manufacturing departments or work with engineers to eliminate production problems. Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work at least 40 hours a week in labo ratories, offices, or manufacturing or industrial plants, or on con struction sites. Some may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials. Employment Engineering technicians held about 519,000 jobs in 2000. About 233,000 of these were electrical and electronics engineering tech nicians. About 35 percent of all engineering technicians worked in durable goods manufacturing, mainly in the electrical and electronic equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, instruments and related products, and transportation equipment industries. Another 26 percent worked in service industries, mostly in engineering or business services companies that do engineering work on contract for government, manufacturing firms, or other organizations. In 2000, the Federal Government employed about 23,000 engi neering technicians. The major employer was the Department of Defense, followed by the Departments of Transportation, Agricul ture, and Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. State governments em ployed about 22,000, and local governments, about 21,000. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it may be possible to qualify for a few engineering tech nician jobs without formal training, most employers prefer to hire someone with at least a 2-year associate degree in engineering tech nology. Training is available at technical institutes, community colleges, extension divisions of colleges and universities, public and private vocational-technical schools, and the Armed Forces. Persons with college courses in science, engineering, and math ematics may qualify for some positions but may need additional specialized training and experience. Although employers usually do not require engineering technicians to be certified, such certifi cation may provide jobseekers a competitive advantage. Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible to prepare for postsecondary programs in engineering technology. Most 2-year associate degree programs accredited by the Technology Accredi tation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (TAC/ABET) require, at a minimum, college algebra and trigonometry, and one or two basic science courses. Depend ing on the specialty, more math or science may be required. The type of technical courses required also depends on the spe cialty. For example, prospective mechanical engineering techni cians may take courses in fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and mechanical design; electrical engineering technicians may take classes in electric circuits, microprocessors, and digital electronics; and those preparing to work in environmental engineering technol ogy need courses in environmental regulations and safe handling of hazardous materials. Because many engineering technicians may assist in design work, creativity is desirable. Good communication skills and the ability to work well with others also is important because these workers often are part of a team of engineers and other technicians. Engineering technicians usually begin by performing routine duties under the close supervision of an experienced technician, technologist, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineering technicians eventually become supervisors. Many publicly and privately operated schools provide technical training; the type and quality ofprograms vary considerably. There fore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their prefer ences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Graduates of ABET-accredited programs usually are recognized to have achieved an acceptable level of com petence in the mathematics, science, and technical courses required for this occupation. Technical institutes offer intensive technical training through ap plication and practice, but less theory and general education than community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or part of a community college or State university system. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit, organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools. Their programs vary considerably in length and types of courses offered, although some are 2-year associate degree programs. Community colleges offer curriculums that are similar to those in technical institutes, but that may include more theory and lib eral arts. Often there may be little or no difference between tech nical institute and community college programs, as both offer associate degrees. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates get jobs as engineering technicians, while others con tinue their education at 4-year colleges. However, there is a dif ference between an associate degree in pre-engineering and one in engineering technology. Students who enroll in a 2-year pre- 102 Occupational Outlook Handbook engineering program may find it very difficult to find work as an engineering technician should they decide not to enter a 4-year engineering program, because pre-engineering programs usually focus less on hands-on applications and more on academic prepa ratory work. Conversely, graduates of 2-year engineering tech nology programs may not receive credit for many of the courses they have taken if they choose to transfer to a 4-year engineering program. Colleges with these 4-year programs usually do not of fer engineering technician training, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor s degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs often are hired to work as technologists or applied engineers, not technicians. Area vocational-technical schools, another source of technical training, include postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission. Other training in technical areas may be obtained in the Armed Forces. Many military technical training programs are highly re garded by employers. However, skills acquired in military programs are often narrowly focused, so they may not be useful in civilian industry, which often requires broader training. Therefore, some additional training may be needed, depending on the acquired skills and the kind of job. The National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technolo gies (NICET) has established a voluntary certification program for engineering technicians. Certification is available at various lev els, each level combining a written examination in 1 of more than 30 specialties with a certain amount of job-related experience, a supervisory evaluation, and a recommendation. Job Outlook Opportunities will be best for individuals with an associate degree or extensive job training in engineering technology. As technology becomes more sophisticated, employers continue to look for tech nicians who are skilled in new technology and require a minimum of additional job training. An increase in the number ofjobs affect ing public health and safety should create job opportunities for cer tified engineering technicians. Overall employment of engineering technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. As production of technical products continues to grow, com petitive pressures will force companies to improve and update manu facturing facilities and product designs more rapidly than in the past. However, the growing availability and use of advanced tech nologies, such as computer-aided design and drafting and computer simulation, will continue to increase productivity and limit job growth. In addition to growth, many job openings will stem from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force. Like engineers, employment of engineering technicians is in fluenced by local and national economic conditions. As a result, the employment outlook varies with industry and specialization. Some types of engineering technicians, such as civil engineering and aerospace engineering and operations technicians, experience greater cyclical fluctuations in employment than do others. Increas ing demand for more sophisticated electrical and electronic prod ucts, as well as the expansion of these products and systems into all areas of industry and manufacturing processes, will contribute to average growth in the largest specialty electrical and electron ics engineering technicians. At the same time, new specializations will contribute to growth among all other engineering technicians; fire protection engineering, water quality control, and environmental https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis technology are some of many new specialties for which demand is increasing. Earnings Median annual earnings of electrical and electronics engineering technicians were $40,020 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,570 and $49,680. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,320. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of electrical and electronics engineering technicians in 2000 are shown below. Federal Government................................. Telephone communication....................... Engineering and architectural services . Electrical goods........................................ Electronic components and accessories $50,000 45,640 40,690 38,120 35,500 Median annual earnings of civil engineering technicians were $35,990 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,810 and $44,740. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,830, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,770. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of civil engineering technicians in 2000 are shown below. Local government.................................... Engineering and architectural services State government..................................... $39,080 36,670 32,160 In 2000, the average annual salary for aerospace engineering and operations technicians in the aircraft and parts industry was $53,340, and the average annual salary for environmental engineer ing technicians in engineering and architectural services was $29,960. The average annual salary for industrial engineering tech nicians in computer and data processing services and electric com ponents and accessories was $73,320 and $36,300, respectively. In engineering and architectural services, the average annual salary for mechanical engineering technicians was $40,580. Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in postsecondary programs below the baccalaure ate level. Similar occupations include science technicians; draft ers; surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; and broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Sources of Additional Information For $3.50, a full package of guidance materials and information (product number SP-01) on a variety of engineering technician and technology careers is available from: >- Junior Engineering Technical Society (JETS), 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Free information is available on the JETS Internet site: http://www.jets.org Information on ABET-accredited engineering technology pro grams is available from: >- Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc., Ill Market Place, Suite 1050, Baltimore, MD 21202. Internet: http://www.abet.org Information on certification of engineering technicians is avail able from: >- National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET), 1420 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.nicet.org Professional and Related Occupations 103 Engineers (0*NET 17-2011.00, 17-2021.00, 17-2031.00, 17-2041.00, 17-2051.00, 17-2061.00, 17-2071.00, 17-2072.00, 17-2081.00, 17-2111.01, 17 2111.02, 17-2111.03, 17-2112.00, 17-2121.01, 17-2121.02, 17-2131.00, 17-2141.00, 17-2151.00, 17-2161.00, 17-2171.00, 17-2199.99) Significant Points • Overall job opportunities in engineering are expected to be good, but to vary by specialty. • A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level jobs. • Starting salaries are significantly higher than those of college graduates in other fields. • Continuing education is critical to keep abreast of the latest technology. Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and math ematics to research and develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between perceived social needs and commercial applications. Engineers design products, machin ery to build those products, factories in which those products are made, and the systems that ensure the quality of the products and efficiency of the workforce and manufacturing process. Engineers design, plan, and supervise the construction of buildings, highways, and transit systems. They develop and implement improved ways to extract, process, and use raw materials, such as petroleum and natural gas. They develop new materials that both improve the performance of products and take advantage of advances in tech nology. They harness the power of the sun, the Earth, atoms, and electricity for use in supplying the Nation’s power needs, and cre ate millions of products using power. They analyze the impact of the products they develop or the systems they design on the envi ronment and people using them. Engineering knowledge is ap plied to improving many things, including the quality of health care, the safety of food products, and the efficient operation of financial systems. Engineers consider many factors when developing a new prod uct. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers de termine precisely what function the robot needs to perform; design and test the robot’s components; fit the components together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to many different prod ucts, such as chemicals, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. These engineers supervise pro duction in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some move into engineering management or into sales. In sales, an engineering background en ables them to discuss technical aspects and assist in product plan ning, installation, and use. (See the statements on engineering and natural sciences managers and sales engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most engineers specialize. More than 25 major specialties are recognized by professional societies, and the major branches have numerous subdivisions. Some examples include structural, environmental, and transportation engineering, which are sub divisions of civil engineering; and ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering, which are subdivisions of materials engi neering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials. This statement, which contains an overall discussion of engi neering, is followed by separate statements on 14 engineering branches: aerospace; agricultural; biomedical; chemical; civil; com puter hardware; electrical and electronics, except computer; envi ronmental; industrial, including health and safety; materials; mechanical; mining and geological, including mining safety; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. (Computer software engineers are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some branches of engineer ing not covered in detail in the Handbook, but for which there are established college programs, include architectural engineering— the design of a building’s internal support structure; and marine engineering—the design and installation of ship machinery and pro pulsion systems. Engineers in each branch have a base of knowledge and training that can be applied in many fields. Electronics engineers, for example, work in the medical, computer, communications, and mis sile guidance fields. Because there are many separate problems to solve in a large engineering project, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in other scientific, engineering, and business occupations. Engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs; to simu late and test how a machine, structure, or system operates; and to generate specifications for parts. New communications technolo gies using computers are changing the way engineers work on de signs. Engineers can collaborate on designs with other engineers around the country or even abroad, using the Internet or related communications systems. Many engineers also use computers to monitor product quality and control process efficiency. They spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with other engi neers, as complex projects often require an interdisciplinary team of engineers. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major com ponents or entire projects. Working Conditions Most engineers work in office buildings, laboratories, or industrial plants. Others may spend time outdoors at construction sites, mines, and oil and gas exploration and production sites, where they moni tor or direct operations or solve onsite problems. Some engineers travel extensively to plants or worksites. Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week. At times, dead lines or design standards may bring extra pressure to a job. When this happens, engineers may work longer hours and experience con siderable stress. Employment In 2000, engineers held 1.5 million jobs. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by engineering specialty. 104 Occupational Outlook Handbook Employment Percent .. 1,465,000 100 Electrical and electronics............................. .. 288,000 232,000 221,000 198,000 60,000 52,000 50,000 33,000 33,000 14,000 9,000 7,200 20 16 15 14 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 <1 6,500 5,100 2,400 253,000 <1 <1 <1 17 Specialty Civil....................................................... .. Mechanical...................................................... .. Industrial, including health and safety...... .. Computer hardware....................................... .. .. Aerospace.............................................. Chemical................................................ Materials................................................ Nuclear.................................................. Petroleum............................................... ... Biomedical............................................. ... Mining and geological, including mining safety............................................. ... Marine engineers and naval architects..... ... All other engineers....................................... Almost half of all wage and salary engineering jobs were found in manufacturing industries, such as transportation equipment, elec trical and electronic equipment, industrial machinery, and instru ments and related products. About 401,000 wage and salary jobs were in services industries, primarily in engineering and architec tural services, research and testing services, and business services, where firms designed construction projects or did other engineer ing work on a contractual basis. Engineers also worked in the con struction and transportation, communications and utilities industries. Federal, State, and local governments employed about 179,000 engineers in 2000. Almost half of these were in the Federal Gov ernment, mainly in the Departments of Defense, Transportation, Ag riculture, Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local govern ment agencies worked in highway and public works depart ments. In 2000, about 43,000 engineers were self-employed, many as consultants. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities, and in rural areas. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is required for almost all entrylevel engineering jobs. College graduates with a degree in a physi cal science or mathematics occasionally may qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in specialties in high demand. Most engineering degrees are granted in electrical, electronics, mechani cal, or civil engineering. However, engineers trained in one branch may work in related branches. For example, many aerospace engi neers have training in mechanical engineering. This flexibility al lows employers to meet staffing needs in new technologies and specialties in which engineers are in short supply. It also allows engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects or to those that more closely match their interests. Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and science. Most programs include a design course, sometimes accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both. In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges offer 2- or 4-year degree programs in engineering technology. These programs, which usually include various hands-on laboratory classes that focus on current issues, prepare students for practical design and production work, rather than for jobs which require more theo Digitizedretical for FRASER and scientific knowledge. Graduates of 4-year technology https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by graduates with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. Engineering technology gradu ates, however, are not qualified to register as professional engineers under the same terms as graduates with degrees in engineering. Some employers regard technology program graduates as having skills between those of a technician and an engineer. Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions and many research and development programs, but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology and broaden their education. Many high-level ex ecutives in government and industry began their careers as engineers. About 330 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree pro grams in engineering that are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), and about 250 colleges offer accredited bachelor’s degree programs in engineering tech nology. ABET accreditation is based on an examination of an engi neering program’s student achievement, program improvement, faculty, curricular content, facilities, and institutional commitment. Although most institutions offer programs in the major branches of engineering, only a few offer programs in the smaller specialties. Also, programs of the same title may vary in content. For example, some programs emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in industry, whereas others are more theoretical and are designed to prepare students for graduate work. Therefore, stu dents should investigate curricula and check accreditations care fully before selecting a college. Admissions requirements for undergraduate engineering schools include a solid background in mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigo nometry, and calculus) and sciences (biology, chemistry, and phys ics), and courses in English, social studies, humanities, and computers. Bachelor’s degree programs in engineering typically are designed to last 4 years, but many students find that it takes between 4 and 5 years to complete their studies. In a typical 4-year college curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying mathemat ics, basic sciences, introductory engineering, humanities, and so cial sciences. In the last 2 years, most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one branch. For example, the last 2 years of an aerospace program might include courses in fluid me chanics, heat transfer, applied aerodynamics, analytical mechanics, flight vehicle design, trajectory dynamics, and aerospace propul sion systems. Some programs offer a general engineering curricu lum; students then specialize in graduate school or on the job. Some engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering educa tion, and the engineering school automatically admits students for their last 2 years. In addition, a few engineering schools have arrange ments whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college study ing pre-engineering subjects and 2 years in an engineering school studying core subjects, and then receives a bachelor’s degree from each school. Some colleges and universities offer 5-year master’s degree programs. Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans com bine classroom study and practical work, permitting students to gain valuable experience and finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia usually require licensure for engineers who offer their services directly to the public. Engineers who are licensed are called Professional Engineers (PE). This licensure gen erally requires a degree from an ABET-accredited engineering pro gram, 4 years of relevant work experience, and successful completion of a State examination. Recent graduates can start the licensing pro cess by taking the examination in two stages. The initial Fundamen tals of Engineering (FE) examination can be taken upon graduation. Engineers who pass this examination commonly are called Engineers in Training (EIT) or Engineer Interns (El). The EIT certification Professional and Related Occupations 105 usually is valid for 10 years. After acquiring suitable work experi ence, EITs can take the second examination, the Principles and Prac tice of Engineering Exam. Several States have imposed mandatory continuing education requirements for relicensure. Most States rec ognize licensure from other States. Many civil, electrical, mechani cal, and chemical engineers are licensed as PEs. Engineers should be creative, inquisitive, analytical, and detailoriented. They should be able to work as part of a team and to communicate well, both orally and in writing. Communication abili ties are becoming more important because much of their work is becoming more diversified, meaning that engineers interact with specialists in a wide range of fields outside engineering. Beginning engineering graduates usually work under the super vision of experienced engineers and, in large companies, also may receive formal classroom or seminar-type training. As new engi neers gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more diffi cult projects with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions. Engineers may advance to become technical specialists or to supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians. Some may eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial or sales jobs. (See the statements under management and business and financial operations occupations, and sales and related occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Overall engineering employment is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations. However, overall job opportu nities in engineering are expected to be good through 2010 because the number of engineering degrees granted is not expected to increase significantly over the 2000-10 period. Proj ected employment growth and, thus, job opportunities vary by specialty, ranging from a decline in employment of mining and geological engineers to faster-than-average growth among environmental engineers. Competitive pressures and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update product designs and to optimize their manufacturing processes. Employers will rely on engineers to further increase productivity, as investment in plant and equipment increases to expand output of goods and services. New computer and communications systems have improved the design process, enabling engineers to produce and ana lyze various product designs much more rapidly than in the past and to collaborate on designs with other engineers throughout the world. Despite these widespread applications, computer technology is not expected to limit employment opportunities. Finally, additional en gineers will be needed to improve or build new roads, bridges, water and pollution control systems, and other public facilities. Many engineering jobs are related to developing technologies used in national defense. Because defense expenditures—particu larly expenditures for aircraft, missiles, and other weapons systems— are not expected to return to previously high levels, job outlook may not be as favorable for engineers working in defense-related fields although defense expenditures are expected to increase. The number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering be gan declining in 1987 and has continued to stay at about the same level through much of the 1990s. The total number of graduates from engineering programs is not expected to increase significantly over the projection period. Although only a relatively small proportion of engineers leaves the profession each year, many job openings will arise from replace ment needs. A greater proportion of replacement openings is cre ated by engineers who transfer to management, sales, or other professional occupations than by those who leave the labor force. Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other workers. Many engineers work on long-term research and devel opment projects or in other activities that continue even during https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis economic slowdowns. In industries such as electronics and aero space, however, large cutbacks in defense expenditures and gov ernment research and development funds, as well as the trend toward contracting out engineering work to engineering services firms, have resulted in significant layoffs for engineers. It is important for engineers, like those working in other techni cal occupations, to continue their education throughout their ca reers because much of their value to their employer depends on their knowledge of the latest technology. Although the pace of tech nological change varies by engineering specialty and industry, ad vances in technology have significantly affected every engineering discipline. Engineers in high-technology areas, such as advanced electronics or information technology, may find that technical knowl edge can become obsolete rapidly. Even those who continue their education are vulnerable to layoffs if the particular technology or product in which they have specialized becomes obsolete. By keep ing current in their field, engineers are able to deliver the best solu tions and greatest value to their employers. Engineers who have not kept current in their field may find themselves passed over for promotions or vulnerable to layoffs, should they occur. On the other hand, it often is these high-technology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most interesting work, and the highest salaries. Therefore, the choice of engineering specialty and employer involves an assessment not only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological obsolescence. Related Occupations Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics in their work. Other workers who use scientific and mathematical principles include architects, except landscape and naval; engineer ing and natural sciences managers; computer and information sys tems managers; mathematicians; drafters; engineering technicians; sales engineers; science technicians; and physical and life scien tists, including agricultural and food scientists, biological and medi cal scientists, conservation scientists and foresters, atmospheric scientists, chemists and materials scientists, environmental scien tists and geoscientists, and physicists and astronomers. Sources of Additional Information High school students interested in obtaining a full package of guid ance materials and information (product number SP-01) on a vari ety of engineering disciplines should contact the Junior Engineering Technical Society by sending $3.50 to: >■ JETS-Guidance, 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.jets.org High school students interested in obtaining information on ABET-accredited engineering programs should contact: >■ The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc., Ill Market Place, Suite 1050, Baltimore, MD 21202-4012. Internet: http://www.abet.org Non-licensed engineers and college students interested in obtaining information on Professional Engineer licensure should contact: > The National Society of Professional Engineers, 1420 King St., Alexan dria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.nspe.org ► National Council of Examiners for Engineers and Surveying, P.O. Box 1686, Clemson, SC 29633-1686. Internet: http://www.ncees.org Information on general engineering education and career re sources is available from: >- American Society for Engineering Education, 1818 N St. NW., Suite 600, Washington, DC 20036-2479. Internet: http://www.asee.org Information on obtaining an engineering position with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Manage ment (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or 106 Occupational Outlook Handbook call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollffee, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Non-high school students and those wanting more detailed in formation should contact societies representing the individual branches of engineering. Each can provide information about careers in the particular branch. The individual statements that follow also provide other information in detail on aerospace; agricultural; bio medical; chemical; civil; computer hardware; electrical and elec tronics, except computer; environmental; industrial, including health and safety; materials; mechanical; mining and geological, including mining safety; nuclear; and petroleum engineering. Aerospace Engineers (0*NET 17-2011.00) Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers are responsible for developing extraordinary machines, from airplanes that weigh over a half a million pounds to spacecraft that travel over 17,000 miles an hour. They design, develop, and test aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles and supervise the manufacturing of these products. Aerospace engineers who work with aircraft are considered aeronautical engineers, and those working specifically with spacecraft are considered astronautical engineers. Aerospace engineers develop new technologies for use in avia tion, defense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas such as structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They often use Computer-Aided Design (CAD), robotics, and lasers and advanced electronic optics to assist them. They also may special ize in a particular type of aerospace product, such as commercial transports, military fighter jets, helicopters, spacecraft, or missiles and rockets. Aerospace engineers may be experts in aerodynamics, ....... ^ Employment Aerospace engineers held about 50,000 jobs in 2000. Almost onehalf worked in the aircraft and parts and guided missile and space vehicle manufacturing industries. Federal Government agencies, primarily the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, provided almost 15 percent of jobs. Engineering and architectural services, research and testing services, and search and navigation equipment firms accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment of aerospace engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. The decline in Defense Department expenditures for military aircraft, missiles, and other aerospace systems has restricted defense-related employment opportunities in recent years. However, an expected increase in defense spending in these areas may result in increased employ ment of aerospace engineers in defense-related areas during the 2000-10 period. Demand should increase for aerospace engineers to design and produce civilian aircraft, due to the need to accom modate increasing passenger traffic and to replace much of the present fleet with quieter and more fuel-efficient aircraft. Addi tional opportunities for aerospace engineers will be created with aircraft manufacturers to search for ways to use existing technol ogy for new purposes. Some employment opportunities also will occur in industries not typically associated with aerospace, such as motor vehicles. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace aerospace engineers who transfer to other occupa tions or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of aerospace engineers were $67,930 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $56,410 and $82,570. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $47,700, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $94,310. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of aerospace engineers in 2000 were: Federal Government.............................................................................. Search and navigation equipment....................................................... Aircraft and parts.................................................................................. Guided missiles, space vehicles, and parts...................................... $74,170 71,020 68,230 65,830 According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in aero space engineering received starting offers averaging $46,918 a year, master’s degree candidates were offered $59,955, and Ph.D. candi dates were offered $64,167. Sources of Additional Information For further information about aerospace engineers, contact: >• Aerospace Industries Association, 1250 Eye St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aia-aerospace.org >- American Institute ofAeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., Suite 500,1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191 -4344. Internet: http://www.aiaa.org _____ Aerospace engineers use computer-aided design to develop new technologies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guid ance and control systems. Aerospace engineers typically are employed within the aerospace industry, although their skills are becoming increasingly valuable in other fields. For example, aerospace engineers in the motor ve hicles manufacturing industry design vehicles that have lower air resistance, increasing the fuel efficiency of vehicles. (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Professional and Related Occupations 107 Sources of Additional Information General information about agricultural engineers can be obtained from: Agricultural Engineers (0*NET 17-2021.00) >- American Society ofAgricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659. Internet: http://www.asae.org Nature of the Work Agricultural engineers apply knowledge of engineering technology and biological science to agriculture. They design agricultural ma chinery and equipment and agricultural structures. They develop ways to conserve soil and water and to improve the processing of agricultural products. Agricultural engineers work in research and development, production, sales, or management. (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Biomedical Engineers (0*NET 17-2031.00) Employment More than one third of the 2,400 agricultural engineers employed in 2000 worked for engineering and management services, supply ing consultant services to farmers and farm-related industries. Oth ers worked in a wide variety of industries, including crops and livestock as well as manufacturing and government. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural engineers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Increasing demand for agricultural products, continued efforts for more effi cient agricultural production, and increasing emphasis on the con servation of resources should result in job opportunities for agricultural engineers. However, most openings will be created by the need to replace agricultural engineers who transfer to other oc cupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of agricultural engineers were $55,850 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,220 and $71,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,600. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in agri cultural engineering received starting offers averaging $46,065 a year and master’s degree candidates, on average, were offered $49,808. Nature of the Work By combining biology and medicine with engineering, biomedical engineers develop devices and procedures that solve medical and health-related problems. Many do research, along with life scien tists, chemists, and medical scientists, on the engineering aspects of the biological systems of humans and animals. Biomedical en gineers also design devices used in various medical procedures, such as the computers used to analyze blood or the laser systems used in corrective eye surgery. They develop artificial organs, imaging sys tems such as ultrasound, and devices for automating insulin injec tions or controlling body functions. Most engineers in this specialty require a sound background in one of the more basic engineering specialties, such as mechanical or electronics engineering, in addi tion to specialized biomedical training. Some specialties within biomedical engineering include biomaterials, biomechanics, medi cal imaging, rehabilitation, and orthopedic engineering. Employment Biomedical engineers held about 7,200 jobs in 2000. Manufactur ing industries employed 30 percent of all biomedical engineers, pri marily in the medical instruments and supplies industries. Many others worked for health services. Some also worked on a contract basis for government agencies or as independent consultants. Job Outlook Employment of biomedical engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. The aging popu lation and the focus on health issues will increase the demand for IfM " I ........ t ■m-id A,, ... -■ An agricultural engineer sets up tests to measure the amount of Digitized nutrients for FRASER to be applied to a field. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some specialties within biomedical engineering include biomaterials, biomechanics, medical imaging, rehabilitation, and orthopedic engineering. 108 Occupational Outlook Handbook better medical devices and systems designed by biomedical engi neers. For example, computer-assisted surgery and cellular and tis sue engineering are being more heavily researched and are developing rapidly. In addition, the rehabilitation and orthopedic engineering specialties are growing quickly, increasing the need for more biomedical engineers. Along with the demand for more so phisticated medical equipment and procedures is an increased con cern for cost efficiency and effectiveness that also will increase the need for biomedical engineers. Earnings Median annual earnings of biomedical engineers were $57,480 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,760 and $74,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,860 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,530. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in bio medical engineering received starting offers averaging $47,850 a year and master’s degree candidates, on average, were offered $62,600. Sources of Additional Information For further information about biomedical engineers, contact: >• Biomedical Engineering Society, 8401 Corporate Dr., Suite 110, Landover, MD 20785-2224. Internet: http://mecca.org/BME/BMES/society/index.htm (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Chemical Engineers (0*NET 17-2041.00) Nature of the Work Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry and engineer ing to solve problems involving the production or use of chemicals, building a bridge between science and manufacturing. They design equipment and develop processes for large-scale chemical manu facturing, plan and test methods of manufacturing the products and treating the by-products, and supervise production. Chemical engi neers also work in a variety of manufacturing industries other than chemical manufacturing, such as those producing electronics, pho tographic equipment, clothing, and pulp and paper. They also work in the healthcare, biotechnology, and business services industries. The knowledge and duties of chemical engineers overlap many fields. Chemical engineers apply principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. They fre quently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area, such as pol lution control or the production of specific products such as fertil izers and pesticides, automotive plastics, or chlorine bleach. They must be aware of all aspects of chemicals manufacturing and how it affects the environment, the safety of workers, and customers. Be cause chemical engineers use computer technology to optimize all phases of research and production, they need to understand how to apply computer skills to process analysis, automated control sys tems, and statistical quality control. Employment Chemical engineers held about 33,000 jobs in 2000. Manufactur ing industries employed 73 percent of all chemical engineers, pri Digitizedmarily for FRASER in the chemicals, electronics, petroleum refining, paper, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis sL*. tlti Among manufacturing industries, specialty chemicals, plastics materials, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and electronics may provide the best opportunities for chemical engineers. related industries. Most others worked for engineering services, research and testing services, or consulting firms that design chemi cal plants. Some also worked on a contract basis for government agencies or as independent consultants. Job Outlook Chemical engineering graduates may face competition for jobs as the number of openings in traditional fields is projected to be lower than the number of graduates. Employment of chemical engineers is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupa tions though 2010. Although overall employment in the chemical manufacturing industry is expected to decline, chemical companies will continue to research and develop new chemicals and more ef ficient processes to increase output of existing chemicals, resulting in some new jobs for chemical engineers. Among manufacturing industries, specialty chemicals, plastics materials, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and electronics may provide the best opportunities. Much of the projected growth in employment of chemical engi neers, however, will be in nonmanufacturing industries, especially services industries such as research and testing services. Earnings Median annual earnings of chemical engineers were $65,960 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,440 and $80,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $45,200, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $93,430. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in chemi cal engineering received starting offers averaging $51,073 a year, master’s degree candidates averaged $57,221, andPh.D. candidates averaged $75,521. Sources of Additional Information Further information about chemical engineers is available from: ► American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Three ParkAve., New York, NY 10016-5901. Internet: http://www.aiche.org >• American Chemical Society, Department of Career Services, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.acs.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of addi tional information.) Professional and Related Occupations 109 Civil Engineers in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, civil engi neers move from place to place to work on different projects. (0*NET 17-2051.00) Nature of the Work Civil engineers design and supervise the construction ofroads, build ings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and water supply and sewage systems. Civil engineering, considered one of the oldest engineer ing disciplines, encompasses many specialties. The major special ties within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental, construction, transportation, and geotechnical en gineering. Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative posi tions, from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Oth ers may work in design, construction, research, and teaching. Employment Civil engineers held about 232,000 jobs in 2000. A little over half were employed by firms providing engineering consulting services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. Al most one third of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. The construction and manufacturing industries accounted for most of the remaining employment. About 12,000 civil engineers were self-employed, many as consultants. Civil engineers usually work near major industrial and commer cial centers, often at construction sites. Some projects are situated I*’. -r> ^ Job Outlook Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Spurred by gen eral population growth and an expanding economy, more civil en gineers will be needed to design and construct higher capacity transportation, water supply, pollution control systems, and large buildings and building complexes. They also will be needed to repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. There may be additional opportunities within noncivil engineering firms, such as management consulting or computer services firms. In addition to job growth, openings will result from the need to replace civil engineers that transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because construction and related industries—including those pro viding design services—employ many civil engineers, employment opportunities will vary by geographic area and may decrease dur ing economic slowdowns, when construction often is curtailed. Earnings Median annual earnings of civil engineers were $55,740 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,150 and $69,470. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,430, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $86,000. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of civil engineers in 2000 were: Federal Government............................................................................. $63,530 Heavy construction, except highway................................................... 62,010 Local government..................................................................................... 56,830 State government...................................................................................... 54,630 Engineering and architectural services................................................ 54,550 According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in civil engineering received starting offers averaging $40,616 a year, master’s degree candidates received an average offer of $44,080, and Ph.D. candidates were offered $62,280 as an initial salary. Sources of Additional Information Further information about civil engineers can be obtained from: ► American Society of Civil Engineers, 1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191-4400. Internet: http://www.asce.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Computer Hardware Engineers / u /.// DigitizedCivil for FRASER engineers check on construction sites and monitor progress. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (0*NET 17-2061.00) Nature of the Work Computer hardware engineers research, design, develop, and test computer hardware and supervise its manufacture and installation. Hardware refers to computer chips, circuit boards, computer sys tems, and related equipment such as keyboards, modems, and print ers. (Computer software engineers—often simply called computer engineers—design and develop the software systems that control computers. These workers are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) The work of computer hardware engineers is very similar to that of electronics engineers, but unlike electronics engineers, computer hardware engineers work with computers and computer-related 110 Occupational Outlook Handbook Computer and office equipment......................................................... Computer and data processing services............................................ Electronic components and accessories ........................................... Telephone communication................................................................... $75,730 69,490 67,800 59,160 Starting salaries for computer engineers with a bachelor’s de gree can be significantly higher than salaries of bachelor’s degree graduates in many other fields. According to the National Associa tion of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers in 2001 for bachelor’s degree candidates in computer engineering averaged $53,924 a year; master’s degree candidates averaged $58,026; and Ph.D. candidates averaged $70,140. Sources of Additional Information For further information about computer hardware engineers, contact: >■ IEEE Computer Society, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org Computer hardware engineers work with circuit boards, computer chips, keyboards, modems, and scanners. (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Electrical and Electronics Engineers equipment exclusively. (See the statement on electrical and elec tronics engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to de sign and development, computer hardware engineers may supervise the manufacturing and installation of computers and computer-re lated equipment. The rapid advances in computer technology are largely a result of the research, development, and design efforts of computer hardware engineers. To keep up with technology change, these engineers must continually update their knowledge. Employment The number of computer hardware engineers is relatively small com pared with the number of other computer-related workers who work with software or computer applications. Computer hardware engi neers held about 60,000 jobs in 2000. About 25 percent were em ployed in computer and data processing services. About 1 out of 10 worked in computer and office equipment manufacturing, but many also are employed in communications industries and engi neering consulting firms. Job Outlook Computer hardware engineers are expected to have favorable job opportunities. Employment of computer hardware engineers is pro jected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, reflecting rapid employment growth in the computer and of fice equipment industry, which employs the greatest number of com puter engineers. Consulting opportunities for computer hardware engineers should grow as businesses need help managing, upgrad ing, and customizing increasingly complex systems. Growth in embedded systems, a technology that uses computers to control other devices such as appliances or cell phones, also will increase the demand for computer hardware engineers. In addition to job open ings arising from employment growth, other vacancies will result from the need to replace workers who move into managerial posi tions, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer hardware engineers were $67,300 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $52,960 and $86,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $42,620, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $107,360. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of com puter hardware engineers in 2000 were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (0*NET 17-2071.00, 17-2072.00) Nature of the Work From geographical information systems that can continuously pro vide the location of a vehicle to giant electric power generators, electrical and electronics engineers are responsible for a wide range of technologies. Electrical and electronics engineers design, de velop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and elec tronic equipment. Some of this equipment includes power generating, controlling, and transmission devices used by electric utilities; and electric motors, machinery controls, lighting, and wir ing in buildings, automobiles, aircraft, radar and navigation sys tems, and broadcast and communications systems. Many electrical and electronics engineers also work in areas closely related to com puters. However, engineers whose work is related exclusively to computer hardware are considered computer hardware engineers, an occupation covered elsewhere in the Handbook. Electrical and electronics engineers specialize in different areas such as power generation, transmission, and distribution; commu nications; and electrical equipment manufacturing, or a subdivi sion of these areas—industrial robot control systems or aviation i! .~J An electrical engineer working for a consulting firm looks for defective circuits. Professional and Related Occupations 111 electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers de sign new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. Federal Government............................................................................. $70,890 Search and navigation equipment......................................................... 68,930 Electronic components and accessories.............................................. 63,890 Electrical goods......................................................................................... 62,860 Telephone communication...................................................................... 57,710 Employment Electrical and electronics engineers held about 288,000 jobs in 2000, making their occupation the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in engineering and business consulting firms, govern ment agencies, and manufacturers of electrical and electronic and computer and office equipment, industrial machinery, and profes sional and scientific instruments. Transportation, communications, and utilities firms as well as personnel supply services and com puter and data processing services firms accounted for most of the remaining jobs. California, Texas, New York, and New Jersey—States with many large electronics firms—employ nearly one-third of all electrical and electronics engineers. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in electri cal and electronics engineering received starting offers averaging $51,910 a year; master’s degree candidates averaged $63,812; and Ph.D. candidates averaged $79,241. Job Outlook Electrical and electronics engineering graduates should have favor able job opportunities. The number ofjob openings resulting from employment growth and the need to replace electrical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force is ex pected to be in rough balance with the supply of graduates. Em ployment of electrical and electronics engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Projected job growth stems largely from increased demand for electrical and electronic goods, including advanced communica tions equipment, defense-related electronic equipment, and con sumer electronics products. The need for electronics manufacturers to invest heavily in research and development to remain competi tive and gain a scientific edge will provide openings for graduates who have learned the latest technologies. Opportunities for elec tronics engineers in defense-related firms should improve as air craft and weapons systems are upgraded with improved navigation, control, guidance, and targeting systems. However, job growth is expected to be fastest in services industries—particularly consult ing firms that provide electronic engineering expertise. Continuing education is important for electrical and electronics engineers. Engineers who fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology risk becoming more susceptible to layoffs or, at a mini mum, more likely to be passed over for advancement. Earnings Median annual earnings of electrical engineers were $64,910 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $51,700 and $80,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,740, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $94,490. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electrical engineers in 2000 were: Computer and office equipment........................................................ Measuring and controlling devices.................................................... Search and navigation equipment...................................................... Electronic components and accessories........................................... Engineering and architectural services............................................. $69,700 67,570 67,330 65,830 65,040 Median annual earnings of electronics engineers, except com puter, were $64,830 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $52,430 and $79,960. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,070, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $94,330. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num Digitizedbers for FRASER of electronics engineers in 2000 were: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information Information on electrical and electronics engineers is available from: >- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscatway, NJ 08855-1331. Internet: http://www.ieee.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Environmental Engineers (0*NET 17-2081.00) Nature of the Work Using the principles of biology and chemistry, environmental engi neers develop methods to solve problems related to the environ ment. They are involved in water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health issues. Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies, evaluate the signifi cance of the hazard, offer analysis on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. They design munici pal sewage and industrial wastewater systems. They analyze scien tific data, research controversial proj ects, and perform quality control checks. Environmental engineers are concerned with local and world wide environmental issues. They study and attempt to minimize the effects of acid rain, global warming, automobile emissions, and ozone depletion. They also are involved in the protection of wildlife. Many environmental engineers work as consultants, helping their clients comply with regulations and clean up hazardous sites, in cluding brownfields, which are abandoned urban or industrial sites that may contain environmental hazards. Employment Environmental engineers held about 52,000 jobs in 2000. More than one-third worked in engineering and management services and about 16,000 were employed in Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies. Most of the rest worked in various manufacturing industries. Job Outlook Employment of environmental engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. More environmental engineers will be needed to meet environmental regu lations and to develop methods of cleaning up existing hazards. A shift in emphasis toward preventing problems rather than control ling those that already exist, as well as increasing public health con cerns, also will spur demand for environmental engineers. However, political factors determine the job outlook for environmental engi neers more than that for other engineers. Looser environmental regulations would reduce job opportunities; stricter regulations would enhance opportunities. 112 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information Further information about environmental engineers can be obtained from: >- American Academy of Environmental Engineers, 130 Holiday Court, Suite 100, Annapolis, MD21401. Internet: http://www.enviro-engrs.org (See the introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of additional information.) Industrial Engineers, Including Health and Safety _ tlill (Q*NET 17-2111.01, 17-2111.02, 17-2111.03, 17-2112.00) •w Although the type ofjob that environmental engineers have often determines whether they work outdoors, most work in offices the majority of the time. Even though employment of environmental engineers should be less affected by economic conditions than that of most other types of engineers, a significant economic downturn could reduce the emphasis on environmental protection, reducing employment op portunities. Environmental engineers need to keep abreast of a range of environmental issues to ensure steady employment because their area of focus may change frequently—for example, from hazard ous wastesite cleanup to the prevention of water pollution. Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways for an organi zation to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, materials, information, and energy—to make a product or to provide a service. They are the bridge between management goals and opera tional performance. They are more concerned with increasing pro ductivity through the management of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes. Although most industrial engineers work in manufacturing industries, they also work in consulting services, healthcare, and communications. To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, use mathematical methods such as operations research to meet those requirements, and design manufacturing and infor mation systems. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and ensure product qual ity, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers determine which plant lo cation has the best combination of raw materials availability, trans portation facilities, and costs. Industrial engineers use computers for simulations and to control various activities and devices, such as assembly lines and robots. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many indus trial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related. ££T£' ‘ SSrSsH' Earnings Median annual earnings of environmental engineers were $57,780 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,740 and $71,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,290. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of environ mental engineers in 2000 were: Engineering and architectural services............................................. State government................................................................................... Management and public relations...................................................... $53,580 53,210 52,110 According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in envi ronmental engineering received starting offers averaging $51,167 a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org year. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Health and safety engineers anticipate and evaluate hazardous conditions and develop hazard control methods. Professional and Related Occupations 113 The work of health and safety engineers is similar to that of in dustrial engineers in that they are concerned with the entire produc tion process. They promote worksite or product safety and health by applying knowledge of industrial processes, as well as mechani cal, chemical, and psychological principles. They must be able to anticipate and evaluate hazardous conditions as well as develop hazard control methods. They also must be familiar with the appli cation of health and safety regulations. Employment Industrial engineers, including health and safety, held about 198,000 jobs in 2000. More than 65 percent of these jobs were in manufac turing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distrib uted among manufacturing industries than are other engineers. Their skills can be readily applied outside manufacturing as well. Some work in engineering and management services, utilities, and business services; others work for government agencies or as inde pendent consultants. Job Outlook Despite industrial growth and more complex business operations, overall employment of industrial engineers, including health and safety, is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010, reflecting greater use of automation in factories and offices. Employment of industrial engineers is ex pected to grow more slowly than average while health and safety engineers are expected to grow about as fast as average. Because the main function of industrial and health and safety engineers is to make a higher quality product as efficiently and as safely as possible, their services should be in demand in the manu facturing sector as firms seek to reduce costs and increase produc tivity. There also is an increased demand for industrial engineers within the financial services sector, as more emphasis is put on in formation technology. Also, the growing concern for health and safety within work environments should increase the need for health and safety engineers. Earnings Median annual earnings of industrial engineers were $58,580 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,530 and $71,050. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,140, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,370. Median annual earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of indus trial engineers in 2000 were: Motor vehicles and equipment........................................................... Electronic components and accessories........................................... Computer and office equipment........................................................ Computer and data processing services............................................ Aircraft and parts.................................................................................. $63,010 62,560 62,260 60,510 58,290 Median annual earnings of health and safety engineers were $54,630 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,230 and $67,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,320. In 2000, the median annual earnings of health and safety engineers in railroads were $56,970. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in indus trial engineering received starting offers averaging about $48,320 a year; master’s degree candidates averaged $56,265 a year; and Ph.D. Digitizedcandidates for FRASERwere initially offered $59,800. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Sources of Additional Information For further information about industrial engineers, contact: ► Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092. Internet: http://www.iienet.org General information about safety engineers is available from: >- American Society of Safety Engineers, 1800 E Oakton St., Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.asse.org Information about certification of safety professionals, includ ing safety engineers, is available from: > Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of addi tional information.) Materials Engineers (Q*NET 17-2131.00) Nature of the Work Materials engineers are involved in the extraction, development, processing, and testing of the materials used to create a diversity of products, from computer chips and television screens to golf clubs and snow skis. They work with metals, ceramics, plastics, semi conductors, and combinations of materials called composites to cre ate new materials that meet certain mechanical, electrical, and chemical requirements. They also are involved in selecting materi als for new applications. There are numerous new developments within materials engineer ing that make it possible to manipulate and use materials in various ways. For example, materials engineers have developed the ability to create and then study materials at an atomic level using advanced processes, electrons, neutrons, or x-rays and to replicate the charac teristics of materials and their components with computers. Materials engineers specializing in metals can be considered met allurgical engineers, while those specializing in ceramics can be considered ceramic engineers. Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy—extractive or chemical, physical, and process. Extractive metallurgists are con cerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists study the na ture, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and relate them to the methods of processing them into final prod ucts. Process metallurgists develop and improve metalworking pro cesses such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing. Ceramic engineers develop ceramic materials and the processes for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials that generally require high tempera tures in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, automobile and aircraft engine components, fiber-optic communication lines, tile, and electric insulators. Employment Materials engineers held about 33,000 jobs in 2000. Because ma terials are building blocks for other goods, materials engineers are widely distributed among manufacturing industries. In fact, 84 per cent of materials engineers worked in manufacturing industries, primarily metal production and processing, electronic and other elec trical equipment, transportation equipment, and industrial machin ery and equipment. They also worked in services industries such as engineering and management and research and testing services. Most remaining materials engineers worked for Federal and State governments. 114 Occupational Outlook Handbook Sources of Additional Information For further information about materials engineers, contact: >- Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society, 184 Thom Hill Rd., Warrendale, PA 15086. Internet: http://www.tms.org >■ ASM International Foundation, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002. Internet: http://www.asm-intl.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of addi tional information.) Mechanical Engineers (0*NET 17-2141.00) HP...: „, :^|g§ wiss Materials engineers work with metals, ceramics, plastics, semiconductors, and composites to create new materials. Job Outlook Employment of materials engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. More materials engineers will be needed to develop new materials for electronics and plastics products. However, many of the manufacturing indus tries in which materials engineers are concentrated—such as pri mary metals and stone, clay, and glass products—are expected to experience declines in employment, reducing employment oppor tunities for materials engineers. As firms contract out to meet their materials engineering needs, however, employment growth is ex pected in many services industries, including research and testing, personnel supply, health, and engineering and architectural services. In addition to growth, job openings will result from the need to replace materials engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of materials engineers were $59,100 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,320 and $72,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,630. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in mate Digitizedrials for FRASER engineering received starting offers averaging $49,936 a year. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers research, develop, design, manufacture, and test tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical devices. They work on power-producing machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines. They also develop power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-condi tioning equipment, machine tools, material handling systems, el evators and escalators, industrial production equipment, and robots used in manufacturing. Mechanical engineers also design tools needed by other engineers for their work. The field of nanotechnology, which involves the creation of high-performance materials and components by integrating atoms and molecules, is introducing entirely new principles to the design process. Computers assist mechanical engineers by accurately and effi ciently performing computations and by aiding the design process by permitting the modeling and simulation of new designs. Com puter-Aided Design (CAD) and Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) are used for design data processing and for developing al ternative designs. Mechanical engineers work in many industries, and their work varies by industry and function. Some specialties include applied mechanics; computer-aided design and manufacturing; energy sys tems; pressure vessels and piping; and heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning systems. Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers may work in production operations in manufacturing or agriculture, mainte nance, or technical sales; many are administrators or managers. ■■I A mechanical engineer works on designs for a hospital building. Professional and Related Occupations 115 Employment Mechanical engineers held about 221,000 jobs in 2000. More than 1 out of 2 jobs were in manufacturing—mostly in machinery, trans portation equipment, electrical equipment, instruments, and fabri cated metal products industries. Engineering and management services, business services, and the Federal Government provided most of the remaining jobs. Job Outlook Employment of mechanical engineers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations though 2010. Although overall manufacturing employment is expected to grow slowly, employ ment of mechanical engineers in manufacturing should increase more rapidly as the demand for improved machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and processes become increasingly complex. Also, emerging technologies in information technology, biotechnology, and nanotechnology will create new job opportuni ties for mechanical engineers. Employment of mechanical engineers in business and engineer ing services firms is expected to grow faster than average as other industries in the economy increasingly contract out to these firms to solve engineering problems. In addition to job openings from growth, many openings should result from the need to replace work ers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Earnings Median annual earnings of mechanical engineers were $58,710 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,600 and $72,850. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,610. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of mechanical engineers in 2000 were: Personnel supply services.................................................................... Federal government............................................................................... Engineering and architectural services............................................. Motor vehicles and equipment........................................................... Construction and related machinery................................................. $g 1 080 66 320 59 800 59 400 54,480 According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in me chanical engineering received starting offers averaging $48,426 a year, master’s degree candidates had offers averaging $55,994, and Ph.D. candidates were initially offered $72,096. Sources of Additional Information Further information about mechanical engineers is available from: ► The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Three Park Ave., New York, NY 10016. Internet: http://www.asme.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers (0*NET 17-2151.00) Nature of the Work Mining and geological engineers find, extract, and prepare coal, met Digitizedals, for and FRASER minerals for use by manufacturing industries and utilities. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Mining engineers work with geologists to discuss plans forfurther mine excavation. They design open pit and underground mines, supervise the con struction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Min ing engineers are responsible for the safe, economical, and envi ronmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. Mining engi neers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral or metal, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work to solve problems re lated to land reclamation and water and air pollution. Mining safety engineers use their knowledge of mine design and practices to ensure the safety of workers and to comply with State and Federal safety regulations. They inspect walls and roof sur faces, test air samples, and examine mining equipment for compli ance with safety practices. Employment Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, held about 6,500 jobs in 2000. While one-half worked in the min ing industry, other mining engineers worked in government agen cies or engineering consulting firms. Mining engineers usually are employed at the location of natu ral deposits, often near small communities, and sometimes outside the United States. Those in research and development, manage ment, consulting, or sales, however, often are located in metropoli tan areas. Job Outlook Employment of mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers, is expected to decline through 2010. Most of the industries in which mining engineers are concentrated—such as coal, metal, and mineral mining, as well as stone, clay, and glass prod ucts manufacturing—are expected to experience declines in employment. Although no job openings are expected to result from employ ment growth, there should be openings resulting from the need to replace mining engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. A large number of mining engineers currently 116 Occupational Outlook Handbook employed are approaching retirement age. In addition, relatively few schools offer mining engineering programs, and the small number of graduates is not expected to increase. Mining operations around the world recruit graduates of U.S. mining engineering programs. Consequently, job opportunities may be better worldwide than within the United States. As a result, graduates should be prepared for the possibility of frequent travel or even living abroad. Earnings Median annual earnings of mining and geological engineers, in cluding mining safety engineers, were $60,820 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,320 and $78,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,070, and the highest 10 percent earned flttS*® more than $100,050. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in mining engineering received starting offers averaging $42,507 a year and master’s degree candidates, on average, were offered $54,038. Sources of Additional Information For general information about mining engineers, contact: >- The Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., P.O. Box 625002, Littleton, CO 80162-5002. Internet: http://www.smenet.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Nuclear Engineers (0*NET 17-2161.00) ___ 111 'i _________ ________ Nuclear engineers design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear Nature of the Work Nuclear engineers research and develop the processes, instruments, and systems used to derive benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear plants used to generate power. They may work on the nuclear fuel CyCle—the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by nuclear energy—or on fusion energy. Some specialize in the development of nuclear power sources for spacecraft; others find industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials, such as equipment to diagnose and treat medical problems. Employment Nuclear engineers held about 14,000 jobs in 2000. About 58 per cent were in utilities, 26 percent in engineering consulting firms, and 14 percent in the Federal Government. More than half of all federally employed nuclear engineers were civilian employees of the Navy, and most of the rest worked for the Department of Energy. Most nonfederally employed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering consulting companies. Some worked for defense manufacturers or manufacturers of nuclear power equipment. Job Outlook Good opportunities should exist for nuclear engineers because the small number of nuclear engineering graduates is likely to be in rough balance with the number of job openings. Because this is a small occupation, projected job growth will generate few openings, consequently, most openings will result from the need to replace https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis plants used to generate power. nuclear engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Little or no change in employment of nuclear engineers is expected through 2010. Due to public concerns over the cost and safety of nuclear power, no commercial nuclear power plants are under construction in the United States. Nevertheless, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate existing plants. In addition, nuclear engineers will be needed to work in defense-related areas, to develop nuclear medical technology, and to improve and en force waste management and safety standards. Earnings Median annual earnings of nuclear engineers were $79,360 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $67,590 and $89,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $58,030, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $105,930. In 2000, the median annual earn ings of nuclear engineers in electric services were $77,890. In the Federal Government, nuclear engineers in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and management positions earned an average of $71,700 a year in 2001. ' According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in nuclear engineering received starting offers averaging $49,609 a year and master’s degree candidates, on average, were offered $56,299. Professional and Related Occupations 117 Sources of Additional Information General information about nuclear engineers is available from: > American Nuclear Society, 555 North Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, IL 60525. Internet: http://www.ans.org (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of ad ditional information.) Petroleum Engineers (0*NET 17-2171.00) Nature of the Work Petroleum engineers search the world for reservoirs containing oil or natural gas. Once these are discovered, petroleum engineers work with geologists and other specialists to understand the geo logic formation and properties of the rock containing the reser voir, determine the drilling methods to be used, and monitor drill ing and production operations. They design equipment and pro cesses to achieve the maximum profitable recovery of oil and gas. Petroleum engineers rely heavily on computer models to simulate iM, reservoir performance using different recovery techniques. They also use computer models for simulations of the effects of various drilling options. Because only a small proportion of oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods. These include injecting wa ter, chemicals, gases, or steam into an oil reservoir to force out more of the oil, and computer-controlled drilling or fracturing to connect a larger area of a reservoir to a single well. Because even the best techniques in use today recover only a portion of the oil and gas in a reservoir, petroleum engineers research and develop technology and methods to increase recovery and lower the cost of drilling and production operations. Employment Petroleum engineers held about 9,000 jobs in 2000, mostly in oil and gas extraction, petroleum refining, and engineering and archi tectural services. Employers include major oil companies and hun dreds of smaller, independent oil exploration, production, and service companies. Engineering consulting firms and government agen cies also employ many petroleum engineers. Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are employed in Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and California, including offshore sites. Many American petroleum engineers also work overseas in oil-producing countries. Job Outlook Employment of petroleum engineers is expected to decline through 2010 because most of the potential petroleum-producing areas in the United States already have been explored. Even so, favorable opportunities are expected for petroleum engineers because the number ofjob openings is likely to exceed the relatively small num ber of graduates. All job openings should result from the need to replace petroleum engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Also, petroleum engineers work around the world, and many foreign employers seek U.S.-trained petroleum engineers. In fact, the best employment opportunities may be in other countries. ||l§|i|ig nm ■fsf Earnings Median annual earnings of petroleum engineers were $78,910 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $60,610 and $100,210. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $48,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $118,630. According to a 2001 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in petroleum engineering received starting offers averaging $53,878 year and master’s degree candidates, on average, were offered $58,500. Sources of Additional Information For further information about petroleum engineers, contact: > Society of Petroleum Engineers, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836. Internet: http://www.spe.org Favorable job opportunities are expectedfor petroleum engineers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and other sources of addi tional information.) 118 Occupational Outlook Handbook Art and Design Occupations Artists and Related Workers (0*NET 27-1011.00, 27-1013.01, 27-1013.02, 27-1013.03, 27-1013.04, 27-1014.00) _______ ________ ________ _________ Significant Points • • • More than half are self-employed—about 7 times the proportion in all professional and related occupations. Artists usually develop their skills through a bachelor’s degree program or other postsecondary training in art t * or design. Keen competition is expected for both salaried jobs and freelance work, because many talented people are attracted to the visual arts. Nature of the Work Artists create art to communicate ideas, thoughts, or feelings. 1 hey use a variety of methods—painting, sculpting, or illustration—and an assortment of materials, including oils, watercolors, acrylics, pastels, pencils, pen and ink, plaster, clay, and computers. Artists works may be realistic, stylized, or abstract and may depict objects, people, nature, or events. Artists generally fall into one of three categories. Art directors formulate design concepts and presentation approaches for visual communications media. Fineartists, including painters, sculptors, and illustrators create original artwork using a variety of media and techniques. Multi-media artists and animators create special effects, animation, or other visual images using film, video, com puters or other electronic media. (Designers, including graphic designers, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Art directors develop design concepts and review the material that is to appear in periodicals, newspapers, and other printed or digital media. They decide how best to present the information visually, so it is eye-catching, appealing, and organized. They de cide which photographs or artwork to use and oversee the layout design and production of the printed material. They may direct workers engaged in art work, layout design, and copy writing. Fine artists typically display their work in museums, commer cial art galleries, corporate collections, and private homes. Some of their artwork may be commissioned (done on request from cli ents), but most is sold by the artist or through private art galleries or dealers. The gallery and artist predetermine how much each will earn from the sale. Only the most successful fine artists are able to support themselves solely through the sale of their works. Most fine artists must work in an unrelated field to support their art careers. Some work in museums or art galleries as fine arts directors or as curators, who plan and set up art exhibits. Others work as art critics for newspapers or magazines, or as consultants to foundations or institutional collectors. Usually, fine artists specialize in one or two art forms, such as painting, illustrating, sketching, sculpting, printmaking, and restor ing. Painters, illustrators, cartoonists, and sketch artists work with two-dimensional art forms. These artists use shading, perspective, and color to produce realistic scenes or abstractions. Illustrators typically create pictures for books, magazines, and other publications; and commercial products, such as textiles, wrapping paper, stationery, greeting cards and calendars. Increasingly, illustra tors work in digital format, preparing work directly on a computer. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis |g| Fine artists, such as sculptors, often work in private studios. Medical and scientific illustrators combine drawing skills with knowledge of the biological sciences. Medical illustrators draw illustrations of human anatomy and surgical procedures. Scientific illustrators draw illustrations of animals and plants. These illustra tions are used in medical and scientific publications and in audiovi sual presentations for teaching purposes. Medical illustrators also work for lawyers, producing exhibits for court cases. Cartoonists draw political, advertising, social, and sports car toons. Some cartoonists work with others who create the idea or story and write the captions. Most cartoonists have comic, critical, or dramatic talents in addition to drawing skills. Sketch artists create likenesses of subjects using pencil, char coal, or pastels. Sketches are used by law enforcement agencies to assist in identifying suspects, by the news media to depict court room scenes, and by individual patrons for their own enjoyment. Sculptors design three-dimensional art works—either by mold ing and joining materials such as clay, glass, wire, plastic, fabric, or metal or by cutting and carving forms from a block of plaster, wood, or stone. Some sculptors combine various materials to create mixedmedia installations. Some incorporate light, sound, and motion into their works. Printmakers create printed images from designs cut or etched into wood, stone, or metal. After creating the design, the artist inks the surface of the woodblock, stone, or plate and uses a printing Professional and Related Occupations 119 press to roll the image onto paper or fabric. Some make prints by pressing the inked surface onto paper by hand, or by graphically encoding data and processing it, using a computer. The digitized images are printed on paper using computer printers. Painting restorers preserve and restore damaged and faded paint ings. They apply solvents and cleaning agents to clean the sur faces, reconstruct or retouch damaged areas, and apply preservatives to protect the paintings. This is very detailed work and usually is reserved for experts in the field. Multi-media artists and animators work primarily in computer and data processing services, advertising, and the motion picture and television industries. They draw by hand and use computers to create the large series of pictures that form the animated images or special effects seen in movies, television programs, and computer games. Some draw storyboards for television commercials, mov ies, and animated features. Storyboards present television com mercials in a series of scenes similar to a comic strip and allow an advertising agency to evaluate proposed commercials with the com pany doing the advertising. Storyboards also serve as guides to placing actors and cameras and to other details during the produc tion of commercials. Working Conditions Most artists work in fine or commercial art studios located in office buildings, or in private studios in their homes. Some fine artists share studio space, where they also may exhibit their work. Studio surroundings usually are well lighted and ventilated; however, fine artists may be exposed to fumes from glue, paint, ink, and other materials. Artists who sit at drafting tables or use computers for extended periods may experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Artists employed by publishing companies, advertising agencies, and design firms generally work a standard 40-hour week. During busy periods, they may work overtime to meet deadlines. Selfemployed artists can set their own hours, but may spend much time and effort selling their artwork to potential customers or clients and building a reputation. Employment Artists held about 147,000 jobs in 2000. More than half were selfemployed. Of the artists who were not self-employed, many worked in motion picture, television, computer software, printing, publish ing, and public relations firms. Some self-employed artists offer their services to advertising agencies, design firms, publishing houses, and other businesses. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for artists vary by specialty. Although for mal training is not strictly necessary for fine artists, it is very diffi cult to become skilled enough to make a living without some training. Many colleges and universities offer degree programs leading to the Bachelor in Fine Arts (BFA) and Master in Fine Arts (MFA) degrees. Coursework usually includes core subjects, such as En glish, social science, and natural science, in addition to art history and studio art. Independent schools of art and design also offer postsecondary studio training in the fine arts leading to an Associate in Art (AA) or Bachelor in Fine Arts (BFA) degree. Typically, these programs focus more intensively on studio work than the academic programs in a university setting. Formal educational programs in art also provide training in Digitizedcomputer for FRASER techniques. Computers are used widely in the visual arts, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and knowledge and training in them are critical for many jobs in these fields. Those who want to teach fine arts at pubic elementary or sec ondary schools must have a teaching certificate in addition to a bachelor s degree. An advanced degree in fine arts or arts adminis tration is necessary for management or administrative positions in government or in foundations or for teaching in colleges and uni versities. (See the statements for teachers-postsecondaiy; and teachers-preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Illustrators learn drawing and sketching skills through training in art programs and extensive practice. Most employers prefer can didates with a bachelor’s degree; however, some illustrators are contracted based on their portfolios of past work. Medical illustrators must have both a demonstrated artistic abil ity and a detailed knowledge of living organisms, surgical and medi cal procedures, and human and animal anatomy. A 4-year bachelor s degree combining art and premedical courses usually is preferred, followed by a master’s degree in medical illustration. This degree is offered in only five accredited schools in the United States. Evidence of appropriate talent and skill, displayed in an artist’s portfolio, is an important factor used by art directors, clients, and others in deciding whether to hire or contract out work. The portfo lio is a collection of hand-made, computer-generated, photographic, or printed samples of the artist’s best work. Assembling a success ful portfolio requires skills usually developed in a bachelor’s de gree program or other postsecondary training in art or visual communications. Internships also provide excellent opportunities for artists to develop and enhance their portfolios. Artists hired by advertising agencies often start with relatively routine work. While doing this work, however, they may observe and practice their skills on the side. Many artists freelance on a part-time basis while continuing to hold a full-time job until they are established. Others freelance part-time while still in school, to develop experience and to build a portfolio of published work.' Freelance artists try to develop a set of clients who regularly contract for work. Some freelance artists are widely recognized for their skill in specialties such as magazine or children’s book illus tration. These artists may earn high incomes and can pick and choose the type of work they do. Fine artists advance professionally as their work circulates and as they establish a reputation for a particular style. Many of the most successful artists continually develop new ideas, and their work often evolves over time. Job Outlook Employment of artists and related workers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Be cause the arts attract many talented people with creative ability, the number of aspiring artists continues to grow. Consequently, com petition for both salaried jobs and freelance work in some areas is expected to be keen. Art directors work in a variety of industries, such as printing, publishing, motion picture production and distribution, and design' Despite an expanding number of opportunities, they should experi ence keen competition for the available openings. Fine artists mostly work on a freelance, or commission, basis and may find it difficult to earn a living solely by selling their artwork. Only the most successful fine artists receive major com missions for their work. Competition among artists for the privi lege of being shown in galleries is expected to remain acute. And grants from sponsors such as private foundations, State and local 120 Occupational Outlook Handbook arts councils, and the National Endowment for the Arts, should remain competitive. Nonetheless, studios, galleries, and individual clients are always on the lookout for artists who display outstand ing talent, creativity, and style. Population growth, rising incomes, and growth in the number of people who appreciate the fine arts will contribute to the demand for fine artists. Talented fine artists who have developed a mastery of artistic techniques and skills, including computer skills, will have the best job prospects. The need for artists to illustrate and animate materials for maga zines, journals, and other printed or electronic media will spur de mand for illustrators and animators of all types. Growth in the entertainment industry, including cable and other pay television broadcasting and motion picture production and distribution, will provide new job opportunities for illustrators, cartoonists, and ani mators. Competition for most jobs, however, will be strong, be cause job opportunities are relatively few and the number of people interested in these positions usually exceeds the number of avail able openings. Employers should be able to choose from among the most qualified candidates. Median annual earnings of salaried art directors were $56,880 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $41,290 and $80,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,130, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $109,440. Median annual earnings were $63,510 in advertising, the industry employing the largest numbers of salaried art directors. Median annual earnings of salaried fine artists, including paint ers, sculptors, and illustrators were $31,190 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,460 and $42,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,580. Median annual earnings of salaried multi-media artists and ani mators were $41,130 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $30,700 and $54,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,740, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,560. Median annual earnings were $44,290 in computer and data pro cessing services, the industry employing the largest numbers of sala ried multi-media artists and animators. Earnings for self-employed artists vary widely. Some charge only a nominal fee while they gain experience and build a reputa tion for their work. Others, such as well-established freelance fine artists and illustrators, can earn more than salaried artists. Many, however, find it difficult to rely solely on income earned from sell ing paintings or other works of art. Like other self-employed work ers, freelance artists must provide their own benefits. Related Occupations Other workers who apply art skills include architects, except land scape and naval; archivists, curators, and museum technicians; de signers; landscape architects; and photographers. Some computer-related occupations require art skills, including computer software engineers and desktop publishers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of accred ited college-level programs, contact: ► The National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.arts-accredit.org/nasad/default.htm For information on careers in medical illustration, contact: >- The Association of Medical Illustrators, 2965 Flowers Road South, Suite 105, Atlanta, GA 30341. Internet: http://medical-illustrators.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Designers ______ (0*NET 27-1021.00, 27-1022.00, 27-1023.00, 27-1024.00, 27-1025.00, 27-1026.00, 27-1027.01, 27-1027.02) ____ Significant Points • • • Three out of 10 designers are self-employed—almost 5 times the proportion for all professional and related occupations. Creativity is crucial in all design occupations; most designers need a bachelor’s degree, and candidates with a master’s degree hold an advantage. Keen competition is expected for most jobs, despite projected faster-than-average employment growth, because many talented individuals are attracted to careers as designers. Nature of the Work Designers are people with a desire to create. They combine practi cal knowledge with artistic ability to turn abstract ideas into formal designs for the merchandise we buy, the clothes we wear, the publi cations we read, and the living and office space we inhabit. De signers usually specialize in a particular area of design, such as automobiles, industrial or medical equipment, or home appliances; clothing and textiles; floral arrangements; publications, logos, signage, or movie or TV credits; interiors of homes or office build ings; merchandise displays; or movie, television, and theater sets. The first step in developing a new design or altering an existing one is to determine the needs of the client, the ultimate function for which the design is intended, and its appeal to customers. When creating a design, designers often begin by researching the desired design characteristics, such as size, shape, weight, color, materials used, cost, ease of use, fit, and safety. Designers then prepare sketches—by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate the vision for the design. After consulting with the client, an art or design director, or a product development team, designers create detailed designs using drawings, a structural model, computer simulations, or a full-scale prototype. Many de signers increasingly are using computer-aided design (CAD) tools to create and better visualize the final product. Computer models allow greater ease and flexibility in exploring a greater number of design alternatives, thus reducing design costs and cutting the time it takes to deliver a product to market. Industrial designers use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) tools to create designs and machine-readable instructions that communicate with automated production tools. Designers sometimes supervise assistants who carry out their creations. Designers who run their own businesses also may de vote a considerable amount of time to developing new business contacts, reviewing equipment and space needs, and performing administrative tasks, such as reviewing catalogues and ordering samples. Design encompasses a number of different fields. Many designers specialize in a particular area of design, whereas others work in more than one area. Commercial and industrial designers, including designers of commercial products and equipment, develop countless manufac tured products, including airplanes; cars; children’s toys; computer equipment; furniture; home appliances; and medical, office, and recreational equipment. They combine artistic talent with research on product use, customer needs, marketing, materials, and produc tion methods to create the most functional and appealing design Professional and Related Occupations 121 that will be competitive with others in the marketplace. Industrial designers typically concentrate in an area of sub-specialization such as kitchen appliances, auto interiors, or plastic-molding machinery. Fashion designers design clothing and accessories. Some highfashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create original garments, as well as those that follow established fashion trends. Most fashion design ers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, creating designs of men’s, women’s, and children’s fashions for the mass market. Floral designers cut and arrange live, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into designs, according to the customer’s order. They trim flowers and arrange bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gardens, and terrariums. They usually work from a written order indicating the occasion, customer preference for color and type of flower, price, the time at which the floral arrangement or plant is to be ready, and the place to which it is to be delivered. The variety of duties per formed by floral designers depends on the size of the shop and the number of designers employed. In a small operation, floral designers may own their shops and do almost everything, from growing and purchasing flowers to keeping financial records. Graphic designers use a variety of print, electronic, and film me dia to create designs that meet clients’ commercial needs. Using computer software, they develop the overall layout and design of magazines, newspapers, journals, corporate reports, and other publi cations. They also may produce promotional displays and marketing brochures for products and services, design distinctive company logos for products and businesses, and develop signs and signage systems— called environmental graphics—for business and government. An increasing number of graphic designers develop material to appear on Internet home pages. Graphic designers also produce the credits that appear before and after television programs and movies. Interior designers plan the space and furnish the interiors of pri vate homes, public buildings, and business or institutional facili ties, such as offices, restaurants, retail establishments, hospitals, hotels, and theaters. They also plan the interiors when existing struc tures are renovated or expanded. Most interior designers specialize. For example, some may concentrate in residential design, and oth ers may further specialize by focusing on particular rooms, such as kitchens or baths. With a client’s tastes, needs, and budget in mind, interior designers prepare drawings and specifications for non-load bearing interior construction, furnishings, lighting, and finishes. Increasingly, designers use computers to plan layouts, which can easily be changed to include ideas received from the client. Interior Interior designers frequently carry sample books to meetings with Digitizedclients. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis designers also design lighting and architectural details—such as crown molding, built-in bookshelves, or cabinets—coordinate col ors, and select furniture, floor coverings, and window treatments. Interior designers must design space to conform to Federal, State, and local laws, including building codes. Designs for public areas also must meet accessibility standards for the disabled and elderly. Merchandise displayers and window dressers, or visual mer chandisers, plan and erect commercial displays, such as those in windows and interiors of retail stores or at trade exhibitions. Those who work on building exteriors erect major store decorations, in cluding building and window displays, and spot lighting. Those who design store interiors outfit store departments, arrange table displays, and dress mannequins. In large retail chains, store layouts typically are designed corporately, through a central design depart ment. To retain the chain’s visual identity and ensure that a particu lar image or theme is promoted in each store, designs are distributed to individual stores by e-mail, downloaded to computers equipped with the appropriate design software, and adapted to meet individual store size and dimension requirements. Set and exhibit designers create sets for movie, television, and theater productions and design special exhibition displays. Set de signers study scripts, confer with directors and other designers, and conduct research to determine the appropriate historical period, fash ion, and architectural styles. They then produce sketches or scale models to guide in the construction of the actual sets or exhibit spaces. Exhibit designers work with curators, art and museum di rectors, and trade show sponsors to determine the most effective use of available space. Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers em ployed by manufacturing establishments, large corporations, or de sign firms generally work regular hours in well-lighted and comfortable settings. Self-employed designers tend to work longer hours. Designers who work on a contract, or job, basis frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules, meeting with them during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Designers may transact business in their own offices or studios or in clients’ homes or offices, or they may travel to other locations, such as showrooms, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, and manufacturing facilities! Designers who are paid by the assignment are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones to maintain a constant income. All designers face frustration at times when their designs are rejected or when they cannot be as creative as they wish. With the increased use of computers in the workplace and the advent of Internet websites, more designers conduct business, research design alternatives, and purchase supplies electronically than ever before. Occasionally, industrial designers may work additional hours to meet deadlines. Similarly, graphic designers usually work regular hours, but may work evenings or weekends to meet production schedules. In contrast, set and exhibit designers work long and irregular hours; often, they are under pressure to make rapid changes. Merchandise displayers and window trimmers who spend most of their time designing space typically work in office-type settings; however, those who also construct and install displays spend much of their time doing physical labor, such as those tasks performed by a carpenter or someone constructing and moving stage scenery. (Carpenters are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook) Fashion designers may work long hours to meet production deadlines or prepare for fashion shows. In addition, fashion designers may be required to travel to production sites across the United States and overseas. Interior designers generally work under deadlines and may work extra hours to finish a job. Also, they regularly carry 122 Occupational Outlook Handbook heavy, bulky sample books to meetings with clients. Floral design ers usually work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, but holiday, wedding, and funeral orders often require overtime. Employment . Designers held about 492,000 jobs in 2000. About one-third were self-employed. Employment was distributed as follows: Graphic designers.................................................. Floral designers.......................................;............. Merchandise displayers and window trimmers Commercial and industrial designers................ Interior designers.................................................. Fashion designers................................................. Set and exhibit designers..................................... 190.000 102.000 76,000 50.000 46.000 16.000 12,000 Designers work in a number of different industries, depending on their design specialty. Most industrial designers, for example, work for engineering or architectural consulting firms or for large corpora tions. Most salaried interior designers work for furniture and home furnishings stores, interior designing services, and architectural firms. Others are self-employed and do freelance work—full time or part time—in addition to a salaried job in another occupation. Set and exhibit designers work for theater companies; film and television production companies; and museums, art galleries, and convention and conference centers. Fashion designers generally work for textile, apparel, and pattern manufacturers; wholesale dis tributors of clothing, furnishings, and accessories; or for fashion salons, high-fashion department stores, and specialty shops. Most floral designers work for retail flower shops or in floral depart ments located inside grocery and department stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. People in this field must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and de tail, a sense of balance and proportion, and an appreciation for beauty. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage in most types of design, especially fashion design. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job. A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level design posi tions, except for floral design and visual merchandising. Esthetic ability is important for floral design and visual merchandising, but formal preparation typically is not necessary. Many candidates in industrial design pursue a master’s degree to better compete for open positions. Interior design is the only design field subject to government regu lation. According to the American Society for Interior Designers, 19 States and the District of Columbia require interior designers to be licensed or registered. Passing the National Council for Interior Design qualification examination is required for licensure. To take the exam, one must complete at least 2 years of postsecondary edu cation in design, at least 2 years of practical work experience in the field, plus additional related education or experience to total at least 6 years of combined education and experience in design. Because licensing is not mandatory in all States, membership in a profes sional association is an indication of an interior designer’s qualifica tions and professional standing—and can aid in obtaining clients. In fashion design, employers seek individuals with a 2- or 4-year degree who are knowledgeable in the areas of textiles, fabrics, and ornamentation, as well as trends in the fashion world. Set and ex hibit designers typically have college degrees in design. A Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree from an accredited university program fur ther establishes one’s design credentials. Membership in the United Artists, Local 829, is a nationally recognized standard of Digitized Scenic for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org achievement for scenic designers. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most floral designers learn their skills on the job. When employ ers hire trainees, they generally look for high school graduates who have a flair for arranging and a desire to learn. Completion of for mal training, however, is an asset for floral designers, particularly for advancement to the chief floral designer level. Vocational and technical schools offer programs in floral design, usually lasting less than a year, while 2- and 4-year programs in floriculture, horticul ture, floral design, or ornamental horticulture are offered by com munity and junior colleges, and colleges and universities. Formal training for some design professions also is available in 2- and 3-year professional schools that award certificates or associ ate degrees in design. Graduates of 2-year programs normally qualify as assistants to designers. The Bachelor of Fine Arts degree is granted at 4-year colleges and universities. The curriculum in these schools includes art and art history, principles of design, designing and sketching, and specialized studies for each of the individual design disciplines, such as garment construction, textiles, mechani cal and architectural drawing, computerized design, sculpture, ar chitecture, and basic engineering. A liberal arts education, with courses in merchandising, business administration, marketing, and psychology, along with training in art, is recommended for design ers who want to freelance. Additionally, persons with training or experience in architecture qualify for some design occupations, particularly interior design. Because computer-aided design is increasingly common, many employers expect new designers to be familiar with its use as a design tool. For example, industrial designers extensively use com puters in the aerospace, automotive, and electronics industries. In terior designers use computers to create numerous versions of interior space designs—images can be inserted, edited, and replaced easily and without added cost—making it possible for a client to see and choose among several designs. The National Association of Schools of Art and Design currently accredits about 200 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design; most of these schools award a degree in art. Some award degrees in industrial, interior, textile, graphic, or fashion de sign. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bachelor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. The Foundation for Interior Design Education Research also accredits interior design programs and schools. Currently, there are more than 120 accredited professional programs in the United States and Canada, primarily located in schools of art, architec ture, and home economics. Individuals in the design field must be creative, imaginative, per sistent, and able to communicate their ideas in writing, visually, and verbally. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be well-read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and produc tion schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are im portant, especially for those who freelance or run their own business. Beginning designers usually receive on-the-job training, and nor mally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higherlevel positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory po sitions Some designers become teachers in design schools and colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to con sult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced designers open their own firms. Professional and Related Occupations 123 Job Outlook Despite projected faster-than-average employment growth, design ers in most fields—with the exception of floral design—are ex pected to face keen competition for available positions. Many talented individuals are attracted to careers as designers. Individu als with little or no formal education in design, as well as those who lack creativity and perseverance, will find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in design. Floral design should be the least competitive of all design fields because of the relatively low pay and limited opportunities for advancement, as well as the relatively high job turnover of floral designers in retail flower shops. Overall, the employment of designers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addi tion to those that result from employment growth, many job open ings will arise from the need to replace designers who leave the field. Increased demand for industrial designers will stem from the continued emphasis on product quality and safety; the demand for new products that are easy and comfortable to use; the development of high-technology products in medicine, transportation, and other fields; and growing global competition among businesses. Demand for graphic designers should increase because of the rapidly increas ing demand for Web-based graphics and the expansion of the video entertainment market, including television, movies, videotape, and made-for-Intemet outlets. Rising demand for professional design of private homes, offices, restaurants and other retail establishments, and institutions that care for the rapidly growing elderly population should spur employment growth of interior designers. Demand for fashion designers should remain strong, because many consumers continue to demand new fashions and apparel styles. Earnings Median annual earnings for commercial and industrial designers were $48,780 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,460 and $64,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $77,790. Median annual earnings for fashion designers were $48,530 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,800 and $73,780. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $103,970. Median annual earnings were $52,860 in apparel, piece goods, and notions—the industry employ ing the largest numbers of fashion designers. Median annual earnings for floral designers were $ 18,360 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,900 and $22,110. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,570, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $27,860. Median annual earnings were $20,160 in grocery stores and $ 17,760 in miscellaneous retail stores, including florists. Median annual earnings for graphic designers were $34,570 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,560 and $45,130. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,480, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,400. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of graphic designers were as follows: Management and public relations...................................................... Advertising............................................................................................. $37 57Q 37’o80 Mailing, reproduction, and stenographic services.......................... 36,130 Commercial printing............................................................ 29 730 Newspapers........................................................................................... 28 170 Median annual earnings for interior designers were $36,540 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,800 and $51,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,840, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,470. Median annual earnings were $40,710 in engineering and architectural services and $34,890 in furniture and home furnishings stores. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Median annual earnings of merchandise displayers and window dressers were $20,930 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $16,770 and $26,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 13,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $31,130. Median annual earnings were $22,210 in groceries and related prod ucts and $18,820 in department stores. Median annual earnings for set and exhibit designers were $31,440 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,460 and $42,800. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $57,400. According to the Industrial Designers Society of America, the median base salary, excluding deferred compensation, bonuses, roy alties, and commissions, for an industrial designer with 1 to 2 years of experience was about $36,500 in 2000. Staff designers with 5 years of experience earned $45,000, whereas senior designers with 8 years of experience earned $64,000. Industrial designers in mana gerial, executive, or ownership positions earned substantially moreup to $600,000 annually; however, the $80,000 to $180,000 range was more representative. The American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA) reported 1999 median earnings for graphic designers with increasing levels of re sponsibility. Staff-level graphic designers earned $36,000, while senior designers, who may supervise junior staff or have some de cision-making authority that reflects their knowledge of graphic design, earned $50,000. Solo designers, who freelance or work independently of a company, reported median earnings of $50,000. Design directors, the creative heads of design firms or in-house corporate design departments, earned $80,000. Graphic designers with business responsibilities for the operation of a firm as owners, partners, or principals earned $90,000. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, mate rials, or interiors to enhance their appearance and function include artists and related workers; architects, except landscape and naval; engineers, landscape architects, and photographers. Some computerrelated occupations require design skills, including computer soft ware engineers and desktop publishers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of accred ited college-level programs, contact: ► National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr„ Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.arts-accredit.org/nasad/default.htm For information on industrial design careers and a list of aca demic programs in industrial design, write to: >- Industrial Designers Society of America, 1142 Walker Rd., Great Falls, VA 22066. Internet: http://www.idsa.org For information about graphic design careers, contact: *■ American Institute of Graphic Arts, 164 FifthAve., New York, NY10010. Internet: http://www.aiga.org For information on degree, continuing education, and licensure programs in interior design and interior design research, contact: > American Society for Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave NE Washington, DC 20002-6006. Internet: http://www.asid.org For information on degree, continuing education, and licensure programs, and general information on the interior design profes sion, contact: >- International Interior Design Association, 997 Merchandise Mart, Chi cago, IL 60654. Internet: http://www.iida.org For a list of schools with accredited programs in interior design, contact: >- Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 146 Monroe Center NW., Suite 1318, Grand Rapids, MI 49503. Internet: http://www.fider.org For information about careers in floral design, contact: >- Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA22314. 124 Occupational Outlook Handbook Entertainers and Performers, Sports and Related Occupations Actors, Producers, and Directors (0*NET 27-2011.00, 27-2012.01, 27-2012.02, 27-2012.03, 27-2012.04, 27-2012.05) _______________________ Significant Points • Actors endure long periods of unemployment, intense competition for roles, and frequent rejections in • • auditions. Formal training through a university or acting conservatory is typical; however, many actors, producers, and directors find work based on experience and talent alone. Because earnings for actors are erratic, many supple ment their incomes by holding jobs in other fields. Nature of the Work Actors, producers, and directors express ideas and create images in theater,’ film, radio, television, and other performing arts media. They interpret a writer’s script to entertain, inform, or instruct an audi ence. Although the most famous actors, producers, and directors work in film, network television, or theater in New York or Los Angeles, far more work in local or regional television studios, the aters, or film production companies engaged in advertising, public relations, or independent, small-scale movie productions. Actors perform in stage, radio, television, video, or motion pic ture productions. They also work in cabarets, nightclubs, theme parks, and commercials, and in “industrial” films produced for train ing and educational purposes. Most actors struggle to find steady work; only a few ever achieve recognition as stars. Some wellknown, experienced performers may be cast in supporting roles. Others work as “extras,” with no lines to deliver, or make briet, development of script ideas, arrange financing, and determine the size and cost of stage, radio, television, video, or motion picture productions. Producers hire directors, principal cast members, and key production staff members. They also negotiate contracts with artistic and design personnel in accordance with collective bargain ing agreements and guarantee payment of salaries, rent, and other expenses. Producers coordinate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and agents to ensure that each project stays on schedule and within budget. Directors are responsible for the creative decisions of a produc tion. They interpret scripts, express concepts to set and costume designers, audition and select cast members, conduct rehearsals, and direct the work of cast and crew. Directors approve the design elements of a production, including sets, costumes, choreography, and music. Working Conditions Actors, producers, and directors work under constant pressure. To succeed, they need patience and commitment to their craft. Actors strive to deliver flawless performances, often while working in un desirable and unpleasant conditions. Producers and directors expe rience stress from the need to adhere to budgets, union work rules, and production schedules; organize rehearsals; and meet with de signers, financial backers, and production executives. Acting assignments typically are short term—ranging from 1 day to a few months—which means that there often are long periods of unemployment between jobs. The uncertain nature of the work results in unpredictable earnings and intense competition for even the lowest paid jobs. Often, actors, producers, and directors must hold other jobs to sustain a living. When performing, actors typically work long, irregular hours. For example, stage actors may perform one show at night while rehearsing another during the day. They also might travel with a cameo appearances speaking only one or two lines. Some actors show when it tours the country. Movie actors may work on loca tion, sometimes under adverse weather conditions, and may spend also teach in high school or university drama departments, acting considerable time in their trailers or dressing rooms waiting to per conservatories, or public programs. Producers are entrepreneurs, overseeing the business and finan form their scenes. Actors who perform in television often appear on camera with little preparation time because scripts tend to be cial decisions of a production. revised frequently or written moments before taping. , Evening and weekend work is a regular part of a stage actor s life. On weekends, more than one performance may be held per They select scripts and approve Digitized Actors for FRASER may perform for television, film, or stage productions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis day. Actors and directors working on movies or television pro grams, especially those who shoot on location, may work in the early morning or late evening hours to do nighttime filming or to tape scenes inside public facilities outside of normal business hours. Actors should be in good physical condition and have the neces sary stamina and coordination to move about theater stages and large movie and television studio lots. They also need to maneuver about complex technical sets while staying in character and projecting their voices audibly. Actors must be fit to endure heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes. Producers and di rectors should anticipate such hazards and ensure the safety of ac tors by conducting extra rehearsals on the set so that actors can learn the layout of set pieces and props, allowing time for warmups and stretching exercises to guard against physical and vocal inju ries, and providing adequate breaks to prevent heat exhaustion and dehydration. Professional and Related Occupations 125 Employment In 2000, actors, producers, and directors held about 158,000 jobs, primarily in motion pictures, theater, television, and radio. Because many others were between jobs, the total number of actors, produc ers, and directors available for work was higher. Employment in the theater is cyclical—higher in the fall and spring seasons—and concentrated in New York and other major cities with large com mercial houses for musicals and touring productions. Also, many cities support established professional regional theaters that oper ate on a seasonal or year-round basis. In summer, stock companies in suburban and resort areas also pro vide employment opportunities. Actors, producers, and directors may find work on cruise lines and in theme parks. Many smaller non profit professional companies, such as repertory companies, dinner theaters, and theaters affiliated with drama schools, acting conserva tories, and universities provide employment opportunities for local amateur talent and professional entertainers. Auditions typically are held in New York for many productions across the country and for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and films for television is cen tered in New York and in Hollywood. However, small studios are located throughout the country. Many films are shot on location and may employ local professional and nonprofessional actors. In television, opportunities are concentrated in the network centers of New York and Los Angeles, but cable television services and local television stations around the country also employ many actors, pro ducers, and directors. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons who become actors, producers, and directors follow many paths. Employers generally look for people with the creative in stincts, innate talent, and intellectual capacity to perform. Actors should possess a passion for performing and enjoy entertaining others. Most aspiring actors participate in high school and college plays, work in college radio stations, or perform with local com munity theater groups. Local and regional theater experience and work in summer stock, on cruise lines, or in theme parks help many young actors hone their skills and earn qualifying credits towards membership in one of the actors’ unions. Union membership and work experience in smaller communities may lead to work in larger cities, notably New York or Los Angeles. In television and film, actors and directors typically start in smaller television markets or with independent movie production companies, then work their way up to larger media markets and major studio productions. In tense competition, however, ensures that only a few actors reach star billing. Formal dramatic training, either through an acting conservatory or a university program, generally is necessary; however, some people successfully enter the field without it. Most people study ing for a bachelor’s degree take courses in radio and television broad casting, communications, film, theater, drama, or dramatic literature. Many continue their academic training and receive a Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. Advanced curriculums may include courses in stage speech and movement, directing, playwriting, and design, as well as intensive acting workshops. Actors at all experience levels may pursue workshop training through acting conservatories or by being mentored by a drama coach. Actors also research roles so that they can grasp concepts quickly during rehearsals and understand the story’s setting and background. Sometimes actors learn a foreign language or train with a dialect coach to develop an accent to make their characters more realistic. Actors need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Because competition for parts https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis is fierce, versatility and a wide range of related performance skills, such as singing, dancing, skating, juggling, and miming are espe cially useful in lifting actors above the average and getting them noticed by producers and directors. Actors must have poise, stage presence, the capability to affect an audience, and the ability to fol low direction. Modeling experience also may be helpful. Physical appearance often is a deciding factor in being selected for particu lar roles. Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find work, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Agents generally earn a percentage of the pay specified in an actor’s contract. Other actors rely solely on attending open auditions for parts. Trade publica tions list the time, date, and location of these auditions. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that supplies ex tras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are ac cepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small chil dren—falls below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of applicants has succeeded in being listed. There are no specific training requirements for producers. They come from many different backgrounds. Talent, experience, and business acumen are very important determinants of success for producers. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers commonly enter the field. Also, many people who start out as ac tors move into directing, while some directors might try their hand at acting. Producers often start in a theatrical management office, working for a press agent, managing director, or business manager. Some start in a performing arts union or service organization. Oth ers work behind the scenes with successful directors, serve on boards of directors, or promote their own projects. No formal training exists for producers; however, a growing number of colleges and universities now offer degree programs in arts management and managing nonprofits. As the reputations and box-office draw of actors, producers, and directors grow, they might work on bigger budget productions, on network or syndicated broadcasts, or in more prestigious theaters. Actors may advance to lead roles and receive star billing. A few actors move into acting-related jobs, such as drama coaches or di rectors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. Some teach drama privately or in colleges and universities. Job Outlook Employment of actors, producers, and directors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Although a growing number of people will aspire to enter these professions, many will leave the field early because the work, when it is avail able, is hard, the hours are long, and the pay is low. Despite fasterthan-average employment growth, competition for jobs will be stiff, in part because of the large number of highly trained and talented actors auditioning for roles. Only performers with the most stamina and talent will regularly find employment. Expanding cable and satellite television operations, increasing production and distribution of major studio and independent films, and continued growth and development of interactive media, such as direct-for-web movies and videos, should increase demand for actors, producers, and directors. A strong Broadway and Off-Broad way community and vibrant regional theater network are expected to offer many job opportunities. Earnings Median annual earnings of actors were $25,920 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,950 and $59,769. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,700, and the highest 10 percent earned 126 Occupational Outlook Handbook more than $93,620. Median annual earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of actors were as follows: Motion picture production and services.................. Producers, orchestras, and entertainers................... Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services $54,440 28,310 13,500 Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of em ployment are covered in collective bargaining agreements between show producers and the unions representing workers. Actors’ Eq uity Association (Equity) represents stage actors; Screen Actors Guild (SAG) covers actors in motion pictures, including television, commercials, and films; and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) represents television and radio studio performers. While these unions generally determine minimum sala ries, any actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum. . On July 1,2001, the members of SAG and AFTRA negotiated a new joint contract covering all unionized employment. Under the contract motion picture and television actors with speaking parts earned a minimum daily rate of $636 or $2,206 for a 5-day week. Actors also receive contributions to their health and pension plans and additional compensation for reruns and foreign telecasts of the productions in which they appear. According to Equity, the minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions as of June 25, 2001 was $1,252. Actors in Off-Broadway theaters received minimums ranging from $440 to $551 a week as of October 30, 2000, depending on the seating ca pacity of the theater. Regional theaters that operate under an Eq uity agreement pay actors $500 to $728 per week. For touring productions, actors receive an additional $106 per day for living expenses ($112 per day in larger, higher-cost cities). According to Equity, fewer than 15 percent of its dues-paying members actually worked during any given week during 2000. Median earnings for those able to find employment in 2000 were less than $10,000. Some well-known actors—stars—earn well above the minimum; their salaries are many times the figures cited, creating the false impression that all actors are highly paid. For example, of the nearly 100,000 SAG members, only about 50 might be considered stars. The’average income that SAG members earn from acting, less than $5,000 a year, is low because employment is erratic. Therefore, most actors must supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other fields. Many actors who work more than a set number of weeks per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, which includes hospitalization insurance and to which employers contrib ute. Under some employment conditions, Equity and AFTRA mem bers receive paid vacations and sick leave. Median annual earnings of producers and directors were $41,030 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,000 and $60,330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,050, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $87,770. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of producers and directors were as follows: Motion picture production and services Producers, orchestras, and entertainers Radio and television broadcasting........ $50,280 38,820 34,630 Many stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers (SSDC), and film and television directors be long to the Directors Guild of America (DAG). Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. According to the SSDC, summer theaters compensation, including “royalties (based on the number of Digitized offer for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org performances), usually ranging from $2,500 to $8,000 for a 3- to 4Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis week run. Directing a production at a dinner theater usually will pay less than directing one at a summer theater, but has more poten tial for income from royalties. Regional theaters may hire directors for longer periods, increasing compensation accordingly. The high est paid directors work on Broadway and commonly earn $50,000 per show. However, they also receive payment in the form of royal ties—a negotiated percentage of gross box office receipts that can exceed their contract fee for long-running box office successes. Producers seldom get a set fee; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings or ticket sales. Related Occupations People who work in performing arts occupations that may require acting skills include announcers; dancers and choreographers; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Others working in theaterrelated occupations are hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists, fashion designers; set and exhibit designers; sound engineering tech nicians; and writers and authors. Sources of Additional Information For general information about theater arts and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: >• National Association of Schools of Theater, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.arts-accredit.org/nast/default.htm For general information on actors, producers, and directors, contact ** >. Actors Equity Association, 165 West 46th St., New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.actorsequity.org Screen Actors Guild, 5757 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90036 3600. Internet: http://www.sag.org > American Federation of Television and Radio Artists—Screen Actors Guild, 4340 East-West Hwy., Suite 204, Bethesda, MD 20814-4411. Internet: http://www.aftra.org or http://www.sag.org Athletes, Coaches, Umpires, and Related Workers___ ______ (0*NET 27-2021.00, 27-2022.00, 27-2023.00) Significant Points • • • Work hours are often irregular; travel may be extensive. Very few athletes, coaches, umpires and related workers make it to professional rank; career-ending injuries are a constant danger for athletes. Job opportunities for coaches, sports instructors, and sports officials will be best in high school and other amateur sports. Nature of the Work We are a nation of sports fans—and sports players. Interest in watch ing sports continues to grow, resulting in expanding leagues, com pletely new leagues, and more and larger venues in which to witness amateur and professional competitions. Recreational participation in sports is at an all-time high as the general population seeks the benefits of sport and exercise for its positive effect on overall health and well being. Some of those who participate in amateur sports dream of becoming paid professional athletes, coaches, or sports officials, but very few beat the long odds and have the opportunity to make a living from professional athletics. Those who do find that careers are short and jobs are insecure—so having an alterna tive plan for a career is essential. For many, that alternative is a job in the ranks of coaches in amateur athletics, teaching and directing their sports in high schools, colleges and universities, and clubs. Athletes and sports competitors compete in organized, offici ated sports events to entertain spectators. When playing a game, athletes are required to understand the strategies of their game while obeying the rules and regulations of the sport. These events in clude both team sports—such as baseball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer—and individual sports—such as golf, tennis,' and bowling. As the type of sport varies, so does the level of play, ranging from unpaid high school athletics to professional sports in which the best from around the world compete before national tele vision audiences. In addition to competing in athletic events, athletes spend many hours practicing skills and teamwork under the guidance of a coach or sports instructor. Most athletes spend hours in hard practices every day. They also spend additional hours viewing films, critiqu ing their own performances and techniques and scouting their op ponents tendencies and weaknesses. Some athletes may also be advised by strength trainers in an effort to gain muscle and stamina, while also preventing injury. Competition at all levels is extremely intense and job security is always precarious. As a result, many athletes train year round to maintain excellent form, technique, and peak physical condition; very little downtime from the sport exists at the professional level. Athletes also must confonn to regimented diets during the height of their sports season to supplement any physical training program. Many athletes push their bodies to the limit, so career-ending injury is always a risk. Even minor injuries to an athlete may be sufficient opportunity for another athlete to play, excel, and become a permanent replacement. Coaches organize, instruct, and teach amateur and professional athletes in fundamentals of individual and team sports. In indi vidual sports, instructors may often fill this role. Coaches train athletes for competition by holding practice sessions to perform drills and improve the athlete’s skills and conditioning. Using their expertise in the sport, coaches instruct the athlete on proper form and technique in beginning and later in advanced exercises attempt ing to maximize the players potential. Along with overseeing ath letes as they refine their individual skills, coaches also are responsible for managing the team during both practice sessions and competi tions. They may also select, store, issue, and inventory equipment, materials, and supplies. During competitions, for example, coaches substitutes players for optimum team chemistry and success. In addition, coaches direct team strategy and may call specific plays during competition to surprise or overpower the opponent. To choose the best plays, coaches evaluate or “scout” the opposing team prior to the competition, allowing them to determine game strategies and practice specific plays. As coaches, advocating good sportsmanship, promoting a com petitive spirit, tutoring fairness, and teaching teamwork are all im portant responsibilities. Many coaches in high schools are primarily teachers of academic subjects and supplement their income by coach ing part-time. College coaches consider it a full-time discipline and may be away from home frequently as they travel to scout and recruit prospective players. Coaches sacrifice many hours of their free time throughout their careers, particularly full-time coaches at the professional level, whose seasons are much longer than those at the amateur level. Sports instructors teach professional and nonprofessional athletes on an individual basis. They organize, instruct, train, and lead ath letes of indoor and outdoor sports such as bowling, tennis, golf, and swimming. Because activities are as diverse as weight lifting, gym nastics, scuba diving, and may include self-defense training such as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 127 karate, instructors tend to specialize in one or a few types of activi ties. Like a coach, sports instructors may also hold daily practice sessions and be responsible for any needed equipment and supplies. Using their knowledge of their sport, physiology, and corrective tech niques, they determine the type and level of difficulty of exercises, prescribe specific drills, and relentlessly correct individuals’ tech niques. Some instructors also teach and demonstrate use of training apparatus, such as trampolines or weights, while correcting athlete’s weaknesses and enhancing their conditioning. Using their exper tise in the sport, sports instructors evaluate the athlete and their op ponents to devise a competitive game strategy. Coaches and sports instructors sometimes differ in their approach to athletes because of the focus of their work. For example, while coaches manage the team during a game to optimize its chance for victory, sports instructors—such as those who work for professional tennis players—often are not permitted to instruct their athletes during competition. Sports instructors spend more of their time with athletes working one-on-one, allowing them to design cus tomized training programs for each individual they train. Motivat ing athletes to play hard challenges most coaches and sports instructors but is vital for success. Many derive great satisfaction working with children or young adults, helping them to learn new physical and social skills, improving their physical condition, while also achieving success. Umpires, referees, and other sports officials officiate competi tive athletic and sporting events. They observe the play and detect infractions of rules and impose penalties established by the sports’ regulations. Umpires, referees, and sports officials anticipate play and position themselves to best see the action, assess the situation, and determine any violations. Some sports officials, such as box ing referees, may work independently, while others such as um pires the sports officials of baseball—work in groups. Regardless of the sport, the job is highly stressful because officials are often required to assess the play and make a decision in a matter of a split second and some competitors, coaches, and spectators are likely to disagree strenuously. Professional scouts evaluate the skills of both amateur and pro fessional athletes to determine talent and potential. As a sports intelligence agent, the scout’s primary duty is to seek out top ath letic candidates for the team they represent, ultimately contributing to team success. At the professional level, scouts typically work for scouting organizations, or more often as freelance scouts. In locating new talent, scouts perform their work in secrecy so as to not tip off players that interest them to their opponents. At the - -/ ■A- si---r.tr . ASei ■ V.:: mm i 99HhHN >■ ■ Athletes generally work outdoors, and most participate seasonally. 128 Occupational Outlook Handbook college level, the head scout is often an assistant coach, although freelance scouts may aid colleges by providing reports about ex ceptional players to coaches. Scouts at this level seek talented high school athletes by reading newspapers, contacting high school coaches and alumni, attending high school games, and studying vid eotapes of prospects’ performances. Working Conditions Irregular work hours are the trademark of the athlete. They are also common for the coach, and full-time umpires, referees, and other sports officials. Athletes, coaches, and sports officials often work Saturdays, Sundays, evenings, and even holidays. They usually work more than 40 hours a week for several months during the sports season, if not most of the year. Some coaches in educational insti tutions may coach more than one sport, particularly at the high school level. . Athletes, coaches, and sports officials who participate in compe titions that are held outdoors may be exposed to all weather condi tions of the season; those involved in events that are held indoors work in more climate-controlled comfort. Athletes, coaches, and some sports officials travel frequently to sporting events by either by bus or airplane. Scouts also travel extensively in locating talent, often by automobile. Employment Athletes, coaches, and sports officials and related workers held about 129,000 jobs in 2000. Coaches and scouts held 99,000 jobs; ath letes, 18,000; and umpires, referees, and other sports officials, 11,000. Nearly 30 percent were self-employed, earning prize money or 'fees for lessons, scouting or officiating assignments, or other services. Among the 70 percent employed in wage and salary jobs, nearly half held jobs in public and private education. About 29 percent worked in miscellaneous amusement and recreation services, including golf and tennis clubs, gymnasiums, health clubs, judo and karate schools, riding stables, swim clubs, and other sports and recreation related facilities. About 11 percent worked in the com mercial sports industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Education and training requirements for athletes, coaches, and sports officials vary greatly by the level and type of sport. Regardless of the sport or occupation, jobs require immense overall knowledge of the game, usually acquired through years of experience at lower levels. Athletes usually begin competing in their sports while in elementary or middle school and continue through high school and often college. They play in amateur tournaments and on high school and college teams, where the best attract the attention of profes sional scouts. Most schools require that participating athletes main tain specific academic standards to remain eligible to play. Becoming a professional athlete is the culmination of years of effort. Athletes who seek to compete professionally must have extraordinary talent, desire, and dedication to training. For high school coach and sports instructor jobs, schools usu ally first look to hire existing teachers willing to take on the jobs part time. If no one suitable is found they hire someone from out side. Some entry-level positions for coaches or instructors only require experience derived as a participant in the sport or activity. Many coaches begin their careers as assistant coaches to gain the necessary knowledge and experience needed to become a head coach. Head coach jobs at larger schools that strive to compete at the highest levels of a sport require substantial experience as a head coach at another school or as an assistant coach. To reach the ranks of professional coaching, it usually takes years of coaching experi ence and a winning record in the lower ranks. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Public secondary school coaches and sports instructors at all lev els usually must have a bachelor’s degree and meet State require ments for licensure as a teacher. (For information on teachers, including those specializing in physical education, see the section on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and sec ondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Licensure may not be required for coach and sports instructor jobs in private schools. Degree pro grams specifically related to coaching include exercise and sports science, physiology, kinesiology, nutrition and fitness, physical edu cation, and sports medicine. For sports instructors, certification is highly desirable for those interested in becoming a tennis, golf, karate, or any other kind of instructor. Often one must be at least 18 years old and CPR certi fied. There are many certifying organizations specific to the vari ous sports and their training requirements vary depending on their standards. Participation in a clinic, camp, or school usually is re quired for certification. Part-time workers and those in smaller fa cilities are less likely to need formal education or training. Each sport has specific requirements for umpires, referees, and other sports officials. Referees, umpires, and other sports officials often begin their careers by volunteering for intramural, commu nity, and recreational league competitions. For high school and college refereeing, candidates must be certified by an officiating school and get through a probationary period for evaluation. Some larger college conferences often require officials to have certifica tion and other qualifications, such as residence in or near the con ference boundaries along with previous experience that typically includes several years officiating high school, community college, or other college conference games. Standards are even more stringent for officials in professional sports. For professional baseball umpire jobs, for example, a high school diploma or equivalent is usually sufficient, plus 20/20 vision and quick reflexes. To qualify for the professional ranks, however, prospective candidates must attend professional umpire training school. Currently, there are two schools whose curriculums have been approved by the Professional Baseball Umpires Corporation (PBUC) for training. Top graduates are then selected for further evalu ation while officiating in a rookie minor league. Umpires then usu ally need 8 to 10 years of experience in various minor leagues before being considered for major league jobs. Jobs as scouts require experience playing a sport at the college or professional level that enables them to spot young players who possess extraordinary athletic abilities and skills. Most beginning scout jobs are as part-time talent spotters in a particular area or region. Hard work and a record of success often lead to full-time jobs responsible for bigger territories. Some scouts advance to scout ing director jobs or various administrative positions in sports. Athletes, coaches, and sports officials must relate well to others and possess good communication and leadership skills. Coaches also must be resourceful and flexible to successfully instruct and motivate individuals or groups of athletes. Job Outlook Jobs for athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers are expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment will grow as the public continues to increasingly participate in sports as a form of entertainment, recre ation, and physical conditioning. Job growth will in part be driven by the growing numbers of baby boomers approaching retirement, where they are expected to become more active participants of lei sure time activities such as golf and tennis and require instruction. The large numbers of the children of baby boomers in high schools and colleges will also be active participants in athletics and require coaches and instructors. Professional and Related Occupations 129 Opportunities will be best for coaches and instructors as employ ment increases about as fast as the average. A higher value is being placed upon physical fitness within our society with Americans of all ages engaging in more physical fitness activities, such as participat ing in amateur athletic competitionjoining athletic clubs, and being encouraged to participate in physical education. Employment of coaches and instructors also will increase with expansion of school and college athletic programs and growing demand for private sports instruction. Employment growth within education will continue to be driven largely by local school boards. Population growth dictates the construction of additional schools, particularly in the expanding suburbs. However, funding for athletic programs is often one of the first areas to be cut when budgets become tight, but the popularity of team sports often enables shortfalls to be offset somewhat by assis tance from booster clubs and parents. Persons seeking coach or in structor jobs who are qualified to teach academic subjects in addition to physical education are likely to have the best job prospects. Competition for professional athlete jobs should continue to be intense. Employment will increase as new professional sports leagues are established and existing ones undergo expansion. Opportunities to make a living as a professional in individual sports such as golf, tennis, and others should grow as new tournaments are added and prize money distributed to participants grows. Most athlete’s pro fessional careers last only several years due to debilitating injuries and age, so a large proportion of the athletes in these jobs are re placed every year, creating job opportunities. However, a far greater number of talented young men and women dream of becoming a sports superstar and will be competing for limited opportunities. Opportunities should be favorable for persons seeking part-time umpire, referee, and other sports official jobs in high school level amateur sports, but competition is expected for higher paying jobs at the college level, and even greater competition for jobs in profes sional sports. Competition is expected to be keen for jobs as scouts, particularly for professional teams. Earnings Median annual earnings of athletes were $32,700 in 2000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,630, but more than 25 per cent earned $ 145,600 or more annually. Median annual earnings of umpires and related workers were $18,540 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,310 and $28,110. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,830. Median annual earnings of coaches and scouts were $28,020 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 17,870 and $41,920. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,210, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,520. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of coaches and scouts in 2000 were as follows: Colleges and universities............................................................... Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... Miscellaneous amusement, recreation services.............................. Sources of Additional Information For general information on coaching, contact: ► National High School Athletic Coaches Association, P.O. Box 4342, Hamden, CT 06514. Internet: http://www.hscoaches.org For information about athletics at the collegiate level, contact: >- National Collegiate Athletic Association, 700 W. Washington St., P.O. Box 6222, Indianapolis, IN 46206-6222. Internet: http://www.ncaa.org For information about sports officiating team and individual sports, contact: ► National Association of Sports Officials, 2017 Lathrop Ave., Racine, WI 53405. Internet: http://www.naso.org Dancers and Choreographers (0*NET 27-2031.00, 27-2032.00) Significant Points • Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties; however, some remain in the field as choreographers, dance teachers, or artistic directors. • Most dancers begin formal training at an early age— between 5 and 15—and many have their first professional audition by age 17 or 18. • Dancers and choreographers face intense competition—only the most talented find regular work. Nature of the Work From ancient times to the present, dancers have expressed ideas, stories, rhythm, and sound with their bodies. They use a variety of dance forms that allow free movement and self-expression, includ ing classical ballet, modem dance, and culturally specific dance styles. Many dancers combine performance work with teaching or choreography. Dancers perform in a variety of settings, such as musical produc tions, and may present folk, ethnic, tap, jazz, and other popular kinds of dance. They also perform in opera, musical theater, television, movies, music videos, and commercials, in which they may sing and act. Dancers most often perform as part of a group, although a few top artists perform solo. Many dancers work with choreographers, who create original dances and develop new interpretations of existing dances. Because rm m ■ 32 ggo 27 970 23 650 Earnings vary by education level, certification, and geographic region. Some instructors and coaches are paid a salary, while oth ers may be paid by the hour, per session, or based on the number of participants. Related Occupations Athletes and coaches have extensive knowledge of physiology and sports, and instruct, inform, and encourage participants. Other workers with similar duties include dietitians and nutritionists; physical thera pists; recreation and fitness workers; recreational therapists; and teach ers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dancers spend considerable time practicing in rehearsal halls or dance studios. 130 Occupational Outlook Handbook few dance routines are written down, choreographers instruct per formers at rehearsals to achieve the desired effect. In addition, cho reographers often are involved in auditioning performers. Working Conditions Dance is strenuous. Many dancers stop performing by their late thirties because of the physical demands on the body. However, some continue to work in the field as choreographers, dance teach ers and coaches, or artistic directors. Others move into administra tive positions, such as company manager. Some celebrated dancers, however, continue performing beyond the age of 50. Daily rehearsals require very long hours. Many dance compa nies tour for part of the year to supplement a limited performance schedule at home. Dancers who perform in musical productions and other family entertainment spend much of their time on the road; others work in nightclubs or on cruise ships. Most dance performances are in the evening, while rehearsals and practice take place during the day. As a result, dancers often work very long and late hours. Generally, dancers and choreographers work in modem and temperature-controlled facilities; however, some studios may be older and less comfortable. Employment . Professional dancers and choreographers held about 26,000 jobs at any one time in 2000. Many others were between engagements, so that the total number of people available for work as dancers over the course of the year was greater. Dancers and choreographers worked in a variety of settings, including eating and drinking estab lishments, theatrical and television productions, dance studios and schools, dance companies and bands, concert halls, and theme parks. Dancers who give lessons worked in secondary schools, colleges and universities, and private studios. New York City is home to many major dance companies; how ever, full time professional dance companies operate in most major cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training varies depending upon the type of dance and is a continu ous part of all dancers’ careers. Many dancers and dance instructors believe dancers should start with a good foundation in classical dance before selecting a particular dance style. Ballet training for women usually begins at 5 to 8 years of age with a private teacher or through an independent ballet school. Serious training traditionally begins between the ages of 10 and 12. Men often begin their ballet training between the ages of 10 and 15. Students who demonstrate potential in their early teens receive more intensive and advanced professional training. At about this time, students should begin to focus their training on a particular style and decide whether to pursue additional training through a dance company’s school or a college dance pro gram. Leading dance school companies often have summer training programs from which they select candidates for admission to their regular full-time training program. Formal training for modem and culturally specific dancers often begins later than training in ballet; however, many folk dance forms are taught to very young children. Many dancers have their first professional auditions by age 17 or 18. Training is an important component of professional dancers careers. Dancers normally spend 8 hours a day in class and re hearsal, keeping their bodies in shape and preparing for perfor mances. Their daily training period includes time to warm up and cool down before and after classes and rehearsals. Because of the strenuous and time-consuming dance training required, some dancers view formal education as secondary. How ever, a broad, general education including music, literature, his tory’ and the visual arts is helpful in the interpretation of dramatic https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis episodes, ideas, and feelings. Dancers sometimes conduct research , > to leam more about the part they are playing. Many colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or master s degrees in dance, typically through departments of music, theater, or fine arts. Many programs concentrate on modem dance, but some also offer courses in jazz, culturally specific, ballet, or classical tech niques; dance composition, history, and criticism; and movement analysis. A college education is not essential to obtain employment as a professional dancer; however, many dancers obtain degrees in unre lated fields to prepare themselves for careers after dance. Comple tion of a college program in dance and education is essential in order to qualify to teach dance in college, high school, or elementary school. Colleges and conservatories sometimes require graduate degrees, but may accept performance experience. A college background is not necessary, however, for teaching dance or choreography in local rec reational programs. Studio schools usually require teachers to have experience as performers. Because of the rigorous practice schedules of most dancers, self discipline, patience, perseverance, and a devotion to dance are es sential for success in the field. Dancers also must possess good problem-solving skills and an ability to work with people. Good health and physical stamina also are necessary attributes. Above all, dancers must have flexibility, agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, a feeling for music, and a creative ability to express them selves through movement. Dancers seldom perform unaccompanied, so they must be able to function as part of a team. They should also be highly motivated and prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employment and rejections when auditioning for work. For dancers, advancement takes the form of a growing reputation, more frequent work, bigger and better roles, and higher pay. Choreographers typically are older dancers with years of experi ence in the theater. Through their performance as dancers, they develop reputations as skilled artists that often lead to opportuni ties to choreograph productions. Job Outlook Dancers and choreographers face intense competition for jobs. Only the most talented find regular employment. Employment of dancers and choreographers is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010, reflecting the public’s continued interest in this form of artistic ex pression. However, funding from public and private organizations is not expected to keep pace with rising production costs, resulting in slower employment growth. Although job openings will arise each year because dancers and choreographers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons, the number of applicants will con tinue to vastly exceed the number of job openings. National dance companies should continue to provide most jobs in this field. Opera companies and dance groups affiliated with colleges and universities and with television and motion pictures also will offer some opportunities. Moreover, the growing popu larity of dance in recent years has resulted in increased opportuni ties to teach dance. Additionally, music video channels will provide some opportunities for both dancers and choreographers. Median annual earnings of dancers were $22,470 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 14,260 and $34,600. The low est 10 percent earned less than $12,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,220. Median annual earnings were $29,980 in the producers, orchestras, and entertainers industry and $16,290 in eating and drinking places. Professional and Related Occupations 131 Median annual earnings of choreographers were $27,010 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,970 and $42,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 13,370, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $55,800. Median annual earnings were $25,860 in dance studios, schools, and halls. Dancers on tour received an additional allowance for room and board, and extra compensation for overtime. Earnings from danc ing are usually low because employment is part year and irregular. Dancers often supplement their income by working as guest artists with other dance companies, teaching dance, or taking jobs unre lated to the field. Earnings of many professional dancers are governed by union contracts. Dancers in the major opera ballet, classical ballet, and modem dance corps belong to the American Guild of Musical Art ists, Inc., AFL-CIO; those who appear on live or videotaped televi sion programs belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and on television belong to the Screen Actors Guild; and those in musical theater are mem bers of Actors’ Equity Association. The unions and producers sign basic agreements specifying minimum salary rates, hours of work, benefits, and other conditions of employment. However, the con tract each dancer signs with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement. Dancers and choreographers covered by union contracts are en titled to some paid sick leave, paid vacations, and various health and pension benefits, including extended sick pay and family leave provisions provided by their unions. Employers contribute toward these benefits. Those not covered by union contracts usually do not enjoy such benefits. Related Occupations People who work in other performing arts occupations include ac tors, producers, and directors; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Those directly involved in the production of dance pro grams include set and exhibit designers; fashion designers; sound engineering technicians; and hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosme tologists. Like dancers, athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers in most sports need strength, flexibility, and agility. Sources of Additional Information For general information about dance and a list of accredited col lege-level programs, contact: >- National Association of Schools ofDance, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://www.arts-accredit.org/nasd/default.htm >- Dance/USA, 1156 15th St. NW., Suite 820, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.danceusa.org Nature of the Work Musicians, singers, and related workers play musical instruments, sing, compose, arrange, or conduct groups in instrumental or vocal performances. They may perform solo or as part of a group. Musi cians, singers, and related workers entertain live audiences in night clubs, concert halls, and theaters featuring opera, musical theater, or dance. Although most of these entertainers play for live audiences, some perform exclusively for recording or production studios. Regardless of the setting, musicians, singers, and related workers spend considerable time practicing, alone and with their band, or chestra, or other musical ensemble. Musicians often gain their reputation or professional standing in a particular kind of music or performance. However, those who learn several related instruments, such as the flute and clarinet, and can perform equally well in a several musical styles, have better employment opportunities. Instrumental musicians, for example, may play in a symphony orchestra, rock group, or jazz combo one night, appear in another ensemble the next, and in a studio band the following day. Some play a variety of string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments or electronic synthesizers. Singers interpret music using their knowledge of voice produc tion, melody, and harmony. They sing character parts or perform in their own individual style. Singers are often classified according to their voice range—soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, or bass—or by the type of music they sing, such as opera, rock, popular, folk, rap, or country and western. Music directors conduct, direct, plan, and lead instrumental or vocal performances by musical groups, such as orchestras, choirs, and glee clubs. Conductors lead instrumental music groups, such as symphony orchestras, dance bands, show bands, and various popu lar ensembles. These leaders audition and select musicians, choose the music most appropriate for their talents and abilities, and direct rehearsals and performances. Choral directors lead choirs and glee clubs, sometimes working with a band or orchestra conductor. Di rectors audition and select singers and lead them at rehearsals and performances to achieve harmony, rhythm, tempo, shading, and other desired musical effects. Composers create original music such as symphonies, operas, sonatas, radio and television jingles, film scores, or popular songs. They transcribe ideas into musical notation using harmony, rhythm, melody, and tonal structure. Although most composers and songwriters practice their craft on instruments and transcribe the notes with pen and paper, some use computer software to compose and edit their music. Musicians, Singers, and Related Workers (0*NET 27-2041.01, 27-2041.02, 27-2041.03, 27-2042.01, 27-2042.02) Significant Points • Part-time schedules and intermittent unemployment are common; many musicians supplement their income with earnings from other sources. • Aspiring musicians begin studying an instrument or training their voices at an early age. • Competition for jobs is keen; those who can play several instruments and types of music should enjoy the best job prospects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis One-third ofjobs for salaried musicians, singers, and related workers are in religious organizations. 132 Occupational Outlook Handbook Arrangers transcribe and adapt musical composition to a par ticular style for orchestras, bands, choral groups, or individuals. Components of music—including tempo, volume, and the mix of instmments needed—are arranged to express the composer’s mes sage. While some arrangers write directly into a musical composi tion, others use computer software to make changes. Working Conditions Musicians typically perform at night and on weekends. They spend much of their remaining time practicing or in rehearsal. Full-time musicians with long-term employment contracts, such as those with symphony orchestras and television and film production compa nies, enjoy steady work and less travel. Nightclub, solo, or recital musicians frequently travel to perform in a variety of local settings and may tour nationally or internationally. Because many musi cians find only part-time or intermittent work, experiencing unem ployment between engagements, they often supplement their income with other types of jobs. The stress of constantly looking for work leads many musicians to accept permanent, full-time jobs in other occupations, while working only part time as musicians. Most instrumental musicians work closely with a variety of other people, including their colleagues, agents, employers, sponsors, and audiences. Although they usually work indoors, some perform out doors for parades, concerts, and dances. In some nightclubs and restaurants, smoke and odors may be present, and lighting and ven tilation may be inadequate. Employment Musicians, singers, and related workers held about 240,000 jobs in 2000. More than 40 percent worked part time, and more than 40 percent were self-employed. Many jobs were found in cities in which entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York, Los Angeles, and Nashville. Musicians, singers, and related workers are employed in a vari ety of settings. More than half of those who earn a wage or salary are employed by religious organizations. Classical musicians may perform with professional orchestras or in small chamber music groups like trios or quartets. Musicians may work in opera, musi cal theater, and ballet productions. They also perform in nightclubs and restaurants, and for weddings and other events. Well-known musicians and groups may perform in concert, appear on radio and television broadcasts, and make recordings and music videos. The Armed Forces also offer careers in their bands and smaller musical groups. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Aspiring musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. They may gain valuable experience playing in a school or com munity band or orchestra or with a group of friends. Singers usually start training when their voices mature. Participation in school musicals or choirs often provides good early training and experience. Musicians need extensive and prolonged training to acquire the necessary skills, knowledge, and ability to interpret music. Like other artists, musicians and singers continually strive to stretch themselves, musically, and explore different music forms. Formal training may be obtained through private study with an accom plished musician, in a college or university music program, or in a music conservatory. For university or conservatory study, an audi tion generally is necessary. Courses typically include musical theory, music interpretation, composition, conducting, and perfor mance in their particular instrument or voice. Music directors, Digitizedcomposers, for FRASER conductors, and arrangers need considerable related work experience or advanced training in these subjects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many colleges, universities, and music conservatories grant bachelor’s or higher degrees in music. A master’s or doctoral de gree is usually required to teach advanced music courses in col leges and universities; a bachelor’s degree may be sufficient to teach basic courses. A degree in music education qualifies graduates for a State certificate to teach music in public elementary or secondary schools. Musicians who do not meet public school music educa tion requirements may teach in private schools and recreation asso ciations, or instruct individual students in private sessions. Musicians must be knowledgeable about the broad range of music styles, but keenly aware of the form that interests them most. This broader range of interest, knowledge, and training can help expand employment opportunities and musical abilities. Voice training and private instrumental lessons, especially when young, also help de velop technique and enhance performance. Young persons considering careers in music should have musi cal talent, versatility, creativity, poise, and a good stage presence. Because quality performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musicians who play concert and nightclub engagements and who tour must have physical stamina to endure frequent travel and an irregular performance schedule. Musicians and singers always must make their performances look effortless; therefore, preparations and practice are important. They also must be prepared to face the anxiety of intermittent employ ment and rejections when auditioning for work. Advancement for musicians usually means becoming better known and performing for higher earnings. Successful musicians often rely on agents or managers to find them performing engage ments, negotiate contracts, and develop their careers. Job Outlook Competition for musician, singer, and related worker jobs is ex pected to be keen. The vast number of persons with the desire to perform will exceed the number of openings. Talent alone is no guarantee of success. Many people start out to become musicians or singers, but leave the profession because they find the work difficult, the discipline demanding, and the long periods of inter mittent unemployment unendurable. Overall employment of musicians, singers, and related workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Most new wage and salary jobs for musicians will arise in religious organizations, where the majority of these workers are employed. Average growth also is expected for self-employed musicians, who generally perform in nightclubs, concert tours, and other venues. Although growth in demand for musicians will gener ate a number ofjob opportunities, many openings also will arise from the need to replace those who leave the field each year because they are unable to make a living solely as musicians or for other reasons. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried musicians and singers were $36,740 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,590 and $59,330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,250, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,640. Median annual earnings were $41,520 in the producers, orchestras, and entertain ers industry and $16,570 in religious organizations. Median annual earnings of salaried music directors and com posers were $31,510 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $21,080 and $45,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,140. Earnings often depend on the number of hours and weeks worked, a performer’s professional reputation, and setting. The most suc cessful musicians earn performance or recording fees that far ex ceed the median earnings indicated above. Professional and Related Occupations 133 According to the American Federation of Musicians, minimum salaries in major orchestras ranged from $24,720 to $100,196 per year during the 2000-01 performing season. Each orchestra works out a separate contract with its local union. Top orchestras have a season ranging from 24 to 52 weeks, with 18 orchestras reporting 52-week contracts. In regional orchestras, minimum salaries are often less because fewer performances are scheduled. Community orchestras often have more limited levels of funding and offer sala ries that are much lower for seasons of shorter duration. Regional orchestra musicians often are paid per service without guarantees. Although musicians employed by some symphony orchestras work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks, many other musicians face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Even when employed, many musicians and singers work part time in unrelated occupa tions. Thus, their earnings usually are lower than earnings in many other occupations. Moreover, because they may not work steadily for one employer, some performers cannot qualify for unemploy ment compensation, and few have typical benefits such as sick leave or paid vacations. For these reasons, many musicians give private lessons or take jobs unrelated to music to supplement their earnings as performers. Many musicians belong to a local of the American Federation of Musicians. Professional singers usually belong to a branch of the American Guild of Musical Artists. Related Occupations Musical instrument repairers and tuners (part of precision instru ment and equipment repairers) require technical knowledge of mu sical instruments. Others whose work involves music include actors, producers, and directors; announcers; broadcast and sound engineer ing technicians and radio operators; and dancers and choreographers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about music and music teacher education and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: ► National Association of Schools ofMusic, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 22091. Internet: http://www.arts-accredit.org/nasm/nasm.htm Media and Communication-Related Occupations Announcers (0*NET 27-3011.00, 27-3012.00) Significant Points • Competition for announcer jobs will continue to be keen. • Jobs at small stations usually have low pay, but offer the best opportunities for beginners. • Related work experience at a campus radio station or as an intern at a commercial station can be helpful in breaking into the occupation. Nature of the Work Announcers in radio and television perform a variety of tasks on and off the air. They announce station program information such as program schedules and station breaks for commercials or public service information, and they introduce and close programs. An nouncers read prepared scripts or ad-lib commentary on the air when presenting news, sports, weather, time, and commercials. If a writ ten script is required, they may do the research and writing. An nouncers also interview guests and moderate panels or discussions. Some provide commentary for the audience during sporting events, parades, and other events. Announcers are often well-known to radio and television audiences and may make promotional appear ances and remote broadcasts for their stations. Radio announcers often are called discjockeys. Some disc jock eys specialize in one kind of music. They announce music selec tions and may decide what music to play. While on the air, they comment on the music, weather, and traffic. They may take re quests from listeners, interview guests, and manage listener contests. Newscasters or anchors work at large stations and specialize in news, sports, or weather. (See the related statement on news analysts, reporters, and correspondents elsewhere in the Handbook.) DigitizedShow for FRASER hosts may specialize in a certain area of interest such as https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Announcers read prepared scripts or ad-lib commentary on the air. 134 Occupational Outlook Handbook politics, personal finance, sports, or health. They contribute to the preparation of the program content; interview guests; and discuss issues with viewers, listeners, or an in-studio audience. Announcers at smaller stations may cover all of these areas and tend to have more off-air duties as well. They may operate the control board, monitor the transmitter, sell commercial time to ad vertisers, keep a log of the station’s daily programming, and do production work. Consolidation and automation make it possible for announcers to do some work previously performed by broad cast technicians. (See the statement on broadcast and sound engi neering technicians and radio operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Announcers use the control board to broadcast programming, com mercials, and public service announcements according to schedule. Public radio and television announcers are involved with station fundraising efforts. Announcers frequently participate in community activities. Sports announcers, for example, may serve as masters of ceremo nies at sports club banquets or may greet customers at openings of sporting goods stores. Although most announcers are employed in radio and television broadcasting, some are employed in the cable television or motion picture production industries. Other announcers may use a public address system to provide information to the audience at sporting and other events. Some disc jockeys announce and play music at clubs, dances, restaurants, and weddings. Working Conditions Announcers usually work in well-lighted, air-conditioned, sound proof studios. The broadcast day is long for radio and TV stations— some are on the air 24 hours a day—so announcers can expect to work unusual hours. Many present early morning shows, when most people are getting ready for work or commuting, while others do late night programs. Announcers often work within tight schedule constraints, which can be physically and mentally stressful. For many announcers, the intangible rewards—creative work, many personal contacts, and the satisfaction of becoming widely known—far outweigh the disad vantages of irregular and often unpredictable hours, work pressures, and disrupted personal lives. Employment Announcers held about 71,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly all were staff announcers employed in radio and television broadcasting, but some were freelance announcers who sold their services for individual assignments to networks and stations, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers. Many announcing jobs are part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry into this occupation is highly competitive. Formal training in broadcasting from a college or technical school (private broadcast ing school) is valuable. Station officials pay particular attention to taped auditions that show an applicant’s delivery and—in televi sion—appearance and style on commercials, news, and interviews. Those hired by television stations usually start out as production assistants, researchers, or reporters and are given a chance to move into announcing if they show an aptitude for “on-air work. New comers to TV broadcasting also may begin as news camera opera tors. (See the statement on television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors elsewhere in the Handbook.) A beginner’s chance of landing an on-air job is remote, except possi bly for a small radio station. In radio, newcomers usually start out taping interviews and operating equipment. Announcers usually begin at a station in a small community and, if qualified, may move to a better paying job in a large city. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis They also may advance by hosting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. Competition is particu larly intense for employment by networks, and employers look for college graduates with at least several years of successful announc ing experience. Announcers must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, good timing, excellent pronunciation, and must know correct grammar usage. Television announcers need a neat, pleasing appearance as well. Knowledge of theater, sports, music, business, politics, and other subjects likely to be covered in broadcasts improves chances for success. Announcers also must be computer-literate because programming is created and edited by computer. In addition, they should be able to ad-lib all or part of a show and to work under tight deadlines. The most successful announcers attract a large audience by combining a pleasing personality and voice with an appealing style. High school and college courses in English, public speaking, drama, foreign languages, and computer science are valuable, and hobbies such as sports and music are additional assets. Students may gain valuable experience at campus radio or TV facilities and at commercial stations while serving as interns. Paid or unpaid internships provide students with hands-on training and the chance to establish contacts in the industry. Unpaid interns often receive college credit and are allowed to observe and assist station employ ees. Although the Fair Labor Standards Act limits the work unpaid interns may perform in a station, unpaid internships are the rule; sometimes they lead to paid internships. Paid internships are valu able because interns do work ordinarily done by regular employees and may even go on the air. Persons considering enrolling in a broadcasting school should contact personnel managers of radio and television stations as well as broadcasting trade organizations to determine the school’s repu tation for producing suitably trained candidates. Job Outlook Competition for jobs as announcers will be keen because the broad casting field attracts many more job seekers than there are jobs. Small radio stations are more inclined to hire beginners, but the pay is low. Interns usually receive preference for available positions. Because competition for ratings is so intense in major metropolitan areas, large stations will continue to seek announcers who have proven that they can attract and retain a large audience. Announcers who are knowledgeable in business, consumer, and health news may have an advantage over others. While specializa tion is more common at large stations and the networks, many small stations also encourage it. Employment of announcers is expected to decline through 2010 due to the lack of growth of new radio and television stations. Open ings in this relatively small field also will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other kinds of work or leave the labor force. Some announcers leave the field because they cannot ad vance to better paying jobs. Changes in station ownership, format, and ratings frequently cause periods of unemployment for many announcers. Increasing consolidation of radio and television stations, new technology, and the growth of alternative media sources will con tribute to the expected decline in employment of announcers. Con solidation in broadcasting may lead to increased use of syndicated programming and programs originating outside a station’s viewing or listening area. Digital technology will increase the productivity of announcers, reducing the time spent on off-air technical and pro duction work. In addition, all traditional media, including radio and television, may suffer losses in audience as the American pub lic increases its use of personal computers. Professional and Related Occupations 135 Earnings Salaries in broadcasting vary widely but in general are relatively low, except for announcers who work for large stations in major markets or for networks. Earnings are higher in television than in radio and higher in commercial than in public broadcasting. Median hourly earnings of announcers in 2000 were $9.52. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.84 and $14.28. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.94, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.35. Median hourly earnings of announcers in 2000 were $9.54 in the radio and television broadcasting industry. Related Occupations The success of announcers depends upon how well they communi cate. Others who must be skilled at oral communication include news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; interpreters and trans lators; sales and related occupations; public relations specialists; and teachers. Many announcers also must entertain their audience, so their work is similar to other entertainment-related occupations such as actors, directors, and producers; dancers and choreogra phers; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Sources of Additional Information General information on the broadcasting industry is available from: >■ National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators (0*NET 27-4011.00, 27-4012.00, 27-4013.00, 27-4014.00) • • • Significant Points Job applicants will face strong competition for the better paying jobs at radio and television stations serving large cities. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than do radio stations. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is common. Nature of the Work Broadcast and sound engineering technicians install, test, repair, set up, and operate the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs, cable programs, and mo tion pictures. They work with television cameras, microphones, tape recorders, lighting, sound effects, transmitters, antennas, and other equipment. Some broadcast and sound engineering techni cians produce movie soundtracks in motion picture production stu dios, control the sound of live events, such as concerts, or record music in a recording studio. In the control room of a radio or television-broadcasting studio, these technicians operate equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors of recordings or broadcasts. They also operate control panels to select the source of the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or stu dio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programming. By means of hand signals and, in television, telephone headsets, they give technical directions to other studio personnel. Audio and video equipment operators operate specialized elec tronic equipment to record stage productions, live programs or events, and studio recordings. They edit and reproduce tapes for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mUS Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators work with television cameras, microphones, tape recorders, lighting, sound effects, transmitters, antennas, and other equipment. compact discs, records and cassettes, for radio and television broad casting and for motion picture productions. The duties of audio and video equipment operators can be divided into two categories: technical and production activities used in the production of sound and picture images for film or videotape from set design to camera operation and post production activities where raw images are trans formed to a final print or tape. Radio operators mainly receive and transmit communications using a variety of tools. They are also responsible for repairing equipment using such devices as electronic testing equipment, hand tools, and power tools. These help to maintain communication sys tems in an operative condition. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors perform a variety of duties in small stations. In large stations and at the networks, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to de scribe these jobs. Transmitter operators monitor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters. Maintenance technicians set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment. Au dio control engineers regulate volume and sound quality of televi sion broadcasts, while video control engineers regulate their fidelity, brightness, and contrast. Recording engineers operate and main tain video and sound recording equipment. They may operate equip ment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police siren. Sound mixers or re-recording mixers produce the sound track of a movie, television, or radio pro gram. After filming or recording, they may use a process called dubbing to insert sounds. Field technicians set up and operate broad casting portable field transmission equipment outside the studio. Television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment, and the technology is changing so rapidly, that many stations assign technicians exclusively to news. Chiefengineers, transmission engineers, and broadcastfield su pervisors supervise the technicians who operate and maintain broad casting equipment. Working Conditions Broadcast, sound engineering, audio and video equipment techni cians, and radio operators generally work indoors in pleasant sur roundings. However, those who broadcast news and other programs from locations outside the studio may work outdoors in all types of 136 Occupational Outlook Handbook weather. Technicians doing maintenance may climb poles or an tenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting. Technicians in large stations and the networks usually work a 40-hour week under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines, but may occasionally work overtime. Technicians in small stations rou tinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual, because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Those who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule to finish according to contract agreements. Employment Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators held about 87,000 jobs in 2000. Their employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Audio and video equipment technicians........................................... Broadcast technicians........................................................................... Sound engineering technicians........................................................... Radio operators ..................................................................................... 37,000 36,000 11 >000 2,900 About 1 out of 3 worked in radio and television broadcasting. Almost 15 percent worked in the motion picture industry. About 4 percent worked for cable and other pay- television services. A few were self-employed. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than do radio stations. Some technicians are em ployed in other industries, producing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television are lo cated in virtually all cities, whereas jobs in radio are also found in many small towns. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC—the originating centers for most network pro grams. Motion picture production jobs are concentrated in Los Angeles and New York City. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to prepare for a broadcast and sound engineering tech nician job is to obtain technical school, community college, or col lege training in broadcast technology or in engineering or electronics. This is particularly true for those who hope to advance to supervi sory positions or jobs at large stations or the networks. In the mo tion picture industry people are hired as apprentice editorial assistants and work their way up to more skilled jobs. Employers in the mo tion picture industry usually hire experienced freelance technicians on a picture-by-picture basis. Reputation and determination are important in getting jobs. Beginners leam skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. They often begin their careers in small stations and, once experienced, move on to larger ones. Large stations usu ally only hire technicians with experience. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of developments in the field. Audio and video equipment technicians generally need a high school diploma. Many recent entrants have a community college degree or various other forms of post-secondary degrees, although that is not always a requirement. They may substitute on-the-job training for formal education requirements. Experience in a re cording studio, as an assistant, is a great way of getting experience and knowledge simultaneously. Radio operators do not usually require any formal training. This is an entry-level position that generally requires on-the-job train ing. The Federal Communications Commission no longer requires the licensing of broadcast technicians, as the Telecommunications Act of 1996 eliminated this licensing requirement. Certification by https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the Society of Broadcast Engineers is a mark of competence and experience. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. By offering the Radio Operator and the Tele vision Operator levels of certification, the Society of Broadcast Engineers has filled the void left by the elimination of the FCC license. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a “ham,” or amateur radio, are good experience, as is work in college radio and television stations. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors must have manual dexterity and an aptitude for working with electrical, electronic, and mechanical systems and equipment. Experienced technicians can become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is needed to be come chief engineer at a large TV station. Job Outlook People seeking entry-level jobs as technicians in the field of radio and television broadcasting are expected to face strong competition in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher and the number of qualified job seekers exceed the number of openings. There, stations seek highly experienced personnel. Prospects for entry-level positions generally are better in small cities and towns for beginners with appropriate training. The overall employment of broadcast and sound engineering tech nicians and radio operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. An increase in the number of programming hours should require additional tech nicians. However, employment growth in radio and television broad casting may be tempered somewhat because of slow growth in the number of new radio and television stations and laborsaving tech nical advances, such as computer-controlled programming and re mote control of transmitters. Technicians who know how to install transmitters will be in demand as television stations replace exist ing analog transmitters with digital transmitters. Stations will be gin broadcasting in both analog and digital formats, eventually switching entirely to digital. Employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians is expected to grow about as fast as average through 2010. The ad vancements in technology will enhance the capabilities of techni cians to help produce a higher quality of programming for radio and television. Employment of audio and video equipment techni cians also is expected to grow about as fast as average through 2010. Not only will these workers have to set up audio and video equip ment, but it will be necessary for them to maintain and repair this machinery. Employment of radio operators, on the other hand, will grow more slowly than other areas in this field of work. Automa tion will negatively impact these workers as many stations now operate transmitters and control programming remotely. Employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators in the cable industry should grow rapidly because of new products coming to market, such as cable modems, which deliver high-speed Internet access to personal computers, and digi tal set-top boxes, which transmit better sound and pictures, allow ing cable operators to offer many more channels than in the past. These new products should cause traditional cable subscribers to sign up for additional services. Employment in the motion picture industry also will grow fast. However, job prospects are expected to remain competitive, be cause of the large number of people attracted to this relatively small field. Numerous job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave the occupations. Many leave Professional and Related Occupations 137 these occupations for electronic jobs in other areas, such as com puter technology or commercial and industrial repair. Earnings Television stations usually pay higher salaries than radio stations; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than public broadcast ing; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small ones. Median annual earnings of broadcast technicians in 2000 were $26,950. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,060 and $44,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,340. Median annual earnings of sound engineering technicians in 2000 were $39,480. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,730 and $73,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,560, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 119,400. Median annual earnings of audio and video equipment techni cians in 2000 were $30,310. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $21,980 and $44,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,630, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,720. Median annual earnings of radio operators in 2000 were $29,260. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,090 and $39,830. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,570, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $54,590. Related Occupations Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators need the electronics training and hand coordination necessary to operate technical equipment, and they generally complete special ized postsecondary programs. Similar occupations include engi neering technicians, science technicians, health technologists and technicians, electrical and electronics installers and repairers, and communications equipment operators. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers for broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators, write to: > National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org For information on certification, contact: ► Society of Broadcast Engineers, 9247 North Meridian St., Suite 305, Indianapolis, IN 46260. Internet: http://www.sbe.org For information on careers in the motion picture and television industry, contact: >• Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), 595 West Hartsdale Ave., White Plains, NY 10607. Internet: http://www.smpte.org Nature of the Work News analysts, reporters, and correspondents play a key role in our society. They gather information, prepare stories, and make broad casts that inform us about local, State, national, and international events; present points of view on current issues; and report on the actions of public officials, corporate executives, special-interest groups, and others who exercise power. News analysts examine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources, and also are called newscasters or news an chors. News anchors present news stories and introduce video taped news or live transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. Some newscasters at large stations and networks usually specialize in a particular type of news, such as sports or weather. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecasted weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained meteorologists and can develop their own weather forecasts. (See the statement on atmospheric scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sportscasters select, write, and deliver sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events. In covering a story, reporters investigate leads and news tips, look at documents, observe events at the scene, and interview people. Reporters take notes and also may take photographs or shoot vid eos. At their office, they organize the material, determine the focus or emphasis, write their stories, and edit accompanying video mate rial. Many reporters enter information or write stories on laptop computers, and electronically submit them to their offices from re mote locations. In some cases, newswriters write a story from in formation collected and submitted by reporters. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report “live” from the scene. At times, they later tape an introduction or commentary to their story in the studio. Some journalists also interpret the news or offer opinions to readers, viewers, or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists. General assignment reporters write news, such as an accident, a political rally, the visit of a celebrity, or a company going out of business, as assigned. Large newspapers and radio and television stations assign reporters to gather news about specific categories or beats, such as crime or education. Some reporters specialize in fields such as health, politics, foreign affairs, sports, theater, consumer affairs, social events, science, business, and religion. Investigative i^aii News Analysts, Reporters, and Correspondents (0*NET 27-3021.00, 27-3022.00) Significant Points • Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in journalism and experience. • Competition will be keen for jobs at large metropolitan newspapers and broadcast stations and on national magazines; most entry-level openings arise on small publications. • Jobs often are stressful because of irregular hours, frequent night and weekend work, and pressure to meet deadlines. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In covering a story, news analysts, reporters, and correspondents investigate leads and tips, observe events at the scene, and interview people. 138 Occupational Outlook Handbook reporters cover stories that take many days or weeks of information gathering. Some publications use teams of reporters instead of as signing specific beats, allowing reporters to cover a greater variety of stories. News teams may include reporters, editors, graphic art ists, and photographers, working together to complete a story. News correspondents report on news occurring in the large U.S. and foreign cities where they are stationed. Reporters on small pub lications cover all aspects of the news. They take photographs, write headlines, lay out pages, edit wire service copy, and write editorials. Some also solicit advertisements, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Working Conditions The work of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents usually is hectic. They are under great pressure to meet deadlines and broad casts sometimes are made with little time for preparation. Some work in comfortable, private offices; others work in large rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers, as well as the voices of other reporters. Curious onlookers, police, or other emergency workers can distract those reporting from the scene for radio and television. Covering wars, political uprisings, fires, floods, and similar events often is dangerous. Working hours vary. Reporters on morning papers often work from late afternoon until midnight. Those on afternoon or evening papers generally work from early morning until early afternoon or mid afternoon. Radio and television reporters usually are assigned to a day or evening shift. Magazine reporters usually work during the day. Reporters sometimes have to change their work hours to meet a deadline, or to follow late-breaking developments. Their work de mands long hours, irregular schedules, and some travel. Many sta tions and networks are on the air 24 hours a day, so newscasters can expect to work unusual hours. Employment News analysts, reporters, and correspondents held about 78,000 jobs in 2000. Nearly half worked for newspapers—either large city dailies or suburban and small town dailies or weeklies. About 28 percent worked in radio and television broadcasting, and others worked for magazines and wire services. About 12,000 news ana lysts, reporters, and correspondents were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer individuals with a bachelor’s degree in jour nalism, but some hire graduates with other majors. They look for experience on school newspapers or broadcasting stations and in ternships with news organizations. Large city newspapers and sta tions also may prefer candidates with a degree in a subject-matter specialty such as economics, political science, or business. Large newspapers and broadcasters also require a minimum of 3 to 5 years of experience as a reporter. Bachelor’s degree programs in journalism are available at over 400 colleges or universities. About three-fourths of the courses in a typical curriculum are in liberal arts; the remainder are in journal ism. Journalism courses include introductory mass media, basic reporting and copy editing, history ofjournalism, and press law and ethics. Students planning a career in broadcasting take courses in radio and television newscasting and production. Those planning newspaper or magazine careers usually specialize in news-editorial journalism. Those planning careers in new media, such as online newspapers or magazines, require a merging of traditional and new journalism skills. To create a story for online presentation, they to know how to use computer software to combine online story Digitizedneed for FRASER text with audio and video elements and graphics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Many community and junior colleges offer journalism courses or programs; credits may be transferable to 4-year journalism programs. About 120 schools offered a master’s degree in journalism in 2000; about 35 schools offered a Ph.D. degree. Some graduate programs are intended primarily as preparation for news careers, while others prepare journalism teachers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. High school courses in English, journalism, and social studies provide a good foundation for college programs. Useful college liberal arts courses include English with an emphasis on writing, sociology, political science, economics, history, and psychology. Courses in computer science, business, and speech are useful, as well. Fluency in a foreign language is necessary in some jobs. Although reporters need good word-processing skills, computer graphics and desktop publishing skills also are useful. Computerassisted reporting involves the use of computers to analyze data in search of a story. This technique and the interpretation of the re sults require strong math skills and familiarity with databases. Knowledge of news photography also is valuable for entry-level positions, which sometimes combine reporter/camera operator or reporter/photographer responsibilities. Experience in a part-time or summer job or an internship with a news organization is very important. (Most newspapers, magazines, and broadcast news organizations offer reporting and editing intern ships.) Work on high school and college newspapers, at broadcast ing stations, or on community papers or U.S. Armed Forces publications also helps. In addition, journalism scholarships, fel lowships, and assistantships awarded to college journalism students by universities, newspapers, foundations, and professional organi zations are helpful. Experience as a stringer or freelancer, a part time reporter who is paid only for stories printed, also is advantageous. Reporters should be dedicated to providing accurate and impar tial news. Accuracy is important, both to serve the public and be cause untrue or libelous statements can lead to costly lawsuits. A nose for news, persistence, initiative, poise, resourcefulness, a good memory, and physical stamina are important, as well as the emo tional stability to deal with pressing deadlines, irregular hours, and dangerous assignments. Broadcast reporters and news analysts must be comfortable on camera. All reporters must be at ease in unfa miliar places and with a variety of people. Positions involving onair work require a pleasant voice and appearance. Most reporters start at small publications or broadcast stations as general assignment reporters or copy editors. Large publications and stations hire few recent graduates; as a rule, they require new reporters to have several years of experience. Beginning reporters cover court proceedings and civic and club meetings, summarize speeches, and write obituaries. With experi ence, they report more difficult assignments, cover an assigned beat, or specialize in a particular field. Some news analysts and reporters can advance by moving to large newspapers or stations. A few experienced reporters become col umnists, correspondents, writers, announcers, or public relations spe cialists. Others become editors in print journalism or program managers in broadcast journalism, who supervise reporters. Some eventually become broadcasting or publications industry managers. Job Outlook Employment of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010—the result of mergers, consolidations, and closures of newspapers; decreased circulation; increased expenses; and a decline in advertising profits. Despite little change in overall employment, some job growth is expected in radio and television Professional and Related Occupations 139 stations, and even more rapid growth is expected in new media ar eas, such as online newspapers and magazines. Job openings also will result from the need to replace workers who leave these occu pations permanently. Some news analysts, reporters, and correspon dents find the work too stressful and hectic or do not like the lifestyle, and transfer to other occupations. Competition will continue to be keen for jobs on large metro politan newspapers and broadcast stations and on national maga zines. Talented writers who can handle highly specialized scientific or technical subjects have an advantage. Also, newspapers increas ingly are hiring stringers and freelancers. Most entry-level openings arise on small publications, as report ers and correspondents become editors or reporters on larger publi cations or leave the field. Small town and suburban newspapers will continue to offer most opportunities for persons seeking to enter this field. Journalism graduates have the background for work in closely related fields such as advertising and public relations, and many take jobs in these fields. Other graduates accept sales, managerial, or other nonmedia positions, because of the difficulty in finding media jobs. The newspaper and broadcasting industries are sensitive to eco nomic ups and downs, because these industries depend on advertis ing revenue. During recessions, few new reporters are hired, and some reporters lose their jobs. Earnings Salaries for news analysts, reporters, and correspondents vary widely but, in general, are relatively high, except at small stations and small publications, where salaries often are very low. Median annual earn ings of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents were $29,110 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,320 and $45,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,540, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,300. Median annual earn ings of news analysts, reporters, and correspondents were $33,550 in radio and television broadcasting and $26,900 in newspapers in General information on the broadcasting industry is available from: > National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org Career information, including pamphlets entitled Newspaper Ca reer Guide and Newspaper: What’s In It For Mel, is available from: > Newspaper Association ofAmerica, 1921 Gallows Rd., Suite 600, Vienna, VA 22182. Internet: http://www.naa.org Information on careers in journalism, colleges and universities offering degree programs in journalism or communications, and jour nalism scholarships and internships may be obtained from: >- Dow Jones Newspaper Fund, Inc., RO. Box 300, Princeton, NJ 08543 0300. Internet: http://www.dowjones.com Information on union wage rates for newspaper and magazine reporters is available from: >• Newspaper Guild, Research and Information Department, 501 3rd St. NW., Suite 250, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.newsguild.org For a list of schools with accredited programs in journalism, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: >- Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communi cations, University of Kansas School of Journalism and Mass Communi cations, Stauffer-Flint Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045. Internet: http://www.ukans.edu/~acejmc Information on newspaper careers and community newspapers is available from: > National Newspaper Association, 1010 North Glebe Rd., Suite 450, Ar lington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nnafoundation.org Names and locations of newspapers and a list of schools and departments of journalism are published in the Editor and Pub lisher International Year Book, available in most public libraries and newspaper offices. Photographers (0*NET 27-4021.01, 27-4021.02) 2000. According to a 1999 survey conducted by the National Associa tion of Broadcasters and the Broadcast Cable Financial Manage ment Association, the annual average salary, including bonuses, was $83,400 for weekday anchors and $44,200 for those working on weekends. Television news reporters earned on average $33,700. Weekday sportscasters typically earned $68,900, while weekend sportscasters earned $37,200. Weathercasters averaged $68,500 during the week and $36,500 on weekends. According to the 2001 survey, the annual average salary, including bonuses, was $55,100 for radio news reporters and $53,300 for sportscasters in radio broad casting. Related Occupations News analysts, reporters, and correspondents must write clearly and effectively to succeed in their profession. Others for whom good writing ability is essential include writers and editors, and public relations specialists. Many news analysts, reporters, and correspon dents also must communicate information orally. Others for whom oral communication skills are vital are announcers, interpreters and translators, sales and related occupations, and teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in broadcast news and related scholar ships and internships, contact: ► Radio and Television News Directors Foundation, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 615, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.rtndf.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Significant Points • • • Technical expertise, a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity are essential. Only the most skilled and talented who have good business sense maintain long-term careers. More than half of all photographers are self-employed, a much higher proportion than the average for all occupations. Nature of the Work Photographers produce and preserve images that paint a picture, tell a story, or record an event. To create commercial quality photo graphs, photographers need both technical expertise and creativity. Producing a successful picture requires choosing and presenting a subject to achieve a particular effect and selecting the appropriate equipment. For example, photographers may enhance the subject’s appearance with lighting or draw attention to a particular aspect of the subject by blurring the background. Today, many cameras adjust settings like shutter speed and aper ture automatically. They also let the photographer adjust these set tings manually, allowing greater creative and technical control over the picture-taking process. In addition to automatic and manual cameras, photographers use an array of film, lenses, and equip ment—from filters, tripods, and flash attachments to specially con structed lighting equipment. 140 Occupational Outlook Handbook Photographers use either a traditional camera or a newer digital camera that electronically records images. A traditional camera records images on silver halide film that is developed into prints. Some photographers send their film to laboratories for processing. Color film requires expensive equipment and exacting conditions for correct processing and printing. (See the statement on photo graphic process workers and processing machine operators else where in the Handbook.) Other photographers, especially those who use black and white film or require special effects, prefer to develop and print their own photographs. Photographers who do their own film developing must have the technical skill to operate a fully equipped darkroom or the appropriate computer software to process prints digitally. Recent advances in electronic technology now make it possible for the professional photographer to develop and scan standard 35mm or other types of film, and use flatbed scanners and photofinishing laboratories to produce computer-readable, digital images from film. After converting the film to a digital image, photographers can edit and electronically transmit images, making it easier and faster to shoot, develop, and transmit pictures from remote locations. Using computers and specialized software, photographers also can manipulate and enhance the scanned or digital image to create a desired effect. Images can be stored on compact disk (CD) the same way as music. Digital technology also allows the production of larger, more colorful, and more accurate prints or images for use in advertising, photographic art, and scientific research. Some pho tographers use this technology to create electronic portfolios, as well. Because much photography now involves the use of com puter technology, photographers must have hands-on knowledge of computer editing software. Some photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, commer cial and industrial, scientific, news, or fine arts photography. Por trait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Some specialize in weddings or school photographs and may work on location. Portrait photog raphers who are business owners arrange for advertising, schedule appointments, set and adjust equipment, develop and retouch nega tives, and mount and frame pictures. They also purchase supplies, keep records, bill customers, and may hire and train employees. Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of vari ous subjects, such as buildings, models, merchandise, artifacts, and landscapes. These photographs are used in a variety of media, in cluding books, reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial photographers often take pictures of equipment, machinery, prod ucts, workers, and company officials. The pictures then are used for analyzing engineering projects, publicity, or as records of equip ment development or deployment, such as placement of an offshore rig. This photography frequently is done on location. Scientific photographers photograph a variety of subjects to illus trate or record scientific or medical data or phenomena, using knowledge of scientific procedures. They typically possess addi tional knowledge in areas such as engineering, medicine, biology, or chemistry. News photographers, also called photojournalists, photograph newsworthy people; places; and sporting, political, and community events for newspapers, journals, magazines, or television. Some news photographers are salaried staff; others are self-employed and are known as freelance photographers. Fine arts photographers sell their photographs as fine artwork. In addition to technical proficiency, fine arts photographers need artistic talent and creativity. or freelance, photographers may license the use Digitized forSelf-employed, FRASER of their photographs through stock photo agencies or contract with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis I ' : :‘,;T !|j Photographers must possess technical expertise, a good eye, and imagination. clients or agencies to provide photographs as necessary. Stock agen cies grant magazines and other customers the right to purchase the use of photographs, and, in turn, pay the photographer on a com mission basis. Stock photo agencies require an application from the photographer and a sizable portfolio. Once accepted, a large number of new submissions usually are required from the photog rapher each year. Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers vary considerably. Photog raphers employed in government and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. On the other hand, news photogra phers often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Many photographers work part time or variable schedules. Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios but also may travel to take photographs at the client’s location, such as a school, a company office, or a private home. News and commer cial photographers frequently travel locally, stay overnight on as signments, or travel to distant places for long periods. Some photographers work in uncomfortable, or even dangerous surroundings, especially news photographers covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts. Many photogra phers must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. News photographers often work under strict deadlines. Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of ex pression, and flexible scheduling. However, income can be uncer tain and the continuous, time-consuming search for new clients can be stressful. Some self-employed photographers hire assistants who help seek out new business. Employment Photographers held about 131,000 jobs in 2000. More than half were self-employed, a much higher proportion than the average for all occupations. Some self-employed photographers contracted with advertising agencies, magazines, or others to do individual projects at a predetermined fee, while others operated portrait studios or provided photographs to stock photo agencies. Most salaried photographers worked in portrait or commercial photography studios. Newspapers, magazines, television broadcast ers, advertising agencies, and government agencies employed most of the others. Most photographers worked in metropolitan areas. Professional and Related Occupations 141 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of photog raphy. Entry-level positions in photojournalism, industrial, or sci entific photography generally require a college degree in journalism or photography. Freelance and portrait photographers need techni cal proficiency, whether gained through a degree program, voca tional training, or extensive work experience. Many universities, community and junior colleges, vocationaltechnical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer pho tography courses. Basic courses in photography cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition. Individuals interested in photography should subscribe to pho tographic newsletters and magazines, join camera clubs, and seek summer or part-time employment in camera stores, newspapers, or photo studios. Photographers may start out as assistants to experienced pho tographers. Assistants learn to mix chemicals, develop film, print photographs, and the other skills necessary to run a portrait or com mercial photography business. Freelance photographers also should develop an individual style of photography in order to differentiate themselves from the competition. Some photographers enter the field by submitting unsolicited photographs to magazines and art directors at advertising agencies. For freelance photographers, a good portfolio of their work is critical. Photographers need good eyesight, artistic ability, and hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail-oriented. Photographers should be able to work well with others, as they fre quently deal with clients, graphic designers, or advertising and pub lishing specialists. Increasingly, photographers need to know computer software programs and applications that allow them to prepare and edit images. Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Commercial and fine arts photographers must be imaginative and original. News photographers not only must be good with a camera, but also must understand the story behind an event so their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in recognizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to cap ture it. Photographers who operate their own businesses, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to prepare a business plan; submit bids; write contracts; hire models, if needed; get permission to shoot on locations that nor mally are not open to the public; obtain releases to use photographs of people; license and price photographs; secure copyright protec tion for their work; and keep financial records. After several years of experience, magazine and news photog raphers may advance to photography or picture editor positions. Some photographers teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Job Outlook Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as commercial and news photographers usu ally is much greater than the number of openings. Those who suc ceed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies, and adept at operating a business. Related work experience, job-related training, or some unique skill or talent—such as a background in computers or electronics—also Digitizedare for FRASER beneficial to prospective photographers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment of photographers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. And, as the number of electronic versions of magazines, journals, and newspapers grows on the Internet, photographers will be needed to provide digital images. Employment growth of photographers will be constrained some what by the widespread use of digital photography. Besides in creasing photographers’ productivity, improvements in digital technology will allow individual consumers and businesses to pro duce, store, and access photographic images on their own. Declines in the newspaper industry will reduce demand for photographers to provide still images for print. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried photographers were $22,300 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,790 and $33,020. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,760, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,890. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried photographers were as follows: Radio and television broadcasting..................................................... Mailing, reproduction, and stenographic services......................... Newspapers............................................................................................ Photographic studios, portrait............................................................ $29,890 29,610 28,660 19,290 Salaried photographers—more of whom work full time—tend to earn more than those who are self-employed. Because most freelance and portrait photographers purchase their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining cam eras and accessories. Unlike news and commercial photographers, few fine arts photographers are successful enough to support them selves solely through their art. Related Occupations Other occupations requiring artistic talent include architects, except landscape and naval; artists and related workers; designers; and tele vision, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors. Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: ► Professional Photographers ofAmerica, Inc., 229 Peachtree St. NE., Suite 2200, Atlanta, GA30303. Internet: http://www.ppa.com ► National Press Photographers Association, Inc., 3200 Croasdaile Dr., Suite 306, Durham, NC 27705. Internet: http://www.nppa.org/default.cfm Public Relations Specialists (0*NET 27-3031.00) Significant Points • Although employment is projected to increase much faster than the average, keen competition is expected for entry-level jobs. • Opportunities should be best for college graduates who combine a degree in public relations or other communications-related fields with a public relations internship or other related work experience. The ability to write and speak well is essential. • 142 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work An organization’s reputation, profitability, and even its continued existence can depend on the degree to which its targeted publics support its goals and policies. Public relations specialists serve as advocates for businesses, nonprofit associations, universities, hos pitals, and other organizations, and build and maintain positive re lationships with the public. As managers recognize the growing importance of good public relations to the success of their organi zations, they increasingly rely on public relations specialists for advice on the strategy and policy of such programs. Public relations specialists handle organizational functions such as media, community, consumer, and governmental relations; po litical campaigns; interest-group representation; conflict mediation; or employee and investor relations. However, public relations is not only “telling the organization’s story.” Understanding the atti tudes and concerns of consumers, employees, and various other groups also is a vital part of the job. To improve communications, public relations specialists establish and maintain cooperative rela tionships with representatives of community, consumer, employee, and public interest groups and with representatives from print and broadcast journalism. Informing the general public, interest groups, and stockholders of an organization’s policies, activities, and accomplishments is an im portant part of a public relations specialist’s job. The work also in volves keeping management aware of public attitudes and concerns of the many groups and organizations with which they must deal. Public relations specialists prepare press releases and contact people in the media who might print or broadcast their material. Many radio or television special reports, newspaper stories, and magazine articles start at the desks of public relations specialists. Sometimes the subject is an organization and its policies towards its employees or its role in the community. Often the subject is a public issue, such as health, energy, or the environment. Public relations specialists also arrange and conduct programs to keep up contact between organization representatives and the public. For example, they set up speaking engagements and often prepare speeches for company officials. These specialists repre sent employers at community projects; make film, slide, or other visual presentations at meetings and school assemblies; and plan conventions. In addition, they are responsible for preparing annual reports and writing proposals for various projects. In government, public relations specialists—who may be called press secretaries, information officers, public affairs specialists, or communications specialists—keep the public informed about the activities of government agencies and officials. For example, pub lic affairs specialists in the Department of State keep the public informed of travel advisories and of U.S. positions on foreign is sues. A press secretary for a member of Congress keeps constitu ents aware of the representative’s accomplishments. In large organizations, the key public relations executive, who often is a vice president, may develop overall plans and policies with other executives. In addition, public relations departments employ public relations specialists to write, research, prepare mate rials, maintain contacts, and respond to inquiries. People who handle publicity for an individual or who direct pub lic relations for a small organization may deal with all aspects of the job. They contact people, plan and research, and prepare mate rial for distribution. They also may handle advertising or sales pro motion work to support marketing. Working Conditions Some public relations specialists work a standard 35- to 40-hour week, but unpaid overtime is common. Occasionally, they must be at the job or on call around the clock, especially if there is an emer gency or crisis. Public relations offices are busy places; work sched ules can be irregular and frequently interrupted. Schedules often have to be rearranged so that workers can meet deadlines, deliver speeches, attend meetings and community activities, or travel. ? Public relations specialists maintain contact with management and Digitizedpublic for FRASER organizations and groups. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Public relations specialists held about 137,000 jobs in 2000. About 6 out of 10 salaried public relations specialists worked in services industries—management and public relations firms, membership organizations, educational institutions, healthcare organizations, social service agencies, and advertising agencies, for example. Oth ers worked for communications firms, financial institutions, and government agencies. About 8,600 public relations specialists were self-employed. Public relations specialists are concentrated in large cities, where press services and other communications facilities are readily avail able and many businesses and trade associations have their head quarters. Many public relations consulting firms, for example, arc in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC. There is a trend, however, for public relations jobs to be dispersed through out the Nation, closer to clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no defined standards for entry into a public relations career. A college degree combined with public relations experi ence, usually gained through an internship, is considered excellent preparation for public relations work; in fact, internships are be coming vital to obtaining employment. The ability to write and speak well is essential. Many entry-level public relations special ists have a college major in public relations, journalism, advertis ing, or communications. Some firms seek college graduates who have worked in electronic or print journalism. Other employers seek applicants with demonstrated communications skills and train ing or experience in a field related to the firm’s business—science, engineering, sales, or finance, for example. Many colleges and universities offer bachelor’s and postsecondary degrees in public relations, usually in a journalism or communications department. In addition, many other colleges offer at least one course in this field. A common public relations sequence includes courses in public relations principles and tech niques; public relations management and administration, including organizational development; writing, emphasizing news releases, proposals, annual reports, scripts, speeches, and related items; vi sual communications, including desktop publishing and computer graphics; and research, emphasizing social science research and survey design and implementation. Courses in advertising, jour nalism, business administration, finance, political science, psychol ogy, sociology, and creative writing also are helpful. Specialties are offered in public relations for business, government, and non profit organizations. Many colleges help students gain part-time internships in public relations that provide valuable experience and training. The Armed Forces also can be an excellent place to gain training and experi ence. Membership in local chapters of the Public Relations Stu dent Society ofAmerica (affiliated with the Public Relations Society of America) or the International Association of Business Commu nicators provides an opportunity for students to exchange views with public relations specialists and to make professional contacts that may help them find a job in the field. A portfolio of published articles, television or radio programs, slide presentations, and other work is an asset in finding a job. Writing for a school publication or television or radio station provides valuable experience and ma terial for one’s portfolio. Creativity, initiative, good judgment, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply are essential. Decision-making, prob lem-solving, and research skills also are important. People who choose public relations as a career need an outgoing personality, self-confidence, an understanding of human psychol ogy, and an enthusiasm for motivating people. They should be com petitive, yet flexible, and able to function as part of a team. Some organizations, particularly those with large public rela tions staffs, have formal training programs for new employees. In smaller organizations, new employees work under the guidance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of ma terial about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and assemble information for speeches and pamphlets. They also may answer calls from the press and public, work on invitation lists and details for press confer ences, or escort visitors and clients. After gaining experience, they write news releases, speeches, and articles for publication or design and carry out public relations programs. Public relations special ists in smaller firms usually get all-around experience, whereas those in larger firms tend to be more specialized. The Public Relations Society of America accredits public rela tions specialists who have at least 5 years of experience in the field and have passed a comprehensive 6-hour examination (5 hours writ ten, 1 hour oral). The International Association of Business Com municators also has an accreditation program for professionals in the communications field, including public relations specialists. Digitized Those for FRASER who meet all the requirements of the program earn the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 143 Accredited Business Communicator designation. Candidates must have at least 5 years of experience in a communication field and pass a written and oral examination. They also must submit a port folio of work samples demonstrating involvement in a range of com munication projects and a thorough understanding of communication planning. Employers may consider professional recognition through accreditation a sign of competence in this field, which could be especially helpful in a competitive job market. Promotion to supervisory jobs may come as public relations spe cialists show that they can handle more demanding assignments. In public relations firms, a beginner may be hired as a research assis tant or account assistant and be promoted to account executive, ac count supervisor, vice president, and, eventually, senior vice president. A similar career path is followed in corporate public relations, although the titles may differ. Some experienced public relations specialists start their own consulting firms. (For more information on public relations managers, see the Handbook state ment on advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers.) Job Outlook Keen competition will likely continue for entry-level public rela tions jobs as the number of qualified applicants is expected to ex ceed the number ofjob openings. Many people are attracted to this profession due to the high-profile nature of the work and the rela tive ease of entry. Opportunities should be best for college gradu ates who combine a degree in journalism, public relations, advertising, or another communications-related field with a public relations internship or other related work experience. Applicants without the appropriate educational background or work experi ence will face the toughest obstacles. Employment of public relations specialists is expected to in crease much faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. The need for good public relations in an increasingly com petitive business environment should spur demand for public rela tions specialists in organizations of all sizes. Employment in public relations firms should grow as firms hire contractors to provide public relations services rather than support full-time staff. In ad dition to employment growth, job opportunities should result from the need to replace public relations specialists who take other jobs or who leave the occupation altogether. Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried public relations specialists were $39,580 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,610 and $53,620; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,780, and the top 10 percent earned more than $70,480. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of public rela tions specialists in 2000 were: Management and public relations...................................................... $43,690 Local government..................................................................................... 40,760 State government................................................................................... 39,560 Colleges and universities........................................................................ 35,080 According to a joint survey conducted by the International As sociation of Business Communicators and the Public Relations Society of America, the median annual income for a public rela tions specialist was $39,000 in 1999. Related Occupations Public relations specialists create favorable attitudes among vari ous organizations, special interest groups, and the public through effective communication. Other workers with similar jobs include advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales 144 Occupational Outlook Handbook managers; demonstrators, product promoters, and models; news ana lysts, reporters, and correspondents; lawyers; and police and detec tives involved in community relations. fig* Sources of Additional Information A comprehensive directory of schools offering degree programs, a sequence of study in public relations, a brochure on careers in pub lic relations, and a $5 brochure entitled, Where Shall I go to Study Advertising and Public Relations?, are available from: iiJ" . , >- Public Relations Society of America, Inc., 33 Irving Place, New York, NY 10003-2376. Internet: http://www.prsa.org For information on accreditation for public relations specialists, contact: >■ International Association of Business Communicators, One Hallidie Plaza, Suite 600, San Francisco, CA 94102. Internet: http://www.iabc.com Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors * llmll Film and video editors use sophisticated digital equipment to edit images and mix sound. (0*NET 27-4031.00, 27-4032.00) • • • Significant Points Technical expertise, a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity are essential. Keen competition for job openings is expected, because many talented peopled are attracted to the field. About one-fourth of camera operators are selfemployed. Nature of the Work Television, video, and motion picture camera operators produce images that tell a story, inform or entertain an audience, or record an event. Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture, cable, and broadcast television industries. Some camera operators do their own editing. Making commercial quality movies and video programs requires technical expertise and creativity. Producing successful images re quires choosing and presenting interesting material, selecting ap propriate equipment, and applying a good eye and steady hand to assure smooth natural movement of the camera. Camera operators use television, video, or motion picture cam eras to shoot a wide range of subjects, including television series, studio programs, news and sporting events, music videos, motion pictures, documentaries, and training sessions. Some film or vid eotape private ceremonies and special events. Those who record images on videotape are often called videographers. Many are employed by independent television stations, local affiliates, large cable and television networks, or smaller, independent production companies. Studio camera operators work in a broadcast studio and usually videotape their subjects from a fixed position. News camera operators, also called electronic news gathering (ENG) operators, work as part of a reporting team, following newsworthy events as they unfold. To capture live events, they must anticipate the action and act quickly. ENG operators may need to edit raw footage on the spot for relay to a television affiliate for broadcast. Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use mo tion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and com mercials. Those who film motion pictures are also known as cinematographers. Some specialize in filming cartoons or special Digitizedeffects. for FRASER They may be an integral part of the action, using cameras https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in any of several different camera mounts. For example, the cam era operator can be stationary and shoot whatever passes in front of the lens, or the camera can be mounted on a track, with the camera operator responsible for shooting the scene from different angles or directions. Other camera operators sit on cranes and follow the action, while crane operators move them into position. Steadicam operators mount a harness and carry the camera on their shoulders to provide a more solid picture while they move about the action. Camera operators who work in the entertainment field often meet with directors, actors, editors, and camera assistants to discuss ways of filming, editing, and improving scenes. Working Conditions Working conditions for camera operators and editors vary consid erably. Those employed in government, television and cable net works, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. On the other hand, ENG operators often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Camera operators and editors working in motion picture production also may work long, irregular hours. ENG operators and those who cover major events, such as con ventions or sporting events, frequently travel locally, stay overnight on assignments, or travel to distant places for longer periods. Cam era operators filming television programs or motion pictures may travel to film on location. Some camera operators work in uncomfortable, or even danger ous surroundings, especially ENG operators covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts. Many camera operators must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. ENG operators often work under strict deadlines. Employment Television, video, and motion picture camera operators held about 27,000 jobs in 2000; and film and video editors held about 16,000. One-fourth of camera operators were self-employed. Some selfemployed camera operators contracted with television networks, documentary or independent filmmakers, advertising agencies, or trade show or convention sponsors to do individual projects for a predetermined fee, often at a daily rate. Most salaried camera operators were employed by television broadcasting stations or motion picture studios. Half of the salaried Professional and Related Occupations 145 film and video editors worked for motion picture studios. Most camera operators and editors worked in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of camera operation. Camera operators and editors usually acquire their skills through on-the-job training or formal postsecondary training at vo cational schools, colleges, universities, or photographic institutes. Formal education may be required for some positions. Many universities, community and junior colleges, vocationaltechnical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer courses in camera operation and videography. Basic courses cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Individuals interested in camera operations should subscribe to videographic newsletters and magazines, join clubs, and seek sum mer or part-time employment in cable and television networks, motion picture studios, or camera and video stores. Camera operators in entry-level jobs learn to set up lights, cam eras, and other equipment. They may receive routine assignments requiring camera adjustments or decisions on what subject matter to capture. Camera operators in the film and television industries usually are hired for a project based on recommendations from in dividuals such as producers, directors of photography, and camera assistants from previous projects, or through interviews with the producer. ENG and studio camera operators who work for televi sion affiliates usually start in small markets to gain experience. Camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and handeye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail-ori ented. Camera operators also should have good communication skills, and, if needed, the ability to hold a camera by hand for ex tended periods. Camera operators who operate their own businesses, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to submit bids; write contracts; get permission to shoot on lo cations that normally are not open to the public; obtain releases to use film or tape of people; price their services; secure copyright protection for their work; and keep financial records. With increased experience, operators may advance to more de manding assignments or positions with larger or network television stations. Advancement for ENG operators may mean moving to larger media markets. Other camera operators and editors may be come directors of photography for movie studios, advertising agen cies, or television programs. Some teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities. Job Outlook Camera operators and editors can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The num ber of individuals interested in positions as videographers and movie camera operators usually is much greater than the number of open ings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative, highly motivated, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies, and adept at operating a business. Related work ex perience or job-related training also are beneficial to prospective camera operators. Employment of camera operators and editors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Rapid expansion of the entertainment market, especially motion picture production and distribution, will spur growth of camera operators. In addition, computer and Internet services provide new outlets for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis interactive productions. Camera operators will be needed to film made-for-the-Intemet broadcasts such as live music videos, digital movies, sports, and general information or entertainment program ming. These images can be delivered directly into the home either on compact discs or over the Internet. Modest growth also is ex pected in radio and television broadcasting. Earnings Median annual earnings for television, video, and motion picture cam era operators were $27,870 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,230 and $44,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,130, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,690. Median annual earnings were $31,560 in motion picture produc tion and services and $23,470 in radio and television broadcasting. Median annual earnings for film and video editors were $34,160 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,800 and $52,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,280. Median annual earn ings were $36,770 in motion picture production and services, the industry employing the largest numbers of film and video editors. Many camera operators who work in film or video are freelancers; their earnings tend to fluctuate each year. Because most freelance camera operators purchase their own equipment, they incur consid erable expense acquiring and maintaining cameras and accessories. Related Occupations Related arts and media occupations include artists and related work ers, broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio opera tors, designers, and photographers. Sources of Additional Information Information about career and employment opportunities for camera operators and film and video editors is available from local offices of State employment service agencies, local offices of the relevant trade unions, and local television and film production companies who employ these workers. Writers and Editors (0*NET 27-3041.00, 27-3042.00, 27-3043.01, 27-3043.02, 27-3043.04) Significant Points • Most jobs require a college degree either in the liberal arts—communications, journalism, and English are preferred—or a technical subject for technical writing positions. • Competition is expected to be less for lower paying, entry-level jobs at small daily and weekly newspapers, trade publications, and radio and television broadcasting stations in small markets. • Persons who fail to gain better paying jobs or earn enough as independent writers usually are able to transfer readily to communications-related jobs in other occupations. Nature of the Work Writers and editors communicate through the written word. Writ ers and editors generally fall into one of three categories. Writers and authors develop original fiction and nonfiction for books, maga zines and trade journals, newspapers, online publications, company 146 Occupational Outlook Handbook newsletters, radio and television broadcasts, motion pictures, and advertisements. Technical writers develop scientific or technical materials, such as scientific and medical reports, equipment manu als, appendices, or operating and maintenance instructions. They also may assist in layout work. Editors select and prepare material for publication or broadcast and review and prepare a writer’s work for publication or dissemination. . Nonfiction writers either select a topic or are assigned one, of ten by an editor or publisher. Then, they gather information through personal observation, library and Internet research, and interviews. Writers select the material they want to use, organize it, and use the written word to express ideas and convey information. Writers also revise or rewrite sections, searching for the best organization or the right phrasing. Reporters and correspondents—including newswriters, columnists, and editorial writers—are described else where in the Handbook. Creative writers, poets, and lyricists, including novelists, play wrights, and screenwriters, create original works—such as prose, poems, plays, and song lyrics—for publication or performance. Some works may be commissioned (at the request of a sponsor); others may be written for hire (based on completion of a draft or an outline). Copy writers prepare advertising copy for use by publica tion or broadcast media, or to promote the sale of goods and ser vices. Newsletter writers produce information for distribution to association members, corporate employees, organizational clients, or the public. Writers and authors also construct crossword puzzles and prepare speeches. Technical writers put scientific and technical information into easily understandable language. They prepare scientific and tech nical reports, operating and maintenance manuals, catalogs, parts lists, assembly instructions, sales promotion materials, and project proposals. They also plan and edit technical reports and oversee preparation of illustrations, photographs, diagrams, and charts. Science and medical writers prepare a range of formal documents presenting detailed information on the physical or medical sciences. They impart research findings for scientific or medical professions, organize information for advertising or public relations needs, and interpret data and other information for a general readership. Many writers prepare material directly for the Internet. For ex ample, they may write for electronic newspapers or magazines, cre ate short fiction, or produce technical documentation only available online. Also, they may write the text of Web sites. These writers should be knowledgeable about graphic design, page layout and desktop publishing software. Additionally, they should be familiar with interactive technologies of the Web so they can blend text, graphics, and sound together. Freelance writers sell their work to publishers, publication enter prises, manufacturing firms, public relations departments, or adver tising agencies. Sometimes, they contract with publishers to write a book or article. Others may be hired on a job-basis to complete spe cific assignments such as writing about a new product or technique. Editors review, rewrite, and edit the work of writers. They may also do original writing. An editor’s responsibilities vary depend ing on the employer and type and level of editorial position held. In the publishing industry, an editor’s primary duties are to plan the contents of books, technical journals, trade magazines, and other general interest publications. Editors decide what material will appeal to readers, review and edit drafts of books and articles, offer comments to improve the work, and suggest possible titles. Addi tionally, they oversee the production of the publications. Major newspapers and newsmagazines usually employ several types of editors. The executive editor oversees assistant editors who have responsibility for particular subjects, such as local news, inter Digitizednational for FRASER news, feature stories, or sports. Executive editors generally https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis have the final say about what stories are published and how they are covered. The managing editor usually is responsible for the daily operation of the news department. Assignment editors determine which reporters will cover a given story. Copy editors mostly re view and edit a reporter’s copy for accuracy, content, grammar, and style. In smaller organizations, like small daily or weekly newspapers or membership newsletter departments, a single editor may do ev erything or share responsibility with only a few other people. Ex ecutive and managing editors typically hire writers, reporters, or other employees. They also plan budgets and negotiate contracts with freelance writers, sometimes called “stringers” in the news industry. In broadcasting companies, program directors have simi lar responsibilities. Editors and program directors often have assistants. Many as sistants, such as copy editors or production assistants, hold entrylevel jobs. They review copy for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling, and check copy for readability, style, and agreement with editorial policy. They suggest revisions, such as changing words or rearranging sentences to improve clarity or accuracy. They also do research for writers and verify facts, dates, and statistics. Pro duction assistants arrange page layouts of articles, photographs, and advertising; compose headlines; and prepare copy for printing. Publication assistants who work for publishing houses may read and evaluate manuscripts submitted by freelance writers, proofread printers’ galleys, or answer letters about published material. Pro duction assistants on small papers or in radio stations compile ar ticles available from wire services or the Internet, answer phones, and make photocopies. Most writers and editors use personal computers or word pro cessors. Many use desktop or electronic publishing systems, scan ners, and other electronic communications equipment. Working Conditions Some writers and editors work in comfortable, private offices; oth ers work in noisy rooms filled with the sound of keyboards and computer printers as well as the voices of other writers tracking jfcsfci Most writers and editors use computers and other communications equipment to compose and transmit content. Professional and Related Occupations 147 down information over the telephone. The search for information sometimes requires travel to diverse workplaces, such as factories, offices, or laboratories, but many have to be content with telephone interviews, the library, and the Internet. For some writers, the typical workweek runs 35 to 40 hours. However, writers occasionally may work overtime to meet produc tion deadlines. Those who prepare morning or weekend publica tions and broadcasts work some nights and weekends. Freelance writers generally work more flexible hours, but their schedules must conform to the needs of the client. Deadlines and erratic work hours, often part of the daily routine for these jobs, may cause stress, fa tigue, or burnout. Changes in technology and electronic communications also af fect a writer’s work environment. For example, laptops allow writ ers to work from home or while on the road. Writers and editors who use computers for extended periods may experience back pain, eyestrain, or fatigue. Employment Writers and editors held about 305,000 jobs in 2000. About 126,000 jobs were for writers and authors; 57,000 were for technical writ ers; and 122,000 were for editors. Nearly one-fourth of jobs for writers and editors were salaried positions with newspapers, maga zines, and book publishers. Substantial numbers, mostly technical writers, work for computer software firms. Other salaried writers and editors work in educational facilities, advertising agencies, ra dio and television broadcasting studios, public relations firms, and business and nonprofit organizations, such as professional associa tions, labor unions, and religious organizations. Some develop pub lications and technical materials for government agencies or write for motion picture companies. Jobs with major book publishers, magazines, broadcasting com panies, advertising agencies, and public relations firms are concen trated in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. Jobs with newspapers, business and profes sional journals, and technical and trade magazines are more widely dispersed throughout the country. Thousands of other individuals work as freelance writers, earn ing some income from their articles, books, and less commonly, television and movie scripts. Most support themselves with income derived from other sources. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree generally is required for a position as a writer or editor. Although some employers look for a broad liberal arts back ground, most prefer to hire people with degrees in communications, journalism, or English. For those who specialize in a particular area, such as fashion, business, or legal issues, additional background in the chosen field is expected. Knowledge of a second language is helpful for some positions. Technical writing requires a degree in, or some knowledge about, a specialized field—engineering, business, or one of the sciences, for example. In many cases, people with good writing skills can leam specialized knowledge on the job. Some transfer from jobs as technicians, scientists, or engineers. Others begin as research as sistants, or trainees in a technical information department, develop technical communication skills, and then assume writing duties. Writers and editors must be able to express ideas clearly and logically and should love to write. Creativity, curiosity, a broad range of knowledge, self-motivation, and perseverance also are valu able. Writers and editors must demonstrate good judgment and a strong sense of ethics in deciding what material to publish. Editors also need tact and the ability to guide and encourage others in their Digitized work. for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For some jobs, the ability to concentrate amid confusion and to work under pressure is essential. Familiarity with electronic pub lishing, graphics, and video production equipment increasingly is needed. Online newspapers and magazines require knowledge of computer software used to combine online text with graphics, au dio, video, and 3-D animation. High school and college newspapers, literary magazines, com munity newspapers, and radio and television stations all provide valuable, but sometimes unpaid, practical writing experience. Many magazines, newspapers, and broadcast stations have internships for students. Interns write short pieces, conduct research and inter views, and leam about the publishing or broadcasting business. In small firms, beginning writers and editors hired as assistants may actually begin writing or editing material right away. Opportu nities for advancement can be limited, however. In larger busi nesses, jobs usually are more formally structured. Beginners generally do research, factchecking, or copy editing. They take on full-scale writing or editing duties less rapidly than do the employ ees of small companies. Advancement often is more predictable, though, coming with the assignment of more important articles. Job Outlook Employment of writers and editors is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Em ployment of salaried writers and editors for newspapers, periodi cals, book publishers, and nonprofit organizations is expected to increase as demand grows for their publications. Magazines and other periodicals increasingly are developing market niches, appeal ing to readers with special interests. Also, online publications and services are growing in number and sophistication, spurring the demand for writers and editors. Businesses and organizations are developing newsletters and Internet websites and more companies are experimenting with publishing materials directly for the Internet. Advertising and public relations agencies, which also are growing, should be another source of new jobs. Demand for technical writ ers and writers with expertise in specialty areas, such as law, medi cine, or economics, is expected to increase because of the continuing expansion of scientific and technical information and the need to communicate it to others. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, many openings will occur as experienced workers retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are rela tively high in this occupation; many freelancers leave because they cannot earn enough money. Despite projections of fast employment growth and numerous replacement needs, the outlook for most writing and editing jobs is expected to be competitive. Many people with writing or journal ism training are attracted to the occupation. Opportunities should be best for technical writers and those with training in a specialized field. Rapid growth and change in the high technology and elec tronics industries result in a greater need for people to write users’ guides, instruction manuals, and training materials. Developments and discoveries in the law, science, and technology generate de mand for people to interpret technical information for a more gen eral audience. This work requires people who are not only technically skilled as writers, but also familiar with the subject area. Also, individuals with the technical skills for working on the Internet may have an advantage finding a job as a writer or editor. Opportunities for editing positions on small daily and weekly newspapers and in small radio and television stations, where the pay is low, should be better than those in larger media markets. Some small publications hire freelance copy editors as backup for staff editors or as additional help with special projects. Aspiring writers and editors benefit from academic preparation in another 148 Occupational Outlook Handbook discipline as well, either to qualify them as writers specializing in that discipline or as a career alternative if they are unable to get a the industries employing the largest numbers of editors were as job in writing. Computer and data processing services Earnings Median annual earnings for salaried writers and authors were $42,270 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,090 and $57,330. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $81,370. Median annual earnings were $26,470 in the newspaper industry. Median annual earnings for salaried technical writers were $47,790 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,280 and'$60,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,890, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $74,360. Median annual earnings in computer and data processing services were $51,220. . Median annual earnings for salaried editors were $39,370 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,880 and $54,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $73,330. Median annual earnings in follows: Periodicals.................................................. Newspapers............................................... Books........................................................... $45,800 42.560 37.560 37,550 Related Occupations Writers and editors communicate ideas and information. Other com munications occupations include announcers; interpreters and trans lators; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; and public relations specialists. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in technical writing, contact: ► Society for Technical Communication, Inc., 901N. Stuart St., Suite 904, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.stc.org For information on union wage rates for newspaper and maga zine editors, contact: xhe Newspaper Guild-CWA, Research and Information Department, 501 Third St. NW., Suite 250, Washington, DC 20001. Community and Social Services Occupations Clergy Nature of the Work Religious beliefs—such as Buddhist, Christian, Jewish, or Moslem—are significant influences in the lives of millions of Ameri cans, and prompt many to participate in organizations that reinforce their faith. Even within a religion many denominations may exist, with each group having unique traditions and responsibilities as signed to its clergy. For example, Christianity has more than 70 denominations, while Judaism has 4 major branches, as well as groups within each branch, with diverse customs. Clergy are religious and spiritual leaders, and teachers and inter preters of their traditions and faith. Most members of the clergy serve in a pulpit. They organize and lead regular religious services and officiate at special ceremonies, including confirmations, wed dings, and funerals. They may lead worshipers in prayer, administer the sacraments, deliver sermons, and read from sacred texts such as the Bible, Torah, or Koran. When not conducting worship services, clergy organize, supervise, and lead religious education programs for their congregations. Clergy visit the sick or bereaved to provide comfort and they counsel persons who are seeking religious or moral guidance or who are troubled by family or personal problems. They also may work to expand the membership of their congregations and solicit donations to support their activities and facilities. Clergy who serve large congregations often share their duties with associates or more junior clergy. Senior clergy may spend considerable time on administrative duties. They oversee the man agement of buildings, order supplies, contract for services and re pairs, and supervise the work of staff and volunteers. Associate or assistant members of the clergy sometimes specialize in an area of religious service, such as music, education, or youth counseling. Clergy also work with committees and officials, elected by the con gregation, who guide the management of the congregation’s finances and real estate. Other members of the clergy serve their religious communities Digitizedin forways FRASER that do not call for them to hold positions in congregations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some serve as chaplains in the U.S. Armed Forces and in hospitals, while others help to carry out the missions of religious community and social services agencies. A few members of the clergy serve in administrative or teaching posts in schools at all grade levels, in cluding seminaries. Working Conditions Members of the clergy typically work irregular hours and many put in longer than average work days. Those who do not work in con gregational settings may have more routine schedules. In 2000, almost one-fifth of full-time clergy worked 60 or more hours a week, more than 3 times that of all workers in professional occupations. Although many of their activities are sedentary and intellectual in nature, clergy frequently are called on short notice to visit the sick, comfort the dying and their families, and provide counseling to those in need. Involvement in community, administrative, and educa tional activities sometimes require clergy to work evenings, early mornings, holidays, and weekends. Because of their roles as leaders regarding spiritual and morality issues, some members of the clergy often feel obligated to address and resolve both societal problems and the personal problems of their congregants, which can lead to stress. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the clergy vary greatly. Simi lar to other professional occupations, about 3 out of 4 members of the clergy have completed at least a bachelor’s degree. Many de nominations require that clergy complete a bachelor’s degree and a graduate-level program of theological study; others will admit any one who has been “called to the vocation. Some faiths do not allow women to become clergy; however, those that do are experi encing increases in the numbers of women seeking ordination. Men and women considering careers in the clergy should consult their religious leaders to verify specific entrance requirements. Individuals considering a career in the clergy should realize they are choosing not only a career but also a way of life. In fact, most members of the clergy remain in their chosen vocation throughout Professional and Related Occupations 149 their lives; in 2000, almost 9 percent of clergy were 65 or older, compared with only 3 percent of workers in all occupations. Religious leaders must exude confidence and motivation, while remaining tolerant and able to listen to the needs of others. They should be capable of making difficult decisions, working under pres sure, and living up to the moral standards set by their faith and community. The following statements provide more detailed information on Protestant ministers, Rabbis, and Roman Catholic priests. Protestant Ministers (0*NET 21-2011.00) Significant Points • • Entry requirements vary greatly; many denominations require a bachelor’s degree followed by study at a theological seminary, whereas others have no formal educational requirements. Competition for positions will vary among denominations and geographic regions. Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congregations in worship services and administer the various rites of the church, such as baptism, con firmation, and Holy Communion. The services that ministers con duct differ among the numerous Protestant denominations and even among congregations within a denomination. In many denomina tions, ministers follow a traditional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible readings, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denominations, Bible readings by members of the congregation and individual testimonials consti tute a large part of the service. In addition to these duties, ministers officiate at weddings, funerals, and other occasions. Each Protestant denomination has its own hierarchical structure. Some ministers are responsible only to the congregation they serve, whereas others are assigned duties by elder ministers or by the bish ops of the diocese they serve. In some denominations, ministers are reassigned to a new pastorate by a central governing body or diocese every few years. i , ‘ . .,w The services that Protestant ministers conduct differ among the Digitizednumerous for FRASER denominations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Ministers who serve small congregations usually work person ally with parishioners. Those who serve large congregations may share specific aspects of the ministry with one or more associates or assistants, such as a minister of education or a minister of music. Employment There are many denominations; however, most ministers are em ployed by the five largest Protestant bodies—Baptist, Episcopalian, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian. Although most ministers are located in urban areas, many serve two or more smaller congregations in less densely populated areas. Some small churches increasingly employ part-time ministers who are seminary students, retired ministers, or holders of secular jobs. Unpaid pastors serve other churches with meager funds. In addi tion, some churches employ specially trained members of the laity to conduct nonliturgical functions. Training and Other Qualifications Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Many denominations require, or at least strongly prefer, a bachelor s degree followed by study at a theological seminary. How ever, some denominations have no formal educational requirements, and others ordain persons having various types of training from Bible colleges or liberal arts colleges. Many denominations now allow women to be ordained, but some do not. Persons considering a career in the ministry should first verify the ministerial require ments with their particular denomination. In general, each large denomination has its own schools of the ology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. How ever, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training cover ing a wide range of theological points of view. In 1999-2000, the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada accredited 206 Protestant denominational theological schools. These schools only admit students who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent from an accredited college. After college graduation, many denominations require a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools, or seminaries, for the degree of Master of Divinity. The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools con sists of four major categories: Biblical studies, history, theology, and practical theology. Courses of a practical nature include pasto ral care, preaching, religious education, and administration. Many accredited schools require that students work under the supervision of a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer Doctor of Ministry degrees to students who have completed additional study—usually 2 or more years—and served at least 2 years as a minister. Scholarships and loans often are available for students of theological institutions. Persons who have denominational qualifications for the minis try usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary or after serving a probationary pastoral period. Denominations that do not require seminary training ordain clergy at various appointed times. Some churches ordain ministers with only a high school education. Women and men entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Pastor positions in large metropolitan areas or in large congregations often require many years of experience. Job Outlook Job opportunities as Protestant ministers should be best for gradu ates of theological schools. The degree of competition for posi tions will vary among denominations and geographic regions. For 150 Occupational Outlook Handbook example, relatively favorable prospects are expected for ministers in evangelical churches. Competition, however, will be keen for responsible positions serving large, urban congregations. Minis ters willing to work part time or for small, rural congregations should have better opportunities. Many job openings will stem from the need to replace ministers who retire, die, or leave the ministry. For newly ordained Protestant ministers who are unable to find parish positions, employment alternatives include working in youth counseling, family relations, and social welfare organizations; teaching in religious educational institutions; or serving as chap lains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, depending on expe rience, denomination, size and wealth of the congregation, and geo graphic location. For example, some denominations tie a minister’s pay to the average pay of the congregation or the community. As a result, ministers serving larger, wealthier congregations often earned significantly higher salaries than those in smaller, less affluent areas or congregations. Ministers with modest salaries sometimes earn additional income from employment in secular occupations. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Theo logical schools can supply information on admission requirements. For information on special requirements for ordination, prospec tive ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body Rabbis serve as teachers of the principles and practice ofJudaism. and civic leaders in their communities to help find solutions to local problems. . Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. Rabbis Employment Although the majority of rabbis served congregations representing the four main branches of Judaism, many rabbis functioned in other settings. Some taught in Jewish studies programs at colleges and universities, whereas others served as chaplains in hospitals, col leges, or the military. Additionally, some rabbis held positions in one of the many social service or Jewish community agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in major metropolitan areas with large (0*NET 21-2011.00) Jewish populations. of their particular denomination. Significant Points • • Ordination usually requires completion of a college degree followed by a 4- or 5-year program at a Jewish seminary. Job opportunities for rabbis are expected in all four major branches of Judaism through the year 2010. Nature of the Work Rabbis serve Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstruction ist Jewish congregations. Regardless of the branch of Judaism they serve or their individual points of view, all rabbis preserve the sub stance of Jewish religious worship. Congregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, in the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, and in the use of instrumental music or a choir. Additionally, the format of the worship service and, there fore, the ritual that the rabbi uses may vary even among congrega tions belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis have greater independence in religious expression than other clergy, because of the absence of a formal religious hierarchy in Judaism. Instead, rabbis are responsible directly to the board of trustees of the congregation they serve. Those serving large con gregations may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations fre quently have associate or assistant rabbis, who often serve as edu cational directors. All rabbis play a role in community relations. For example, many rabbis serve on committees, alongside business https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must com plete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. Most seminaries require applicants to be college graduates. Jewish seminaries typically take 5 years for completion of stud ies, with an additional preparatory year required for students with out sufficient grounding in Hebrew and Jewish studies. In addition to the core academic program, training generally includes fieldwork and internships providing hands-on experience and, in some cases, study in Jerusalem. Seminary graduates are awarded the title Rabbi and earn the Master of Arts in Hebrew Letters degree. After more advanced study, some earn the Doctor of Hebrew Letters degree. In general, the curricula of Jewish theological seminaries pro vide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, the Torah, rabbinic literature, Jewish history, Hebrew, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. Students receive extensive practical training in dealing with social problems in the community. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious education, is increasingly stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in such fields as biblical and Talmudic research. All Jew ish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. Major rabbinical seminaries include the Jewish Theological Semi nary of America, which educates rabbis for the Conservative branch, the Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion, which educates rabbis for the Reform branch; and the Reconstructionist Professional and Related Occupations 151 Rabbinical College, which educates rabbis in the newest branch of Judaism. Seminaries educate and ordain Orthodox rabbis. Although the number of Orthodox seminaries is relatively high, the number of students attending each seminary is low. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and the Beth Medrash Govoha Seminary are representative Orthodox seminaries. In all cases, rabbinic training is rigorous. When students have become sufficiently learned in the Torah, the Bible, and other religious texts, they may be ordained with the approval of an authorized rabbi, acting either independently or as a representative of a rabbinical seminary. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as spiritual leaders of small congregations, assistants to experienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Foundations on college campuses, teachers in educational insti tutions, or chaplains in the U.S. Armed Forces. As a rule, experi enced rabbis fill the pulpits of large, well-established Jewish congregations. Job Outlook Job opportunities for rabbis are expected in all four major branches of Judaism through the year 2010. Rabbis willing to work in small, underserved communities should have the best prospects. Graduates of Orthodox seminaries who seek pulpits should have opportunities as growth in enrollments slows and as many gradu ates seek alternatives to the pulpit. Rapidly expanding membership is expected to create employment opportunities for Reconstructionist rabbis. Conservative and Reform rabbis should have job opportu nities serving congregations or in other settings because of the large size of these two branches of Judaism. Earnings In addition to their annual salary, benefits received by rabbis may include housing, health insurance, and a retirement plan. Income varies widely, depending on the size and financial status of the con gregation, as well as denominational branch and geographic loca tion. Rabbis may earn additional income from gifts or fees for officiating at ceremonies such as bar or bat mitzvahs and weddings. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: Rabbinical Council of America, 305 7th Ave., New York, NY 10001. Internet: http://www.rabbis.org (Orthodox) The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 3080 Broadway, New York, NY 10027. Internet: http://www.jtsa.edu (Conservative) Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, One West 4th St., New York, NY 10012. Internet: http://www.huc.edu (Reform) Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 1299 Church Rd., Wyncote, PA 19095. Internet: http://www.rrc.edu (Reconstructionist) Roman Catholic Priests Nature of the Work Priests in the Catholic Church may be categorized as either dioc esan or religious. Both types of priests have the same priesthood faculties, acquired through ordination by a bishop. Differences lie in their way of life, type of work, and the Church authority to which they are responsible. Diocesan priests commit their lives to serv ing the people of a diocese, a church administrative region, and generally work in parishes, schools, or other Catholic institutions as assigned by the bishop of their diocese. Diocesan priests take oaths of celibacy and obedience. Religious priests belong to a reli gious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. In addition to the vows taken by diocesan priests, religious priests take a vow of poverty. Diocesan priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and edu cational needs of the members of their church. A priest’s day usu ally begins with morning meditation and mass and may end with an individual counseling session or an evening visit to a hospital or home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. Some counsel parishioners preparing for marriage or the birth of a child. Religious priests receive duty assignments from their superiors in their respective religious orders. Some religious priests spe cialize in teaching, whereas others serve as missionaries in for eign countries, where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Other religious priests live a communal life in monas teries, where they devote their lives to prayer, study, and assigned work. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and adminis trative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff many of the Church s institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests usually are concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. Members of religious orders do much of the missionary work con ducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Employment According to The Official Catholic Directory, there were approxi mately 45,000 priests in 2000; about 30,000 were diocesan priests. Priests are found in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities; however, the majority is in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. impi (0*NET 21-2011.00) Significant Points • Preparation generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school, usually including a college degree followed by 4 or more years of theology study at a seminary. • The shortage of Roman Catholic priests is expected to continue, resulting in a very favorable outlook. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Some Roman Catholic priests specialize in teaching. 152 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training and Other Qualifications Men exclusively are ordained as priests. Women may serve in church positions that do not require priestly ordination. Preparation for the priesthood generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school, usually including a college degree followed by 4 or more years of theology study at a seminary. Preparatory study for the priesthood may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. Nine high-school seminary programs— five free-standing high school seminaries and four programs within Catholic high schools—provided a college preparatory program in 2000. Programs emphasize and support religious formation in ad dition to a regular, college-preparatory curriculum. Latin may be required, and modem languages are encouraged. In Hispanic com munities, knowledge of Spanish is mandatory. Those who begin training for the priesthood in college do so in one of 42 priesthood formation programs offered either through Catholic colleges or universities or in freestanding college semi naries. Preparatory studies usually include training in philosophy, religious studies, and prayer. Today, most candidates for the priesthood have a 4-year degree from an accredited college or university, then attend one of 46 theo logical seminaries (also called theologates) and earn either the Master of Divinity or the Master of Arts degree. Thirty-four theologates primarily train diocesan priests, whereas 12 theologates provide in formation mostly for priesthood candidates from religious orders. (Slight variations in training reflect the differences in their expected duties.) Theology coursework includes sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (sacraments); and canon (church) law. Fieldwork experience usually is required. Young men are never denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for diocesan priests, scholarships or loans are available, and contributions of benefactors and the Catho lic Church finance those in religious seminaries—who have taken a vow of poverty and are not expected to have personal resources. Graduate work in theology beyond that required for ordination also is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theol ogy. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. In recent years, the Church has stressed continuing education for ordained priests in the social sciences, such as sociology and psychology. A newly ordained diocesan priest usually works as an assistant pastor. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they have been trained. Depending on the talents, interests, and experience of the individual, many opportunities for additional responsibility exist within the Church. Job Outlook The shortage of Roman Catholic priests is expected to continue, resulting in a very favorable job outlook through the year 2010. Many priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. In recent years, the number of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions and to replace priests who retire, die, or leave the priesthood. This situation is likely to continue, as seminary enrollments remain below the levels needed to overcome the cur rent shortfall of priests. In response to the shortage of priests, permanent deacons and teams of clergy and laity increasingly are performing certain tradi tional functions within the Catholic Church. The number of ordained https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis deacons has increased 30 percent over the past 20 years, and this trend should continue. Throughout most of the country, permanent deacons have been ordained to preach and perform liturgical func tions, such as baptisms, marriages, and funerals, and to provide ser vice to the community. Deacons are not authorized to celebrate Mass, nor are they allowed to administer the Sacraments of Recon ciliation and the Anointing of the Sick. Teams of clergy and laity undertake some liturgical and nonliturgical functions, such as hos pital visits and religious teaching. Earnings Salaries of diocesan priests vary from diocese to diocese. Accord ing to a biennial survey of the National Federation of Priests Coun cil, low-end salaries averaged $12,936 per year in 1999; high-end salaries averaged $ 15,483 per year. In addition to a salary, diocesan priests receive a package of benefits that may include a car allow ance, room and board in the parish rectory, health insurance, and a retirement plan. Diocesan priests who do special work related to the church, such as teaching, usually receive a salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The difference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “contributed service.” In some situations, housing and related ex penses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests doing special work receive the same compensation that a lay person would receive. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Any personal earnings are given to the order. Their vow of poverty is recognized by the Internal Revenue Ser vice, which exempts them from paying Federal income tax. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests and diocesan vocational office. For information regarding the different religious orders and the diocesan priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries that pre pare students for the priesthood, contact the diocesan director of vocations through the office of the local pastor or bishop. Individuals seeking additional information about careers in the Catholic Ministry should contact their local diocese. For information on training programs for the Catholic ministry, contact: ► Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate (CARA), Georgetown University, 2300 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20057. Internet: http://cara.georgetown.edu Counselors__ ________ ___ (0*NET 21-1011.00, 21-1012.00, 21-1013.00, 21-1014.00, 21-1015.00)) Significant Points • Over half of all counselors have a master’s degree. • Most States require some form of counselor credentialing, licensure, certification, or registry for practice outside schools; all States require school counselors to hold a State school counseling certification. Nature of the Work Counselors assist people with personal, family, educational, mental health, and career decisions and problems. Their duties depend on the individuals they serve and on the settings in which they work. Educational, vocational, and school counselors—in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schools—help students evaluate their abilities, interests, talents, and personality characteristics in order to develop realistic academic and career goals. Counselors use in terviews, counseling sessions, tests, or other methods when evalu ating and advising students. They operate career information centers and career education programs. High school counselors advise on college majors, admission requirements, entrance exams, and fi nancial aid and on trade or technical schools and apprenticeship programs. They help students develop job search skills such as resume writing and interviewing techniques. College career plan ning and placement counselors assist alumni or students with ca reer development and job hunting techniques. Elementary school counselors observe younger children during classroom and play activities, and confer with their teachers and par ents to evaluate their strengths, problems, or special needs. They also help students develop good study habits. They do less vocational and academic counseling than do secondary school counselors. School counselors at all levels help students understand and deal with social, behavioral, and personal problems. These counselors emphasize preventive and developmental counseling to provide stu dents with the life skills needed to deal with problems before they occur, and to enhance personal, social, and academic growth. Coun selors provide special services, including alcohol and drug preven tion programs, and classes that teach students to handle conflicts without resorting to violence. Counselors also try to identify cases involving domestic abuse and other family problems that can affect a student’s development. Counselors work with students individu ally, with small groups, or with entire classes. They consult and work with parents, teachers, school administrators, school psycholo gists, school nurses, and social workers. Vocational counselors (also called employment counselors when working outside a school setting) help individuals make career de cisions. They explore and evaluate the client’s education, training, work history, interests, skills, and personal traits, and arrange for aptitude and achievement tests. They also work with individuals to develop job search skills and assist clients in locating and applying for jobs. Rehabilitation counselors help people deal with the personal, social, and vocational effects of disabilities. They counsel people with disabilities resulting from birth defects, illness or disease, ac cidents, or the stress of daily life. They evaluate the strengths and limitations of individuals, provide personal and vocational coun seling, and arrange for medical care, vocational training, and job placement. Rehabilitation counselors interview individuals with disabilities and their families, evaluate school and medical reports, and confer and plan with physicians, psychologists, occupational therapists, and employers to determine the capabilities and skills of the individual. Conferring with the client, they develop a rehabili tation program, which often includes training to help the person develop job skills. They also work toward increasing the client’s capacity to live independently. Mental health counselors emphasize prevention, and work with individuals and groups to promote optimum mental health. They help individuals deal with addictions and substance abuse, suicidal impulses, stress management, problems with self-esteem, issues as sociated with aging, job and career concerns, educational decisions, issues related to mental and emotional health, and family, parenting, and marital problems. Mental health counselors work closely with other mental health specialists, including psychiatrists, psycholo gists, clinical social workers, psychiatric nurses, and school counse lors. (Information on other mental health specialists appears in the Handbook statements on physicians and surgeons, psychologists, Digitizedregistered for FRASER nurses, and social workers.) https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 153 Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors help people who have problems with alcohol, drugs, gambling, and eating dis orders. They counsel individuals who are addicted to drugs to help them identify behaviors and problems related to their addiction. They hold counseling sessions for one person, for families, or for groups of people to assist them in dealing with problems. Marriage and family therapists apply principles, methods, and therapeutic techniques to individuals, family groups, couples or or ganizations for the purpose of resolving emotional conflicts. In doing so, they modify perceptions and behavior, enhance commu nication and understanding among all family members, and help to prevent family and individual crisis. Individual marriage and fam ily therapists also may engage in psychotherapy of a nonmedical nature, with appropriate referrals to psychiatric resources, and in research and teaching in the overall field of human development and interpersonal relationships. Other counseling specialties include gerontological or multicultural counseling. A gerontological counselor provides ser vices to elderly persons who face changing lifestyles because of health problems, and helps families cope with these changes. A multicultural counselor helps employers adjust to an increasingly diverse workforce. Working Conditions Most educational, vocational, and school counselors work the tra ditional 9- to 10-month school year with a 2- to 3-month vacation, H' § l Counselors assist people with personal, family, educational, mental health, and career decisions and problems. 154 Occupational Outlook Handbook although increasing numbers are employed on 10 1/2- or 11-month contracts. They usually work the same hours that teachers do. College career planning and placement counselors work long and irregular hours during student recruiting periods. Rehabilitation counselors usually work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed counselors and those working in mental health and community agencies, such as substance abuse and behavioral dis order counselors, often work evenings to counsel clients who work during the day. Marriage and family counselors also often work flexible hours to accommodate families in crisis or working couples who must have evening or weekend appointments. Counselors must possess high physical and emotional energy to handle the array of problems they address. Dealing daily with these problems can cause stress. Because privacy is essential for confi dential and frank discussions with clients, counselors usually have private offices. Employment Counselors held about 465,000 jobs in 2000. Employment was distributed among the counseling specialties as follows: Educational, vocational, and school counselors........ 205.000 Rehabilitation counselors............................................... Mental health counselors................................................ Substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors 110.000 Marriage and family therapists...................................... 67.000 61.000 21,000 Educational, vocational, and school counselors work primarily in elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities. Other types of counselors work in a wide variety of public and pri vate establishments. These include healthcare facilities; job train ing, career development, and vocational rehabilitation centers; social agencies; correctional institutions; and residential care facilities, such as halfway houses for criminal offenders and group homes for chil dren, the elderly , and the disabled. Some substance abuse and behavioral disorder counselors work in therapeutic communities where addicts live while under treatment. Counselors also work in organizations engaged in community improvement and social change, as well as in drug and alcohol rehabilitation programs and State and local government agencies. A growing number of coun selors work in health maintenance organizations, insurance compa nies, group practice, and private practice. This growth has been spurred by laws allowing counselors to receive payments from in surance companies and requiring employers to provide rehabilita tion and counseling services to employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal education is necessary to gain employment as a counselor. About half of all counselors have a master’s degree; fields of study include college student affairs, elementary or secondary school coun seling, education, gerontological counseling, marriage and family counseling, substance abuse counseling, rehabilitation counseling, agency or community counseling, clinical mental health counsel ing, counseling psychology, career counseling, and related fields. Graduate-level counselor education programs in colleges and universities usually are in departments of education or psychology. Courses are grouped into eight core areas: Human growth and de velopment, social and cultural diversity, relationships, groupwork, career development, assessment, research and program evaluation, and professional identity. In an accredited program, 48 to 60 se mester hours of graduate study, including a period of supervised clinical experience in counseling, are required for a master s de gree. In 2000, 149 institutions offered programs in counselor edu cation—including career, community, gerontological, mental health, school, student affairs, and marriage and family counseling—that https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis were accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). CACREP also recog nizes many counselor education programs, apart from the 149 accredited institutions, that use alternative instruction methods, such as distance learning. Programs that use alternative instruction meth ods are evaluated using the same standards for accreditation that CACREP applies to programs that employ more-traditional meth ods. Another organization, the Council on Rehabilitation Educa tion (CORE), accredits graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. Accredited master’s degree programs include a mini mum of 2 years of full-time study, including 600 hours of super vised clinical internship experience. In 2001, 46 States and the District of Columbia had some form of counselor credentialing, licensure, certification, or registry leg islation governing practice outside schools. Requirements vary from State to State. In some States, credentialing is mandatory; in oth ers, it is voluntary. All States require school counselors to hold State school coun seling certification; however, certification requirements vary from State to State. Some States require public school counselors to have both counseling and teaching certificates. Depending on the State, a master’s degree in counseling and 2 to 5 years of teaching experience could be required for a school counseling certificate. Counselors must be aware of educational and training require ments that are often very detailed and that vary by area and by coun seling specialty. Prospective counselors should check with State and local governments, employers, and national voluntary certifica tion organizations in order to determine which requirements apply. Many counselors elect to be nationally certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc. (NBCC), which grants the gen eral practice credential, “National Certified Counselor.” To be cer tified, a counselor must hold a master’s or higher degree with a concentration in counseling from a regionally accredited college or university; have at least 2 years of supervised field experience in a counseling setting (graduates from counselor education programs accredited by CACREP are exempted); provide two professional endorsements, one of which must be from a recent supervisor; and have a passing score on the NBCC’s National Counselor Examina tion for Licensure and Certification (NCE). This national certifica tion is voluntary, and is distinct from State certification. However, in some States, those who pass the national exam are exempted from taking a State certification exam. NBCC also offers specialty certification in school, clinical mental health, and addictions coun seling. To maintain their certification, counselors retake and pass the NCE or complete 100 hours of acceptable continuing education credit every 5 years. . . . Another organization, the Commission on Rehabilitation Coun selor Certification, offers voluntary national certification for reha bilitation counselors. Many employers require rehabilitation counselors to be nationally certified. To become certified, rehabili tation counselors usually must graduate from an accredited educa tional program, complete an internship, and pass a written examination. (Certification requirements vary according to an applicant’s educational history. Employment experience, for ex ample, is required for those with a counseling degree in a specialty other than rehabilitation.) After meeting these requirements, can didates are then designated as “Certified Rehabilitation Counse lors.” To maintain their certification, counselors must successfully retake the certification exam or complete 100 hours of acceptable continuing education credit every 5 years. Vocational and related rehabilitation agencies usually require a master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling, counseling and guid ance, or counseling psychology for rehabilitation counselor jobs. Some, however, accept applicants with a bachelor’s degree in Professional and Related Occupations 155 rehabilitation services, counseling, psychology, sociology, or related fields. A bachelor s degree often qualifies a person to work as a counseling aide, rehabilitation aide, or social service worker. Experience in employment counseling, job development, psychol ogy, education, or social work is helpful. Some States require counselors in public employment offices to have a master s degree; others accept a bachelor’s degree with appro priate counseling courses. A 6-year, master’s level degree is the minimum education required to enter the field of marriage and family therapy. Clinical mental health counselors usually have a master’s de gree in mental health counseling, in another area of counseling, or in psychology or social work. Voluntary certification is available through the NBCC. Generally, to receive certification as a clinical mental health counselor, a counselor must have a master’s degree in counseling, 2 years of postmaster’s experience, a period of super vised clinical experience, a taped sample of clinical work, and a passing grade on a written examination. Some employers provide training for newly hired counselors. Many have work-study programs so that those employed counse lors can earn graduate degrees. Counselors must participate in gradu ate studies, workshops, and personal studies to maintain their certificates and licenses. Persons interested in counseling should have a strong interest in helping others and the ability to inspire respect, trust, and confi dence. They should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Counselors follow the code of ethics associated with their respective certifications and licenses. Prospects for advancement vary by counseling field. School counselors can move to a larger school; become directors or super visors of counseling, guidance, or pupil personnel services; or, usu ally with further graduate education, become counselor educators, counseling psychologists, or school administrators. (See the state ments on psychologists and education administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some counselors choose to work for a State’s de partment of education. For marriage and family therapists, doc toral education in family therapy emphasizes the training of supervisors, teachers, researchers, and clinicians in the discipline. Counselors can become supervisors or administrators in their agencies. Some counselors move into research, consulting, or col lege teaching, or go into private or group practice. Job Outlook Overall employment of counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition, numer ous job openings will occur as many counselors reach retirement age. Employment of educational, vocational, and school counselors is expected to grow as a result of increasing student enrollments, particularly in secondary and postsecondary schools; State legisla tion requiring counselors in elementary schools; and expansion of the responsibilities of counselors. For example, counselors are be coming more involved in crisis and preventive counseling, helping students deal with issues ranging from drug and alcohol abuse to death and suicide. Also, in order to decrease the student-to-counselor ratio, school districts in many States are using Federal grants to establish or expand elementary school counseling programs. Over the long term, however, budget constraints may dampen job growth of school counselors. The demand for vocational, or employment, counselors, who work primarily for State and local government, is expected to con tinue to grow as current welfare laws require welfare recipients to However, uncertainty about the future of welfare reform Digitizedfind for jobs. FRASER (the Welfare Reform Act of 1996 expires in September 2002) could https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis limit this growth. Opportunities for employment counselors work ing in private job-training services should grow as counselors pro vide training and other services to laid-off workers, experienced workers seeking a new or second career, full-time homemakers seek ing to enter or reenter the workforce, and workers who want to upgrade their skills. Demand is expected to be strong for substance abuse and behav ioral, mental health, and marriage and family therapists and for re habilitation counselors, for a variety of reasons. The increasing availability of funds to build statewide networks to improve ser vices for children and adolescents with serious emotional distur bances and their family members should increase employment opportunities for counselors. Under managed care systems, insur ance companies increasingly provide for reimbursement of counse lors, enabling many counselors to move from schools and government agencies to private practice. Counselors also are form ing group practices to receive expanded insurance coverage. The number of people who need rehabilitation services will grow as advances in medical technology continue to save lives that only a few years ago would have been lost. In addition, legislation requir ing equal employment rights for people with disabilities will spindemand for counselors. Counselors not only will help individuals with disabilities with their transition into the workforce, but also will help companies comply with the law. Employers also are in creasingly offering employee assistance programs that provide men tal health and alcohol and drug abuse services. More people are expected to use these services as the elderly population grows and as society focuses on ways of developing mental well-being, such as controlling stress associated with job and family responsibilities. Earnings Median annual earnings of educational, vocational, and school coun selors in 2000 were $42,110. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $31,640 and $53,930. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,560, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,170. School counselors can earn additional income working summers in the school system or in other jobs. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of educational, vocational, and school counselors in 2000 were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools State government......................... Colleges and universities............. Job training and related services ... $46,850 41,020 37,040 25,210 Median annual earnings of substance abuse and behavioral dis order counselors in 2000 were $28,510, The middle 50 percent earned between $23,280 and $35,250. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,850, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,420. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of substance abuse and behavioral disorder coun selors in 2000 were as follows: Local government.................... Hospitals................................. Health and allied services, NEC Individual and family services... Residental care........................ $31,640 31,600 28,170 27,030 24,930 Median annual earnings of mental health counselors in 2000 were $27,570. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,220 and $36,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,270. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of mental health counselors in 2000 were as follows: 156 Occupational Outlook Handbook Local government...................... Hospitals...................................... Health and allied servies, NEC Individual and family services Residential care......................... $34,480 30,900 28,690 28,040 22,920 (0*NET 21-1092.00) Median annual earnings of rehabilitation counselors in 2000 were $24,450. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,080 and $33,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,790, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,790. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of rehabilita tion counselors in 2000 were as follows: State government........................... Hospitals......................................... Individual and family services.... Job training and related services Residential care............................. $34,470 31,140 23,650 23,070 20,360 Median annual earnings of marriage and family therapists in 2000 were $34,660. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,970 and $44,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,320. Median annual earn ings in 2000 were $33,140 in individual and family social services, the industry employing their largest numbers. Self-employed counselors who have well-established practices, as well as counselors employed in group practices, usually have the highest earnings, as do some counselors working for private firms, such as insurance companies and private rehabilitation companies. Related Occupations Counselors help people evaluate their interests, abilities, and dis abilities, and deal with personal, social, academic, and career prob lems. Others who help people in similar ways include teachers, social and human service assistants, social workers, psychologists, physicians and surgeons, registered nurses, members of the clergy, occupational therapists, and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about counseling, as well as information on specialties such as school, college, mental health, rehabilitation, multicultural, career, marriage and family, and gerontological coun seling, contact: >• American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., Alexandria, VA 22304-3300. Internet: http://www.counseling.org For information on accredited counseling and related training programs, contact: >. Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Pro grams, American Counseling Association, 5999 Stevenson Ave., 4th floor, Alexandria, VA 22304. Internet: http://www.counseling.org/cacrep For information on national certification requirements for coun selors, contact: . ► National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc., 3 Terrace Way, Suite L>, Greensboro, NC 27403-3660. Internet: http://www.nbcc.org For information on certification requirements for rehabilitation counselors and a list of accredited rehabilitation education programs, contact: . >- Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification, 1835 Rohlwing Rd., Suite E, Rolling Meadows, IL 60008. State departments of education can supply information on col leges and universities that offer guidance and counseling training that meets State certification and licensure requirements. employment service offices have information about job Digitized for State FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org opportunities and entrance requirements for counselors. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists _________ ___ Significant Points • • • Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work with criminal offenders, some of whom may be dangerous. A bachelor’s degree in social work, criminal justice, or a related field usually is required. Good employment opportunities are expected. Nature of the Work Many people who are convicted of crimes are placed on probation instead of being sent to prison. During probation, offenders must stay out of trouble and meet various other requirements. Probation officers, who also may be referred to as community supervision officers in some States, supervise people who have been placed on probation. Parole officers perform many of the same duties that probation officers perform. However, parole officers supervise offenders who have been released from prison on parole to ensure that they comply with the conditions of their parole. In some States, the job of parole and probation officer is combined. Probation and parole officers supervise offenders on probation or parole through personal contact with the offender and his or her family. Some offenders are required to wear an electronic device so that probation officers can monitor their activities. Officers may arrange for offenders to get substance abuse rehabilitation or job training. They also attend court hearings to update the court on the offender’s compliance with the terms of his or her sentence and on the offender’s efforts at rehabilitation. Probation officers also spend much of their time working for the courts. They investigate the background of offenders brought be fore the court, write presentence reports, and make sentencing rec ommendations for each offender. Officers review sentencing recommendations with offenders and their families before submit ting them to the court. Officers may be required to testify in court as to their findings and recommendations. Probation officers usually work with either adults or juveniles exclusively. Only in small, usually rural jurisdictions do probation officers counsel both adults and juveniles. Occasionally, in the Federal courts system, probation officers may undertake the job of a pretrial services officer. Pretrial services officers con duct pretrial investigations and make bond recommendations for defendants. . Correctional treatment specialists work in correctional institu tions (jails and prisons) or in parole or probation agencies. In jails and prisons, they evaluate the progress of inmates. They also work with inmates, probation officers, and other agencies to develop parole and release plans. Their case reports are provided to the appropriate parole board when their clients are eligible to be re leased. In addition, they plan educational and training programs to provide offenders with job skills, and counsel offenders either indi vidually or in groups regarding their coping skills, anger manage ment skills, and drug or sexual abuse. They usually write treatment plans and summaries for each client. Correctional treatment spe cialists working in parole and probation agencies perform many of the same duties as their counterparts who work in correctional in stitutions. Correctional treatment specialists may also be known as case managers or drug treatment specialists. Professional and Related Occupations 157 The number of cases a probation officer or correctional treat ment specialist handles at one time depends on the counseling needs of offenders and the risks they pose. Higher-risk offenders and those who need a greater amount of counseling usually command more of the officer’s time and resources. Caseload size also varies by jurisdiction of the agency. Consequently, officers may handle from 20 to more than 300 active cases at a time. The nature of the work of many probation officers and correc tional treatment specialists has been affected by recent changes in the parole and probation system brought about by public debate on the proper role of prisons, probation, and parole. This has resulted in more community involvement on the part of probation and pa role officers in many jurisdictions. Instead of requiring offenders to meet officers in their offices, many officers are going into the community to meet the offenders in their homes and at their places of employment or therapy. Probation and parole agencies also are employing the assistance of community organizations, such as reli gious institutions, neighborhood groups, and local residents, to monitor the behavior of many offenders. The ability to do this ad ditional fieldwork is facilitated by telecommuting methods, such as the use of computers, phones, and faxes. Probation officers also may telecommute from their own homes. Other technological ad vancements, such as electronic monitoring devices and drug screen ing, also have assisted probation officers and correctional treatment specialists in supervising and counseling offenders. A debate also has emerged about privatizing the probation and parole systems. Many services, such as emotional counseling, job training, drug rehabilitation, and urine testing, already are con tracted out to private firms. Some States, including Georgia and Tennessee, have already completely privatized some of their pro bation agencies. Another recent trend in corrections has involved abolishing parole, either altogether or for certain crimes. In some cases, States have placed many restrictions on the types of offend ers who can be paroled and on how much of their sentence must be completed before being paroled. In States where parole has been abolished, another form of supervised release has been established. Working Conditions Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work with criminal offenders, some of whom may be dangerous. In the course of supervising offenders, they usually interact with many other in dividuals, such as family members and friends of their clients, who d Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists usually meet with their clients either in their own office or in the field. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis may be angry, upset, or difficult to work with. Workers may be assigned to fieldwork in high crime areas or in institutions where there is a risk of violence or communicable diseases. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists are required to meet many deadlines, most of which are imposed by courts, which con tributes to their heavy workloads. All of these factors contribute to a stressful work environment. Although the high stress levels can make these jobs very difficult at times, they also can be very reward ing. Many workers obtain personal satisfaction from counseling members of their community and helping them become productive citizens. In addition, extensive travel and fieldwork may be required to meet with offenders who are on probation or parole. Workers may be required to carry a firearm or other weapon for protection. Work ers generally work a 40-hour workweek, but some may work longer. They may be on call 24 hours a day to supervise and assist offend ers at any time. They also may be required to collect and transport urine samples of offenders for drug testing. Employment About 84,000 people were employed as probation officers and cor rectional treatment specialists in 2000. Most of these workers work for State or local governments. The government level that employs these workers varies by State. In some States, the State government employs all probation officers and correctional treatment special ists, while in other States, local governments are the only employ ers. In still other States, both levels of government employ these workers. Currently, California and Texas have the highest proba tion and parole populations. Together these two States account for about one-fourth of the country’s correctional supervision popula tion. Jobs also are more plentiful in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Background qualifications for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists vary by State, but a bachelor’s degree in social work, criminal justice, or a related field from a 4-year college or university is usually required. Some States also require 1 year of work experience in a related field or 1 year of graduate study in criminal justice, social work, or psychology to become a probation officer. Some employers may require previous experience or a master’s degree in criminal justice, social work, or psychology, of applicants wishing to become correctional treatment specialists. Applicants usually are administered written, oral, psychologi cal, and physical examinations. Most probation officers and some correctional treatment specialists are required to complete a train ing program sponsored by their State government or the Federal Government. A certification test also may be required in some States during or after the completion of training. Prospective probation officers or correctional treatment spe cialists should be in good physical and emotional condition. Most agencies require applicants to be at least 21 years old and, for Federal employment, not older than 37. Those convicted of felo nies may not be eligible for employment in this occupation. Familiarity with the use of computers often is required due to the increasing use of computer technology in probation and parole work. Candidates also should be knowledgeable about laws and regulations pertaining to corrections. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists should possess strong writ ing skills due to the large numbers of reports they are required to prepare. Most probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work as trainees for about 6 months. After successfully complet ing the training period, workers obtain a permanent position. A 158 Occupational Outlook Handbook typical agency has several levels of probation and parole officers and correctional treatment specialists, as well as supervisors. A graduate degree, such as a master’s degree in criminal justice, so cial work, or psychology, may be helpful for advancement. Social and Human Service Assistants (0*NET 21-1093.00) Significant Points Job Outlook This occupation is not attractive to some potential entrants due to relatively low earnings, heavy workloads, and high stress levels. Therefore, the number of entrants to the occupation may not be enough to fill all expected openings, resulting in good employment opportunities over the projection period. Employment of probation officers and correctional treatment spe cialists is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through 2010. Despite recent decreases in the crime rate, vigorous law enforcement is expected to result in a continuing in crease in the prison population. Overcrowding in prisons also has increased the probation population, as judges and prosecutors search for alternate forms of punishments, such as electronic monitoring and day reporting centers. The number of offenders released on parole is expected to increase to create room for other offenders in prison. The increasing prison, parole, and probation populations should spur more demand for probation and parole officers and correctional treatment specialists. In addition to openings due to growth, many openings will be created by replacement needs, especially openings due to the large number of these workers who are expected to retire over the projec tion period. The job outlook depends on the amount of government funding that is allocated to corrections, and especially to probation systems. Although community supervision is far less expensive than keep ing offenders in prison, a change in political trends toward more imprisonment and away from community supervision could result in reduced employment opportunities. Earnings . Median annual earnings of probation officers and correctional treat ment specialists in 2000 were $38,150. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,270 and $49,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59,010. In 2000, median annual earnings for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists employed in State govern ment were $36,980; those employed in local government earned $40,820. Higher wages tend to be found in urban areas. Related Occupations Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists counsel criminal offenders as they re-enter society. Other occupations that involve similar responsibilities include social workers, social and human service assistants, and counselors. Probation officers and correctional treatment also play a major role in maintaining public safety. Other occupations related to cor rections and law enforcement include police and detectives, correc tional officers, and firefighting occupations. Sources of Additional Information For information about criminal justice job opportunities in your area, contact your State’s Department of Corrections, Criminal Justice, or Probation. . Further information about probation officers and correctional treatment specialists is available from. > The American Probation and Parole Association, PO. Box 11910, Lex ington, KY 40578-1910. Internet: http://www.appa-net.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis • • • While a bachelor’s degree usually is not required, employers increasingly seek individuals with relevant work experience or education beyond high school. Social and human service assistants are projected to be among the fastest growing occupations. Job opportunities should be excellent, particularly for applicants with appropriate postsecondary education, but pay is low. Nature of the Work . Social and human service assistant is a generic term for people with various job titles, including human service worker, case manage ment aide, social work assistant, community support worker, men tal health aide, community outreach worker, life skill counselor, or gerontology aide. They usually work under the direction of profes sionals from a variety of fields, such as nursing, psychiatry, psy chology, rehabilitative or physical therapy, or social work. The amount of responsibility and supervision they are given varies a great deal. Some have little direct supervision; others work under close direction. Social and human service assistants provide direct and indirect client services. They assess clients’ needs, establish their eligibil ity for benefits and services, and help clients obtain them. They examine financial documents such as rent receipts and tax returns to determine whether the client is eligible for Food Stamps, Medic aid, welfare, and other human service programs. They also arrange for transportation and escorts, if necessary, and provide emotional support. Social and human service assistants monitor and keep case records on clients and report progress to supervisors and case man agers. They also may transport or accompany clients to group meal sites, adult daycare centers, or doctors’ offices; telephone or visit clients’ homes to make sure services are being received; or help resolve disagreements, such as those between tenants and landlords. They also may help some clients complete insurance or medical forms, as well as applications for financial assistance, and may as sist others with daily living needs. Social and human service assistants play a variety of roles in a community. They may organize and lead group activities, assist clients in need of counseling or crisis intervention, or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. In halfway houses, group homes, and government-supported housing programs, they assist adults who need supervision with personal hygiene and daily living skills. They review clients’ records, ensure that they take correct doses of medication, talk with family members, and confer with medical personnel and other caregivers to gain better insight into clients’ backgrounds and needs. Social and human service assis tants also provide emotional support and help clients become in volved in their own well-being, in community recreation programs, and in other activities. In psychiatric hospitals, rehabilitation programs, and outpatient clinics, social and human service assistants work with professional care providers, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, and social work ers, to help clients master everyday living skills, to teach them how to communicate more effectively, and to get along better with oth ers. They support the client’s participation in a treatment plan, such as individual or group counseling or occupational therapy. ______________________________________________________________ I Professional and Related Occupations 159 mm ' ■ .mam-.* JH : Social and human service assistants help patients with daily activities in adult daycare centers and rehabilitation programs. Working Conditions Working conditions of social and human service assistants vary. Some work in offices, clinics, and hospitals, while others work in group homes, shelters, sheltered workshops, and day pro grams. Many spend their time in the field visiting clients. Most work a 40-hour week, although some work in the evening and on weekends. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Understaffing and relatively low pay may add to the pressure. Turn over is reported to be high, especially among workers without aca demic preparation for this field. Employment Social and human service assistants held about 271,000jobs in 2000. Approximately half worked in private social or human services agen cies, offering a variety of services, including adult daycare, group meals, crisis intervention, counseling, and job training. Many so cial and human service assistants supervised residents of group homes and halfway houses. About one-quarter were employed by State and local governments, primarily in public welfare agencies and facilities for mentally disabled and developmentally challenged individuals. Social and human service assistants also held jobs in clinics, detoxification facilities, community mental health centers, psychiatric hospitals, day-treatment programs, and sheltered work shops. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While a bachelor’s degree usually is not required for entry into this occupation, employers increasingly seek individuals with relevant work experience or education beyond high school. Certificates or associate degrees in subjects such as social work, human services, gerontology, or one of the social or behavioral sciences meet most employers’ requirements. Human services programs have a core curriculum that trains stu dents to observe patients and record information, conduct patient interviews, implement treatment plans, employ problem-solving techniques, handle crisis intervention matters, and use proper case management and referral procedures. General education courses in liberal arts, sciences, and the humanities also are part of the cur riculum. Many degree programs require completion of a super vised internship. Educational attainment often influences the kind of work em ployees may be assigned and the degree of responsibility that may be entrusted to them. For example, workers with no more than a high school education are likely to receive extensive on-the-job train ing to work in direct-care services, while employees with a college degree might be assigned to do supportive counseling, coordinate program activities, or manage a group home. Social and human service assistants with proven leadership ability, either from previ ous experience or as a volunteer in the field, often have greater autonomy in their work. Regardless of the academic or work back ground of employees, most employers provide some form of in service training, such as seminars and workshops, to their employees. Hiring requirements in group homes tend to be more stringent than those in other settings. For example, employers may require employees to have a valid driver’s license or to submit to a criminal background investigation. Employers try to select applicants who have effective communi cation skills, a strong sense of responsibility, and the ability to man age time effectively. Many human services jobs involve direct contact with people who are vulnerable to exploitation or mistreat ment; therefore, patience, understanding, and a strong desire to help others are highly valued characteristics. Formal education almost always is necessary for advancement In general, advancement requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in counseling, rehabilitation, social work, human services, psychol ogy, or a related field. Job Outlook Job opportunities for social and human service assistants are ex pected to be excellent, particularly for applicants with appropriate postsecondary education. The number of social and human service assistants is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations between 2000 and 2010- ranking among the most rap idly growing occupations. The need to replace workers who move into new positions due to advancement or retirement or for other reasons will create many additional job opportunities. This occu pation, however, is not attractive to everyone. It can be draining emotionally, and the pay is relatively low. There will be more com petition for jobs in urban areas than in rural areas, but qualified applicants should have little difficulty finding employment. Faced with rapid growth in the demand for social and human services, employers are developing new strategies for delivering and funding services. Many employers increasingly rely on social and human service assistants to undertake greater responsibility in delivering services to clients. Opportunities are expected to be best in job-training programs, residential care facilities, and private social service agencies, which include such services as adult daycare and meal delivery pro grams. Demand for these services will expand with the growing 160 Occupational Outlook Handbook elderly population, who are more likely to need services. In addi tion, social and human service assistants will continue to be needed to provide services to pregnant teenagers, the homeless, the men tally disabled and developmentally challenged, and those with sub stance-abuse problems. , Job-training programs also are expected to require additional social and human service assistants. As social welfare policies shift focus from benefit-based programs to work-based initiatives, there will be more demand for people to teach job skills to the people who are new to, or returning to, the workforce. Additionally, stream lined and downsized businesses create demand for persons with job-retraining expertise. Social and human service assistants will help companies to cope with new modes of conducting business and employees to master new job skills. Residential care establishments should face increased pressures to respond to the needs of the chronically and mentally ill. Many of these patients have been deinstitutionalized and lack the knowl edge or the ability to care for themselves. Also, more communitybased programs, supported independent-living sites, and group residences are expected to be established to house and assist the homeless and the chronically and mentally ill. Because more sub stance abusers are being sent to treatment programs instead of to prison, employment of social and human service assistants in sub stance abuse programs will also grow. The number of jobs for social and human service assistants will grow more rapidly than overall employment in State and local gov ernments. State and local governments employ many of their social and human service assistants in corrections and public-assistance departments. Although employment in corrections departments is growing, employment of social and human service assistants is not expected to grow as rapidly as employment in other corrections jobs, such as correctional officers. Public-assistance programs have been employing more social and human service assistants in an attempt to employ fewer social workers, who are more educated, and thus more highly paid. Earnings . . Median annual earnings of social and human service assistants were $22,330 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,820 and $27,930. The top 10 percent earned more than $35,220, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,660. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of social and human service assistants in 2000 were: State government, except education and hospitals . Local government, except education and hospitals Social services, not elsewhere classified................. Individual and family services.................................... Residential care............................................................ 527,130 25,320 21,820 21,350 19,880 Related Occupations . . , . Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those o social and human service assistants include social workers; clergy; counselors; childcare workers; occupational-therapist assistants and aides; physical-therapist assistants and aides; and nursing, psychi atric, and home-health aides. Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2- and 4-year colleges, available at libraries or career counseling centers. For information on programs and careers in human services, contact: . . c > National Organization for Human Service Education, University ot Rhode Island, Quinn 107-URI, Kingston, RI 02881. Internet: https://fraser.stlouisfed.org http://www.nohse.com Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis > Council for Standards in Human Services Education, Northern E^.a Community College, 100 Elliot Way, Haverhill, MA 01830. Internet: http://www.cshse.com Information on job openings may be available from State em ployment service offices or directly from city, county, or State de partments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources. Social Workers (0*NET 21-1021.00, 21-1022.00, 21-1023.00) Significant Points • While a bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement, a master’s degree in social work or a related field has become the standard for many positions. • Employment is projected to grow faster than average. • Competition for jobs is expected in cities, but opportunities should be good in rural areas. Nature of the Work , Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to he p improve people’s lives. Social workers help people function the best way they can in their environment, deal with their relation ships, and solve personal and family problems. Social workers often see clients who face a life-threatening dis ease or a social problem. These problems may include inadequate housing, unemployment, lack of job skills, financial distress, seri ous illness or disability, substance abuse, unwanted pregnancy, or anti-social behavior. Social workers also assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, including those involving child or spouS3.1 abuse Through direct counseling, social workers help clients identify their concerns, consider effective solutions, and find reliable re sources Social workers typically consult and counsel clients and arrange for services that can help them. Often, they refer clients to specialists in services such as debt counseling, childcare or eldercare, public assistance, or alcohol or drug rehabilitation. Social workers then follow through with the client to assure that services are help ful and that clients make proper use of the services offered. Social workers may review eligibility requirements, help fill out forms and applications, visit clients on a regular basis, and provide support during crises. Social workers practice in a variety of settings. In hospitals and psychiatric hospitals, they provide or arrange for a range of support services. In mental health and community centers, social workers provide counseling services on marriage, family, and adoption mat ters and they help people through personal or community emer gencies, such as dealing with loss or grief or arranging for disaster assistance. In schools, they help children, parents, and teachers cope with problems. In social service agencies, they help people "locate basic benefits, such as income assistance, housing, and job training. Social workers also offer counseling to those receiving therapy for addictive or physical disorders in rehabilitation facili ties, and to people in nursing homes who are in need of routine living care. In employment settings, they counsel people with per sonal, family, professional, or financial problems affecting their work performance. Social workers who work in courts and correction facilities evaluate and counsel individuals in the criminal justice system to cope better in society. In private practice, they provide clinical or diagnostic testing services covering a wide range of per sonal disorders. Social workers working in private practice also counsel clients with mental and emotional problems. Social workers often provide social services in health-related settings that now are governed by managed care organizations. To contain costs, these organizations are emphasizing short-term in tervention, ambulatory and community-based care, and greater de centralization of services. Most social workers specialize. Although some conduct research or are involved in planning or policy development, most social work ers prefer an area of practice in which they interact with clients. Clinical social workers offer psychotherapy or counseling and a range of diagnostic services in public agencies, clinics, and private practice. Child welfare orfamily services social workers may counsel chil dren and youths who have difficulty adjusting socially, advise par ents on how to care for disabled children, or arrange for homemaker services during a parent’s illness. If children have serious prob lems in school, child welfare workers may consult with parents, teachers, and counselors to identify underlying causes and develop plans for treatment. Some social workers assist single parents; ar range adoptions; and help find foster homes for neglected, aban doned, or abused children. Child welfare workers also work in residential institutions for children and adolescents. Child or adult protective services social workers investigate re ports of abuse and neglect, and intervene if necessary. They may initiate legal action to remove children from homes and place them temporarily in an emergency shelter or with a foster family. Mental health social workers provide services for persons with mental or emotional problems. Such services include individual and group therapy, outreach, crisis intervention, social rehabilita tion, and training in skills of everyday living. They may also help plan for supportive services to ease patients’ return to the commu nity. (Counselors and psychologists, who may provide similar ser vices, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Healthcare social workers help patients and their families cope with chronic, acute, or terminal illnesses and handle problems that may stand in the way of recovery or rehabilitation. They may orga nize support groups for families of patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, or other illnesses. They also advise family caregivers, counsel patients, and help plan for patients’ needs after discharge by arranging for at-home services—from meals-onwheels to oxygen equipment. Some work on interdisciplinary teams that evaluate certain kinds of patients—geriatric or organ transplant patients, for example. School social workers diagnose students’ problems and arrange needed services, counsel children in trouble, and help integrate dis abled students into the general school population. School social workers deal with problems such as student pregnancy, misbehav ior in class, and excessive absences. They also advise teachers on how to cope with problem students. Substance abuse social workers counsel drug and alcohol abus ers as they recover from their dependencies. They also arrange for other services that may help clients find employment or get train ing. They generally are employed in substance abuse treatment and prevention programs. Criminaljustice social workers make recommendations to courts; prepare presentencing assessments; and provide services to prison inmates, parolees, probationers, and their families. (Probation of ficers and correctional treatment specialists are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Occupational social workers usually work in a corporation’s per sonnel department or health unit. Through employee assistance programs, they help workers cope with job-related pressures or with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 161 Social workers may arrangefor a variety ofservicesfor their clients or provide psychological counseling to them. personal problems that affect the quality of their work. They often offer direct counseling to employees whose performance is hindered by emotional or family problems or substance abuse. They also develop education programs and refer workers to specialized com munity programs. Gerontology social workers specialize in services for senior citi zens. They run support groups for family caregivers or for the adult children of aging parents. Also, they advise elderly people or fam ily members about the choices in such areas as housing, transporta tion, and long-term care; they also coordinate and monitor services. Social work administrators perform overall management tasks in a hospital, clinic, or other setting that offers social worker services. Social work planners and policy makers develop programs to address such issues as child abuse, homelessness, substance abuse, poverty, and violence. These workers research and analyze poli cies, programs, and regulations. They identify social problems and suggest legislative and other solutions. They may help raise funds or write grants to support these programs. Working Conditions Full-time social workers usually work a standard 40-hour week; however, some occasionally work evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergencies. Some, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies, work part time. Social workers usually spend most of their time in an office or resi dential facility, but also may travel locally to visit clients, meet with service providers, or attend meetings. Some may use one of several offices within a local area in which to meet with clients. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Understaffing and large caseloads add to the pressure in some agencies. Employment Social workers held about 468,000 jobs in 2000. About 1 out of 3 jobs were in State, county, or municipal government agencies, pri marily in departments of health and human services, mental health, social services, child welfare, housing, education, and corrections. Most private sector jobs were in social service agencies, hospitals, nursing homes, home health agencies, and other health centers or clinics. Although most social workers are employed in cities or suburbs, some work in rural areas. The following tabulation shows 2000 employment by type of social worker. 162 Occupational Outlook Handbook Child, family, and school social workers.......................................... 281,UUU Medical and public health social workers....................................... Mental health and substance abuse social workers....................... ’ 83,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in social work (BSW) degree is the most com mon minimum requirement to qualify for a job as a social worker, however, majors in psychology, sociology, and related fields may be sufficient to qualify for some entry-level jobs, especially in small community agencies. Although a bachelor’s degree is required for entry into the field, an advanced degree has become the standard for many positions. A master’s degree in social work (MSW) is neces sary for positions in health and mental health settings and typically is required for certification for clinical work. Jobs in public agen cies also may require an advanced degree, such as a master’s degree in social service policy or administration. Supervisory, administra tive, and staff training positions usually require an advanced degree. College and university teaching positions and most research appoint ments normally require a doctorate in social work (DSW or PhD). As of2000, the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) accre dited 421 BSW programs and 139 MSW programs. The Group for the Advancement of Doctoral Education (GADE) listed 71 doctoral programs for PhD’s in social work or DSW’s (Doctor of Social Work). BSW programs prepare graduates for direct service positions such as caseworker or groupworker. They include courses in social work practice, social welfare policies, human behavior and the social en vironment, social research methods, social work values and ethics, dealing with a culturally diverse clientele, promotion of social and economic justice, and populations-at-risk. Accredited BSW programs require at least 400 hours of supervised field experience. Master’s degree programs prepare graduates for work in their chosen field of concentration and continue to develop their skills to perform clinical assessments, manage large caseloads, and explore new ways of drawing upon social services to meet the needs of clients. Master’s programs last 2 years and include 900 hours of supervised field instruction, or internship. A part-time program may take 4 years. Entry into a master’s program does not require a bachelor’s in social work, but courses in psychology, biology, soci ology, economics, political science, history, social anthropology, urban studies, and social work are recommended. In addition, a second language can be very helpful. Most master’s programs of fer advanced standing for those with a bachelor’s degree from an accredited social work program. All States and the District of Columbia have licensing, certifica tion, or registration requirements regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. Although standards for licensing vary by State, a growing number of States are placing greater emphasis on communications skills, professional ethics, and sensitivity for cultural diversity issues. Additionally, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) offers voluntary credentials. The Acad emy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW) is granted to all social workers who have met established eligibility criteria. Clinical so cial workers may earn either the Qualified Clinical Social Worker (QCSW) credential or the advanced credential—Diplomate in Clini cal Social Work (DCSW). Social workers holding clinical creden tials also may list themselves in the biannual publication of the NASW Register of Clinical Social Workers. Credentials are particularly important for those in private practice; some health insurance pro viders require them for reimbursement. Social workers should be emotionally mature, objective, and sen sitive to people and their problems. They must be able to handle responsibility, work independently, and maintain good working relationships with clients and coworkers. Volunteer or paid jobs as a social work aide offer ways of testing one’s interest in this field. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Advancement to supervisor, program manager, assistant direc tor, or executive director of a social service agency or department is possible, but usually requires an advanced degree and related work experience. Other career options for social workers include teach ing, research, and consulting. Some also help formulate govern ment policies by analyzing and advocating policy positions in government agencies, in research institutions, and on legislators’ Some social workers go into private practice. Most private practitioners are clinical social workers who provide psycho therapy, usually paid through health insurance. Private practitio ners usually have at least a master’s degree and a period of supervised work experience. A network of contacts for referrals also is essential. Job Outlook Competition for social worker jobs is stronger in cities where de mand for services often is highest, training programs for social workers are prevalent, and interest in available positions is stron gest. However, opportunities should be good in rural areas, which often find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. Employment of social workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. The elderly popula tion is increasing rapidly, creating greater demand for health and social services, resulting in particularly rapid job growth among gerontology social workers. Social workers also will be needed to help the large baby-boom generation deal with depression and mental health concerns stemming from mid-life, career, or other personal and professional difficulties. In addition, continuing concern about crime, juvenile delinquency, and services for the mentally ill, the mentally retarded, the physically disabled, AIDS patients, and indi viduals and families in crisis will spur demand for social workers. Many job openings also will stem from the need to replace social workers who leave the occupation. The number of social workers in hospitals and long-term care facilities will increase in response to the need to provide medical and social services for clients who leave the facility. However, this need will be shared across several occupations. In an effort to con trol costs, these facilities increasingly emphasize discharging pa tients early, applying an interdisciplinary approach to patient care, and employing a broader mix of occupations—including clinical specialists, registered nurses, and health aides to tend to patient care or client needs. Social worker employment in home healthcare services is grow ing, in part because hospitals are releasing patients earlier than in the past. However, the expanding senior population is an even larger factor. Social workers with backgrounds in gerontology are find ing work in the growing numbers of assisted-living and senior-liv ing communities. Employment of social workers in private social service agencies also will grow. However, agencies increasingly will restructure ser vices and hire more lower-paid social and human service assistants instead of social workers. Employment in State and local govern ment may grow somewhat in response to increasing needs for pub lic welfare and family services; however, many of these services will be contracted out to private agencies. Employment in child protection services will grow due to increased concern over the safety of children. Employment levels may fluctuate depending on need and government funding for various social service programs. Employment of substance abuse social workers also will con tinue to grow over the projection period. Substance abusers are increasingly being placed into treatment programs instead of being sentenced to prison. As this trend grows, demand will increase for treatment programs and social workers to assist abusers on the road to recovery. Professional and Related Occupations 163 Employment of school social workers is expected to grow due to expanded efforts to respond to rising student enrollments. Moreover, continued emphasis on integrating disabled children into the general school population will lead to more jobs. However, availability of State and local funding will dictate the actual job growth in schools. Opportunities for social workers in private practice will expand, but this growth will be inhibited to a certain degree by funding cutbacks and by restrictions that managed care organizations place on services. The growing popularity of employee assistance pro grams also is expected to spur some demand for private practition ers, some of whom provide social work services to corporations on a contractual basis. Median annual earnings of mental health and substance abuse social workers were $30,170 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,840 and $39,190. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,300, and the top 10 percent earned more than $48,750. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of mental health and substance abuse social workers in 2000 were: Local government, except education and hospitals...................... $33,950 Hospitals..................................................................................................... 33,150 Health and allied services, not elsewhere classified........................ 28,270 Individual and family services........................................................... 28,160 Residential care......................................................................................... 26,620 Earnings Median annual earnings of child, family, and school social workers were $31,470 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,910 and $40,170. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,120, and the top 10 percent earned more than $50,280. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of child, family, and school social workers in 2000 were: Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occu pations with similar duties include the clergy, counselors, psycholo gists, and social and human service assistants. Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... Local government, except education and hospitals....................... State government, except education and hospitals........................ Individual and family services............................................................ Residential care..................................................................................... Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in social work and vol untary credentials for social workers, contact: $41,700 35,780 32,860 27,170 26 780 Median annual earnings of medical and public health social work ers were $34,790 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,800 and $43,450. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,490, and the top 10 percent earned more than $53,160. Me dian annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers ot medical and public health social workers in 2000 were: Hospitals.................................................................................................. $40,020 Health and allied services, not elsewhere classified...................... 36,230 Local government, except education and hospitals....................... 35,300 Nursing and personal care facilities.................................................. 31,580 29,730 Individual and family services............................................................... >- National Association of Social Workers, 750 First St. NE., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20002-4241. Internet: http://www.naswdc.org For a listing of accredited social work programs or to order a Directory ofColleges and Universities with Accredited Social Work Degree Programs for a nominal charge, contact: ► Council on Social Work Education, 1725 Duke St., Suite 500, Alexan dria, VA 22314-3457. Internet: http://www.cswe.org Information on licensing requirements and testing procedures for each State may be obtained from State licensing authorities, or from: > Association of Social Work Boards, 400 South Ridge Pkwy., Suite B, Culpeper, VA 22701. Internet: http://www.aswb.org Computer and Mathematical Occupations Actuaries (Q*NET 15-2011.00) • • • Significant Points A strong background in mathematics is essential. About 7 out of 10 actuaries are employed in the insurance industry. This small occupation generates relatively few job openings; the fastest employment growth is expected in the computer and data processing services, health services, and management and actuarial consulting industries. Nature of the Work Actuaries are essential employees because they determine future risk, make price decisions, and formulate investment strategies. Some actuaries also design insurance, financial, and pension plans https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and ensure that these plans are maintained on a sound financial ba sis. Most actuaries specialize in life and health or property and casualty insurance; others work primarily in finance or employee benefits. Some use a broad knowledge of business and mathemat ics in investment, risk classification, or pension planning. Regardless of specialty, actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate probabilities of an event taking place, such as death, sick ness, injury, disability, or property loss. They also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contribu tions required to produce a certain retirement income level or how a company should invest resources to maximize return on investment in light of potential risk. Moreover, actuaries may help determine company policy and sometimes explain complex technical matters to company executives, government officials, shareholders, policy holders, or the public in general. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting their businesses or ex plain changes in contract provisions to customers. They also may help companies develop plans to enter new lines of business or new geographic markets with existing lines of business by forecasting demand in competitive settings. 164 Occupational Outlook Handbook Most actuaries are employed in the insurance industry, in which they estimate the amount a company will pay in claims. For example, property/casualty actuaries calculate the expected amount of claims resulting from automobile accidents, which varies depending on the insured person’s age, sex, driving history, type of car, and other factors. Actuaries ensure that the price, or premium, charged for such insurance will enable the company to cover claims and other expenses. This premium must be profitable and yet competitive with other insurance companies. Actuaries employed in other industries perform several differ ent functions. The small but growing group of actuaries in the fi nancial services industry, for example, manages credit and helps price corporate security offerings. Because banks now offer their customers investment products such as annuities and asset manage ment services, actuaries increasingly help financial institutions manage the substantial risks associated with these products. Actu aries employed as pension actuaries enrolled under the provisions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) of 1974 evaluate pension plans covered by that act and report on their fi nancial soundness to plan members, sponsors, and Federal regula tors. Actuaries working in government help manage social programs such as Social Security and Medicare. In addition to salaried actuaries, numerous consulting actuaries provide advice to clients on a contract basis. Their clients include insurance companies, corporations, health maintenance organiza tions, healthcare providers, government agencies, and attorneys. The ... i fasm Actuaries perform complex mathematical analysis that assists organizations in making important operational decisions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis duties of most consulting actuaries are similar to those of other ac tuaries. For example, some design pension plans through calculat ing the future value of current deductions from earnings and by determining the amount of employer contributions. Others provide advice to healthcare plans or financial services firms. Consultants sometimes testify in court regarding the value of potential lifetime earnings of a person who is disabled or killed in an accident, the current value of future pension benefits in divorce cases, or other complex calculations. Many consulting actuaries work in reinsur ance, in which one insurance company arranges to share a large prospective liability policy with another insurance company in ex change for a percentage of the premium. Working Conditions Actuaries have desk jobs, and their offices usually are comfortable and pleasant. They often work at least 40 hours a week. Some actuaries, particularly consulting actuaries, may travel to meet with clients. Consulting actuaries also may experience more erratic em ployment and be expected to work more than 40 hours per week. Employment Actuaries held about 14,000 jobs in 2000. Over seven-tenths of the actuaries who were wage and salary workers were employed in the insurance industry. Some had jobs in life and health insurance com panies, while property and casualty insurance companies, pension funds, or insurance agents and brokers employed others. Most of the remaining actuaries worked for firms providing a variety of cor porate services, especially management and public relations, or for actuarial consulting services. A relatively small number of actuar ies was employed by security and commodity brokers or by govern ment agencies. Some developed computer software for actuarial calculations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement As with many business positions, actuaries need a strong background in mathematics and general business. Applicants for beginning ac tuarial jobs usually have a bachelor’s degree in mathematics, actu arial science, statistics, or a business-related discipline, such as economics, finance, or accounting. About 100 colleges and uni versities offer an actuarial science program, and most colleges and universities offer a degree in mathematics or statistics. Some com panies hire applicants without specifying a major, provided that the applicant has a working knowledge of mathematics, including cal culus, probability, and statistics, and has demonstrated this ability by passing one or two actuarial exams required for professional designation. Courses in economics, accounting, finance, and in surance also are useful. Companies increasingly prefer well-rounded individuals who, in addition to a strong technical background, have some training in liberal arts and business, and possess strong com munication skills. In addition to knowledge of mathematics, computer skills are becoming increasingly important. Actuaries should be able to de velop and use spreadsheets and databases, as well as standard sta tistical analysis software. Knowledge of computer programming languages, such as Visual Basic, also is useful. Two professional societies sponsor programs leading to full pro fessional status in their specialty. The first, the Society of Actuar ies (SOA), administers a series of actuarial examinations for the life and health insurance, pension, and finance and investment fields. The Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS), on the other hand, gives a series of examinations for the property and casualty field, which includes fire, accident, medical malpractice; workers compensation; and personal injury liability. Professional and Related Occupations 165 The first four exams of the SOA and CAS examination series are jointly sponsored by the two societies and cover the same mate rial. For this reason, students do not need to commit themselves to a specialty until they have taken the initial examinations. These test an individual’s competence in probability, calculus, statistics, and other branches of mathematics. The first few examinations help students evaluate their potential as actuaries. Many prospec tive actuaries begin taking the exams in college with the help of self-study guides and courses. Those who pass one or more exami nations have better opportunities for employment at higher starting salaries than those who do not. Actuaries are encouraged to complete the entire series of exami nations as soon as possible, advancing first to the associate level, and then to the fellowship level. Advanced casualty topics include investment and assets, dynamic financial analysis, and valuation of insurance topics. Candidates in the SOA examination series must choose a specialty—group and health benefits, individual life and annuities, pensions, investments, or finance. Examinations are given twice a year, in the spring and the fall. Although many companies allot time to their employees for study, extensive home study is re quired to pass the examinations, and many actuaries study for months to prepare for each examination. It is likewise common for em ployers to pay the hundreds of dollars for fees and study materials. Most reach the associate level within 4 to 6 years and the fellow ship level a few years later. Specific requirements apply for pension actuaries, who verify the financial status of defined benefit pension plans to the Federal Government. These actuaries must be enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. To qualify for enrollment, appli cants must meet certain experience and examination requirements, as stipulated by the Joint Board. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep up with current economic and social trends and legislation, as well as with developments in health, business, finance, and economics that could affect insurance or investment practices. Good communication and interpersonal skills also are important, particularly for prospective consulting actuaries. Beginning actuaries often rotate among different jobs in an or ganization to learn various actuarial operations and phases of insur ance work, such as marketing, underwriting, and product development. At first, they prepare data for actuarial projects or pet form other simple tasks. As they gain experience, actuaries may supervise clerks, prepare correspondence, draft reports, and con duct research. They may move from one company to another early in their careers as they move up to higher positions. Advancement depends largely on job performance and the num ber of actuarial examinations passed. Actuaries with a broad knowl edge of the insurance, pension, investment, or employee benefits fields can advance to administrative and executive positions in their companies. Actuaries with supervisory ability may advance to man agement positions in other areas, such as underwriting, accounting, data processing, marketing, or advertising. Some actuaries assume college and university faculty positions. (See the statement on teach ers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook This small occupation generates relatively few job openings from employment growth and the need to replace those who leave the occupation each year. The fastest employment growth is expected in the computer and data processing services, health services, and management and actuarial consulting industries. Employment of actuaries is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010, as projected job growth in these indus tries is offset by a slowdown in actuarial employment growth in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis insurance industries, which traditionally employ the majority of actuaries. New employment opportunities should become available in health services, in medical and health insurance industries, and in government in healthcare and Social Security. Changes in man aged healthcare and the desire to contain healthcare costs will con tinue to provide opportunities for actuaries. Some actuaries also are evaluating the risks associated with controversial medical is sues, such as genetic testing or the impact of diseases such as AIDS. Others in this field are involved in drafting healthcare legislation. As healthcare issues and Social Security reform continue to receive growing attention, opportunities for actuaries should increase. Actuaries will continue to be needed to evaluate risks associated with catastrophes, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters. Growing areas in property and casualty insurance are environmental and international risk management. Ac tuaries evaluate risks such as the likelihood of a toxic waste spill, or the costs and benefits of implementing pollution control equipment in a factory. As economic globalization continues and companies expand their operations abroad, they increasingly rely on actuaries to evaluate the risk of setting up a new factory or acquiring a for eign subsidiary. The banking and securities and commodities industries also should provide additional jobs for actuaries. As financial services continue to consolidate and insurance firms, banks, and securities firms enter one another’s markets, new opportunities will emerge. Actuaries will be needed to analyze the risks associated with enter ing a new market, such as launching a new service or merging with an already established company. At the same time, changes in consumer preferences for retire ment investment plans will adversely affect employment in the life insurance and pension funds industries. The overall decline in the life insurance industry, reflecting fewer life insurance policies sold in favor of investments earning higher returns, will continue to af fect the need for actuaries. Similarly, more people are choosing to invest in defined contribution plans, which are less complicated to analyze and, therefore, require fewer actuaries than defined pen sion systems. Actuaries in the pension funds industry are more likely to be involved in financial planning—helping people man age their retirement money. Layoffs in the insurance and financial industries due to downsizing and mergers also affect employment. Many of the ac tuaries released from insurance firms are choosing to establish con sulting practices. Jobs should be available for actuaries working in consulting as firms who do not employ their own actuarial staff continue to hire consulting actuaries to analyze various risks. Earnings Median annual earnings of actuaries were $66,590 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,260 and $93,140. The low est 10 percent had earnings of less than $37,130, while the top 10 percent earned over $127,360. The average salary for actuaries employed by the Federal Government was $78,120 in 2001. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, annual starting salaries for bachelor’s degree graduates in actu arial science averaged $45,753 in 2001. Insurance companies and consulting firms give merit increases to actuaries as they gain experience and pass examinations. Some companies also offer cash bonuses for each professional designa tion achieved. A 2001 salary survey of insurance and financial services companies, conducted by the Life Office Management Association, Inc., indicated that the average base salary for an en try-level actuary with the largest U.S. companies was $44,546. Associate actuaries with the largest U.S. companies, who direct and 166 Occupational Outlook Handbook provide leadership in the design, pricing, and implementation of insurance products, received an average salary of $91,544. Actuar ies at the highest technical level without managerial responsibili ties in the same size companies earned an average of $108,777. Related Occupations Actuaries need a strong background in mathematics, statistics, and related fields. Other workers whose jobs involve related skills include accountants and auditors, budget analysts, economists and market and survey researchers, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, insurance underwriters, mathematicians, and statisticians. Sources of Additional Information Career information on actuaries specializing in pensions is avail able from: ► American Society of Pension Actuaries, 4245 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 750, http://www.aspa.org For information about actuarial careers in life and health insur ance, employee benefits and pensions, and finance and investments, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: contact: >• Society of Actuaries (SOA), 475 N. Martingale Rd., Suite 800, 1L 60173-2226. Internet: http://www.soa.org For information about actuarial careers in property and casualty Schaumburg, insurance, contact: >■ Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS), 1100 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 600, Ar http://www.casact.org The SOA and CAS jointly sponsor a Web site for those interested in pursuing an actuarial career. Internet: http://www.BeAnActuary.org For general facts about actuarial careers, contact: lington, VA 22201. Internet: >- American Academy of Actuaries, 1100 17th St. NW., 7th Floor, Wash ington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.actuary.org/index.htm Computer Programmers (Q*NET 15-1021.00) Significant Points • • • Employment growth will be considerably slower than that of other computer specialists, due to the spread of pre-packaged software solutions. Three out of 5 computer programmers held at least a bachelor’s degree in 2000. Prospects should be best for college graduates with knowledge of a variety of programming languages and tools; those with less formal education or its equivalent in work experience should face strong competition for programming jobs. Nature of the Work Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed in structions, called programs, that computers must follow to per form their functions. They also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer. Many technical in novations in programming—advanced computing technologies and sophisticated new languages and programming tools—have rede fined the role of a programmer and elevated much of the program work done today. Job titles and descriptions may vary, Digitized ming for FRASER depending on the organization. In this occupational statement, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis computer programmer refers to individuals whose main job func tion is programming; this group has a wide range of responsibilities and educational backgrounds. Computer programs tell the computer what to do, such as which information to identify and access, how to process it, and what equip ment to use. Programs vary widely depending upon the type of information to be accessed or generated. For example, the instruc tions involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on board an aircraft for pi lots training in a flight simulator. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas, whose solutions can only be approximated, or that draw data from many existing systems, may require more than a year of work. In most cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision. Programmers write programs according to the specifications de termined primarily by computer software engineers and system ana lysts. (Separate statements on computer software engineers and systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) After the design process is complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. They then code these instructions in a conventional programming lan guage, such as COBOL; an artificial intelligence language, such as Prolog; or one of the most advanced object-oriented languages such as Java, C++, or Smalltalk. Different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. COBOL, for ex ample, is commonly used for business applications, whereas For tran (short for “formula translation”) is used in science and engineering. C++ is widely used for both scientific and business applications. Programmers generally know more than one program ming language; and since many languages are similar, they often can learn new languages relatively easily. In practice, programmers often are referred to by the language they know, such as Java pro grammers, or the type of function they perform or environment in which they work, such as database programmers, mainframe pro grammers, or Internet programmers. Many programmers update, repair, modify, and expand existing programs. When making changes to a section of code, called a routine, programmers need to make other users aware of the task the routine is to perform. They do this by inserting comments in the coded instructions, so others can understand the program. Many programmers use computer-assisted software engineering (CASE) tools to automate much of the coding process. These tools enable a programmer to concentrate on writing the unique parts of the pro gram, because the tools automate various pieces of the program being built. CASE tools generate whole sections of code automati cally, rather than line by line. This also yields more reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers’ productivity by eliminating some routine steps. Programmers test a program by running it, to ensure the instruc tions are correct and it produces the desired information. If errors do occur, the programmer must make the appropriate change and recheck the program until it produces the correct results. This pro cess is called debugging. Programmers may continue to fix these problems throughout the life of a program. Programmers working in a mainframe environment may prepare instructions for a com puter operator who will run the program. (A separate statement on computer operators appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) They also may contribute to a manual for users. Programmers often are grouped into two broad types applica tions programmers and systems programmers. Applications pro grammers write programs to handle a specific job, such as a program to track inventory, within an organization. They may also revise Professional and Related Occupations 167 existing packaged software. Systems programmers, on the other hand, write programs to maintain and control computer systems software, such as operating systems, networked systems, and data base systems. These workers make changes in the sets of instruc tions that determine how the network, workstations, and central processing unit of the system handle the various jobs they have been given and how they communicate with peripheral equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowl edge of the entire computer system, systems programmers often help applications programmers determine the source of problems that may occur with their programs. Programmers in software development companies may work directly with experts from various fields to create software—either programs designed for specific clients or packaged software for general use—ranging from games and educational software to pro grams for desktop publishing, financial planning, and spreadsheets. Much of this type of programming is in the preparation of pack aged software, which comprises one of the most rapidly growing segments of the computer services industry. In some organizations, particularly small ones, workers com monly known as programmer-analysts are responsible for both the systems analysis and the actual programming work. (A more detailed description of the work of programmer-analysts is presented in the statement on systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Advanced program ming languages and new object-oriented programming capabilities are increasing the efficiency and productivity of both programmers and users. The transition from a mainframe environment to one that is primarily personal computer (PC) based has blurred the once rigid distinction between the programmer and the user. Increas ingly, adept end-users are taking over many of the tasks previously performed by programmers. For example, the growing use of pack aged software, like spreadsheet and database management software packages, allows users to write simple programs to access data and perform calculations. Digitized Computer for FRASERprogrammers write programs according to the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org specifications determined by software engineers or systems analysts. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Programmers generally work in offices in comfortable surround ings. Many programmers may work long hours or weekends, to meet deadlines or fix critical problems that occur during off hours. Given the technology available, telecommuting is becoming com mon for a wide range of computer professionals—including com puter programmers. As computer networks expand, more programmers are able to connect to a customer’s computer system remotely to make corrections or fix problems, using modems, e mail, and the Internet. Like other workers who spend long periods of time in front of a computer terminal typing at a keyboard, programmers are suscep tible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Employment Computer programmers held about 585,000 jobs in 2000. Program mers are employed in almost every industry, but the largest concen tration is in the computer and data processing services industry, which includes firms that write and sell software. Large numbers of programmers can also be found working for firms that provide engineering and management services, telecommunications com panies, manufacturers of computer and office equipment, financial institutions, insurance carriers, educational institutions, and gov ernment agencies. A large number of computer programmers are employed on a temporary or contract basis or work as independent consultants, as companies demand expertise with new programming languages or specialized areas of application. Rather than hiring programmers as permanent employees and then laying them off after a job is completed, employers can contract with temporary help agencies, consulting firms, or directly with programmers themselves. A mar keting firm, for example, may only require the services of several programmers to write and debug the software necessary to get a new customer resource management system running. This prac tice also enables companies to bring in people with a specific set of skills—usually in one of the latest technologies—as it applies to their business needs. Bringing in an independent contractor or consultant with a certain level of experience in a new or advanced programming language, for example, enables an establishment to complete a particular job without having to retrain existing work ers. Such jobs may last anywhere from several weeks to a year or longer. There were 22,000 self-employed computer programmers in 2000. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While there are many training paths available for programmers, mainly because employers’ needs are so varied, the level of edu cation and experience employers seek has been rising, due to the growing number of qualified applicants and the specialization in volved with most programming tasks. Bachelor’s degrees are com monly required, although some programmers may qualify for certain jobs with 2-year degrees or certificates. Employers are primarily interested in programming knowledge, and computer pro grammers are able to get certified in a language such as C++ or Java. College graduates who are interested in changing careers or developing an area of expertise also may return to a 2-year com munity college or technical school for additional training. In the absence of a degree, substantial specialized experience or exper tise may be needed. Even with a degree, employers appear to be placing more emphasis on previous experience, for all types of programmers. 168 Occupational Outlook Handbook Table 1. Highest level of school completed or degree received, computer programmers, 2000 Percent High school graduate or equivalent or less Some college, no degree......................... Associate degree..................................... Bachelor’s degree................................... Graduate degree...................................... 11.8 17.2 11.0 47.4 12.8 About 3 out of 5 computer programmers had a bachelor’s degree or higher in 2000 (table 1). Of these, some hold a degree in com puter science, mathematics, or information systems, whereas oth ers have taken special courses in computer programming to supplement their study in fields such as accounting, inventory con trol, or other areas of business. As the level of education and train ing required by employers continues to rise, this proportion should increase in the future. Required skills vary from job to job, but the demand for various skills generally is driven by changes in technology. Employers us ing computers for scientific or engineering applications usually pre fer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences. Gradu ate degrees in related fields are required for some jobs. Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in management information systems (MIS) and business and who possess strong programming skills. Although knowledge of traditional languages still is important, in creasing emphasis is placed on newer, object-oriented programming languages and tools, such as C++ and Java. Additionally, employ ers are seeking persons familiar with fourth and fifth generation languages that involve graphic user interface (GUI) and systems programming. Employers also prefer applicants who have general business skills and experience related to the operations of the firm. Students can improve their employment prospects by participating in a college work-study program or by undertaking an internship. Most systems programmers hold a 4-year degree in computer science. Extensive knowledge of a variety of operating systems is essential. This includes being able to configure an operating sys tem to work with different types of hardware and adapting the oper ating system to best meet the needs of a particular organization. Systems programmers also must be able to work with database sys tems, such as DB2, Oracle, or Sybase, for example. When hiring programmers, employers look for people with the necessary programming skills who can think logically and pay close attention to detail. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work on exacting analytical work, especially under pres sure. Ingenuity and imagination also are particularly important, when programmers design solutions and test their work for potential fail ures. The ability to work with abstract concepts and to do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers, because they work with the software that controls the computer’s operation. Because programmers are expected to work in teams and interact directly with users, employers want programmers who are able to communicate with nontechnical personnel. Entry-level or j unior programmers may work alone on simple as signments after some initial instruction or on a team with more expe rienced programmers. Either way, beginning programmers generally must work under close supervision. Because technology changes so rapidly, programmers must continuously update their training by tak ing courses sponsored by their employer or software vendors. For skilled workers who keep up to date with the latest tech the prospects for advancement are good. In large organiza Digitizednology, for FRASER tions, programmers may be promoted to lead programmer and be https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications programmers may move into systems programming after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. With general business expe rience, programmers may become programmer analysts or systems analysts or be promoted to a managerial position. Other program mers, with specialized knowledge and experience with a language or operating system, may work in research and development areas, such as multimedia or Internet technology. As employers increas ingly contract out programming jobs, more opportunities should arise for experienced programmers with expertise in a specific area to work as consultants. Technical or professional certification is a way to demonstrate a level of competency or quality. In addition to language-specific certificates that a programmer can obtain, product vendors or soft ware firms also offer certification and may require professionals who work with their products to be certified. Voluntary certifica tion also is available through other organizations. Professional cer tification may provide a job seeker a competitive advantage. Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Jobs for both sys tems and applications programmers should be most plentiful in data processing service firms, software houses, and computer consult ing businesses. These types of establishments are part of computer and data processing services, which is projected to be the fastest growing industry in the economy over the 2000-10 period. As or ganizations attempt to control costs and keep up with changing tech nology, they will need programmers to assist in conversions to new computer languages and systems. In addition, numerous job open ings will result from the need to replace programmers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations such as manager or systems analyst. Employment ofprogrammers, however, is expected to grow much slower than that of other computer specialists. With the rapid gains in technology, sophisticated computer software now has the capa bility to write basic code, eliminating the need for more program mers to do this routine work. The consolidation and centralization of systems and applications, developments in packaged software, advanced programming languages and tools, and the growing abil ity of users to design, write, and implement more of their own pro grams means more of the programming functions can be transferred to other types of workers. As the level of technological innovation and sophistication increases, programmers should continue to face increasing competition from programming businesses overseas where much routine work can be contracted out at a lower cost. Nevertheless, employers will continue to need programmers who have strong technical skills and who understand an employer’s busi ness and its programming needs. This will mean that programmers will need to keep up with changing programming languages and techniques. Given the importance of networking and the expansion of client/server environments and web-based environments, organi zations will look for programmers who can support data communi cations and help implement electronic commerce and intranet strategies. Demand for programmers with strong object-oriented programming capabilities and technical specialization in areas such as client/server programming, multimedia technology, and graphic user interface (GUI), should arise from the expansion of intranets, extranets, and Internet applications. Programmers also will be needed to create and maintain expert systems and embed these technologies in more and more products. As programming tasks become increasingly sophisticated and an additional level of skill and experience is demanded by employ ers, graduates of 2-year programs and people with less than a Professional and Related Occupations 169 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience should face strong competition for programming jobs. Competition for entry-level positions, however, also can affect applicants with a bachelor’s degree. Prospects should be best for college graduates with knowl edge of, and experience working with, a variety of programming languages and tools—including C++ and other object-oriented lan guages like Java, as well as newer, domain-specific languages that apply to computer networking, data base management, and Internet application development. Obtaining vendor or language specific certification also can provide a competitive edge. Because de mand fluctuates with employers’ needs, job seekers should keep up to date with the latest skills and technologies. Individuals who want to become programmers can enhance their prospects by com bining the appropriate formal training with practical work experience. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer programmers were $57,590 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,850 and $74,500 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,020; the highest 10 percent earned more than $93,210. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of com puter programmers in 2000 were: Personnel supply services........................................................ $65,780 63,780 Professional and commercial equipment.................................. Computer and data processing services.................................... 61,010 Commercial banks................................................................... 60,180 Management and public relations............................................. 57,120 According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, starting salary offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer programming averaged $48,602 a year in 2001. According to Robert Half International, average annual starting salaries in 2001 ranged from $58,500 to $90,000 for applications development programmers/developers, and from $54,000 to $77,750 for software development programmers/analysts. Average starting salaries for Internet programmers/analysts ranged from $56,500 to $84,000. Related Occupations Other professional workers who deal with data and detail include computer software engineers; systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators; statisticians; mathematicians; engi neers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; accoun tants and auditors; actuaries; and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers. Municipal chambers of commerce are other sources of information on an area’s largest employers. For information about certification as a computing professional, contact: >• Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP), 2350 East Devon Ave., Suite 115, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.iccp.org Further information about computer careers is available from: >- Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org >- IEEE Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Digitized>forNational FRASER Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcct.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer Software Engineers (0*NET 15-1031.00, 15-1032.00) Significant Points • Computer software engineers are projected to be the fastest growing occupation over the 2000-10 period. • Very favorable opportunities are expected for college graduates with at least a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering or computer science and practical experience working with computers. • Computer software engineers must continually strive to acquire new skills as computer technology changes rapidly. Nature of the Work The explosive impact of computers and information technology on our everyday lives has generated a need to design and develop new computer software systems and to incorporate new technologies in a rapidly growing range of applications. The tasks performed by workers known as computer software engineers evolve rapidly, re flecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology, as well as the preferences and practices of employers. Computer soft ware engineers apply the principles and techniques of computer science, engineering, and mathematical analysis to the design, de velopment, testing, and evaluation of the software and systems that enable computers to perform their many applications. (A separate statement on computer hardware engineers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) Software engineers working in applications or systems develop ment analyze users’ needs and design, create, and modify general computer applications software or systems. Software engineers can be involved in the design and development of many types of soft ware including software for operating systems, network distribu tion, and compilers, which convert programs for faster processing. In programming, or coding, software engineers instruct a computer, line by line, how to perform a function. They also solve technical problems that arise. Software engineers must possess strong pro gramming skills, but are more concerned with developing algorithms and analyzing and solving programming problems than with actu ally writing code. (A separate statement on computer programmers appears elsewhere in the Handbook). Computer applications software engineers analyze users’ needs and design, create, and modify general computer applications soft ware or specialized utility programs. Different programming lan guages are used, depending on the purpose of the program. The programming languages most often used are C, C++, and Java, with Fortran and Cobol used less commonly. Some software engineers develop both packaged systems and systems software or create cus tomized applications. Computer systems software engineers coordinate the construc tion and maintenance of a company’s computer systems, and plan their future growth. Working with a company, they coordinate each department’s computer needs—ordering, inventory, billing, and pay roll recordkeeping, for example—and make suggestions about its technical direction. They also might setup the company’s intranets, networks that link computers within the organization and ease com munication. Systems software engineers work for companies that configure, implement, and install complete computer systems. They may be members of the marketing or sales staff, where they serve as the 170 Occupational Outlook Handbook primary technical resource for salesworkers and customers. They also may be involved in product sales and in providing their cus tomers with continuing technical support. Computer software engineers often work as part of a team that designs new hardware, software, and systems. A core team may comprise engineering, marketing, manufacturing, and design people who work together until the product is released. Working Conditions Computer software engineers normally work in well-lighted and comfortable offices or computer laboratories in which computer equipment is located. Most software engineers work at least 40 hours a week; however, due to the project-oriented nature of the work, they also may have to work evenings or weekends to meet deadlines or solve unexpected technical problems. And like other workers who sit for hours at a computer typing on a keyboard, soft ware engineers are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Many computer software engineers interact with customers and coworkers as they strive to improve software for users. Those em ployed by software vendors and consulting firms, for example, spend much of their time away from their offices, frequently traveling overnight, to meet with customers. They call on customers in busi nesses ranging from manufacturing plants to financial institutions. As networks expand, software engineers may be able to use mo dems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet to provide more technical support and other services from their main office, connecting to a customer’s computer remotely to identify and correct developing problems. Employment Computer software engineers held about 697,000 jobs in 2000. About 380,000 were computer software engineers, applications, and about 317,000 were computer software engineers, systems software. Although they are employed in most industries, the largest concen tration of computer software engineers, almost 46 percent, is in the computer and data processing services industry. This industry in cludes firms that develop and produce prepackaged software and firms that provide contractual computer services such as computer programming, systems integration, and information retrieval, includ ing online databases and Internet services. Many computer soft ware engineers also work for establishments in other industries, such as government agencies, manufacturers of computers and related electronic equipment, and colleges and universities. Employers of computer software engineers range from startup companies to established industry leaders. The proliferation of Internet, e-mail, and other communications systems expands elec tronics to engineering firms traditionally associated with unrelated disciplines. Engineering firms specializing in building bridges and power plants, for example, hire computer software engineers to design and develop new geographic data systems and automated drafting capabilities. Communications firms need computer soft ware engineers to tap into growth in the personal communications market. Major communications companies have many job open ings for both computer software applications and systems engineers. A increasing number of computer software engineers are em ployed on a temporary or contract basis—many of whom are selfemployed, working independently as consultants. Some consultants work for firms that specialize in developing and maintaining client companies’ websites and intranets. Consulting opportunities for software engineers should grow as businesses need help managing, upgrading, and customizing increasingly complex computer sys About 49,000 computer software engineers were self-em Digitizedtems. for FRASER ployed in 2000. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis te-’.-v -Ail Computer software engineers design, develop, and test many types of software. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire persons who have at least a bachelor’s degree and broad knowledge and experience with computer sys tems and technologies. Usual degree concentrations for applica tions software engineers are computer science or software engineering; for systems software engineers, usual concentrations are computer science or computer information systems. Graduate degrees are preferred for some of the more complex jobs. Academic programs in software engineering emphasize software and may be offered as a degree option or in conjunction with com puter science degrees. Students seeking software engineering jobs enhance their employment opportunities by participating in intern ship or co-op programs offered through their schools. These expe riences provide students with broad knowledge and experience, making them more attractive candidates to employers. Inexperi enced college graduates may be hired by large computer and con sulting firms that train new hires in intensive, company-based programs. In many firms, mentoring has become part of the evalu ation process for new employees. For systems software engineering jobs that require workers who have a college degree, a bachelor’s in computer science or com puter information systems is typical. For systems engineering jobs that place less emphasis on workers having a computer-related de gree, computer training programs are offered by systems software vendors, including Microsoft, Novell, and Oracle. These training programs usually last from 1 to 4 weeks but are not required in order to sit for a certification exam; several study guides also are available to help prepare for the exams. However, many training authorities feel that program certification alone is not sufficient for most software engineering jobs. Professional certification is offered by the Institute for Certifica tion of Computing Professionals. This voluntary certification is avail able to those who have a college degree and at least 2 years of experience. Candidates must pass an examination covering general knowledge and two specialty areas or one specialty area and two computer programming languages. In addition, the Institute of Elec trical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society recently an nounced plans to certify software engineers who pass an examination. Persons interested in jobs as computer software engineers must have strong problem-solving and analytical skills. They also must be able to communicate effectively with team members, other staff, and the customers they meet. And because they often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously, they must be able to concentrate and pay close attention to detail. Professional and Related Occupations 171 As is the case with most occupations, advancement opportunities for computer software engineers increase with experience. Entrylevel computer software engineers are likely to test and verify ongo ing designs. As they become more experienced, computer software engineers may be involved in designing and developing software. They eventually may advance to become a project manager, man ager of information systems, or chief information officer. Some com puter software engineers with several years of experience or expertise find lucrative opportunities working as systems designers or inde pendent consultants or starting their own computer consulting firms. As technological advances in the computer field continue, employ ers demand new skills. Computer software engineers must continu ally strive to acquire new skills ifthey wish to remain in this extremely dynamic field. To help them keep up with the changing technology, continuing education and professional development seminars are of fered by employers and software vendors, colleges and universities, private training institutions, and professional computing societies. Job Outlook Computer software engineers are projected to be the fastest grow ing occupation from 2000 to 2010. Very rapid employment growth in the computer and data processing services industry, which em ploys the greatest numbers of computer software engineers, should result in very favorable opportunities for those college graduates with at least a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering or com puter science and practical experience working with computers. Employers will continue to seek computer professionals with strong programming, systems analysis, interpersonal, and business skills. Employment of computer software engineers is expected to in crease much faster than the average for all occupations as busi nesses and other organizations continue to adopt and integrate new technologies and seek to maximize the efficiency of their computer systems. Competition among businesses will continue to create an incentive for increasingly sophisticated technological innovations, and organizations will need more computer software engineers to implement these new technological changes. In addition to em ployment growth, many job openings will result annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions, transfer to other occupations, or who leave the labor force. Demand for computer software engineers will increase as com puter networking continues to grow. For example, the expanding integration of Internet technologies and the explosive growth in elec tronic commerce—doing business on the Internet—have resulted in rising demand for computer software engineers who can develop Internet, intranet, and other web applications. Likewise, expanding electronic data processing systems in business, telecommunications, government, and other settings continue to become more sophisti cated and complex. Growing numbers of systems software engi neers will be needed to implement, safeguard, and update systems and resolve problems. Consulting opportunities for computer soft ware engineers also should continue to grow as businesses increas ingly need help to manage, upgrade, and customize their increasingly complex computer systems. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer software engineers, applica tions, who worked full time in 2000 were about $67,670. The middle 50 percent earned between $53,390 and $85,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $42,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $106,680. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer applications software engineers in 2000 were: Computer and office equipment......................................................... Computer and data processing services............................................ Engineering and architectural services............................................. Professional and commercial equipment.......................................... and public relations.......................................................... Management https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $74,300 69,520 68,790 64,920 62,660 Median annual earnings of computer software engineers, sys tems software, who worked full time in 2000 were about $69,530. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,460 and $86,520. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $43,600, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $105,240. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer systems soft ware engineers in 2000 were: Computer and office equipment........................................................ Computer and data processing services............................................ Telephone communication................................................................... Engineering and architectural services............................................. Commercial banks................................................................................. $74,600 70,150 68,930 68,030 65,620 According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, starting salary offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering averaged $53,924 in 2001, and those with a master’s degree averaged $58,026. Starting salary offers for gradu ates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science averaged $52,723. According to Robert Half International, starting salaries for soft ware engineers in software development ranged from $62,750 to $92,000 in 2001. In addition to typical benefits, computer software engineers may be provided with profit sharing, stock options, and a company car with a mileage allowance. Related Occupations Other workers who extensively use mathematics and logic include systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators; computer programmers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; computer hardware engineers; statisticians; mathe maticians; management analysts; actuaries; and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career in computer software engineer ing is available from: ► Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org >- IEEE Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org >- National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Further information about the Certified Computing Professional designation is available from: ► Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP), 2350 East Devon Ave., Suite 115, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.iccp.org Computer Support Specialists and Systems Administrators (0*NET 15-1041.00, 15-1071.00) Significant Points • • Computer support specialists and systems administrators are projected to be among the fastest growing occupations over the 2000-10 period. Job prospects should best for college graduates who are up to date with the latest skills and technologies; certifications and practical experience are essential for persons without degrees. 172 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work In the last decade, computers have become an integral part of every day life, used for a variety of reasons at home, in the workplace, and at schools. And almost every computer user encounters a prob lem occasionally, whether it is the disaster of a crashing hard drive or the annoyance of a forgotten password. The explosion of com puter use has created a high demand for specialists to provide advice to users, as well as day-to-day administration, maintenance, and support of computer systems and networks. Computer support specialists provide technical assistance, sup port, and advice to customers and other users. This group includes technical support specialists and help-desk technicians. These troubleshooters interpret problems and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They answer phone calls, ana lyze problems using automated diagnostic programs, and resolve recurrent difficulties. Support specialists may work either within a company that uses computer systems or directly for a computer hard ware or software vendor. Increasingly, these specialists work for help-desk or support services firms, where they provide computer support on a contract basis to clients. Technical support specialists are troubleshooters, providing valu able assistance to their organization’s computer users. Because many nontechnical employees are not computer experts, they often run into computer problems they cannot resolve on their own. Techni cal support specialists install, modify, clean, and repair computer hardware and software. They also may work on monitors, key boards, printers, and mice. Technical support specialists answer phone calls from their or ganizations’ computer users and may run automatic diagnostics pro grams to resolve problems. They also may write training manuals and train computer users how to properly use the new computer hardware and software. In addition, technical support specialists oversee the daily performance of their company’s computer sys tems and evaluate software programs for usefulness. Help-desk technicians assist computer users with the inevitable hardware and software questions not addressed in a product’s in struction manual. Help-desk technicians field telephone calls and e-mail messages from customers seeking guidance on technical prob lems. In responding to these requests for guidance, help-desk tech nicians must listen carefully to the customer, ask questions to diagnose the nature of the problem, and then patiently walk the customer through the problem-solving steps. Help-desk technicians deal directly with customer issues, and companies value them as a source of feedback on their products. These technicians are consulted for information about what gives customers the most trouble as well as their concerns. Most com puter support specialists start out at the help desk. Network ox computer systems administrators design, install, and support an organization’s LAN, WAN, network segment, Internet, or Intranet system. They provide day-to-day onsite administrative support for software users in a variety of work environments, in cluding professional offices, small businesses, government, and large corporations. They maintain network hardware and software, ana lyze problems, and monitor the network to ensure availability to system users. These workers gather data to identify customer needs and then use that information to identify, interpret, and evaluate system and network requirements. Administrators also may plan, coordinate, and implement network security measures. Systems administrators are the information technology employ ees responsible for the efficient use of networks by organizations. They ensure that the design of an organization’s computer site allows all the components, including computers, the network, and software, to fit together and work properly. Furthermore, they moni Digitizedtor forand FRASER adjust performance of existing networks and continually https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Computer support specialists answer telephone calls and respond to e-mail messages when assisting computer users. survey the current computer site to determine future network needs. Administrators also troubleshoot problems as reported by users and automated network monitoring systems and make recommenda tions for enhancements in the construction of future servers and networks. In some organizations, computer security specialists may plan, coordinate, and implement the organization’s information secu rity. These and other growing specialty occupations reflect the increasing emphasis on client-server applications, the expansion of Internet and Intranet applications, and the demand for more end-user support. Working Conditions Computer support specialists and systems administrators normally work in well lit, comfortable offices or computer laboratories. They usually work about 40 hours a week, but that may include evening or weekend work if the employer requires computer support over extended hours. Overtime may be necessary when unexpected tech nical problems arise. Like other workers who type on a keyboard for long periods, computer support specialists and systems admin istrators are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Due to the heavy emphasis on helping all types of computer users, computer support specialists and systems administrators con stantly interact with customers and fellow employees as they an swer questions and give valuable advice. Those who work as consultants are away from their offices much of the time, some times spending months working in a client’s office. As computer networks expand, more computer support special ists and systems administrators may be able to connect to a customer’s computer remotely using modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet to provide technical support to computer users. This capability would reduce or eliminate travel to the customer’s work place. Systems administrators also can administer and configure networks and servers remotely though it not as common as with computer support specialists. Employment Computer support specialists and systems administrators held about 734,000 jobs in 2000. Of these, about 506,000 were computer sup port specialists and about 229,000 were network and computer sys tems administrators. Although they worked in a wide range of Professional and Related Occupations 173 industries, about one-third of all computer support specialists and systems administrators were employed in business services indus tries, principally computer and data processing services. Other industries that employed substantial numbers of these workers include banks, government agencies, insurance companies, educational in stitutions, and wholesale and retail vendors of computers, office equipment, appliances, and home electronic equipment. Many com puter support specialists also worked for manufacturers of comput ers and other office equipment and for firms making electronic components and other accessories. Employers of computer support specialists and systems admin istrators range from start-up companies to established industry leaders. With the continued development of the Internet, telecom munications, and e-mail, industries not typically associated with computers—such as construction—increasingly need computer-re lated workers. Small and large firms across all industries are expand ing or developing computer systems, creating an immediate need for computer support specialists and systems administrators. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Due to the wide range of skills required, there are a multitude of ways workers can become a computer support specialist or a sys tems administrator. While there is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a computer support specialist, many employers prefer to hire persons with some formal college education. A bachelor’s degree in computer science or information systems is a prerequisite for some jobs; however, other jobs may require only a computer-related associate degree. For systems administrators, many employers seek applicants with bachelor’s degrees, though not nec essarily in a computer-related field. Many companies are becoming more flexible about requiring a college degree for support positions because of the explosive de mand for specialists. However, certification and practical experi ence demonstrating these skills will be essential for applicants without a degree. Completion of a certification training program, offered by a variety of vendors and product makers, may help some people to qualify for entry-level positions. Relevant computer ex perience may substitute for formal education. Beginning computer support specialist start out at an organiza tion dealing directly with customers or in-house users. Then, they may advance into more responsible positions in which they use what they learn from customers to improve the design and efficiency of future products. Job promotions usually depend more on perfor mance than on formal education. Eventually, some computer sup port specialists become applications developers, designing products rather than assisting users. Computer support specialists at hard ware and software companies often enjoy great upward mobility; advancement sometimes comes within months of initial employment. Entry-level network and computer systems administrators are in volved in routine maintenance and monitoring of computer systems, typically working behind the scenes in an organization. After gain ing experience and expertise, they often are able to advance into more senior-level positions in which they take on more responsi bilities. For example, senior network and computer systems admin istrators may present recommendations to management on matters related to a company’s network. They also may translate the needs of an organization into a set of technical requirements, based on the available technology. As with support specialists, administrators may become software engineers, actually involved in the designing of the system or network, not just the day-to-day administration. Persons interested in becoming a computer support specialist or systems administrator must have strong problem-solving, analyti cal, and communication skills because troubleshooting and helping Digitized others for FRASER are a vital part of the job. The constant interaction with other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis computer personnel, customers, and employees require computer support specialists and systems administrators to communicate ef fectively on paper, via e-mail, or in person. Strong writing skills are useful when preparing manuals for employees and customers. As technology continues to improve, computer support special ists and systems administrators must keep their skills current and ac quire new ones. Many continuing education programs are offered by employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universi ties, and private training institutions. Professional development semi nars offered by computing services firms also can enhance one’s skills. Job Outlook Computer support specialists and systems administrators are pro jected to be among the fastest growing occupations over the 2000 10 period. Employment is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations as organizations continue to adopt and integrate increasingly sophisticated technology. Job growth will continue to be driven by rapid gains in computer and data pro cessing services, which is projected to be the fastest growing indus try in the U.S. economy. The falling prices of computer hardware and software should help businesses expand their computing applications and integrate new technology into their operations. To maintain a competitive edge and operate more efficiently, firms will continue to demand com puter specialists who are knowledgeable about the latest technolo gies and able to apply them to meet the needs of the organization. Demand for computer support specialists is expected to increase because of the rapid pace of improved technology. As computers and software become more complex, support specialists will be needed to provide technical assistance to customers and other users. Consulting opportunities for computer support specialists also should continue to grow as businesses increasingly need help managing, upgrading, and customizing more complex computer systems. Demand for systems administrators will grow as a result of the upsurge in electronic commerce and as computer applications con tinue to expand. Companies are looking for workers knowledge able in the function and administration of networks. Such employees have become increasingly hard to find as systems administration has moved from being a separate function within corporations to one which forms a crucial element of business in an increasingly high-technology economy. The growth of electronic commerce means more establishments use the Internet to conduct their business online. This translates into a need for information technology specialists who can help organizations use technology to communicate with employees, cli ents, and consumers. Explosive growth in these areas also is ex pected to fuel demand for specialists knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security. Job prospects should be best for college graduates who are up to date with the latest skills and technologies, particularly if they have supplemented their formal education with some relevant work ex perience. Employers will continue to seek computer specialists who possess a strong background in fundamental computer skills com bined with good interpersonal and communication skills. Due to the rapid growth in demand for computer support specialists and systems administrators, those who have strong computer skills but do not have a bachelor’s degree should continue to qualify for some entry-level positions. However, certifications and practical experi ence are essential for persons without degrees. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer support specialists were $36,460 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,680 and $48,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,260, and 174 Occupational Outlook Handbook the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,480. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of com puter support specialists in 2000 were: Professional and commercial equipment Computer and data processing services.. Personnel supply services......................... Colleges and universities.......................... Miscellaneous business services ............ $42,970 37,860 34,080 32,830 21,070 Median annual earnings of network and computer systems ad ministrators were $51,280 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,450 and $65,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $81,150. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num ber of network and computer systems administrators in 2000 were: Computer and data processing services Telephone communication...................... Management and public relations......... Elementary and secondary schools....... Colleges and universities........................ $54,400 52,620 51,340 45,450 44,010 According to Robert Half International, starting salaries in 2001 ranged from $30,500 to $56,000 for help-desk support staff, and from $48,000 to $61,000 for more senior technical support special ists. For systems administrators, starting salaries in 2001 ranged from $50,250 to $70,750. Related Occupations Other computer-related occupations include computer programmers; computer software engineers; systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators; and operations research analysts. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about a career as a computer support specialist, contact: >• Association of Computer Support Specialists, 218 Huntington Rd., Bridgeport, CT 06608. Internet: http://www.acss.org ► Association of Support Professionals, 66 Mt. Auburn St., Watertown, MA 02472. Internet: http://www.asponline.com For additional information about a career as a systems adminis trator, contact: >■ System Administrators Guild, 2560 9th St., Suite 215, Berkeley, CA 94710. Internet: http://www.sage.org Further information about computer careers is available from: Nature of the Work Mathematics is one of the oldest and most fundamental sciences. Mathematicians use mathematical theory, computational techniques, algorithms, and the latest computer technology to solve economic, scientific, engineering, physics, and business problems. The work of mathematicians falls into two broad classes—theoretical (pure) mathematics and applied mathematics. These classes, however, are not sharply defined, and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical knowledge by developing new principles and recognizing previously unknown relationships between existing principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily consid ering its practical use, such pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing or furthering many scientific and engi neering achievements. Many theoretical mathematicians are em ployed as university faculty and divide their time between teaching and conducting research. (See the statement on teachers— postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Applied mathematicians, on the other hand, use theories and tech niques, such as mathematical modeling and computational methods, to formulate and solve practical problems in business, government, engineering, and in the physical, life, and social sciences. For example, they may analyze the most efficient way to schedule airline routes between cities, the effect and safety of new drugs, the aerody namic characteristics of an experimental automobile, or the costeffectiveness of alternate manufacturing processes. Applied mathematicians working in industrial research and development may develop or enhance mathematical methods when solving a difficult problem. Some mathematicians, called cryptanalysts, analyze and decipher encryption systems designed to transmit military, political, financial, or law enforcement-related information in code. Applied mathematicians start with a practical problem, envision the separate elements of the process under consideration, and then reduce the elements into mathematical variables. They often use computers to analyze relationships among the variables and solve complex problems by developing models with alternate solutions. Much of the work in applied mathematics is done by individuals with titles other than mathematician. In fact, because mathematics is the foundation upon which so many other academic disciplines are built, the number of workers using mathematical techniques is much greater than the number formally designated as mathemati cians. For example, engineers, computer scientists, physicists, and economists are among those who use mathematics extensively. Some professionals, including statisticians, actuaries, and operations >- National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Mathematicians % ”W (Q*NET 15-2021.00) Significant Points • • A doctoral degree in mathematics usually is the minimum education needed, except in the Federal Government. Employment is expected to decline because very few jobs with the title mathematician are available. • Master’s and Ph.D. degree holders with a strong background in mathematics and a related discipline, such as computer science or engineering, should have good employment opportunities in related occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Mathematicians use abstract mathematical concepts and theories in real-world applications. Professional and Related Occupations 175 research analysts, actually are specialists in a particular branch of mathematics. Frequently, applied mathematicians are required to collaborate with other workers in their organizations to achieve common solutions to problems. (For more information, see the state ments on actuaries, operations research analysts, and statisticians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Mathematicians usually work in comfortable offices. They often are part of an interdisciplinary team that may include economists, engineers, computer scientists, physicists, technicians, and others. Deadlines, overtime work, special requests for information or analy sis, and prolonged travel to attend seminars or conferences may be part of their jobs. Mathematicians who work in academia usually have a mix of teaching and research responsibilities. These math ematicians often conduct research alone, or are aided by graduate students interested in the topic being researched. Employment Mathematicians held about 3,600 jobs in 2000. In addition, about 20,000 persons held full-time mathematics faculty positions in colleges and universities in 2000, according to the American Mathematical Society. (See the statement on teachers— postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many nonfaculty mathematicians work for Federal or State gov ernments. The U.S. Department of Defense is the primary Federal employer, accounting for about three-fourths of the mathematicians employed by the Federal Government. In the private sector, major employers include research and testing services, educational ser vices, security and commodity exchanges, and management and public relations services. Within manufacturing, the aerospace and drug industries are the key employers. Some mathematicians also work for banks and insurance companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree in mathematics usually is the minimum educa tion needed for prospective mathematicians, except in the Federal Government. In the Federal Government, entry-level job candi dates usually must have a 4-year degree with a major in mathemat ics or a 4-year degree with the equivalent of a mathematics major—24 semester hours of mathematics courses. In private industry, candidates for mathematician jobs typically need a Masters or Ph.D. degree. Most of the positions designated for mathematicians are in research and development laboratories as part of technical teams. Research scientists in such positions en gage either in basic research on pure mathematical principles or in applied research on developing or improving specific products or processes. The majority of those with a bachelor’s or master’s de gree in mathematics who work in private industry do so not as math ematicians, but in related fields such as computer science, where they have titles such as computer programmer, systems analyst, or systems engineer. A bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for this de gree include calculus, differential equations, and linear and abstract algebra. Additional courses might include probability theory and statistics, mathematical analysis, numerical analysis, topology, dis crete mathematics, and mathematical logic. Many colleges and universities urge or require students majoring in mathematics to take courses in a field that is closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, engineering, life science, physical science, or economics. A double major in mathematics and another discipline such as computer science, economics, or another one of the sci Digitized ences for FRASER is particularly desirable to many employers. A prospective https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis college mathematics major should take as many mathematics courses as possible while in high school. In 2001, about 200 colleges and universities offered a master’s degree as the highest degree in either pure or applied mathematics; about 200 offered a Ph.D. degree in pure or applied mathematics. In graduate school, students conduct research and take advanced courses, usually specializing in a subfield of mathematics. For jobs in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Mathematics is used extensively in physics, actuarial science, statistics, engineer ing, and operations research. Computer science, business and indus trial management, economics, finance, chemistry, geology, life sciences, and behavioral sciences are likewise dependent on ap plied mathematics. Mathematicians also should have substantial knowledge of computer programming because most complex math ematical computation and much mathematical modeling is done on a computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning ability and persistence in order to identify, analyze, and apply basic principles to technical problems. Communication skills are important, as mathematicians must be able to interact and discuss proposed solutions with people who may not have an extensive knowledge of mathematics. Job Outlook Employment of mathematicians is expected to decline through 2010, because very few jobs with the title mathematician are available. However, master’s and Ph.D. degree holders with a strong back ground in mathematics and a related discipline, such as engineering or computer science, should have good job opportunities. How ever, many of these workers have job titles that reflect their occupa tion, rather than the title mathematician. Advancements in technology usually lead to expanding applica tions of mathematics, and more workers with knowledge of math ematics will be required in the future. However, jobs in industry and government often require advanced knowledge of related sci entific disciplines in addition to mathematics. The most common fields in which mathematicians study and find work are computer science and software development, physics, engineering, and op erations research. More mathematicians also are becoming involved in financial analysis. Mathematicians must compete for jobs, how ever, with people who have degrees in these other disciplines. The most successful jobseekers will be able to apply mathematical theory to real-world problems, and possess good communication, team work, and computer skills. Private industry jobs require at least a master’s degree in math ematics or in one of the related fields. Bachelor’s degree holders in mathematics usually are not qualified for most jobs, and many seek advanced degrees in mathematics or a related discipline. However, bachelor’s degree holders who meet State certification requirements may become primary or secondary school mathematics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on teachers—pre school, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Holders of a master’s degree in mathematics will face very strong competition for jobs in theoretical research. Because the number of Ph.D. degrees awarded in mathematics continues to exceed the number of university positions available, many of these graduates will need to find employment in industry and government. Earnings Median annual earnings of mathematicians were $68,640 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,740 and $85,520. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $35,390, while the high est 10 percent earned over $101,900. 176 Occupational Outlook Handbook According to a 2001 survey by the National Association of Col leges and Employers, starting salary offers averaged $46,466 a year for mathematics graduates with a bachelor’s degree, and $55,938 for those with a master’s degree. Doctoral degree candidates aver aged $53,440. In early 2001, the average annual salary for mathematicians em ployed by the Federal Government in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and managerial positions was $76,460; for mathematical statisti cians, it was $76,530, and for cryptanalysts, $70,840. Related Occupations Other occupations that require extensive knowledge of mathematics or, in some cases, a degree in mathematics include actuaries; statis ticians; computer programmers; systems analysts, computer scien tists, and database administrators; computer software engineers; and operations research analysts. A strong background in mathematics also facilitates employment as teachers—postsecondary, engineers, economists and survey and market researchers, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, and physicists and astronomers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about careers and training in mathematics, especially for doctoral-level employment, contact: > American Mathematical Society, 201 Charles St., Providence, RI02940. Internet: http://www.ams.org For specific information on careers in applied mathematics, contact: >• Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 3600 University City Science Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104-2688. Internet: http://www.siam.org/alterindex.htm Information on obtaining a mathematician position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local num ber or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http:// www.usajobs.opm.gov. Operations Research Analysts (0*NET 15-2031.00) Significant Points • • Individuals with a master’s or Ph.D. degree in management science, operations research, or a closely related field should have good job prospects. Employment growth is projected to be slower than average because few job openings are expected to have the title operations research analyst. Nature of the Work Operations research and management science are terms that are used interchangeably to describe the discipline of applying advanced ana lytical techniques to help make better decisions and to solve prob lems. The procedures of operations research gave effective assistance during World War II in missions such as deploying radar, searching for enemy submarines, and getting supplies where they were most needed. Following the war, new analytical methods were developed and numerous peacetime applications emerged, leading to the use of operations research in many industries and occupations. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The prevalence of operations research in the Nation’s economy reflects the growing complexity of managing large organizations that require the effective use of money, materials, equipment, and people. Operations research analysts help determine better ways to coordinate these elements by applying analytical methods from mathematics, science, and engineering. They solve problems in different ways and propose alternative solutions to management, which then chooses the course of action that best meets the organization’s goals. In general, operations research analysts may be concerned with diverse issues such as top-level strategy, plan ning, forecasting, resource allocation, performance measurement, scheduling, design of production facilities and systems, supply chain management, pricing, transportation and distribution, and analysis of data in large databases. The duties of the operations research analyst vary according to the structure and management philosophy of the employer or cli ent. Some firms centralize operations research in one department; others use operations research in each division. Operations research analysts also may work closely with senior managers to identify and solve a variety of problems. Some organizations contract op erations research services with a consulting firm. Economists, sys tems analysts, mathematicians, industrial engineers, and others also may apply operations research techniques to address problems in their respective fields. (These occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Regardless of the type or structure of the client organization, operations research in its classical role entails a similar set of pro cedures in carrying out analysis to support management’s quest for performance improvement. Managers begin the process by describ ing the symptoms of a problem to the analyst, who then formally defines the problem. For example, an operations research analyst for an auto manufacturer may be asked to determine the best inven tory level for each of the parts needed on a production line and to determine the number of windshields to be kept in inventory. Too many windshields would be wasteful and expensive, while too few could result in an unintended halt in production. Operations research analysts study such problems, then break them into their component parts. Analysts then gather information about each of these parts from a variety of sources. To determine the most efficient amount of inventory to be kept on hand, for example, opera tions research analysts might talk with engineers about production levels, discuss purchasing arrangements with buyers, and examine data on storage costs provided by the accounting department. With this information in hand, the analyst is ready to select the most appropriate analytical technique. Analysts could use several techniques—including simulation, linear and nonlinear program ming, dynamic programming, queuing and other stochastic-process models, Markov decision processes, econometric methods, data envelopment analysis, neural networks, expert systems, decision analysis, and the analytic hierarchy process. Nearly all of these techniques, however, involve the construction of a mathematical model that attempts to describe the system being studied. The use of models enables the analyst to assign values to the different com ponents, and clarify the relationships between components. These values can be altered to examine what may happen to the system under different circumstances. In most cases, the computer program developed to solve the model must be modified and run repeatedly to obtain different solutions. A model for airline flight scheduling, for example, might include vari ables for the cities to be connected, amount of fuel required to fly the routes, projected levels of passenger demand, varying ticket and fuel prices, pilot scheduling, and maintenance costs. By locating the right combination of variable values, the analyst is able to produce the best flight schedule consistent with particular assumptions. Professional and Related Occupations 177 mgs Operations research analysts often use computer-generated mathematical models to evaluate and improve an organization's efficiency. Upon concluding the analysis, the operations research analyst presents to management recommendations based on the results. Additional computer runs to consider different assumptions may be needed before deciding on the final recommendation. Once man agement reaches a decision, the analyst usually works with others in the organization to ensure the plan’s successful implementation. Working Conditions Operations research analysts generally work regular hours in an office environment. Because they work on projects that are of immediate interest to top management, operations research analysts often are under pressure to meet deadlines and work more than a 40-hour week. Employment Operations research analysts held about 47,000 jobs in 2000. Ma jor employers include telecommunication companies, air carriers, computer and data processing services firms, financial institutions, insurance carriers, engineering and management services firms, and the Federal Government. Most operations research analysts in the Federal Government work for the U.S. Armed Forces, and many operations research analysts in private industry work directly or in directly on national defense. About 1 out of 5 analysts work for engineering, management and public relations, and research and testing, agencies that do operations research consulting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally prefer applicants with at least a master’s de gree in operations research, engineering, business, mathematics, in formation systems, or management science, coupled with a bachelor’s degree in computer science or a quantitative discipline such as economics, mathematics, or statistics. Dual graduate de grees in operations research and computer science are especially attractive to employers. Operations research analysts also must be able to think logically and work well with people, and employers prefer workers with good oral and written communication skills. In addition to formal education, employers often sponsor train ing for experienced workers, helping them keep up with new devel opments in operations research techniques and computer science. Some analysts attend advanced university classes on these subjects Digitized at fortheir FRASER employer’s expense. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Because computers are the most important tools for in-depth analysis, training and experience in programming are required. Operations research analysts typically need to be proficient in data base collection and management, programming, and in the devel opment and use of sophisticated software programs. Beginning analysts usually perform routine work under the su pervision of more experienced analysts. As they gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more complex tasks and given greater autonomy to design models and solve problems. Opera tions research analysts advance by assuming positions as technical specialists or supervisors. The skills acquired by operations research analysts are useful for higher level management jobs, so experi enced analysts may leave the field to assume nontechnical manage rial or administrative positions. Operations research analysts with significant experience might become consultants and some may even open their own consulting practice. Job Outlook Employment of operations research analysts is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010, because few job openings in this field are expected to have the title operations research analyst. Job opportunities in operations research should be good, however, because of interest in improv ing productivity, effectiveness, and competitiveness, and because of the extensive availability of data, computers, and software. Many jobs in operations research have other titles such as operations analyst, management analyst, systems analyst, or policy analyst. Individuals who hold a master’s or Ph.D. degree in operations research, management science, or a closely related field should find good job opportunities as the number of openings generated by employment growth and the need to replace those leaving the occupation is expected to exceed the number of persons graduat ing with these credentials. Organizations today face pressure from growing domestic and international competition and must work to make their operations as effective as possible. As a result, businesses will increasingly rely on operations research analysts to optimize profits by improv ing productivity and reducing costs. As new technology is intro duced into the marketplace, operations research analysts will be needed to determine how to utilize the technology in the best way. Opportunities for operations research analysts exist in almost every industry because of the diversity of applications for their work. However, opportunities should be especially good in highly com petitive industries, such as manufacturing, transportation, and tele communications, and finance. As businesses and government agencies continue to contract out jobs to cut costs, many operations research analysts also will find opportunities as consultants, either working for a consulting firm or setting up their own practice. Oppor tunities in the military also exist, but will depend on the size of future military budgets. As the military develops new weapons sys tems and strategies, military leaders will rely on operations research analysts to test and evaluate their accuracy and effectiveness. Earnings Median annual earnings of operations research analysts were $53,420 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,530 and $70,790. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $31,860, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,870. In 2000, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of operations research analysts were: Computer and data processing services........................................... Federal Government............................................................................. Aircraft and parts .................................................................................. Engineering and architectural services............................................. $65,420 62 990 52 960 47,480 178 Occupational Outlook Handbook The average annual salary for operations research analysts in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and mana gerial positions was $77,730 in 2001. Related Occupations Operations research analysts apply advanced analytical methods to large, complicated problems. Workers in other occupations that stress advanced analysis include systems analysts, computer scien tists, and database administrators; computer programmers; engineers; mathematicians; statisticians; and economists and market and sur vey researchers. Because its goal is improved organizational effec tiveness, operations research also is closely allied to managerial occupations, such as computer and information systems managers, and management analysts. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportunities for operations research ana lysts is available from: Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, 901 Elkridge Landing Rd., Suite 400, Linthicum, MD 21090. Internet: http://www.informs.org For information on operations research careers in the Armed Forces and U.S. Department of Defense, contact: Military Operations Research Society, 101 South Whiting St., Suite 202, Alexandria, VA 22304. Internet: http://www.mors.org the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Fi nally, statisticians analyze, interpret, and summarize the data using computer software. In business and industry, statisticians play an important role in quality control and product development and improvement. In an automobile company, for example, statisticians might design ex periments to determine the failure time of engines exposed to ex treme weather conditions by running individual engines until failure and breakdown. Working for a pharmaceutical company, statisti cians might develop and evaluate the results of clinical trials to determine the safety and effectiveness of new medications. And at a computer software firm, statisticians might help construct new statistical software packages to analyze data more accurately and efficiently. In addition to product development and testing, some statisticians also are involved in deciding what products to manu facture, how much to charge for them, and to whom the products should be marketed. Statisticians also may manage assets and li abilities, determining the risks and returns of certain investments. Numerous statisticians also are employed by nearly every gov ernment agency. Some government statisticians develop surveys that measure population growth, consumer prices, or unemployment. Other statisticians work for scientific, environmental, and agricul tural agencies and may help to determine the amount of pesticides in drinking water, the number of endangered species living in a particular area, or the number of people afflicted with a particular Statisticians (0*NET 15-2041.00) Significant Points • • • Many individuals with degrees in statistics enter jobs that do not have the title statistician. A master’s degree in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for most jobs with this title. Although little or no change is expected in employment of statisticians over the 2000-10 period, job opportunities should remain favorable for individuals with statistical degrees. Nature of the Work Statistics is the scientific application of mathematical principles to the collection, analysis, and presentation of numerical data. Statis ticians contribute to scientific inquiry by applying their mathemati cal knowledge to the design of surveys and experiments; collection, processing, and analysis of data; and interpretation of the results. Statisticians often apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a variety of subject areas, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, public health, psychology, marketing, education, and sports. Many applications cannot occur without the use of statisti cal techniques, such as designing experiments to gain Federal ap proval of a newly manufactured drug. One technique that is especially useful to statisticians is sam pling—obtaining information about a population of people or group of things by surveying a small portion of the total. For example, to determine the size of the audience for particular programs, televi sion-rating services survey only a few thousand families, rather than all viewers. Statisticians decide where and how to gather the Digitizeddata, for FRASER determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis -m■ , Statisticians work in many different fields organizing surveys, collecting data, and analyzing the results. Professional and Related Occupations 179 disease. Other statisticians are employed in national defense agencies, determining the accuracy of new weapons and defense strategies. Because statistical specialists are used in so many work areas, specialists who use statistics often have different professional des ignations. For example, a person using statistical methods on eco nomic data may have the title econometrician, while statisticians in public health and medicine may hold titles such as biostatistician, biometrician, or epidemiologist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in comfortable offices. Some statisticians travel to provide advice on research projects, supervise and set up surveys, or gather statistical data. Some may have duties that vary widely, such as designing experiments or performing field work in various communities. Statisticians who work in academia generally have a mix of teaching and research responsibilities. Employment Statisticians held about 19,000 jobs in 2000. One-fifth of these jobs were in the Federal Government, where statisticians were con centrated in the Departments of Commerce, Agriculture, and Health and Human Services. Most of the remaining jobs were in private industry, especially in the research and testing services and man agement and public relations industries. In addition, many profes sionals with a background in statistics were among the 20,000 full-time mathematics faculty in colleges and universities in 2000, according to the American Mathematical Society. (See the state ment on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although more employment opportunities are becoming available to well-qualified statisticians with bachelor’s degrees, a master’s degree in statistics or mathematics is usually the minimum educa tional requirement for most statistician jobs. Research and aca demic positions in institutions of higher education, for example, require a graduate degree, usually a doctorate, in statistics. Begin ning positions in industrial research often require a master’s degree combined with several years of experience. The training required for employment as an entry-level statisti cian in the Federal Government, however, is a bachelor’s degree, including at least 15 semester hours of statistics or a combination of 15 hours of mathematics and statistics, if at least 6 semester hours are in statistics. Qualifying as a mathematical statistician in the Federal Government requires 24 semester hours of mathematics and statistics with a minimum of 6 semester hours in statistics and 12 semester hours in an area of advanced mathematics, such as calcu lus, differential equations, or vector analysis. About 80 colleges and universities offered bachelor’s degrees in statistics in 2000. Many other schools also offered degrees in math ematics, operations research, and other fields that included a suffi cient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for some beginning positions in the Federal Government. Required subjects for statistics majors include differential and integral calculus, sta tistical methods, mathematical modeling, and probability theory. Additional courses that undergraduates should take include linear algebra, design and analysis of experiments, applied multivariate analysis, and mathematical statistics. In 2000, approximately 110 universities offered a master’s degree program in statistics, and about 60 offered a doctoral degree pro gram. Many other schools also offered graduate-level courses in applied statistics for students majoring in biology, business, eco nomics, education, engineering, psychology, and other fields. DigitizedAcceptance for FRASER into graduate statistics programs does not require an https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis undergraduate degree in statistics, although good training in math ematics is essential. Because computers are used extensively for statistical applica tions, a strong background in computer science is highly recom mended. For positions involving quality and productivity improvement, training in engineering or physical science is useful. A background in biological, chemical, or health science is impor tant for positions involving the preparation and testing of pharma ceutical or agricultural products. Courses in economics and business administration are helpful for many jobs in market research, busi ness analysis, and forecasting. Good communications skills are important for prospective stat isticians in industry, where they often need to explain technical matters to persons without statistical expertise. An understanding of business and the economy also is valuable for those who plan to work in private industry. Beginning statisticians generally are supervised by an experi enced statistician. With experience, they may advance to positions with more technical responsibility and, in some cases, supervisory duties. However, opportunities for promotion increase with ad vanced degrees. Master’s and Ph.D. degree holders usually enjoy independence in their work and become qualified to engage in re search, develop statistical methods, or, after a number of years of experience in a particular area, become statistical consultants. Job Outlook Little or no change is expected in employment of statisticians over the 2000-10 period. However, job opportunities should remain fa vorable for individuals with statistical degrees, although many of these positions will not carry the explicit job title statistician. This is especially true ofjobs that involve the analysis and interpretation of data from other disciplines such as economics, biological sci ence, psychology, or engineering. In addition to the limited num ber ofjobs resulting from growth, a number of openings will become available as statisticians retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the workforce for other reasons. Among graduates with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in sta tistics, those with a strong background in an allied field, such as finance, engineering, or computer science, should have the best prospects of finding jobs related to their field of study. Federal agencies will hire statisticians in many fields, including demogra phy, agriculture, consumer and producer surveys, Social Security, healthcare, and environmental quality. Competition for entry-level positions in the Federal Government is expected to be strong for those just meeting the minimum qualification standards for statis ticians, because the Federal Government is one of the few employers that considers a bachelor’s degree to be an adequate entry-level qualification. Those who meet State certification requirements may become high school statistics teachers. (For additional information, see the statement on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Manufacturing firms will hire statisticians with master’s and doc toral degrees for quality control of various products, including phar maceuticals, motor vehicles, chemicals, and food. For example, pharmaceutical firms employ statisticians to assess the safety and effectiveness of new drugs. To address global product competi tion, motor vehicle manufacturers will need statisticians to improve the quality of automobiles, trucks, and their components by devel oping and testing new designs. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs in research and development, working with teams of scientists and engineers to help improve design and production processes to ensure consistent quality of newly developed products. Many statisticians also will find 180 Occupational Outlook Handbook opportunities developing statistical software for computer software manufacturing firms. Business firms will rely heavily on workers with a background in statistics to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, and help solve management problems in order to maximize profits. In addition, consulting firms increasingly will offer sophisticated statistical ser vices to other businesses. Because of the widespread use of com puters in this field, statisticians in all industries should have good computer programming skills and knowledge of statistical software. Earnings Median annual earnings of statisticians were $51,990 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,160 and $69,220. The low est 10 percent had earnings of less than $28,430, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,660. The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $68,900 in 2001, while mathematical statisticians averaged $76,530. According to a 2001 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for mathematics/ statistics graduates with a bachelor’s degree averaged $46,466 a year. Related Occupations People in numerous occupations work with statistics. Among these are actuaries; mathematicians; operations research analysts; sys tems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators; computer programmers; computer software engineers; engineers; economists and market and survey researchers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; and life, physical, and social sci ence occupations. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: > American Statistical Association, 1429 Duke St., Alexandria, VA22314. Internet: http://www.amstat.org For more information on doctoral-level careers and training in mathematics, a field closely related to statistics, contact: > American Mathematical Society, 201 Charles St., Providence, RI02940. Internet: http://www.ams.org Information on obtaining a statistician position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first num ber is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is avail able from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Systems Analysts, Computer Scientists, and Database Administrators __ (0*NET 15-1011.00, 15-1051.00, 15-1061.00, 15-1081.00, 15-1099.99) Significant Points • As computer applications expand, systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators are projected to be the among the fastest growing occupations. • Relevant work experience and a bachelor’s degree are prerequisites for many jobs; for more complex jobs, a graduate degree is preferred. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The rapid spread of computers and information technology has gen erated a need for highly trained workers to design and develop new hardware and software systems and to incorporate new technolo gies. These workers—computer systems analysts, computer scien tists, and database administrators—include a wide range of computer specialists. Job tasks and occupational titles used to describe these workers evolve rapidly, reflecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology, as well as the preferences and practices of employers. Systems analysts solve computer problems and enable computer technology to meet individual needs of an organization. They help an organization realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes. This process may include planning and developing new computer systems or devis ing ways to apply existing systems’ resources to additional opera tions. Systems analysts may design new systems, including both hardware and software, or add a new software application to har ness more of the computer’s power. Most systems analysts work with a specific type of system that varies with the type of organiza tion they work for—for example, business, accounting, or finan cial systems, or scientific and engineering systems. Some systems analysts also are referred to as systems developers or systems architects. Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the systems prob lem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. They define the goals of the system and divide the solutions into individual steps and separate procedures. Analysts use tech niques such as structured analysis, data modeling, information en gineering, mathematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. They specify the inputs to be ac cessed by the system, design the processing steps, and format the output to meet the users’ needs. They also may prepare cost-ben efit and return-on-investment analyses to help management decide whether implementing the proposed system will be financially fea sible. When a system is accepted, analysts determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set it up. They coordinate tests and observe initial use of the system to ensure it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, work diagrams, and struc ture charts for computer programmers to follow and then work with them to “debug,” or eliminate errors from, the system. Analysts, who do more in-depth testing of products, may be referred to as software quality assurance analysts. In addition to running tests, these individuals diagnose problems, recommend solutions, and determine if program requirements have been met. In some organizations, programmer-analysts design and update the software that runs a computer. Because they are responsible for both programming and systems analysis, these workers must be pro ficient in both areas. (A separate statement on computer program mers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) As this becomes more commonplace, these analysts increasingly work with object-oriented programming languages, as well as client/server applications de velopment, and multimedia and Internet technology. One obstacle associated with expanding computer use is the need for different computer systems to communicate with each other. Because of the importance of maintaining up-to-date infor mation—accounting records, sales figures, or budget projections, for example—systems analysts work on making the computer sys tems within an organization compatible so that information can be shared. Many systems analysts are involved with “networking,” connecting all the computers internally—in an individual office, department, or establishment—or externally, because many orga nizations now rely on e-mail or the Internet. A primary goal of Professional and Related Occupations 181 networking is to allow users to retrieve data and information from a mainframe computer or a server and use it on their machine. Analysts must design the hardware and software to allow free ex change of data, custom applications, and the computer power to process it all. Networks come in many variations and network systems and data communications analysts analyze, design, test, and evaluate systems such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), Internet, Intranets, and other data communications systems. These analysts perform network modeling, analysis and planning; they also may research related products and make necessary hard ware and software recommendations. Telecommunications special ists focus on the interaction between computer and communications equipment. The growth of the Internet and expansion of the World Wide Web, the graphical portion of the Internet, have generated a variety of occupations related to design, development, and maintenance of Web sites and their servers. For example, webmasters are respon sible for all technical aspects of a website, including performance issues such as speed of access, and for approving site content. Internet developers or web developers, also called web designers, are responsible for day-to-day site design and creation. Computer scientists work as theorists, researchers, or inventors. Their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical ex pertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the cre ation or application of new technology. Those employed by academic institutions work in areas ranging from complexity theory, to hardware, to programming language design. Some work on multidisciplinary projects, such as developing and advancing uses of virtual reality, in human-computer interaction, or in robotics. Their counterparts in private industry work in areas such as applying theory, developing specialized languages or information technologies, or designing programming tools, knowledge-based systems, or even computer games. With the Internet and electronic business creating tremendous volumes of data, there is growing need to be able to store, manage, and extract data effectively. Database administrators work with database management systems software and determine ways to or ganize and store data. They determine user requirements, set up computer databases, and test and coordinate changes. It is the re sponsibility of an organization’s database administrator to ensure performance, understand the platform the database runs on, and add new users. Because they also may design and implement system ■tf Systems analysts ensure that organizations get the maximum benefit from available technology. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis security, database administrators often plan and coordinate security measures. With the volume of sensitive data generated every sec ond growing rapidly, data integrity, backup, and keeping databases secure have become an increasingly important aspect of the job for database administrators. Working Conditions Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators normally work in offices or laboratories in comfortable surround ings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as many other professional or office workers. However, evening or week end work may be necessary to meet deadlines or solve specific prob lems. Given the technology available today, telecommuting is common for computer professionals. As networks expand, more work can be done from remote locations using modems, laptops, electronic mail, and the Internet. Like other workers who spend long periods in front of a com puter terminal typing on a keyboard, they are susceptible to eye strain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as car pal tunnel syndrome or cumulative trauma disorder. Employment Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators held about 887,000 jobs in 2000, including about 71,000 who were self-employed. Employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Computer system analysts................................................................. Network systems and data communications analysts................... Database administrators................................................................ Computer and information scientists, research............................. All other computer specialists............................................................ 43 j qoo 119,000 106 000 28 000 203 000 Although they are increasingly employed in every sector of the economy, the greatest concentration of these workers is in the com puter and data processing services industry. Films in this industry provide nearly every service related to commercial computer use on a contract basis. Services include systems integration, network ing, and reengineering; data processing and preparation; informa tion retrieval, including on-line databases and Internet; onsite computer facilities management; development and management of databases, and a variety of specialized consulting. Many systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators work for other employers, such as government, manufacturers of computer and related electronic equipment, insurance companies, financial institutions, and universities. A growing number of computer specialists, such as systems ana lysts and network and data communications analysts, are employed on a temporary or contract basis—many ofwhom are self-employed, working independently as contractors or self-employed consultants. For example, a company installing a new computer system may need the services of several systems analysts just to get the system running. Because not all of them would be needed once the system is functioning, the company might contract with systems analysts or a temporary help agency or consulting firm. Such jobs may last from several months up to 2 years or more. This growing practice enables companies to bring in people with the exact skills they need to complete a particular project, rather than having to spend time or money training or retraining existing workers. Often, experienced consultants then train a company’s in-house staff as a project develops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Rapidly changing technology means an increasing level of skill and education demanded by employers. Companies are looking 182 Occupational Outlook Handbook for professionals with a broader background and range of skills, including not only technical knowledge, but also communication and other interpersonal skills. This shift from requiring workers to possess solely sound technical knowledge emphasizes workers who can handle various responsibilities. While there is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a systems analyst, computer scientist, or database administrator, most employers place a pre mium on some formal college education. A bachelor s degree is a prerequisite for many jobs; however, some jobs may require only a 2-year degree. Relevant work experience also is very important. For more technically complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred. For systems analyst, programmer-analyst, as well as database administrator positions, many employers seek applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in computer science, information science, or management information systems (MIS). MIS programs usu ally are part of the business school or college. These programs differ considerably from computer science programs, emphasiz ing business and management-oriented coursework and business computing courses. Many employers increasingly seek individu als with a master’s degree in business administration (MBA) with a concentration in information systems, as more firms move their business to the Internet. For some networks systems and data com munication analysts, such as webmasters, an associate degree or certificate generally is sufficient, although more advanced posi tions might require a computer-related bachelor s degree. For com puter and information scientists, a doctoral degree generally is required due to the highly technical nature of their work. Despite the preference towards technical degrees, persons with degrees in a variety of majors find employment in these computer occupations. The level of education and type of training employers require depend on their needs. One factor affecting these needs is changes in technology. As demonstrated by the current demand for workers with skills related to the Internet, employers often scramble to find workers capable of implementing “hot” new technologies. Another factor driving employers’ needs is the time frame in which a project must be completed. Most community colleges and many independent technical institutes and proprietary schools offer an associate degree in computer science or a related information technology field. Many of these programs may be more geared toward meeting the needs of local businesses and are more occupation-specific than those designed for a 4-year degree. Some jobs may be better suited to the level of training these programs offer. Employers usually look for people who have broad knowledge and experience related to computer systems and technologies, strong problem solving and analytical skills, and good interpersonal skills. Courses in computer science or systems design offer good preparation for a job in these computer occupations. For jobs in a business environment, employers usually want systems analysts to have business management or closely related skills, while a back ground in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineer ing is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Art or graphic design skills may be desirable for webmasters or Web developers. . . Jobseekers can enhance their employment opportunities by participating in internship or co-op programs offered through their schools. Because many people develop advanced computer skills in one occupation and then transfer those skills into a computer occupation, a related background in the industry in which the job is located, such as financial services, banking, or accounting, can be important. Others have taken computer science courses to supple ment their study in fields such as accounting, inventory control, or other business areas. For example, a financial analyst proficient in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis computers might become a systems analyst or computer support specialist in financial systems development, while a computer pro grammer might move into a systems analyst job. Systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administra tors must be able to think logically and have good communication skills. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously; the ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail is important. Although these computer specialists sometimes work independently, they often work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as program mers and managers, as well as with users or other staff who may have no technical computer background. Computer scientists employed in private industry may advance into managerial or project leadership positions. Those employed in academic institutions can become heads of research departments or published authorities in their field. Systems analysts may be pro moted to senior or lead systems analyst. Those who show leader ship ability also can become project managers or advance into management positions such as manager of information systems or chief information officer. Database administrators also may ad vance into managerial positions such as chief technology officer, based on their experience managing data and enforcing security. Computer specialists with work experience and considerable ex pertise in a particular subject area or application may find lucrative opportunities as independent consultants or choose to start their own computer consulting firms. Technological advances come so rapidly in the computer field that continuous study is necessary to keep skills up to date. Em ployers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, and private training institutions offer continuing education. Addi tional training may come from professional development seminars offered by professional computing societies. Technical or professional certification is a way to demonstrate a level of competency or quality in a particular field. Product ven dors or software firms also offer certification and may require pro fessionals who work with their products to be certified. Many employers regard these certifications as the industry standard. For example, one method of acquiring enough knowledge to get a job as a database administrator is to become certified in a specific type of database management. Voluntary certification also is available through other organizations. Professional certification may pro vide a job seeker a competitive advantage. Job Outlook Systems analysts, computers scientists, and database administra tors are expected to be the among the fastest growing occupations through 2010. Employment of these computer specialists is ex pected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations as organizations continue to adopt and integrate increasingly so phisticated technologies. Growth will be driven by very rapid growth in computer and data processing services, which is projected to be the fastest growing industry in the U.S. economy. In addition, many job openings will arise annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions or other occupations or who leave the labor force. The demand for networking to facilitate the sharing of inlormation, the expansion of client/server environments, and the need for computer specialists to use their knowledge and skills in a prob lem-solving capacity will be major factors in the rising demand for systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators. Moreover, falling prices of computer hardware and software should continue to induce more businesses to expand computerized opera tions and integrate new technologies. In order to maintain a com petitive edge and operate more efficiently, firms will continue to Professional and Related Occupations 183 demand computer specialists who are knowledgeable about the lat est technologies and are able to apply them to meet the needs of businesses. Increasingly, more sophisticated and complex technology is being implemented across all organizations, which should fuel the demand for these computer occupations. There is a growing demand for system analysts to help firms maximize their efficiency using avail able technology. The explosive growth in electronic commerce— doing business on the Internet—and the continuing need to build and maintain databases that store critical information on custom ers, inventory, and projects is fueling demand for database admin istrators familiar with the latest technology. The development of new technologies usually leads to demand for various workers. The expanding integration of Internet tech nologies by businesses, for example, has resulted in a growing need for specialists who can develop and support Internet and intranet applications. The growth of electronic commerce means more es tablishments use the Internet to conduct their business online. This translates into a need for information technology professionals who can help organizations use technology to communicate with em ployees, clients, and consumers. Explosive growth in these areas also is expected to fuel demand for specialists knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security. As technology becomes more sophisticated and complex, employers demand a higher level of skill and expertise. Individu als with an advanced degree in computer science, computer engi neering, or an MBA with a concentration in information systems should enjoy very favorable employment prospects. College gradu ates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science, computer engi neering, information science, or management information systems also should enjoy favorable prospects for employment, particu larly if they have supplemented their formal education with practi cal experience. Because employers continue to seek computer specialists who can combine strong technical skills with good inter personal and business skills, graduates with non-computer science degrees but who have had courses in computer programming, sys tems analysis, and other information technology areas, also should continue to find jobs in these computer fields. In fact, individuals with the right experience and training can work in these computer occupations regardless of their college major or level of formal education. Earnings Median annual earnings of computer systems analysts were $59,330 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,980 and $73,210 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $37,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,040. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer systems analysts in 2000 were: Computer and data processing services............................................ Professional and commercial equipment......................................... Federal Government............................................................................. $64,110 63,530 Local government................................................................... 52 490 State government................................................................................... 51 230 59 470 Median annual earnings of database administrators were $51,990 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,210 and $71,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,400, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,320. In 2000, median annual earnings of database administrators employed in computer https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and data processing services were $63,710, and in telephone com munication, $52,230. Median annual earnings of network systems and data communi cation analysts were $54,510 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,310 and $69,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,360, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,620. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of network systems and data communications analysts in 2000 were: Management and public relations...................................................... Commercial banks................................................................................ Computer and data processing services........................................... Telephone communications................................................................ State government................................................................................... $60,260 59910 59,160 51 jgp 42,000 Median annual earnings of computer and information scientists, research, were $70,590 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $54,700 and $89,990. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 113,510. Median annual earnings of computer and information scientists employed in computer and data processing services in 2000 were $71,940. Median annual earnings of all other computer specialists were $50,590 in 2000. Median annual earnings of all other computer specialists employed in computer and data processing services were $51,970, and in professional and commercial equipment, $80,270 in 2000. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, starting offers for graduates with a master’s degree in computer science averaged $61,453 in 2001. Starting offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science averaged $52,723; in computer programming, $48,602; in computer systems analysis, $45,643; in information sciences and systems, $45,182; and in management information systems, $45,585. According to Robert Half International, starting salaries in 2001 ranged from $72,500 to $105,750 for database administrators. Sala ries for Internet-related occupations ranged from $58,000 to $82,500 for webmasters and $56,250 to $76,750 for Internet/ Intranet developers. Related Occupations Other workers who use logic and creativity to solve business and technical problems are computer programmers, computer software engineers, computer and information systems managers, financial analysts and personal financial advisors, urban and regional plan ners, engineers, mathematicians, statisticians, operations research analysts, management analysts, and actuaries. Sources of Additional Information Further information about computer careers is available from: >- Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org ► IEEE Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org ► National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE., Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org Information about becoming a Certified Computing Professional is available from: ► Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP), 2350 East Devon Ave., Suite 115, Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.iccp.org 184 Occupational Outlook Handbook Education, Training, Library, and Museum Occupations Archivists, Curators, and Museum Technicians __ _____ (0*NET 25-4011.00, 25-4012.00, 25-4013.00) Significant Points • Employment usually requires graduate education and • related work experience. Keen competition is expected because qualified applicants outnumber the most desirable job openings. Nature of the Work Archivists, curators, and museum technicians search for, acquire, appraise, analyze, describe, arrange, catalogue, restore, preserve, exhibit, maintain, and store valuable items that can be used by re searchers or for exhibitions, publications, broadcasting, and other educational programs. Depending on the occupation, these items include historical documents, audiovisual materials, institutional records, works of art, coins, stamps, minerals, clothing, maps, liv ing and preserved plants and animals, buildings, computer records, or historic sites. Archivists and curators plan and oversee the arrangement, cata loguing, and exhibition of collections and, along with technicians and conservators, maintain collections. Archivists and curators may coordinate educational and public outreach programs, such as tours, workshops, lectures, and classes, and may work with the boards of institutions to administer plans and policies. They also may re search topics or items relevant to their collections. Although some duties of archivists and curators are similar, the types of items they deal with differ. Curators usually handle objects found in cultural, biological, or historical collections, such as sculptures, textiles, and paintings, while archivists mainly handle valuable records, docu ments, or objects that are retained because they originally accom panied and relate specifically to the document. Archivists determine what portion of the vast amount of records maintained by various organizations, such as government agencies, corporations, or educational institutions, or by families and indi viduals, should be made part of permanent historical holdings, and which of these records should be put on exhibit. They maintain records in their original arrangement according to the creator’s or ganizational scheme, and describe records to facilitate retrieval. Records may be saved on any medium, including paper, film, vid eotape, audiotape, electronic disk, or computer. They also may be copied onto some other format to protect the original, and to make them more accessible to researchers who use the records. As com puters and various storage media evolve, archivists must keep abreast of technological advances in electronic information storage. Archives may be part of a library, museum, or historical society, or may exist as a distinct unit within an organization or company. Archivists consider any medium containing recorded information as documents, including letters, books, and other paper documents, photographs, blueprints, audiovisual materials, and computer records. Any document that reflects organizational transactions, hierarchy, or procedures can be considered a record. Archivists often specialize in an area of history or technology so they can bet ter determine what records in that area qualify for retention and Digitized should for FRASER become part of the archives. Archivists also may work with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis specialized forms of records, such as manuscripts, electronic records, photographs, cartographic records, motion pictures, and sound recordings. Computers are increasingly used to generate and maintain archi val records. Professional standards for use of computers in han dling archival records are still evolving. However, computers are expected to transform many aspects of archival collections as com puter capabilities, including multimedia and worldwide web use, expand and allow more records to be stored and exhibited elec tronically. Curators oversee collections in museums, zoos, aquariums, bo tanical gardens, nature centers, and historic sites. They acquire items through purchases, gifts, field exploration, intermuseum exchanges, or, in the case of some plants and animals, reproduction. Curators also plan and prepare exhibits. In natural history museums, cura tors collect and observe specimens in their natural habitat. Their work involves describing and classifying species, while specially trained collection managers and technicians provide hands-on care of natural history collections. Most curators use computer data bases to catalogue and organize their collections. Many also use the Internet to make information available to other curators and the Curators sometimes must sort through artwork to select items for exhibition. Professional and Related Occupations 185 public. Increasingly, curators are expected to participate in grant writing and fundraising to support their projects. Most curators specialize in a field, such as botany, art, paleontol ogy, or history. Those working in large institutions may be highly specialized. A large natural history museum, for example, would employ specialists in birds, fishes, insects, and mollusks. Some cura tors maintain the collection, others do research, and others perform administrative tasks. Registrars, for example, keep track of and move objects in the collection. In small institutions, with only one or a few curators, one curator may be responsible for multiple tasks, from maintaining collections to directing the affairs of museums. Conservators manage, care for, preserve, treat, and document works of art, artifacts, and specimens. This may require substantial historical, scientific, and archaeological research. They use x rays, chemical testing, microscopes, special lights, and other laboratory equipment and techniques to examine objects and determine their condition, the need for treatment or restoration, and the appropriate method for preservation. They then document their findings and treat items to minimize deterioration or restore items to their origi nal state. Conservators usually specialize in a particular material or group of objects, such as documents and books, paintings, decora tive arts, textiles, metals, or architectural material. Museum technicians assist curators by performing various pre paratory and maintenance tasks on museum items. Some museum technicians also may assist curators with research. Archives tech nicians help archivists organize, maintain, and provide access to historical documentary materials. Museum directors formulate policies, plan budgets, and raise funds for their museums. They coordinate activities of their staff to establish and maintain collections. As their role has evolved, mu seum directors increasingly need business backgrounds in addition to an understanding of the subject matter of their collections. Working Conditions The working conditions of archivists and curators vary. Some spend most of their time working with the public, providing reference as sistance and educational services. Others perform research or pro cess records, which often means working alone or in offices with only a few people. Those who restore and install exhibits or work with bulky, heavy record containers may climb, stretch, or lift. Those in zoos, botanical gardens, and other outdoor museums or historic sites frequently walk great distances. Curators who work in large institutions may travel extensively to evaluate potential additions to the collection, organize exhibi tions, and conduct research in their area of expertise. However, travel is rare for curators employed in small institutions. Employment Archivists, curators, and museum technicians held about 21,000 jobs in 2000. About 34 percent were employed in museums, bo tanical gardens, and zoos, and 18 percent worked in educational services, mainly in college and university libraries. Nearly onethird worked in Federal, State, and local government. Most Federal archivists work for the National Archives and Records Administra tion, others manage military archives in the U.S. Department of Defense. Most Federal Government curators work at the Smithsonian Institution, in the military museums of the Department of Defense, and in archaeological and other museums managed by the U.S. Department of Interior. All State governments have archi val or historical records sections employing archivists. State and local governments have numerous historical museums, parks, li braries, and zoos employing curators. Some large corporations have archives or records centers, employ Digitizeding for archivists FRASER to manage the growing volume of records created or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis maintained as required by law or necessary to the firms’ operations. Religious and fraternal organizations, professional associations, conservation organizations, major private collectors, and research firms also employ archivists and curators. Conservators may work under contract to treat particular items, rather than as regular employees of a museum or other institution. These conservators may work on their own as private contractors, or as an employee of a conservation laboratory or regional conser vation center that contracts their services to museums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment as an archivist, conservator, or curator usually requires graduate education and related work experience. Many archivists and curators work in archives or museums while completing their formal education, to gain the “hands-on” experience that many employers seek when hiring. Employers usually look for archivists with undergraduate and graduate degrees in history or library science, with courses in archi val science. Some positions may require knowledge of the disci pline related to the collection, such as business or medicine. An increasing number of archivists have a double master’s degree in history and library science. There are currently no programs offer ing bachelor’s or master’s degrees in archival science. However, approximately 65 colleges and universities offer courses or practi cal training in archival science as part of history, library science, or another discipline. The Academy of Certified Archivists offers voluntary certification for archivists. Certification requires the ap plicant to have experience in the field and to pass an examination offered by the Academy. Archivists need research and analytical ability to understand the content of documents and the context in which they were created, and to decipher deteriorated or poor quality printed matter, hand written manuscripts, or photographs and films. A background in preservation management is often required of archivists because they are responsible for taking proper care of their records. Archi vists also must be able to organize large amounts of information and write clear instructions for its retrieval and use. In addition, computer skills and the ability to work with electronic records and databases are increasingly important. Many archives are very small, including one-person shops, with limited promotion opportunities. Archivists typically advance by transferring to a larger unit with supervisory positions. A doctorate m history, library science, or a related field may be needed for some advanced positions, such as director of a State archive. For employment as a curator, most museums require a master’s degree in an appropriate discipline of the museum’s specialty—art, history, or archaeology—or museum studies. Many employers pre fer a doctoral degree, particularly for curators in natural history or science museums. Earning two graduate degrees—in museum stud ies (museology) and a specialized subject—gives a candidate a dis tinct advantage in this competitive job market. In small museums, curatorial positions may be available to individuals with a bachelor’s degree. For some positions, an internship of full-time museum work supplemented by courses in museum practices is needed. Curatorial positions often require knowledge in a number of fields. For historic and artistic conservation, courses in chemistry, physics, and art are desirable. Since curators—particularly those in small museums—may have administrative and managerial respon sibilities, courses in business administration, public relations, mar keting, and fundraising also are recommended. Similar to archivists, curators need computer skills and the ability to work with elec tronic databases. Curators also need to be familiar with digital ima8*n8- scanning technology, and copyright infringement, since many are responsible for posting information on the Internet. 186 Occupational Outlook Handbook Curators must be flexible because of their wide variety of du ties. They need to design and present exhibits and, in small muse ums, manual dexterity to build exhibits or restore objects. Leadership ability and business skills are important for museum directors, while marketing skills are valuable for increasing museum attendance and fundraising. In large museums, curators may advance through several levels of responsibility, eventually to museum director. Curators in smaller museums often advance to larger ones. Individual research and publications are important for advancement in larger institutions. When hiring conservators, employers look for a master s degree in conservation, or in a closely related field, and substantial experi ence There are only a few graduate programs in museum conser vation techniques in the United States. Competition for entry to these programs is keen; to qualify, a student must have a background in chemistry, archaeology or studio art, and art history, as well as work experience. For some programs, knowledge of a foreign lan guage is also helpful. Conservation apprenticeships or internships as an undergraduate can also enhance one’s admission prospects. Graduate programs last 2 to 4 years; the latter years include intern ship training. A few individuals enter conservation through ap prenticeships with museums, nonprofit organizations, and conservators in private practice. Apprenticeships should be supple mented with courses in chemistry, studio art, and history. Appren ticeship training, although accepted, usually is a more difficult route into the conservation profession. Museum technicians usually need a bachelor’s degree in an ap propriate discipline of the museum’s specialty, museum studies train ing, or previous museum work experience, particularly in exhibit design. Similarly, archives technicians usually need a bachelor’s degree in library science or history, or relevant work experience. Technician positions often serve as a stepping stone for individuals interested in archival and curatorial work. With the exception of small museums, a master’s degree is needed for advancement. Relatively few schools grant a bachelor’s degree in museum stud ies. More common are undergraduate minors or tracks of study that are part of an undergraduate degree in a related field, such as art history, history, or archaeology. Students interested in further study may obtain a master’s degree in museum studies. Colleges and universities throughout the country offer master’s degrees in mu seum studies. However, many employers feel that, while museum studies are helpful, a thorough knowledge of the museum s spe cialty and museum work experience are more important. Continuing education, which enables archivists, curators, and museum technicians to keep up with developments in the field, is available through meetings, conferences, and workshops sponsored by archival, historical, and museum associations. Some larger or ganizations, such as the National Archives, offer such training in house. Job Outlook . Competition for jobs as archivists, curators, and museum techni cians is expected to be keen as qualified applicants outnumber job openings. Graduates with highly specialized training, such as master’s degrees in both library science and history, with a concen tration in archives or records management, and extensive computer skills should have the best opportunities for jobs as archivists. A curator job is attractive to many people, and many applicants have the necessary training and subject knowledge; but there are only a few openings. Consequently, candidates may have to work part time, as an intern, or even as a volunteer assistant curator or research as sociate after completing their formal education. Substantial work experience in collection management, exhibit design, or restoration, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis as well as database management skills, will be necessary for perma nent status. Job opportunities for curators should be best in art and history museums, since these are the largest employers in the mu seum industry. The job outlook for conservators may be more favorable, parti cularly for graduates of conservation programs. However, compe tition is stiff for the limited number of openings in these programs, and applicants need a technical background. Students who qualify and successfully complete the program, have knowledge of a for eign language, and are willing to relocate, will have an advantage over less qualified candidates. Employment of archivists, curators, and museum technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Jobs are expected to grow as public and private or ganizations emphasize establishing archives and organizing records and information, and as public interest in science, art, history, and technology increases. Although overall museum attendance is in creasing, public interest in smaller, specialized museums with unique collections is expected to increase faster. However, museums and other cultural institutions are often subject to funding cuts during recessions or periods of budget tightening, reducing demand for archivists and curators. Although the rate of turnover among archi vists and curators is relatively low, the need to replace workers who leave the occupation or stop working will create some additional job openings. Earnings Median annual earnings of archivists, curators, and museum tech nicians in 2000 were $33,080. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $24,740 and $45,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 19,200, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,490. Median annual earnings of archivists, curators, and museum tech nicians in 2000 were $31,460 in museums and art galleries. Earnings of archivists and curators vary considerably by type and size of employer, and often by specialty. Average salaries in the Federal Government, for example, are usually higher than those in religious organizations. Salaries of curators in large, well-funded museums can be several times higher than those in small ones. The average annual salary for archivists in the Federal Govern ment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $63,299 in 2001; museum curators, $64,616; museum specialists and technicians, $44,711; and archives technicians, $33,934. Related Occupations The skills that archivists, curators, and museum technicians use m preserving, organizing, and displaying objects or information of his torical interest are shared by artists and related workers; librarians, and anthropologists and archeologists, historians, and other social scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information on archivists and on schools offering courses in archival studies, contact: . ► Society ofAmerican Archivists, 527 South Wells St., 5 th floor, Chicago, IL 60607-3922. Internet: http://www.archivists.org For general information about careers as a curator and schools offering courses in museum studies, contact: ► American Association of Museums, 1575 I St. NW„ Suite 400, Wash ington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aam-us.org For information about conservation and preservation careers and education programs, contact: ► American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1717 K St. NW., Suite 301, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/aic Professional and Related Occupations 187 Instructional Coordinators (Q*NET 25-9031.00) • Significant Points Many instructional coordinators are former teachers or principals. • A bachelor’s degree is the minimum educational requirement; however, a graduate degree is preferred. • The need to update and improve educational standards will create more demand for instructional coordinators to train teachers and develop new materials. Nature of the Work Instructional coordinators, also known as curriculum specialists, staff development specialists, or directors of instructional material, play a large role in improving the quality of education in the classroom. They develop instructional materials, train teachers, and assess edu cational programs in terms of quality and adherence to regulations and standards. They also assist in implementing new technology in the classroom. Instructional coordinators often specialize in spe cific subjects, such as language arts, mathematics, social studies, gifted and talented, or English as a Second Language. Instructional coordinators evaluate how well a school’s curricu lum meets students needs. They research teaching methods and techniques and develop procedures to determine whether program goals are being met. To aid in their evaluation, they may meet with members of educational committees and advisory groups to learn about subjects—English, history, or mathematics, for example— and to relate curriculum materials to these subjects, to students’ needs, and to occupations for which these subjects are good prepa ration. They also may develop questionnaires and interview school staff about the curriculum. Based on their research and observa tions of instructional practice, they recommend instruction and cur riculum improvements. Another duty instructional coordinators have is to review text books, software, and other educational materials and make recom mendations on purchases. They monitor materials ordered and the ways in which teachers use them in the classroom. They also su pervise workers who catalogue, distribute, and maintain a school’s educational materials and equipment. Instructional coordinators find effective ways to use technol ogy to enhance student learning. They monitor the introduction of new technology, including the Internet, into a school’s curriculum. In addition, instructional coordinators might recommend install ing educational computer software, such as interactive books and exercises designed to enhance student literacy and develop math skills. Instructional coordinators may invite experts—such as com puter hardware, software, and library or media specialists—into the classroom to help integrate technological materials into a school’s curriculum. Many instructional coordinators plan and provide onsite educa tion for teachers and administrators. They may train teachers about the use of materials and equipment or help them to improve their skills. Instructional coordinators also mentor new teachers and train experienced ones in the latest instructional methods. This role be comes especially important when a school district introduces new content, program innovations, or different organizational structure. For example, when a State or school district introduces standards or tests that must be met by students in order to pass to the next grade, instructional coordinators often must advise teachers on the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HyiilSl Instructional coordinators review textbooks and other educational materials to see if they meet curriculum standards. content of the standards and provide instruction on implementing the standards in the classroom. Working Conditions Instructional coordinators, including those employed by school dis tricts, work year round, usually in comfortable offices or classrooms. Some spend much of their time traveling between schools meeting with teachers and administrators. The opportunity to shape and improve instructional curricula and work in an academic environ ment can be satisfying. However, some instructional coordinators find the work stressful because the occupation requires continual accountability to school administrators and, occasionally, long hours. Employment Instructional coordinators held about 81,000 jobs in 2000. Two in three worked in public and private education, which includes ele mentary, secondary, and technical schools and colleges and univer sities. Another 1 in 10 worked for Departments of Education in State and local governments. The remainder worked primarily in management and public relations establishments, in which they did educational consulting and developed instructional materials sold to schools; and in child daycare services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for instmctional coordina tors is a bachelor’s degree, usually in education. Most employers, however, prefer candidates with a master’s degree or higher, either in a field such as curriculum and instruction, educational technol ogy, or instructional technology, or in an instructional content area, such as mathematics. Instructional coordinators must have a good understanding of how to teach specific groups of students, in addi tion to expertise in developing educational materials. Therefore, several years of teaching experience is, although not mandatory,' highly desirable. Experience in an administrative position, such as principal or assistant principal, also is beneficial. Courses in curriculum development and evaluation, research de sign, and computer literacy are recommended. Moreover, instmc tional coordinators usually are required to take continuing education courses to keep their skills current. Courses may include teacher evaluation techniques, curriculum training, new teacher induction, consulting and teacher support, and observation and analysis of teaching. Instmctional coordinators must be able to make sound decisions about curriculum options and to organize and coordinate work efficiently. They should have strong interpersonal and communi 188 Occupational Outlook Handbook cation skills. Familiarity with computer technology also is impor tant for instructional coordinators, who are increasingly involved in gathering and coordinating technical information for students and teachers. Depending on experience and educational attainment, instruc tional coordinators may advance to higher positions in a school sys tem, or to management or executive positions in private industry. Job Outlook Employment of instructional coordinators is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Rising school enrollments, more student services, and a continuing em phasis on improving the quality of education will spur demand. Instructional coordinators will be instrumental in developing new curricula to meet the demands of a changing society and in training the teacher workforce. As more States institute standards for dif ferent grade levels, coordinators will be needed to incorporate the standards into curriculums and make sure teachers and administra tors are informed of the changes. Instructional coordinators also will be needed to provide classes on using technology in the classroom, to keep teachers up-to-date on changes in their fields, and to demonstrate new teaching tech niques. Professional training for teachers will grow in importance as more individuals enter the teaching profession without an educa tion background or experience. Job growth for instructional coordinators also will stem from the increasing emphasis on lifelong learning and on programs tor students with special needs, including those for whom English is a second language. These students often require more educational resources and consolidated planning and management within the educational system. Earnings Median annual earnings of instructional coordinators in 2000 were $44,230. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,150 and $58,480. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,370, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,020. Related Occupations Instructional coordinators are professionals involved in education and training and development, which requires organizational, ad ministrative, teaching, research, and communication skills. Occu pations with similar characteristics include preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers; postsecondary teachers; education administrators; counselors; and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists. Sources of Additional Information Infonnation on requirements and job opportunities for instmctional coordinators is available from local school systems and State de partments of education. Librarians (0*NET 25-4021.00) Significant Points • A master’s degree in library science usually is required; special librarians often need an additional graduate or professional degree. • Applicants for librarian jobs in large cities or suburban areas will face competition, while those willing to https://fraser.stlouisfed.org work in rural areas should have better job prospects. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The traditional concept of a library is being redefined from a place to access paper records or books, to one which also houses the most advanced mediums, including CD-ROM, the Internet, virtual librar ies, and remote access to a wide range of resources. Consequently, librarians increasingly are combining traditional duties with tasks involving quickly changing technology. Librarians assist people in finding information and using it effectively for personal and profes sional purposes. Librarians must have knowledge of a wide variety of scholarly and public information sources, and follow trends re lated to publishing, computers, and the media to effectively oversee the selection and organization of library materials. They manage staff and develop and direct information programs and systems for the public to ensure information is organized to meet users’ needs. Most librarian positions incorporate three aspects of library work: User services, technical services, and administrative services. Even librarians specializing in one of these areas perform other responsi bilities. Librarians in user services, such as reference and children’s librarians, work with the public to help them find the information they need. This involves analyzing users’ needs to determine what information is appropriate, and searching for, acquiring, and pro viding information. It also includes an instructional role, such as showing users how to access infonnation. For example, librarians commonly help users navigate the Internet, showing them how to most efficiently search for relevant information. Librarians in tech nical services, such as acquisitions and cataloguing, acquire and prepare materials for use and often do not deal directly with the public. Librarians in administrative services oversee the manage ment and planning of libraries, negotiate contracts for services, materials, and equipment, supervise library employees, perform public relations and fundraising duties, prepare budgets, and direct activities to ensure that everything functions properly. In small libraries or information centers, librarians usually handle all aspects of the work. They read book reviews, publishers’ an nouncements, and catalogues to keep up with current literature and other available resources, and select and purchase materials from publishers, wholesalers, and distributors. Librarians prepare new materials by classifying them by subject matter, and describe books and other library materials so they are easy to find. They supervise assistants who prepare cards, computer records, or other access tools that direct users to resources. In large libraries, librarians often specialize in a single area, such as acquisitions, cataloguing, bibli ography, reference, special collections, or administration. Team work is increasingly important to ensure quality service to the public. Librarians also compile lists of books, periodicals, articles, and audiovisual materials on particular subjects; analyze collections; and recommend materials. They collect and organize books, pam phlets, manuscripts, and other materials in a specific field, such as rare books, genealogy, or music. In addition, they coordinate pro grams such as storytelling for children, and literacy skills and book talks for adults; conduct classes; publicize services; provide refer ence help; write grants; and oversee other administrative matters. Librarians are classified according to the type of library in which they work—public libraries, school library media centers, academic libraries, and special libraries. Some librarians work with specific groups, such as children, young adults, adults, or the disadvantaged. In school library media centers, librarians help teachers develop curricula, acquire materials for classroom instruction, and some times team-teach. Librarians also work in information centers or libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agen cies, museums, professional associations, medical centers, hospi tals, religious organizations, and research laboratories. They build and arrange an organization’s information resources, which usually Professional and Related Occupations 189 are limited to subjects of special interest to the organization. These special librarians can provide vital information services by prepar ing abstracts and indexes of current periodicals, organizing bibliog raphies, or analyzing background information and preparing reports on areas of particular interest. For example, a special librarian work ing for a corporation could provide the sales department with infor mation on competitors or new developments affecting their field. Many libraries have access to remote databases and maintain their own computerized databases. The widespread use of automa tion in libraries makes database searching skills important to librar ians. Librarians develop and index databases and help train users to develop searching skills for the information they need. Some libraries are forming consortiums with other libraries through elec tronic mail. This allows patrons to simultaneously submit informa tion requests to several libraries. The Internet also is expanding the amount of avail able reference information. Librarians must be aware of how to use these resources in order to locate information. Librarians with computer and information systems skills can work as automated systems librarians, planning and operating computer systems, and information science librarians, designing information storage and retrieval systems and developing procedures for col lecting, organizing, interpreting, and classifying information. These librarians analyze and plan for future information needs. (See com puter support specialists and systems administrators, and systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators elsewhere in the Handbook.) The increased use of automated information systems enables librarians to focus on administrative and budget ing responsibilities, grant writing, and specialized research requests, while delegating more technical and user services responsibilities to technicians. (See library technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Increasingly, librarians apply their information management and research skills to arenas outside of libraries—for example, data base development, reference tool development, information systems, publishing, Internet coordination, marketing, and training of data base users. Entrepreneurial librarians sometimes start their own consulting practices, acting as freelance librarians or information brokers and providing services to other libraries, businesses, or gov ernment agencies. Working Conditions Librarians spend a significant portion of time at their desks or in front of computer terminals; extended work at video display termi nals can cause eyestrain and headaches. Assisting users in obtaining information for their jobs, recreational purposes, and other tasks can im Librarians need knowledge ofa wide variety ofscholarly andpublic information sources in order to aid the public. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis be challenging and satisfying; at the same time, working with users under deadlines can be demanding and stressful. Some librarians lift and carry books, and some climb ladders to reach high stacks. Librarians in small organizations sometimes shelve books themselves. More than 2 out of 10 librarians work part time. Public and college librarians often work weekends and evenings, and have to work some holidays. School librarians usually have the same work day schedule as classroom teachers and similar vacation schedules. Special librarians usually work normal business hours, but in fast paced industries such as advertising or legal services—they can work longer hours during peak times. Employment Librarians held about 149,000 jobs in 2000. Most were in school and academic libraries; others were in public and special libraries. A small number of librarians worked for hospitals and religious organizations. Others worked for governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master s degree in Library Science (MLS) is necessary for librar ian positions in most public, academic, and special libraries, and in some school libraries. The Federal Government requires an MLS or the equivalent in education and experience. Many colleges and universities offer MLS programs, but employers often prefer gradu ates of the approximately 56 schools accredited by the American Library Association. Most MLS programs require a bachelor’s de gree; any liberal arts major is appropriate. Most MLS programs take 1 year to complete; others take 2. A typical graduate program includes courses in the foundations of li brary and information science, including the history of books and printing, intellectual freedom and censorship, and the role of librar ies and infonnation in society. Other basic courses cover material selection and processing, the organization of information, reference tools and strategies, and user services. Courses are adapted to edu cate librarians to use new resources brought about by advancing technology such as on-line reference systems, Internet search meth ods, and automated circulation systems. Course options can in clude resources for children or young adults; classification, cataloguing, indexing, and abstracting; library administration; and library automation. Computer-related coursework is an increasingly important part of an MLS degree. Some programs offer interdisci plinary degrees combining technical coursework in information sci ence with traditional training in library science. An MLS provides general preparation for library work, but some individuals specialize in a particular area such as reference, techni cal services, or children’s services. A Ph.D. degree in library and information science is advantageous for a college teaching posi tion, or a top administrative job in a college or university library or large library system. In special libraries, an MLS usually is also required. In addi tion, most special librarians supplement their education with knowl edge of the subject specialization, sometimes earning a master’s, doctoral, or professional degree in the subject. Subject specializa tions include medicine, law, business, engineering, and the natural and social sciences. For example, a librarian working for a law firm may also be a licensed attorney, holding both library science and law degrees. In some jobs, knowledge of a foreign language is needed. State certification requirements for public school librarians vary widely. Most States require school librarians, often called library media specialists, to be certified as teachers and have had courses in library science. An MLS is needed in some cases, perhaps with a library media specialization, or a master’s in education with a specialty in school library media or educational media. Some States 190 Occupational Outlook Handbook require certification of public librarians employed in municipal, county, or regional library systems. Librarians participate in continuing training once they are on the job to keep abreast of new information systems brought about by changing technology. . . . . . Experienced librarians can advance to administrative positions, such as department head, library director, or chief information officer. Job Outlook . . ,, Employment of librarians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period. The increasing use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems con tinues to contribute to slow growth in the demand for librarians. Com puterized systems make cataloguing easier, which library technicians now handle. In addition, many libraries are equipped for users to access library computers directly from their homes or offices. These systems allow users to bypass librarians and conduct research on their own. However, librarians are needed to manage staff, help users develop database searching techniques, address complicated refer ence requests, and define users’ needs. Despite expectations of slower-than-average employment growth, the need to replace librar ians as they retire will result in numerous additional job openings. Applicants for librarian jobs in large metropolitan areas, where most graduates prefer to work, usually face competition; those will ing to work in rural areas should have better job prospects. Oppor tunities will be best for librarians outside traditional settings. Nontraditional library settings include information brokers, private corporations, and consulting firms. Many companies are turning to librarians because of their research and organizational skills, and knowledge of computer databases and library automation systems. Librarians can review vast amounts of information and analyze, evaluate, and organize it according to a company’s specific needs. Librarians also are hired by organizations to set up information on the Internet. Librarians working in these settings may be classified as systems analysts, database specialists and trainers, webmasters or web developers, or LAN (local area network) coordinators. Salaries of librarians vary according to the individual’s qualifica tions and the type, size, and location of the library. Librarians with primarily administrative duties often have greater earnings. Me dian annual earnings of librarians in 2000 were $41,700. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,840 and $52,110. The lowest percent earned less than $25,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,990. Median annual earnings in the industries em ploying the largest numbers of librarians in 2000 were as follows: Elementary and secondary schools............................ Colleges and universities............................................ Local government, except education and hospitals $43,320 43,050 38,370 Sources of Additional Information Information on librarianship, including information on scholarships or loans, is available from the American Library Association. For a listing of accredited library education programs, check their homepage. ► American Library Association, Office for Human Resource Develop ment and Recruitment, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org For information on a career as a special librarian, write to; > Special Libraries Association, 1700 18th St. NW„ Washington, DC 20009. Information on graduate schools of library and information sci ence can be obtained from: For information on a career as a law librarian, scholarship infor mation, and a list of ALA-accredited schools offering programs in law librarianship, contact: > American Association of Law Libraries, 53 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 940, Chicago, IL 60604. Internet: http://www.aallnet.org For information on employment opportunities as a health sci ences librarian, scholarship information, credentialing information, and a list of MLA-accredited schools offering programs in health sciences librarianship, contact: >. Medical Library Association, Related Occupations Librarians play an important role in the transfer of knowledge and ideas by providing people with access to the information they need and want. Jobs requiring similar analytical, organizational, and com municative skills include archivists, curators, and museum techni cians; and computer and information scientists, research. The management aspect of a librarian’s work is similar to the work of managers in a variety of business and government settings. School librarians have many duties similar to those of school teachers. Other jobs requiring the computer skills of some librarians include data https://fraser.stlouisfed.org base administrators and computer systems analysts. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 6 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 300, Chicago, IL 60602. Internet: http://www.mlanet.org Information on acquiring a job as a librarian with the Federal Government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Man agement through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number, or call (912) 757-3000- Federal Relay Service (800) 877-8339. The first num______*- i«l1 TV. n n n »~i t\ ohampc . i. T P ____zl nlnrt In nom I able on the Internet: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress can be obtained directly > Human Resources Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE., Washington, DC 20540-2231. State library agencies can furnish information on scholarships avail able through their offices, requirements for certification, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agen cies maintain job hotlines reporting openings for librarians. State departments of education can furnish information on certi fication requirements and job opportunities for school librarians. Many library science schools offer career placement services to their alumni and current students. Some allow nonaffiliated stu dents and jobseekers to use their services. Library Technicians (0*NET 25-4031.00) The average annual salary for all librarians in the Federal Gov ernment in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $63,651 in 2001. . >- Association for Library and Information Science Education, P.O. Box 7640, Arlington, VA 22207. Internet: http://www.alise.org Significant Points • • • Training requirements range from a high school diploma to an associate or bachelor s degree, but computer skills are needed for many jobs. Increasing use of computerized circulation and information systems should spur job growth, but budget constraints of many libraries should moderate growth. Employment should grow rapidly in special libraries as growing numbers of professionals and other workers use those libraries. Nature of the Work Library technicians help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material, and assist users in finding information. Library techni cians usually work under the supervision of a librarian, although they work independently in certain situations. Technicians in small libraries handle a range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. As libraries increasingly use new technologies—such as CD-ROM, the Internet, virtual libraries, and automated data bases—the duties of library technicians will expand and evolve ac cordingly. Library technicians are assuming greater responsibilities, in some cases taking on tasks previously performed by librarians. (See librarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Depending on the employer, library technicians can have other titles, such as library technical assistant or media aide. Library tech nicians direct library users to standard references, organize and maintain periodicals, prepare volumes for binding, handle interli brary loan requests, prepare invoices, perform routine cataloguing and coding of library materials, retrieve information from computer databases, and supervise support staff. The widespread use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems has resulted in technicians handling more techni cal and user services such as entering catalogue information into the library’s computer—that were once performed by librarians. Technicians assist with customizing databases. In addition, techni cians instruct patrons how to use computer systems to access data. The increased automation of recordkeeping has reduced the amount of clerical work performed by library technicians. Many libraries now offer self-service registration and circulations with computers, decreasing the time library technicians spend manually recording and inputting records. Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equip ment, such as projectors, tape recorders, and videocassette record ers, and assist users with microfilm or microfiche readers. They also design posters, bulletin boards, or displays. Library technicians in school libraries encourage and teach stu dents to use the library and media center. They also help teachers obtain instructional materials and assist students with special as signments. Some work in special libraries maintained by govern ment agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional societies, medical centers, and research labo ratories, where they conduct literature searches, compile bibliogra phies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the organization. To extend library services to more patrons, many libraries oper ate bookmobiles. Bookmobile drivers take trucks stocked with books to designated sites on a regular schedule. Bookmobiles serve community organizations such as shopping centers, apartment com plexes, schools, and nursing homes. They also may be used to ex tend library service to patrons living in remote areas. Depending on local conditions, drivers may operate a bookmobile alone or may be accompanied by another library employee. When working alone, the drivers answer patrons’ questions, receive and check out books, collect fines, maintain the book collection, shelve materials, and occasionally operate audiovisual equipment to show slides or films. They participate and may assist in planning programs sponsored by the library such as reader advisory programs, used book sales, or outreach programs. Bookmobile drivers keep track of their mileage, the materials lent out, and the amount of fines collected. In some areas, they are responsible for maintenance of the vehicle and any photocopiers or other equipment in it. They record statistics on circulation and the number of people visiting the bookmobile. Drivers also may record requests for special items from the main library and ar range for the materials to be mailed or delivered to a patron during https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 191 Some library technicians operate and maintain audio-visual equipment, such as projectors, tape recorders, and videocassette recorders, and assist users with audio-visual materials. the next scheduled visit. Many bookmobiles are equipped with personal computers and CD-ROM systems linked to the main li brary system; this allows bookmobile drivers to reserve or locate books immediately. Some bookmobiles now offer Internet access to users. Working Conditions Technicians answer questions and provide assistance to library us ers. Those who prepare library materials sit at desks or computer terminals for long periods and can develop headaches or eyestrain from working with video display terminals. Some duties, like cal culating circulation statistics, can be repetitive and boring. Others, such as performing computer searches using local and regional li brary networks and cooperatives, can be interesting and challeng ing. Library technicians may lift and carry books, and climb ladders to reach high stacks. Library technicians in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (academic) li braries also work weekends, evenings and some holidays. Library technicians in special libraries usually work normal business hours, although they often work overtime as well. The schedules of bookmobile drivers depend on the size of the area being served. Some of these workers go out on their routes every day, while others go only on certain days. On these other days, they work at the library. Some also work evenings and week ends to give patrons as much access to the library as possible. Be cause bookmobile drivers may be the only link some people have to the library, much of their work is helping the public. They may assist handicapped or elderly patrons to the bookmobile, or shovel snow to assure their safety. They may enter hospitals or nursing homes to deliver books to patrons who are bedridden. Employment Library technicians held about 109,000 jobs in 2000. Most worked in school, academic, or public libraries. Some worked in hospitals 192 Occupational Outlook Handbook and religious organizations. The Federal Government, primarily the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S, Library of Congress, and State and local governments also employed library technicians. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library technicians vary widely, ranging from a high school diploma to specialized postsecondary training. Some employers hire individuals with work experience or other train ing; others train inexperienced workers on the job. Other employ ers require that technicians have an associate or bachelor’s degree. Given the rapid spread of automation in libraries, computer skills are needed for many jobs. Knowledge of databases, library auto mation systems, online library systems, online public access sys tems, and circulation systems is valuable. Some 2-year colleges offer an associate of arts degree in library technology. Programs include both liberal arts and library-related study. Students learn about library and media organization and op eration, and how to order, process, catalogue, locate, and circulate library materials and work with library automation. Libraries and associations offer continuing education courses to keep technicians abreast of new developments in the field. Library technicians usually advance by assuming added respon sibilities. For example, technicians often start at the circulation desk, checking books in and out. After gaining experience, they may become responsible for storing and verifying information. As they advance, they may become involved in budget and personnel matters in their department. Some library technicians advance to supervisory positions and are in charge of the day-to-day operation Related Occupations Library technicians perform organizational and administrative du ties. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include li brary assistants, clerical; infonnation and record clerks; and medical records and health information technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on training programs for library/media technical assistants, write to: ► American Library Association, Office for Human Resource Develop ment and Recruitment, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org Information on acquiring a job as a library technician with the Federal Government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system. Consult your tele phone directory under U.S. Government for a local number, or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree and charges may result. Information also is available on the Internet: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress can be obtained directly from: ► Human Resources Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE„ Washington, DC 20540-2231. State library agencies can furnish information on requirements for technicians, and general information about career prospects in the State. Several of these agencies maintain job hotlines reporting openings for library technicians. State departments of education can furnish information on re quirements and job opportunities for school library technicians. of their department. . Many bookmobile drivers are required to have a commercial driver’s license. Job Outlook Employment of library technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition to employment growth, some job openings will result from the need to replace library technicians who transfer to other fields or leave Teacher Assistants_____ ____ the labor force. The increasing use of library automation is expected to spur job growth among library technicians. Computerized infonnation sys tems have simplified certain tasks, such as descriptive cataloguing, which can now be handled by technicians instead of librarians. For example, technicians can now easily retrieve information from a central database and store it in the library’s computer. Although efforts to contain costs could dampen employment growth of li brary technicians in school, public, and college and university li braries, cost containment efforts could also result in more hiring of library technicians than librarians. Growth in the number of pro fessionals and other workers who use special libraries should result in good job opportunities for library technicians in those settings. • Median annual earnings of library technicians in 2000 were $23,170. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,820 and $29,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 13,810, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $35,660. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of library technicians in 2000 were as follows: Colleges and universities................ Local government............................. Elementary and secondary schools $25,320 22,910 21,120 Salaries of library technicians in the Federal Government aver https://fraser.stlouisfed.org aged $33,224 in 2001. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis (0*NET 25-9041.00) _________ _______ Significant Points Approximately 4 in 10 teacher assistants work part time. • • Educational requirements range from a high school diploma to some college training. A growing special education population, among other factors, is expected to cause faster than average employment growth. Nature of the Work Teacher assistants provide instructional and clerical support for class room teachers, allowing teachers more time for lesson planning and teaching. Teacher assistants tutor and assist children in learning class material using the teacher’s lesson plans, providing students with individualized attention. Teacher assistants also supervise stu dents in the cafeteria, schoolyard, school discipline center, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, and help prepare materials for instruction. Teacher assistants are also called teacher aides or instructional aides. Some refer to themselves as paraeducators. ■ ■ i Some teacher assistants perform exclusively noninstructional or clerical tasks, such as monitoring nonacademic settings. Play ground and lunchroom attendants are examples of such assistants. Most teacher assistants, however, perform a combination of instruc tional and clerical duties. They generally instruct children, under the direction and guidance of teachers. They work with students Professional and Related Occupations 193 individually or in small groups—listening while students read, re viewing or reinforcing classwork, or helping them find information for reports. At the secondary school level, teacher assistants often specialize in a certain subject, such as math or science. Teacher assistants often take charge of special projects and prepare equip ment or exhibits, such as for a science demonstration. Some assis tants work in computer laboratories, helping students using computers and educational software programs. In addition to instructing, assisting, and supervising students, teacher assistants grade tests and papers, check homework, keep health and attendance records, type, file, and duplicate materials. They also stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order. Many teacher assistants work extensively with special educa tion students. As schools become more inclusive, integrating spe cial education students into general education classrooms, teacher assistants in general education and special education classrooms increasingly assist students with disabilities. Teacher assistants at tend to a disabled student’s physical needs, including feeding, teach ing good grooming habits, or assisting students riding the school bus. They also provide personal attention to students with other special needs, such as those whose families live in poverty, or stu dents who speak English as a second language, or who need reme dial education. Teacher assistants help assess a student’s progress by observing performance and recording relevant data. Teacher assistants also work with infants and toddlers who are disabled or developmentally delayed. Under the guidance of a teacher or therapist, teacher assistants perform exercises or play games to help the child develop physically and behaviorally. Some teacher assistants work with young adults helping them obtain a job or apply for community services for the disabled. Working Conditions Approximately 4 in 10 teacher assistants work part time. However, even among full-time workers, nearly half work less than 8 hours per day. Most assistants who provide educational instruction work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year. Teacher assistants work in a variety of settings, including private homes, preschools, or in local government offices working with young adults. But most work in classrooms in elementary, middle, and secondary schools. They also work outdoors supervising recess when weather allows, and they spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling. A Teacher assistants work one-on-one or with small groups ofstudents to provide the extra help they may need. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Seeing students develop and gain appreciation of the joy of learn ing can be very rewarding. However, working closely with stu dents can be both physically and emotionally tiring. Teacher assistants who work with special education students often perform more strenuous tasks, including lifting, as they help students with their daily routine. Those who perform clerical work may tire of administrative duties, such as copying materials or typing. Employment Teacher assistants held almost 1.3 million jobs in 2000. About 80 percent worked in public and private education, mostly in the ele mentary grades. Approximately half assisted special education teachers in working with children with disabilities. Most of the others worked in child daycare centers and religious organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher assistants range from a high school diploma to some college training. Teacher assistants with instructional responsibilities usually require more training than those who do not perform teaching tasks. Increasingly, employers prefer teacher assistants who have some college training. Some teacher assistants are aspiring teachers who are working towards their de gree while gaining experience. Many schools require previous ex perience in working with children. Schools often require a valid driver’s license and perform a background check on applicants. A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate de gree programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher assistants. However, most teacher assistants receive on-the-job training. Those who tutor and review lessons with students must have a thorough understanding of class materials and instructional methods, and should be familiar with the organization and operation of a school. Teacher assistants also must know how to operate audiovisual equip ment, keep records, and prepare instructional materials, as well as have adequate computer skills. Teacher assistants should enjoy working with children from a wide range of cultural backgrounds, and be able to handle class room situations with fairness and patience. Teacher assistants also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good writing skills and be able to com municate effectively with students and teachers. Teacher assistants who speak a second language, especially Spanish, are in great de mand to communicate with growing numbers of students and par ents whose primary language is not English. About one third of all States have established guidelines or mini mum educational standards for the hiring and training of teacher assistants, and an increasing number of States are in the process of implementing them. Although requirements vary by State, most require an individual to have at least a high school diploma or gen eral equivalency degree (G.E.D.), or some college training. In States that have not established guidelines or minimum educational stan dards, local school districts determine hiring requirements. Advancement for teacher assistants, usually in the form of higher earnings or increased responsibility, comes primarily with experi ence or additional education. Some school districts provide time away from the job or tuition reimbursement so that teacher assis tants can earn their bachelor’s degrees and pursue licensed teaching positions. In return for tuition reimbursement, assistants are often required to teach a certain length of time for the school district. Job Outlook Employment of teacher assistants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Many school dis tricts report shortages of teachers. If schools continue to experi ence problems hiring teachers, the demand for teacher assistants to 194 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information on a career as a teacher assistant, contact: assist and monitor students and provide teachers with clencal assis tance will grow. In addition, despite projections of only moderate increases in overall student enrollments, the number of special edu cation students and those who speak English as a second language are expected to grow more rapidly. Because teacher assistants play a large role in helping students with special needs, the rising num ber of these students will create additional demand for teacher as sistants. In addition to jobs stemming from employment growth, numerous job openings will arise as workers transfer to other occu pations, leave the labor force to assume family responsibilities, return to school, or leave for other reasons—characteristic of occupations that require limited formal education and offer relatively low pay. The number and size of special education programs are growing in response to increasing enrollments of students with disabilities. Federal legislation mandates appropriate education for all children, and emphasizes placing children with disabilities into regular school settings, when possible. Children with special needs require much personal attention, and special education teachers, as well as gen eral education teachers with special education students, rely heavily >- National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals in Education and Re lated Services, 6526 Old Main Hill, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322. Internet: http://www.nrcpara.org School superintendents and State departments of education can provide details about employment requirements. Teachers—Adult Literacy and Remedial and Self-Enrichment Education ___ _______ __ (0*NET 25-3011.00, 25-3021.00) • Significant Points The majority of employed adult teachers work part time and receive no benefits; many unpaid volunteers also teach these subjects. Opportunities for teachers of English as a Second Language are expected to be very good, as the number of immigrants seeking classes is expected to increase. Demand for self-enrichment courses is expected to rise as more people embrace lifelong learning. on teacher assistants. . School reforms that call for more individual instruction should further enhance employment opportunities for teacher assistants. As schools strive to meet new standards, they are hiring more teacher assistants to provide students with the personal instruction and re medial education they need. An increasing number of after-school programs and summer programs also will create new opportunities • for teacher assistants. Demand is expected to vary by region of the country. Where population growth is fastest, such as in areas of the South and West, school enrollments are also rising quickly, resulting in stronger de mand for teacher assistants. Teacher assistants, particularly those that can speak a foreign language, are in demand in school systems Nature of the Work Adult literacy and remedial education teachers provide adults and out-of-school youths the education needed to read, write, and speak English, and to perform basic math calculations—basic skills that equip them to solve problems well enough to become active partici pants in our society, to hold a job, and to further their education. Students in adult literacy and remedial education classes are made up of those who dropped out of school or have passed through the school system without an adequate education. It also includes stu dents who want to take the General Educational Development ex amination, better known as the GED exam. The GED certificate earned by passing the GED exam—generally is considered the equivalent of a high school diploma. Increasingly, though, the stu dents in adult education classes are immigrants whose native lan guage is not English. In contrast, self-enrichment teachers, unlike other adult education teachers, teach courses that students take for personal enrichment, such as cooking, dancing, creative writing, golf or tennis, photography, or personal finance. Adult literacy and remedial education teachers, more commonly called adult basic education teachers, teach basic academic courses in math, geography, history, reading, writing, science, and other ar eas. They teach these subjects to students 16 years of age and older who have up to an eighth grade level education. Many of these adults have learning disabilities or emotional problems that pre vented them from learning effectively in regular school. Because the students often are at different proficiency levels for different subjects, remedial education teachers must make individual assess ments beforehand of each student’s abilities. The assessment is used in many programs to develop an individualized education plan for each student. Teachers are required to evaluate students peri odically to determine if they should be promoted to the next level. Teachers who teach literacy to non-English speaking students are called English as a Second Language (ESL) or English to Speak ers of Other Languages (ESOL) teachers. Along with English, ESL teachers provide survival and life skills instruction, and lessons on math, health, citizenship, and vocational topics. Adult education teachers, particularly ESL teachers, use real-life situations to promote • with large numbers of immigrants. uuigi} _ Median annual earnings of teacher assistants in 2000 were ^$17,350. The middle 50 percent earned between $13,930 and $22,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,260, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $27,550. Teacher assistants who work part time ordinarily do not receive benefits. Full-time workers usually receive health coverage and other benefits. . . About 4 out of 10 teacher assistants belonged to unions in 2000— mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Edu cation Association—which bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. Related Occupations Teacher assistants who instruct children have duties similar to those of preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers, special education teachers, and school librarians. How ever, teacher assistants do not have the same level of responsibility or training. The support activities of teacher assistants and their educational backgrounds are similar to those of childcare workers, library technicians, and library assistants. Teacher assistants who work with children with disabilities perform many of the same func tions as occupational therapy assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information For information on teacher assistants, including training and certi fication, contact: , ► American Federation of Teachers, Paraprofessional and School Related Personnel Division, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW„ Washington, DC 20001. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Internet: http://www.aft.org/psrp Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 195 learning. For example, a reading lesson may consist of reading a job application or a lease for an apartment. More advanced students concentrate on writing and conversational skills and more difficult vocabulary. ESL teachers must cope with a wide range of cultures and abilities in their classroom. Some of their students may have a college degree and be quick learners, while others may never have opened a book; and while some may need to be taught the alphabet from scratch, others may only need help with vocabulary. Literacy and remedial education is taught in small groups or oneon-one. Teachers generally teach all subjects and only rarely spe cialize. They also may teach a combination of ESL and adult basic education. Attendance for students is mostly voluntary and coursework is rarely graded. Lessons tend to be very practical and put into meaningful contexts. For example, teaching job skills is a major topic in classes, including practicing for an interview, find ing a job, following directions, reading a manual, giving opinions, and using technology. For native-born and foreign-bom students who wish to get a GED credential in order to get a job or to go on to college, GED teachers help them acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to pass the test. The GED tests students in writing, math, social stud ies, literature, arts, and sciences. Since most of the students have had some high school, the emphasis in class is on acquiring the knowledge needed to pass the GED test. Going over GED practice tests or GED instruction manuals are the main methods of prepar ing for the test. However, depending on the expertise of the teacher, some subjects may be taught in more detail. ■ ■ .■ Self-enrichment teachers teach courses such as how to fix a home computer. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis All adult education teachers must prepare lessons beforehand, do any related paperwork, and stay current in their fields. Many new teachers also must leam the latest uses for the computer in literacy classrooms. Computers are increasingly being used to supplement instruction in basic skills and to teach students how to find jobs and other information over the Internet. Working Conditions Because adult education teachers work with adult students, they do not encounter some of the behavioral or social problems sometimes found with younger students. Adults attend by choice, are highly motivated, and bring years of experience to the classroom—attributes that can make teaching these students rewarding and satisfying. However, teachers in remedial or adult basic education deal with students who may lack effective study skills and self-confidence have learning disabilities, and who may require more attention and patience than other students. Adult education teachers often feel they are not as respected by education departments as their general education peers. Many work with out-dated computers or in spare rooms with few resources. Funding is rarely adequate and class sizes are often large. Many adult education teachers work part time. Some have sev eral part-time teaching assignments or work a full-time job in addi tion to their part-time teaching job, leading to long hours and a hectic schedule. Classes often are held at night or on the weekends to accom modate students who may have a job or family responsibilities. Employment Teachers of adult literacy, remedial, and self-enrichment education, held about 252,000 jobs in 2000. About one in five were selfemployed. Many additional teachers worked as unpaid volunteers. Adult literacy, remedial education, and GED teachers and in structors held about 67,000 of the jobs. Many of the jobs are Fed erally funded with additional funds coming from State and local governments. The education industry employs the majority of these teachers, who work in Adult Learning Centers, libraries, or com munity colleges. Others work for State and local governments, providing basic education at juvenile detention and corrections in stitutions, among other places. Others work for job training facili ties; nonprofit, religious, and social service organizations; and residential care facilities. An increasing number of remedial and ESL teachers can be found at worksites, paid by employers to teach English and math to workers. A total of 186,000 jobs were held by self-enrichment teachers in 2000. Most of them worked in adult continuing education pro grams sponsored by the local government or an education institu tion. Some worked in amusement and recreation services, dance studios, and civic and social organizations, among many other places. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Requirements for teaching adult literacy and remedial education, including ESL and GED preparation, vary by State and by program. Federally funded programs run by State and local governments usu ally have higher standards than programs run by religious, commu nity, or volunteer organizations. Most State and local governments and education institutions require that adult teachers have at least a bachelor’s degree and preferably a Master’s degree. Some require an elementary or secondary teaching certificate and a few have re cently begun requiring a certificate in ESL or adult education. Teach ing experience, especially with adults, also is preferred or required. Volunteers usually do not need a bachelor’s degree, but must attend a preservice training program instead. Most programs recommend that adult literacy and remedial edu cation teachers take classes on teaching adults, using technology to 196 Occupational Outlook Handbook teach, working with learners from a variety of cultures, and teach ing adults with learning disabilities. ESL teachers should also have courses on second language acquisition theory and linguistics. In addition, knowledge of the citizenship and naturalization process is very useful. Knowledge of a second language is not necessary to teach ESL students, but can be helpful in understanding the stu dents’ difficulties. GED teachers should know what is required to pass the GED and be able to instruct students in the subject matter. Training for literacy volunteers usually consists of effective teach ing practices, needs assessment, lesson planning, materials selec tion, characteristics of adult learners, and cross-cultural awareness. Adult education teachers must have the ability to work with a variety of cultures, languages, and educational and economic back grounds. They must be understanding of their students’ circum stances and familiar with their concerns. All teachers, both paid and volunteer, should be able to communicate well and be able to motivate their students. Previous experience as a volunteer or an aide in a literacy program is recommended. Professional development among adult education teachers var ies widely. Because of the part-time nature of the job, attendance at classes is difficult for many instructors. Therefore, professional development usually consists of voluntary attendance at workshops, conferences, and seminars 1 or 2 days per year. The Internet is playing a larger role in helping teachers learn to expand approaches and techniques in the classroom. They can now take online courses, join chat groups with other teachers, and research journal articles. There are very few opportunities for advancement in this pro fession. Most jobs are part time and offer limited career potential. However, those who do have full-time jobs often do administrative work along with teaching. Others may go into policy work at a nonprofit organization or perform research. The most experienced teachers may mentor new instructors and volunteers. The main qualification for self-enrichment teachers is expertise in the subject area. A portfolio of one’s work may be required. For example, to secure a job teaching a photography course, an appli cant would need to show examples of previous work. Self-enrich ment teachers should also have good speaking skills and a talent foi making the subject interesting. Job Outlook Opportunities for jobs as adult literacy, remedial, and self-enrich ment education teachers are expected to be very good. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010, and a large number of job openings are expected due to the need to replace people who leave the occupation or retire. Turnover is prevalent in this occupation due to its many part-time jobs. In addition, a large number of all types of teachers are ex pected to retire. Should a shortage of people seeking to enter the teaching profession arise, many of these jobs will be hard to fill. Much of the growth in employment will be for ESL teachers who will be needed by the increasing number of immigrants and other nonEnglish speakers entering this country. In addition, a greater percentage of immigrants are expected to take ESL classes. With most immigrants going to States such as California, Florida, Texas, and New York, demand will be greatest in these regions. However, parts of the Midwest and Plains States have recently be gun to attract large numbers of immigrants, making for especially good opportunities in those areas. 3 As employers increasingly require a more literate workforce, work ers’ demand will grow for all types of literacy and remedial classes. The need for basic education and GED teachers is expected to increase despite an increasing emphasis being placed on education. One rea son is that the standards that many school districts are imposing to improve elementary and secondary education are causing some https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis students who cannot meet the new criteria for graduation to drop out of school and enroll in adult education classes. Also, while dropout rates have declined for whites and blacks, they remain high for for eign-bom Hispanics, who make up an increasing share of the popu lation. Nevertheless, several branches of the military recently have allowed those who have dropped out of school to enlist as long as they pass the GED first. This is expected to bring in new recruits and create demand for GED teachers. The demand for literacy and basic education often fluctuates with the economy. When the economy is good and workers are hard to find, employers relax their standards and hire workers with out a degree or GED. As the economy softens, more students find they need additional education to get a job. However, adult educa tion classes are often subject to funding level changes, which can cause the number of teaching jobs to fluctuate from year to year. When this happens, volunteers may take the place of paid teachers. As the baby boomers begin to retire and have more time to take classes and as more people embrace lifelong learning, the need for self-enrichment teachers will grow. Subjects that are not easily re searched on the Internet and those that provide hands-on experi ences will be in greater demand. Classes on spirituality and self-improvement are expected to be popular along with courses that provide hands-on experiences, like cooking and the arts. Top ics related to current trends are always well-received. Earnings Median hourly earnings of adult literacy and remedial education teachers and GED instructors were $16.12 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.20 and $21.17. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.47, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.50. Part-time adult literacy and remedial education and GED instructors are generally paid by the hour or by the class and receive no benefits. Full-time teachers are usually paid a salary and receive good benefits if they work for a school system or government. Self-enrichment teachers also are paid by the hour or the class. Median hourly earnings of self-enrichment teachers were $ 13.44 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.48 and $18.63. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.96, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.38. Related Occupations The work of adult literacy, remedial and self-enrichment teachers is closely related to that of other types of teachers, especially pre school, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers. In addition, adult literacy and remedial education teach ers require a wide variety of skills and aptitudes. They must not only be able to teach and motivate students, including those with learning disabilities, they also must be advisors and trainers. Work ers in other occupations that require these aptitudes include special education teachers, counselors, and social workers. Self-enrich ment teachers teach a wide variety of subjects that may be related to many other occupations. Sources of Additional Information Information on adult literacy and remedial education programs and teacher certification requirements is available from State depart ments of education, local school districts, and literacy resource cen ters. Information also may be obtained through local religious and charitable organizations. For information on Adult Education and Family Literacy pro grams, contact: > The U.S. Department of Education, Office ofVocational and Adult Edu cation, 4090 MES, 400 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, DC 20202. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/offlces/OVAE Professional and Related Occupations 197 For information on teaching English as a Second Language, contact: The National Center for ESL Literacy Education, 4646 40th St. NW., Washington, DC 20016. Internet: http://www.cal.org/ncle Teachers—Postsecondary (0*NET 25-1011.00, 25-1021.00, 25-1022.00, 25-1031.00, 25-1032 00 25-1041.00, 25-1042.00, 25-1043.00, 25-1051.00, 25-1052.00, 25 1053.00, 25-1054.00, 25-1061.00, 25-1062.00, 25-1063.00, 25-1064.00 25-1065.00, 25-1066.00, 25-1067.00, 25-1069.99, 25-1071.00, 25 1072.00, 25-1081.00, 25-1082.00, 25-1111.00, 25-1112.00, 25-1113.00, 25-1121.00, 25-1122.00, 25-1123.00, 25-1124.00, 25-1125.00, 25 1126.00, 25-1191.00, 25-1192.00, 25-1193.00, 25-1194.00, 25-1199.99) Significant Points • • • • College faculty usually need a Ph.D. for full-time, tenure-track positions in 4-year colleges and universities. Requirements for postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers include work experience, and formal education ranging from a license or certificate to a college degree. The job market in colleges and universities is expected to improve, but many new openings will be for part time or nontenure track positions. Job prospects will continue to be better in certain fields—computer science, engineering, and business, for example—that offer attractive nonacademic job opportunities and attract fewer applicants for academic positions. Nature of the Work College and university faculty, who make up the majority of post secondary teachers, teach and advise nearly 15 million full- and part-time college students and perform a significant part of our Nation s research. Faculty also keep up with developments in their field and consult with government, business, nonprofit, and com munity organizations. Faculty usually are organized into departments or divisions, based on subject or field. They usually teach several different courses— algebra, calculus, and statistics, for example. They may instruct undergraduate or graduate students, or both. College and univer sity faculty may give lectures to several hundred students in large halls, lead small seminars, or supervise students in laboratories. They prepare lectures, exercises, and laboratory experiments; grade ex ams and papers; and advise and work with students individually. In universities, they also supervise graduate students’ teaching and re search. College faculty work with an increasingly varied student population made up of growing shares of part-time, older, and cul turally and racially diverse students. Faculty keep abreast of developments in their field by reading current literature, talking with colleagues, and participating in pro fessional conferences. They also do their own research to expand knowledge in their field. They perform experiments; collect and analyze data; and examine original documents, literature, and other source material. From this process, they arrive at conclusions, and publish their findings in scholarly journals, books, and electronic media. College and university faculty use technology in all areas of their Digitizedwork. for FRASER In the classroom, they may use computers—including the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Internet; electronic mail; software programs, such as statistical pack ages, and CD-ROMs as teaching aids. Faculty post course con tent, class notes, class schedules, and other information on the Internet. Increasingly, faculty are using sophisticated telecommu nications and videoconferencing equipment and the Internet to teach courses to students at remote sites. The use of e-mail, chat rooms, and other techniques has greatly improved communications between students and teachers and among students. Most faculty members serve on academic or administrative com mittees that deal with the policies of their institution, departmental matters, academic issues, curricula, budgets, equipment purchases, and hiring. Some work with student and community organizations. Department chairpersons are faculty members who usually teach some courses but have heavier administrative responsibilities. The proportion of time spent on research, teaching, administra tive, and other duties varies by individual circumstance and type of institution. Faculty members at universities normally spend a sig nificant part of their time doing research; those in 4-year colleges, somewhat less; and those in 2-year colleges, relatively little. The teaching load, however, often is heavier in 2-year colleges and some what lower at 4-year institutions. Full professors at all types of institutions usually spend a larger portion of their time conducting research than do assistant professors, instructors, and lecturers. Postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers provide instruction for occupations that do not require a college degree, such as welder, dental hygienist, x-ray technician, auto mechanic, Postsecondary teachers keep abreast ofdevelopments in theirfield by reading current literature and talking with colleagues. 198 Occupational Outlook Handbook and cosmetologist. Classes often are taught in an industrial or labo ratory setting where students are provided hands-on experience. For example, welding instructors show students various welding tech niques, watch them use tools and equipment, and have them repeat procedures until they meet the specific standards required by the trade. Increasingly, vocational-technical education teachers are inte grating academic and vocational curriculums so students obtain a variety of skills that can be applied to the “real world. Vocational-technical education teachers have many of the same responsibilities as college and university faculty. They must pre pare lessons, grade papers, attend faculty meetings, and keep abreast of developments in their field. Along with the community colleges, vocational-technical schools also are playing a greater role in stu dents’ transition from school to work by helping establish intern ships and by providing information about prospective employers. Working Conditions Postsecondary teachers usually have flexible schedules. They must be present for classes, usually 12 to 16 hours per week, and for faculty and committee meetings. Most establish regular office hours for student consultations, usually 3 to 6 hours per week. Other wise, teachers are free to decide when and where they will work, and how much time to devote to course preparation, grading, study, research, graduate student supervision, and other activities. Some teach night and weekend classes. This is particularly true for teachers at 2-year community colleges or institutions with large enrollments of older students who have full-time jobs or family re sponsibilities. Most colleges and universities require teachers to work 9 months of the year, which allows them the time to teach additional courses, do research, travel, or pursue nonacademic in terests during the summer and school holidays. Colleges and uni versities usually have funds to support research or other professional development needs, including travel to conferences and research sites. About 3 out of 10 college and university faculty worked part time in 2000. Some part-timers, known as “adjunct faculty, have pri mary jobs outside of academia—in government, private industry, or nonprofit research—and teach “on the side. Others prefer to work part-time hours or seek full-time jobs but are unable to obtain them due to intense competition for available openings. Some work part time in more than one institution. Many adjunct faculty are not quali fied for tenure-track positions because they lack a doctoral degree. University faculty may experience a conflict between their re sponsibilities to teach students and the pressure to do research and to publish their findings. This may be a particular problem for young faculty seeking advancement in 4-year research universities. Also, recent cutbacks and the hiring of more part-time faculty have put a greater administrative burden on full-time faculty. Requirements to teach online classes have also added greatly to the workloads of postsecondary teachers. Developing the courses to put online, plus learning how to operate the technology and answering large amounts of e-mail, is very time-consuming. Employment ... . Postsecondary teachers held over 1.3 million jobs in 2000. Most were employed in 4-year public colleges and universities, and in community colleges. Postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers also are employed by schools and institutes that specialize in training people in a specific field, such as beauty schools and welding institutes. They also work for State and local governments and job training facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most college and university faculty are in four academic ranks professor, associate professor, assistant professor, and instructor. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis These positions usually are considered to be tenure-track positions. A small number of faculty, called lecturers, usually are not on the tenure track. Most faculty members are hired as instructors or assistant pro fessors. Four-year colleges and universities usually consider doc toral degree holders for full-time, tenure-track positions, but may hire master’s degree holders or doctoral candidates for certain dis ciplines, such as the arts, or for part-time and temporary jobs. In 2year colleges, master’s degree holders fill most full-time positions. However, with increasing competition for available jobs, institu tions can be more selective in their hiring practices. Master s degree holders may find it increasingly difficult to obtain employment as they are passed over in favor of candidates holding a Ph.D. Doctoral programs, including time spent completing a master s degree and a dissertation, take an average of 6 to 8 years of full time study beyond the bachelor’s degree. Some programs, such as the humanities, take longer to complete; others, such as engineer ing, usually are shorter. Candidates specialize in a subfield of a discipline—for example, organic chemistry, counseling psychology, or European history—but also take courses covering the entire dis cipline. Programs include 20 or more increasingly specialized courses and seminars plus comprehensive examinations on all ma jor areas of the field. Candidates also must complete a disserta tion—a written report on original research in the candidate s major field of study. The dissertation sets forth an original hypothesis or proposes a model and tests it. Students in the natural sciences and engineering usually do laboratory work; in the humanities, they study original documents and other published material. The dissertation, done under the guidance of one or more faculty advisors, usually takes 1 or 2 years of full-time work. In some fields, particularly the natural sciences, some students spend an additional 2 years on postdoctoral research and study be fore taking a faculty position. Some Ph.D.’s extend postdoctoral appointments, or take new ones, if they are unable to find a faculty job. Most of these appointments offer a nominal salary. A program called Preparing Future Faculty, administered by the Association of American Colleges and Universities and the Coun cil of Graduate Schools, offers graduate students at research uni versities the opportunity to apprentice at local liberal arts colleges. Working with a mentor, the graduate students teach classes and team how to improve their teaching techniques. They may attend faculty and committee meetings, develop a curriculum, and learn how to balance the teaching, research, and administrative roles that faculty play. A major step in the traditional academic career is attaining ten ure. New tenure-track faculty usually are hired as instructors or assistant professors, and must serve a certain period (usually 7 years) under term contracts. At the end of the contract period, their record of teaching, research, and overall contribution to the institution is reviewed; tenure is granted if the review is favorable. According to the American Association of University Professors, about 63 per cent of all full-time faculty held tenure, and about 86 percent were in tenure-track positions, during the 1999-2000 school year. Those denied tenure usually must leave the institution. Tenured profes sors cannot be fired without just cause and due process. Tenure protects the faculty’s academic freedom—the ability to teach and conduct research without fear of being fired for advocating unpopu lar ideas. It also gives both faculty and institutions the stability needed for effective research and teaching, and provides financial security for faculty. Some institutions have adopted post-tenure review policies to encourage ongoing evaluation of tenured faculty. The number of tenure-track positions is expected to decline as institutions seek flexibility in dealing with financial matters and changing student interests. Institutions will rely more heavily on Professional and Related Occupations 199 limited term contracts and part-time, or adjunct, faculty, shrinking the total pool of tenured faculty. Some institutions offer limited term contracts to prospective faculty—typically 2-, 3-, or 5-year, full-time contracts. These contracts may be terminated or extended at the end of the period. Institutions are not obligated to grant ten ure to these contract holders. In addition, some institutions have limited the percentage of faculty who can be tenured. Training requirements for postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers vary by State and by subject. In general, teach ers need a bachelor’s degree or higher plus work or other experi ence in their field. In some fields, a license or certificate that demonstrates one’s qualifications may be all that is required. Teach ers update their skills through continuing education to maintain certification. They must also maintain ongoing dialogue with busi nesses to determine the most current skills needed in the workplace. For most postsecondary teachers, advancement involves a move into administrative and managerial positions, such as departmental chairperson, dean, and president. At 4-year institutions, such ad vancement requires a doctoral degree. At 2-year colleges, a doctor ate is helpful but not usually required, except for advancement to some top administrative positions. (Deans and departmental chair persons are covered in the Handbook statement on education ad ministrators, while college presidents are included in the Handbook statement on top executives.) Postsecondary teachers should communicate and relate well with students, enjoy working with them, and be able to motivate them. They should have inquiring and analytical minds, and a strong de sire to pursue and disseminate knowledge. Additionally, they must be self-motivated and able to work in an environment where they receive little direct supervision. Job Outlook The job outlook for postsecondary teachers should be much brighter than it has been in recent years. Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Projected growth in college and university enrollment over the next decade stems largely from the expected increase in the population of 18 to 24-year olds. Adults returning to college and an increase in for eign-bom students also will add to the number of students, particu larly in the fastest growing States of California, Texas, Florida, New York, and Arizona. Because many of the students will be from minority groups, demand for minority teachers will be high. Welfare-to-work policies and the growing need to regularly up date one’s skills will continue to create new opportunities for postsecondary teachers, particularly at community colleges. There also is expected to be a large number of openings due to the retire ments of faculty who were hired in the late ’60s and ’70s to teach the baby boomers. In contrast, the number of doctorate degrees is projected to rise by only 4 percent over the 2000-10 period, which is sharply lower than the increase over the previous decade. A sur plus of Ph.D. candidates in recent years has contributed to intense competition for college faculty jobs. Although the competition for jobs should ease somewhat, it will remain tight for those seeking tenure-track positions at 4-year col leges and universities. Many of the jobs opening up are expected to be part time or renewable, term appointments. The best job pros pects will continue to be in the computer sciences, engineering, and business fields in which jobs outside academia are plentiful. Voca tional-technical education teachers also are in short supply in the computer, business, and health-related fields. Distance learning, particularly over the Internet, is expected to create a number of new jobs for postsecondary teachers, as this method of education reaches students who would not be able to attend a traditional classroom. Those in rural areas and with family https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis responsibilities are embracing distance education as a way to get the education they want, while minimizing the commute to a cam pus. In addition, employers are expected to use distance learning as a way to update their employees’ skills. The Army has recently announced plans to offer distance learning to its troops. Increasing demand for distance education will result in the need for more teach ers of online classes, both at traditional colleges and universities and at new online universities. Earnings Median annual earnings of postsecondary teachers in 2000 were $46,330. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,270 and $66,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,700; the high est 10 percent, more than $87,850. Earnings for college faculty vary according to rank and type of institution, geographic area, and field. According to a 1999-2000 survey by the American Association of University Professors, sala ries for full-time faculty averaged $58,400. By rank, the average for professors was $76,200; associate professors, $55,300; assis tant professors, $45,600; instructors, $34,700; and lecturers, $38,100. Faculty in 4-year institutions earn higher salaries, on av erage, than do those in 2-year schools. In 1999-2000, average sala ries for faculty in public institutions—$57,700—were lower than those in private independent institutions—$66,300—but higher than those in religiously-affiliated private colleges and universities— $51,300. In fields with high-paying nonacademic alternatives— medicine, law, engineering, and business, among others—earnings exceed these averages. In others—such as the humanities and edu cation—they are lower. Most faculty members have significant earnings in addition to their base salary, from consulting, teaching additional courses, re search, writing for publication, or other employment. In addition to typical benefits, most college and university fac ulty enjoy some unique benefits, including access to campus facili ties, tuition waivers for dependents, housing and travel allowances, and paid sabbatical leaves. Part-time faculty usually have fewer benefits than do full-time faculty. Earnings for postsecondary vocational-technical education teachers vary widely by subject, academic credentials, experience, and region of the country. Part-time instructors usually receive few benefits. Related Occupations Postsecondary teaching requires the ability to communicate ideas well, motivate students, and be creative. Workers in other occupa tions that require these skills are teachers—preschool, kindergar ten, elementary, middle, and secondary; education administrators; librarians; counselors; writers and editors; public relations special ists; and management analysts. Faculty research activities often are similar to those of scientists, as well as to those of managers and administrators in industry, government, and nonprofit research organizations. Sources of Additional Information Professional societies related to a field of study often provide infor mation on academic and nonacademic employment opportunities. Names and addresses of many of these societies appear in state ments elsewhere in the Handbook. Special publications on higher education, available in libraries, such as The Chronicle of Higher Education, list specific employ ment opportunities for faculty. For information on the Preparing Future Faculty program, contact: >-Association of American Colleges and Universities, 1818 R St. NW, Washington, DC 20009. Internet: http://www.aacu-edu.org 200 Occupational Outlook Handbook For information on postsecondary vocational-technical educa tion teaching positions, contact State departments of vocationaltechnical education. General information on adult and vocational education is avail able from: >- Association for Career and Technical Education, 1410 King St., Alexan dria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.acteonline.org >- ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1900 Kenny Rd., Columbus, OH 43210. Internet: http://www.ericacve.org Teachers—Preschool, Kindergarten, Elementary, Middle, and Secondary (0*NET 25-2011.00, 25-2012.00, 25-2021.00, 25-2022.00, 25-2023.00, 25-2031.00, 25-2032.00) Significant Points • • • Public school teachers must have at least a bachelor’s degree, complete an approved teacher education program, and be licensed. Many States offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities will stem from the large number of teachers expected to retire over the next 10 years, particularly at the secondary school level; job outlook will vary by geographic area and subject specialty. Nature of the Work Teachers act as facilitators or coaches, using interactive discussions and “hands-on” learning to help students leam and apply concepts in subjects such as science, mathematics, or English. As teachers move away from the traditional repetitive drill approaches and rote memorization, they are using more “props” or “manipulatives” to help children understand abstract concepts, solve problems, and develop critical thought processes. For example, they teach the concepts of numbers or adding and subtracting by playing board games. As children get older, they use more sophisticated materials such as science apparatus, cameras, or computers. Many classes are becoming less structured, with students work ing in groups to discuss and solve problems together. Preparing students for the future workforce is the major stimulus generating the changes in education. To be prepared, students must be able to interact with others, adapt to new technology, and logically think through problems. Teachers provide the tools and environment for their students to develop these skills. Preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What children leam and experience during their early years can shape their views of them selves and the world, and affect later success or failure in school, work, and their personal lives. Preschool, kindergarten, and elemen tary school teachers introduce children to numbers, language, sci ence, and social studies. They use games, music, artwork, films, books, computers, and other tools to teach basic skills. Preschool children leam mainly through play. Recognizing the importance of play, preschool teachers build their program around it. They capitalize on children’s play to further language develop ment (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills (work ing together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and introduce https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis scientific and mathematical concepts (balancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). Thus, a less structured approach is used to teach preschool children, in cluding small group lessons, one-on-one instruction, and learning through creative activities, such as art, dance, and music. Play and hands-on teaching also are used in kindergarten classrooms, but academics begins to take priority. Letter recognition, phonics, num bers, and awareness of nature and science are taught primarily by kindergarten teachers. Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers work as a team and are jointly responsible for a group of students in at least one subject. In other schools, a teacher may teach one special sub ject—usually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical education—to a number of classes. A small but growing number of teachers instruct multilevel classrooms, with students at several different learning levels. Middle and secondary school teachers help students delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and expose them to more information about the world. Middle and secondary school teachers specialize in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, history, or biology. They also can teach subjects that are career-oriented. Vocational education teachers instruct and train students to work in a wide variety of fields, such as health care, business, auto repair, communications, and, increasingly, technol ogy. They often teach courses that are in high demand by area employers, who may provide input into the curriculum and offer internships to students. (Special education teachers—who instruct elementary and secondary school students who have a variety of dis abilities—are discussed separately in this section of the Handbook.) Teachers may use films, slides, overhead projectors, and the latest technology in teaching, including computers, telecommuni cation systems, and video discs. Use of computer resources, such as educational software and the Internet, exposes students to a vast range of experiences and promotes interactive learning. Through the Internet, American students can communicate with students in other countries. Students also use the Internet for indi vidual research projects and information gathering. Computers are used in other classroom activities as well, from helping stu dents solve math problems to learning English as a second lan guage. Teachers also may use computers to record grades and perform other administrative and clerical duties. They must con tinually update their skills so that they can instruct and use the latest technology in the classroom. Teachers often work with students from varied ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds. With growing minority populations in many parts of the country, it is important for teachers to establish rapport with a diverse student population. Accordingly, some schools offer training to help teachers enhance their awareness and understanding of different cultures. Teachers may also include multicultural programming in their lesson plans to address the needs of all students, regardless of their cultural background. Teachers design classroom presentations to meet student needs and abilities. They also work with students individually. Teachers plan, evaluate, and assign lessons; prepare, administer, and grade tests; listen to oral presentations; and maintain classroom discipline. They observe and evaluate a student’s performance and potential, and increasingly are asked to use new assessment methods. For example, teachers may examine a portfolio of a student’s artwork or writing to judge the student’s overall progress. They then can provide additional assistance in areas where a student needs help. Teachers also grade papers, prepare report cards, and meet with parents and school staff to discuss a student s academic progress or personal problems. Professional and Related Occupations 201 of teaching, normally 3 years. Tenure does not absolutely guaran tee a job, but it does provide some security. Employment Teachers held about 3.8 million jobs in 2000. Of those, about 1.5 million were elementary school teachers, 1.1 million were second ary school, 590,000 were middle school, 423,000 were preschool, and 175,000 were kindergarten teachers. Approximately 15 per cent of elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers work for private schools. Preschool facilities are often located in schools, religious institutions, and workplaces in which employers provide day care for their employees’ children. Employment of teachers is distributed geographically, much the same as the population. Teachers must communicate well, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students to learn. In addition to classroom activities, teachers oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and accom pany students on field trips. They identify physical or mental prob lems and refer students to the proper resource or agency for diagnosis and treatment. Secondary school teachers occasionally assist stu dents in choosing courses, colleges, and careers. Teachers also par ticipate in education conferences and workshops. In recent years, site-based management, which allows teachers and parents to participate actively in management decisions, has gained popularity. In many schools, teachers are increasingly in volved in making decisions regarding the budget, personnel, text book choices, curriculum design, and teaching methods. Working Conditions Seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation of knowledge and learning can be very rewarding. However, teaching may be frustrating when one is dealing with unmotivated or disre spectful students. Occasionally, teachers must cope with unruly behavior and violence in the schools. Teachers may experience stress when dealing with large classes, students from disadvantaged or multicultural backgrounds, and heavy workloads. Schools, par ticularly in inner cities, may be run down and lack the amenities of schools in wealthier communities. Teachers are sometimes isolated from their colleagues because they work alone in a classroom of students. However, some schools are allowing teachers to work in teams and with mentors to enhance their professional development. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Part-time schedules are more common among preschool and kindergarten teachers. Although some school districts have gone to all-day kindergartens, most kin dergarten teachers still teach two kindergarten classes a day. Most teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation during the summer. During the vacation break, those on the 10-month schedule may teach in summer sessions, take other jobs, travel, or pursue other personal interests. Many enroll in col lege courses or workshops to continue their education. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule typically work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. Preschool teachers working in day care settings often work year round. Most States have tenure laws that prevent teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain ten ure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public school teachers to be licensed. Licensure is not required for teachers in private schools. Usually licensure is granted by the State board of education or a licensure advisory committee. Teachers may be li censed to teach the early childhood grades (usually nursery school through grade 3); the elementary grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8); the middle grades (grades 5 through 8); a secondary education sub ject area (usually grades 7 through 12); or a special subject, such as reading or music (usually grades kindergarten through 12). Requirements for regular licenses to teach kindergarten through grade 12 vary by State. However, all States require general educa tion teachers to have a bachelor’s degree and to have completed an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of sub ject and education credits as well as supervised practice teaching. About one-third of the States also require technology training as part of the teacher certification process. A number of States require specific minimum grade point averages for teacher licensure. Other States require teachers to obtain a master’s degree in education, which involves at least 1 year of additional coursework beyond the bachelor’s degree, with a specialization in a particular subject. Almost all States require applicants for teacher licensure to be tested for competency in basic skills such as reading, writing, teach ing, and subject matter proficiency. Most States require continuing education for renewal of the teacher’s license. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers licensed in one State to become licensed in another. Increasingly, States are moving towards implementing perfor mance-based standards for licensure, which require passing a rig orous comprehensive teaching examination to obtain a provisional license. Teachers must then demonstrate satisfactory teaching per formance over an extended period to obtain a full license. Many States offer alternative teacher licensure programs for people who have bachelor’s degrees in the subject they will teach, but lack the necessary education courses required for a regular license. Alternative licensure programs originally were designed to ease teacher shortages in certain subjects, such as mathematics and science. The programs have expanded to attract other people into teaching, including recent college graduates and mid-career changers. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under provisional licensure. After working under the close super vision of experienced educators for 1 or 2 years while taking educa tion courses outside school hours, they receive regular licensure if they have progressed satisfactorily. Under other programs, college graduates who do not meet licensure requirements take only those courses that they lack, and then become licensed. This may take 1 or 2 semesters of full-time study. States may issue emergency li censes to individuals who do not meet requirements for a regular license when schools cannot attract enough qualified teachers to 202 Occupational Outlook Handbook fill positions. Teachers who need licensure may enter programs that grant a master’s degree in education, as well as a license. In many States, vocational teachers have many of the same re quirements for teaching as their academic counterparts. However, since knowledge and experience in a particular field are the most important criteria for the job, some States will license vocational education teachers without a bachelor’s degree, provided they can demonstrate expertise in their field. Licensing requirements for preschool teachers vary by State. Re quirements for public school teachers are generally higher than those for private preschool teachers. Some States require a bachelor’s degree in early childhood education and others require an associate degree, while others may require certification by a nationally rec ognized authority. The Child Development Associate (CDA) cre dential is the most common type of certification. It requires a mix of classroom training and experience working with children, along with an independent assessment of an individual’s competence. For several years, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has offered voluntary national certification for teachers in kindergarten through grade 12. To become nationally certified, teachers must prove their aptitude by compiling a portfolio show ing their work in the classroom, and by passing a written assess ment and evaluation of their teaching knowledge. Currently, teachers may become certified in 1 of 7 areas. These areas are based on the age of the students and, in some cases, subject area. For example, teachers may obtain a certificate for teaching English language arts to early adolescents (ages 11-15), or they may be come certified as early childhood generalists. All States recognize national certification, and many States and school districts provide special benefits to teachers holding national certification. Ben efits typically include higher salaries and reimbursement for con tinuing education and certification fees. Additionally, many States allow nationally certified teachers to carry a license from one State to another. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education currently accredits more than 500 teacher education programs across the United States. Generally, 4-year colleges require students to wait until their sophomore year before applying for admission to teacher education programs. Traditional education programs for kindergarten and elementary school teachers include courses—de signed specifically for those preparing to teach—in mathematics, physical science, social science, music, art, and literature, as well as prescribed professional education courses such as philosophy of education, psychology of learning, and teaching methods. Aspir ing secondary school teachers either major in the subject they plan to teach while also taking education courses, or major in education and take subject courses. Teacher education programs are now re quired to include classes in the use of computers and other tech nologies to maintain accreditation. Most programs require students to perform a student teaching internship. Many States now offer professional development schools, which are partnerships between universities and elementary or secondary schools. Students enter these 1-year programs after completion of their bachelor’s degree. Professional development schools merge theory with practice and allow the student to experience a year of teaching first-hand, with professional guidance. In addition to being knowledgeable in their subject, teachers must have the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as understand their educational and emo tional needs. Teachers must be able to recognize and respond to individual differences in students, and employ different teaching methods that will result in higher student achievement. They should be organized, dependable, patient, and creative. Teachers also must be able to work cooperatively and communicate effectively with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis other teaching staff, support staff, parents, and other members of the community. With additional preparation, teachers may move into positions as school librarians, reading specialists, curriculum specialists, or guidance counselors. Teachers in kindergarten through grade 12 may become administrators or supervisors, although the number of these positions is limited and competition can be intense. In some systems, highly qualified, experienced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while keeping most of their own teaching responsibilities. Preschool teachers usually work their way up from assistant teacher, to teacher, then to lead teacher—who may be responsible for instruction of several classes— and finally to director of the center. A master’s degree is often required to become a director. Preschool teachers with a bachelor’s degree often are also qualified to teach kindergarten through grade 3. Teaching at these higher grades often results in higher pay. Job Outlook Job opportunities for teachers over the next 10 years should be ex cellent, attributable mostly to the large number of teachers expected to retire. Although employment of preschool, kindergarten, elemen tary, middle, and secondary school teachers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations, a large proportion will be eligible to retire by 2010, creating many vacancies, particu larly at the secondary school level. Intense competition for good teachers is already under way among employers in many locations, with schools luring teachers from other States and districts with bonuses and higher pay. Overall enrollments through 2010, a key factor in the demand for teachers, are projected to rise slowly, resulting in average employment growth for all teachers from preschool to secondary grades. However, projected enrollments vary by region. States in the South and West—particularly California, Texas, Arizona, and Georgia—will experience large enrollment increases, while States in the Northeast and Midwest may experience declines. Projected enrollments also differ by grade, with enrollments rising moder ately in grades 9 through 12, while remaining fairly steady for all other grades over the 2000-10 period. The job market for teachers also continues to vary by school location and by subject specialty. Many inner cities—often charac terized by overcrowded, ill-equipped schools and higher than aver age poverty rates—and rural areas—characterized by their remote location and relatively low salaries—have difficulty attracting enough teachers, so job prospects should be better in these areas than in suburban districts. Currently, many school districts have difficulty hiring qualified teachers in some subject areas—math ematics, science (especially chemistry and physics), bilingual edu cation, foreign languages, and computer science. Specialties that currently have an adequate number of qualified teachers include general elementary education, physical education, and social stud ies. Teachers who are geographically mobile and who obtain licen sure in more than one subject should have a distinct advantage in finding a job. Increasing enrollments of minorities, coupled with a shortage of minority teachers, should cause efforts to recruit minor ity teachers to intensify. Also, the number of non-English speaking students has grown dramatically, especially in California and Florida, which have large Spanish-speaking student populations, creating demand for bilingual teachers and those who teach English as a second language. The number of teachers employed also is dependent on State and local expenditures for education and enactment of legislation to increase the quality of education. A number of initiatives, such as reduced class size (primarily in the early elementary grades), Professional and Related Occupations 203 mandatory preschool for 4-year-olds, and all-day kindergarten have been implemented in a few States, but implementation nationwide has been limited. Additional teachers, particularly preschool and early elementary school teachers, will be needed if States or locali ties implement any of these measures. Because of a shortage of teachers in certain locations and in anticipation of the loss of a num ber of teachers to retirement, many States are implementing poli cies that will encourage more students to become teachers. Some are giving large signing bonuses that are distributed over the teacher’s first few years of teaching. Some are expanding State scholarships; issuing loans for moving expenses; and implementing loan-forgive ness programs, allowing education majors with at least a B average to receive State-paid tuition so long as they agree to teach in the State for 4 years. The supply of teachers also is expected to increase in response to reports of improved job prospects, more teacher involvement in school policy, and greater public interest in education. In recent years, the total number of bachelor’s and master’s degrees granted in education has steadily increased. In addition, more teachers will be drawn from a reserve pool of career changers, substitute teach ers, and teachers completing alternative certification programs, re locating to different schools, and re-entering the workforce. Earnings Median annual earnings of kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers ranged from $37,610 to $42,080 in 2000; the lowest 10 percent earned $23,320 to $28,460; the top 10 per cent earned $57,590 to $64,920. Median earnings for preschool teachers were $17,810. According to the American Federation of Teachers, beginning teachers with a bachelor’s degree earned an average of $27,989 in the 1999-2000 school year. The estimated average salary of all public elementary and secondary school teachers in the 1999-2000 school year was $41,820. Private school teachers generally earn less than public school teachers. In 1999, more than half of all public school teachers belonged to unions—mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the Na tional Education Association—that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. Teachers can boost their salary in a number of ways. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Getting a master’s de gree or national certification often results in a raise in pay, as does acting as a mentor teacher. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer teaching summer school or performing other jobs in the school system. Related Occupations Preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teaching requires a variety of skills and aptitudes, including a talent for working with children; organizational, administrative, and recordkeeping abilities; research and communication skills; the power to influence, motivate, and train others; patience; and cre ativity. Workers in other occupations requiring some of these apti tudes include teachers—postsecondary; counselors; teacher assistants; education administrators; librarians; childcare workers; public relations specialists; social workers; and athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers. Sources of Additional Information Information on licensure or certification requirements and approved teacher training institutions is available from local school systems and State departments of education. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Information on the teaching profession and on how to become a teacher can be obtained from: >- Recruiting New Teachers, Inc., 385 Concord Ave., Suite 103, Belmont, MA 02478. Internet: http://www.rnt.org This organization also sponsors another Internet site that provides helpful information on becoming a teacher: http://www.recruitingteachers.org Information on teachers’ unions and education-related issues may be obtained from: > American Federation of Teachers, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW, Washing ton, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.aft.org >- National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nea.org A list of institutions with accredited teacher education programs can be obtained from: >• National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.ncate.org For information on careers in educating children and issues af fecting preschool teachers, contact: > National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1509 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.naeyc.org >- Association for Childhood Education International, 17904 Georgia Ave., Suite 215, Olney, MD 20832-2277. Internet: http://www.acei.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child De velopment Associate credential, contact: >• Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org Teachers—Special Education (Q*NET 25-2041.00, 25-2042.00, 25-2043.00) • • • Significant Points A bachelor’s degree, completion of an approved teacher preparation program, and a license are required to qualify; many States require a master’s degree. Many States offer alternative licensure programs to attract people into these jobs. Excellent job prospects are expected due to rising enrollments of special education students and reported shortages of qualified teachers. Nature of the Work Special education teachers work with children and youths who have a variety of disabilities. A small number of special education teach ers work with severely mentally retarded or autistic children, pri marily teaching them life skills and basic literacy. However, the majority of special education teachers work with children with mild to moderate disabilities, using the general education curriculum, or modifying it, to meet the child’s individual needs. Most special education teachers instruct students at the elementary, middle, and secondary school level, although some teachers work with infants and toddlers. The various types of disabilities qualifying for special education programs include specific learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, multiple disabilities, hearing impairments, orthopedic impairments, visual impairments, autism, deaf-blindness, traumatic brain injury, and other health impairments. Students are classified under one of the categories, and special education teachers are prepared to work with specific groups. Early identification of a child with special needs is 204 Occupational Outlook Handbook an important part of a special education teacher s job. Early inter vention is essential in educating children with disabilities. Special education teachers use various techniques to promote learning. Depending on the disability, teaching methods can include individualized instruction, problem-solving assignments, and small group work. When students need special accommodations for test taking, special education teachers see that appropriate ones are pro vided, such as having the questions read orally or lengthening the time allowed to take the test. Special education teachers help to develop an Individualized Edu cation Program (IEP) for each special education student. The IEP sets personalized goals for each student and is tailored to a student s individual learning style and ability. This program includes a tran sition plan outlining specific steps to prepare special education stu dents for middle school or high school, or in the case of older students, a job or postsecondary study. Teachers review the IEP with the student’s parents, school administrators, and often the student’s general education teacher. Teachers work closely with parents to inform them of their child’s progress and suggest tech niques to promote learning at home. Special education teachers design and teach appropriate cur ricula, assign work geared toward each student’s ability, and grade papers and homework assignments. They are involved in a student’s behavioral as well as academic development. They help special education students develop emotionally, be comfortable in social situations, and be aware of socially acceptable behavior. Prepar ing special education students for daily life after graduation is an important aspect of the job. Teachers help students learn routine skills, such as balancing a checkbook, or provide them with career counseling. As schools become more inclusive, special education teachers and general education teachers increasingly work together in gen eral education classrooms. Special education teachers help general educators adapt curriculum materials and teaching techniques to meet the needs of students with disabilities. They coordinate the work of teachers, teacher assistants, and related personnel, such as therapists and social workers, to meet the requirements of inclusive special education programs, in addition to teaching special education stu dents. A large part of a special education teacher’s job involves interacting with others. They communicate frequently with parents, social workers, school psychologists, occupational and physical thera pists, school administrators, and other teachers. Special education teachers work in a variety of settings. Some have their own classrooms and teach only special education stu dents; others work as special education resource teachers and offer individualized help to students in general education classrooms; and others teach with general education teachers in classes com posed of both general and special education students. Some teach ers work in a resource room, where special education students work several hours a day, separate from their general education class room. A significantly smaller proportion of special education teach ers works in residential facilities or tutor students in homebound or hospital environments. Special education teachers who work with infants usually travel to the child’s home to work with the child and his or her parents. Many of these infants have medical problems that slow or preclude nonnal development. Special education teachers show parents tech niques and activities designed to stimulate the infant and encour age the growth of the child’s skills. Toddlers usually receive their services at a preschool where special education teachers help them develop social, self-help, motor, language, and cognitive skills, of ten through the use of play. Technology is playing an increasingly important role in special education. Special education teachers use specialized equipment https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ft. The methods ofteaching used by special education teachers include individualized instruction, problem-solving assignments, and group ■work. such as computers with synthesized speech, interactive educational software programs, and audiotapes to assist children. Working Conditions Special education teachers enjoy the challenge of working with stu dents with disabilities and the opportunity to establish meaningful relationships. Although helping these students can be highly re warding, the work can also be emotionally and physically draining. Many special education teachers are under considerable stress due to heavy workloads and administrative tasks. They must produce a substantial amount of paperwork documenting each student s progress and work under the threat of litigation by students’ parents if correct procedures are not followed, or if the parents feel their child is not receiving an adequate education. The physical and emotional demands of the job cause some special education teach ers to leave the occupation. Some schools offer year-round education for special education students, but most special education teachers only work the tradi tional 10-month school year. Employment Special education teachers held a total of about 453,000 jobs in 2000. The majority—234,000—taught preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school students. Another 96,000 taught middle school students, and 123,000 taught secondary school students. Most taught in public and private schools, but a few worked in specialized edu cational facilities, residential facilities, or in homebound or hospi tal environments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require special education teachers to be licensed. State boards of education or a licensure advisory committee usually grant licenses, and licensure varies by State. In many States, special education teachers receive a general education credential to teach kindergarten through grade 12. These teachers train in a specialty, such as learning disabilities or behav ioral disorders. Some States offer general special education licenses, others license several different specialties within special education, while others require teachers to first obtain a general education license and then an additional license in special education. Professional and Related Occupations 205 All States require a bachelor’s degree and completion of an approved teacher preparation program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits and supervised practice teaching. Many States require special education teachers to obtain a master’s degree in special education, involving at least 1 year of additional coursework, including a specialization, beyond the bachelor’s degree. Some States have reciprocity agreements allowing special edu cation teachers to transfer their license from one State to another, but many still require special education teachers to pass licensing requirements for that State. In the future, employers may recognize certification or standards offered by a national organization. Many colleges and universities across the United States offer programs in special education, including undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral programs. Special education teachers usually undergo longer periods of training than general education teachers. Most bachelor’s degree programs are 4-year programs including general and specialized courses in special education. However, an increas ing number of institutions require a fifth year or other postbacca laureate preparation. Courses include educational psychology, legal issues of special education, child growth and development, and knowledge and skills needed for teaching students with disabili ties. Some programs require specialization. Others offer general ized special education degrees, or study in several specialized areas. The last year of the program usually is spent student teaching in a classroom supervised by a certified teacher. Alternative and emergency licenses are available in many States, due to the need to fill special education teaching positions. Alter native licenses are designed to bring college graduates and those changing careers into teaching more quickly. Requirements for an alternative license may be less stringent than for a regular license and vary by State. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under a provisional license. They can obtain a regular li cense by teaching under the supervision of licensed teachers for a period of 1 to 2 years while taking education courses. Emergency licenses are granted when States have difficulty finding licensed special education teachers to fill positions. Special education teachers must be patient, able to motivate stu dents, understanding of their students’ special needs, and accepting of differences in others. Teachers must be creative and apply dif ferent types of teaching methods to reach students who are having difficulty. Communication and cooperation are essential traits be cause special education teachers spend a great deal of time interact ing with others, including students, parents, and school faculty and administrators. Special education teachers can advance to become supervisors or administrators. They may also earn advanced degrees and be come instructors in colleges that prepare others for special educa tion teaching. In some school systems, highly experienced teachers can become mentor teachers to less experienced ones; they pro vide guidance to these teachers while maintaining a light teaching load. Job Outlook Employment of special education teachers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, spurred by continued growth in the number of special education students need ing services, legislation emphasizing training and employment for individuals with disabilities, and educational reforms requiring higher standards for graduation. The need to replace special educa tion teachers who switch to general education, change careers alto gether, or retire will lead to additional job openings. At the same time, many school districts report shortages of qualified teachers. As a result, special education teachers should have excellent job prospects. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The job outlook varies by geographic area and specialty. Al though all areas of the country report difficulty finding qualified applicants, positions in inner cities and rural areas usually are more plentiful than job openings in suburban or wealthy urban areas. Student populations, in general, also are expected to increase sig nificantly in several States in the West and South, resulting in in creased demand for special education teachers in these regions. In addition, job opportunities may be better in certain specialties— such as speech or language impairments, and learning disabilities— because of large enrollment increases of special education students classified under these disability categories. Legislation encourag ing early intervention and special education for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers has created a need for early childhood special edu cation teachers. Special education teachers who are bilingual or have multicultural experience also are needed to work with an in creasingly diverse student population. The number of students requiring special education services has grown steadily in recent years . This trend is expected to continue. Learning disabilities will continue to be identified and diagnosed at earlier ages. In addition, medical advances have resulted in more children surviving serious accidents or illnesses, but with impair ments that require special accommodations. The percentage of for eign-born special education students also is expected to grow as teachers begin to recognize learning disabilities in this population. Finally, more parents are expected to seek special services for their children if they have difficulty meeting the new, higher standards required of students. Earnings Median annual earnings of preschool, kindergarten, and elemen tary school special education teachers in 2000 were $40,880. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,330 and $52,440. The low est 10 percent earned less than $26,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $66,210. Median annual earnings of middle school special education teach ers in 2000 were $38,600. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,360 and $49,150. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,500, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,590. Median annual earnings of secondary school special education teachers in 2000 were $41,290. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $32,840 and $52,860. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,180, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,030. In 2000, about 57 percent of special education teachers belonged to unions—mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association—that bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment. In most schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Some teach ers earn extra income during the summer, working in the school system or in other jobs. Related Occupations Special education teachers work with students who have disabili ties and special needs. Other occupations involved with the identi fication, evaluation, and development of students with disabilities include psychologists, social workers, speech-language pathologists and audiologists, counselors, teacher assistants, occupational thera pists, recreational therapists, and teachers—preschool, kindergar ten, elementary, middle, and secondary. Sources of Additional Information For information on professions related to early intervention and education for children with disabilities, a list of accredited schools, 206 Occupational Outlook Handbook teacher certification, financial aid information, and general infor mation on related personnel issues—including recruitment, reten tion, and supply of and demand for special education for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Dr., Reston, VA 20191-1589. Internet: http://www.special-ed-careers.org To learn more about the special education teacher certification and licensing requirements in your State, contact your State s de professionals—contact: >- National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education, Council partment of education. Legal Occupations Court Reporters (0*NET 23-2091.00) • • • Significant Points Court reporters usually need a 2- or 4- year postsecondary school degree. Demand for realtime and broadcast captioning and translating will result in employment growth of court reporters. Job opportunities should be best for those with certification from the National Court Reporters Association. Nature of the Work Court reporters typically take verbatim reports of speeches, conver sations, legal proceedings, meetings, and other events when written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspondence, records, or legal proof. Court reporters not only play a critical role injudi cial proceedings, but every meeting where the spoken word must be preserved as a written transcript. They are responsible for ensur ing a complete, accurate, and secure legal record. In addition to preparing and protecting the legal record, many court reporters as sist judges and trial attorneys in a variety of ways, such as organiz ing and searching for information in the official record or making suggestions to judges and attorneys regarding courtroom adminis tration and procedure. Increasingly, court reporters are providing closed-captioning and realtime translating services to the deaf and hard-of-hearing community. Court reporters document all statements made in official pro ceedings using a stenotype machine, which allows them to press multiple keys at a time to record combinations of letters represent ing sounds, words, or phrases. These symbols are then recorded on computer disks or CD-ROM, which are then translated and dis played as text in a process called computer-aided transcription (CAT). In all cases, accuracy is crucial because there is only one person creating an official transcript. In a judicial setting, for example, appeals often depend on the court reporter’s transcript. Stenotype machines used for realtime captioning are linked di rectly to the computer. As the reporter keys in the symbols, they instantly appear as text on the screen. This process, called Commu nications Access Realtime Translation (CART), is used in courts, classrooms, meetings, and for closed captioning for the hearingimpaired on television. Court reporters are responsible for a number of duties both be fore and after transcribing events. First, they must create and main tain the computer dictionary that they use to translate stenographic strokes into written text. They may customize the dictionary with word parts, words, or terminology specific to the proceeding, pro Digitizedgram, for FRASER or event—such as a religious service—they plan to transcribe. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis After documenting proceedings, court reporters must edit their CART translation for correct grammar, accurate identification of proper names and places, and to ensure the record or testimony is distinguishable. They usually prepare written transcripts, make copies, and provide transcript information to court, counsel, par ties, and the public upon request. They also develop procedures for easy storage and retrieval of all stenographic notes and files in pa per or digital format. Although many court reporters record official proceedings in the courtroom, the majority of them work outside the courtroom. Freelance reporters, for example, take depositions for attorneys in offices and document proceedings of meetings, conventions, and other private activities. Others capture the proceedings in govern ment agencies of all levels, from the U.S. Congress to State and Court reporters use stenotype machines to take verbatim reports of speeches, conversations, legal proceedings, meetings, and other events. Professional and Related Occupations 207 local governing bodies. Court reporters who specialize in captioning live television programming for people with hearing loss are com monly known as stenocaptioners. They work for television net works or cable stations captioning news, emergency broadcasts, sporting events, and other programming. With CART and broad cast captioning, the level of understanding gained by a person with hearing loss depends entirely on the skill of the stenocaptioner. In an emergency situation, such as a tornado or hurricane, peoples’ safety may depend entirely on the information provided in the form of captioning. Medical transcriptionists, discussed elsewhere in the Handbook, have similar duties, but with a different focus. They translate and edit recorded dictation by physicians and other healthcare provid ers regarding patient assessment and treatment. Working Conditions The majority of court reporters work in comfortable settings, such as in offices of attorneys, courtrooms, legislatures, and conventions. An increasing number of court reporters work from home-based offices as independent contractors. Work in this occupation presents few hazards, although sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring, and workers can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye problems due to strain and risk re petitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Also, the pressure to be accurate and fast also can be stressful. Many official court reporters work a standard 40-hour week. Selfemployed court reporters usually work flexible hours—including part-time, evenings, weekends, or on an on-call basis. Employment Court reporters held about 18,000 jobs in 2000. Of those who worked for a wage or salary, about 11,000 worked for State and local governments, a reflection of the large number of court report ers working in courts, legislatures, and various agencies. Most of the rest worked as independent contractors or employees of court reporting agencies. About 13 percent were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Court reporters usually complete a 2- or 4-year training program, offered by about 160 postsecondary vocational and technical schools and colleges. Currently, the National Court Reporters Association (NCRA) has approved about 86 programs, all of which offer courses in computer-aided transcription and real-time reporting. NCRAapproved programs require students to capture a minimum of 225 words per minute. Court reporters in the Federal Government must capture at least 225 words a minute. Some States require court reporters to be Notary Publics, or to be a Certified Court Reporter (CCR); reporters must pass a State certi fication test administered by a board of examiners to earn this desig nation. The National Court Reporters Association confers the entry-level designation, Registered Professional Reporter (RPR), upon those who pass a four-part examination and participate in man datory continuing education programs. Although voluntary, the RPR designation is recognized as a mark of distinction in this field. A reporter may obtain additional certifications that demonstrate higher levels of competency. The NCRA also offers a designation called Certified Realtime Reporter (CRR). This designation promotes and recognizes competence in the specialized skill of converting the spo ken word into the written word instantaneously. Reporters, working as stenocaptioners or CART providers, use realtime skills to pro duce captions for the deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers. Court reporters must have excellent listening skills, as well as good English grammar and punctuation skills. They must also be aware of business practices and current events, especially the correct https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis spelling of names of people, places, and events that may be men tioned in a broadcast or in court proceedings. For those who work in courtrooms, an expert knowledge of legal terminology and crimi nal and appellate procedure is essential. Because stenographic cap turing of proceedings requires a computerized stenography machine, court reporters must be knowledgeable about computer hardware and software applications. With experience and education, court reporters can advance to administrative and management positions, consulting, or teaching. Job Outlook Employment of court reporters is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Demand for court reporter services will be spurred by the continuing need for accu rate transcription of proceedings in courts and in pretrial deposi tions, and by the growing need to create captions of live or prerecorded television and provide other realtime translating ser vices for the deaf and hard-of-hearing community. Federal legislation mandates that by 2006, all new television programming must be captioned for the deaf and hard-of-hearing. Additionally, the American with Disabilities Act gives deaf and hardof-hearing students in colleges and universities the right to request access to realtime translation in their classes. Both of these factors are expected to increase demand for trained stenographic court re porters to provide realtime captioning and Communications Ac cess Realtime Translation (CART) services. Although these services are transcript-free and differ from traditional court reporting, which uses computer-aided transcription to turn spoken words into per manent text, they require the same skills that court reporters leam in their training. Despite increasing numbers of civil and criminal cases, budget constraints are expected to limit the ability of Federal, State, and local courts to expand, also limiting the demand for traditional court reporting services in courtrooms and other legal venues. Also, in efforts to keep costs down, many courtrooms have installed tape recorders to maintain records of proceedings. Despite the use of audiotape and videotape technology, court reporters can quickly turn spoken words into readable, searchable, permanent text so they will continue to be needed to produce written legal transcripts and pro ceedings for publication. The Internet is expected to affect how reporting services are pro vided as online video technology improves and more meetings, col lege classes, and even depositions take place on the Internet. Court reporters will be in demand online to provide instantaneous text of those meetings in a searchable, easy-to-access medium. Job opportunities should be best for those with certification from the National court Reporters Association. Earnings Court reporters had median annual earnings of $39,660 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,630 and $51,740. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $18,750, and the highest paid 10 percent earned over $69,060. Median annual earnings in 2000 were $37,640 for court reporters working in local government. Compensation methods for court reporters vary, depending on the type of reporting jobs, the experience of the individual reporter, the level of certification achieved and the region. Official court report ers earn a salary and a per-page fee for transcripts. Many salaried court reporters supplement their income by doing additional freelance work. Freelance court reporters are paid per job and receive a perpage fee for transcripts. Communication access realtime translation providers are paid hourly. Stenocaptioners are paid a salary and ben efits if they work as employees of a captioning company; stenocaptioners working as independent contractors are paid hourly. 208 Occupational Outlook Handbook According to a National Court Reporters Association survey of its members, average annual earnings for court reporters were $61,830 in 1999. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are secretaries and administrative assis tants, medical transcriptionists, receptionists and infonnation clerks, and human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping. Other workers who provide legal support include paralegals and legal assistants. Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for court reporters. For information about careers, training, and certification in court reporting, contact: ► National Court Reporters Association, 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vienna, VA 22182. Internet: http://www.ncraonline.org and http://www.bestfuture.com ► United States Court Reporters Association, 1904 Marvel Lane, Liberty, MO 64068. Internet: http://www.uscra.org Judges, Magistrates, and Other Judicial Workers _ (0*NET 23-1021.00, 23-1022.00, 23-1023.00) Significant Points • • • A bachelor’s degree and work experience are the minimum requirements for a judgeship or magistrate position; however, most workers filling these positions also have law degrees. Judges and magistrates should encounter competition for jobs. Demand for arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators is growing because of the high cost and long delays associated with litigation. Nature of the Work Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers apply the law and oversee the legal process in courts according to local, State, and Federal statutes. They preside over cases concerning every aspect of society, from traffic offenses to disputes over management of professional sports, or from the rights of huge corporations to ques tions of disconnecting life support equipment for terminally ill per sons. All judicial workers must ensure that trials and hearings are conducted fairly and that the court administers justice in a manner which safeguards the legal rights of all parties involved. The most visible responsibility ofjudges is presiding over trials or hearings and listening as attorneys represent the parties present. They rule on the admissibility of evidence and the methods of con ducting testimony, and they may be called upon to settle disputes between opposing attorneys. Also, they ensure that rules and pro cedures are followed, and if unusual circumstances arise for which standard procedures have not been established, they determine the manner in which the trial will proceed based on their interpretation of the law. Judges often hold pretrial hearings for cases. They listen to alle gations and determine whether the evidence presented merits a trial. In criminal cases, judges may decide that persons charged with https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis crimes should be held in jail pending their trial, or they may set conditions for release. In civil cases, they occasionally impose re strictions upon the parties until a trial is held. In many trials, juries are selected to decide guilt or innocence in criminal cases or liability and compensation in civil cases. Judges instruct juries on applicable laws, direct them to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdict. When the law does not require a jury trial or when the parties waive their right to a jury, judges decide the cases. In such cases, the judge determines guilt and imposes sentences in a criminal case; in civil cases, the judge awards relief—such as compensation for damages—to the parties in the lawsuit (also called litigants). Judges also work out side the courtroom, “in chambers.” In these, their private offices, judges read documents on pleadings and motions, research legal issues, write opinions, and oversee the court’s operations. In some jurisdictions, judges also manage the courts’ administrative and cleri cal staff. Judges’ duties vary according to the extent of their jurisdictions and powers. General trial court judges of the Federal and State court systems have jurisdiction over any case in their system. They usually try civil cases transcending the jurisdiction of lower courts and all cases involving felony offenses. Federal and State appel late court judges, although few in number, have the power to over rule decisions made by trial court or administrative law judges if they determine that legal errors were made in a case or if legal pre cedent does not support the judgment of the lower court. They rule on a small number of cases and rarely have direct contacts with litigants. Instead, they usually base their decisions on lower court records and lawyers’ written and oral arguments. Many State court judges preside in courts in which jurisdiction is limited by law to certain types of cases. A variety of titles are assigned to these judges, but among the most common are munici pal court judge, county court judge, magistrate, or justice of the peace. Traffic violations, misdemeanors, small claims cases, and pretrial hearings constitute the bulk of the work of these judges, but some States allow them to handle cases involving domestic rela tions, probate, contracts, and other selected areas of the law. Administrative lawjudges, sometimes called hearing officers or adjudicators, are employed by government agencies to make deter minations for administrative agencies. They make decisions on a person’s eligibility for various Social Security benefits or worker’s compensation, protection of the environment, enforcement of health and safety regulations, employment discrimination, and compliance with economic regulatory requirements. Arbitration, mediation, and conciliation—Appropriate Dispute Resolution (ADR)—are alternative processes that can be used to settle disputes between parties. All ADR hearings are private and confidential, and the processes are less formal than a court trial. If no settlement is reached using ADR, any statements made during the proceedings are inadmissible as evidence in any subsequent litigation. During arbitration, opposing parties submit their dispute to one or more impartial persons, called arbitrators, for a final and binding decision. Arbitrators usually are attorneys or businesspersons with expertise in a particular field. The parties identify beforehand the issues to be resolved by arbitration, the scope of the relief to be awarded, and many of the procedural aspects of the process. Few awards are reviewed by the courts because the parties have agreed to be bound by the decision of their arbitrator, although in some cases, it is prearranged that the award will only be advisory. Media tion involves an attempt by the parties to resolve their dispute with the aid of a neutral third party, and generally is used when the par ties wish to preserve their relationship. A mediator may offer sug gestions, but resolution of the dispute rests with the parties Professional and Related Occupations 209 The most visible responsibility ofjudges is presiding over trials or hearings and listening as attorneys represent their clients. themselves. Mediation proceedings are also confidential and pri vate. If the parties can’t reach a settlement, they are free to pursue other options. The parties usually decide in advance how they will contribute to the cost of mediation. Conciliation is similar to mediation. The conciliator’s role is to guide the parties to a settlement. The parties must decide in ad vance whether they will be bound by the conciliator’s recommen dations for settlement. The parties generally share equally in the cost of the conciliation. Working Conditions Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and courtrooms. Work in these occu pations presents few hazards, although sitting in the same position for long periods of time while in the courtroom can be tiring. Most judges work a standard 40-hour week, but many work over 50 hours per week. Some judges with limited jurisdiction are employed part time and divide their time between their judicial responsibilities and other careers. Arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators usually work in private offices or meeting rooms; no public record is made of the proceedings. Employment Judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers held 43,000 jobs in 2000, primarily in State and local government. Of these, adminis trative law judges, adjudicators, and hearing officers held about 14,000 jobs; about two-thirds worked in State governments, onefourth in the Federal Government, and the remainder in local gov ernments. Arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators held another 4,400 jobs, mostly in legal services and State and local governments, al though a small number worked in labor organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree and work experience are usually the minimum requirement for a judgeship or magistrate position. A number of lawyers become judges, and most judges have first been lawyers. In fact, Federal and State judges usually are required to be lawyers. About 40 States allow nonlawyers to hold limited jurisdiction judge ships, but opportunities are better for those with law experience. Federal administrative law judges must be lawyers and pass a com petitive examination administered by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Some State administrative law judges and other hear ing officials are not required to be lawyers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Federal administrative law judges are appointed by various Federal agencies, with virtually lifetime tenure. Federal magistrate judges are appointed by district judges—the life-tenured Federal judges of a district court—to serve in a United States district court for a period of eight years. Some State judges are appointed, and the remainder are elected in partisan or nonpartisan State elections. Many State and local judges serve fixed renewable terms, which range from 4 or 6 years for some trial court judgeships to as long as 14 years or life for other trial or appellate court judges. Judicial nominating commissions, composed of members of the bar and the public, are used to screen candidates for judgeships in many States and for some Federal judgeships. All States have some type of orientation for newly elected or appointed judges. The Federal Judicial Center, American Bar As sociation, National Judicial College, and National Center for State Courts provide judicial education and training forjudges and other judicial branch personnel. General and continuing education courses usually last from a couple of days to 3 weeks in length. More than half of all States, as well as Puerto Rico, require judges to enroll in continuing education courses while serving on the bench. Training and education requirements for arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators differ from those of judges. Mediators who prac tice in State- or court-funded mediation programs usually must meet specific training or experience standards, which vary by State and court. In most States, individuals who offer private mediation ser vices do not need a license, certification, or specific coursework. In reality, however, many private mediators and most of those af filiated with mediation organizations and programs have completed mediation training and agreed to comply with certain ethical stan dards. For example, the American Arbitration Association (AAA) requires mediators listed on its mediation panel to complete an AAA training course, receive recommendations from the trainers, and successfully complete an apprenticeship. Training for arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators is available through independent mediation programs, national and local me diation membership organizations, and postsecondary schools. In 1998,13 colleges or universities in the United States offered master’s degrees in dispute resolution or conflict management, and 2 of fered doctoral degrees. Many more schools offer conflict-manage ment specializations within other degree programs. Degrees in public policy, law, and related fields also provide good background for prospective arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators. Job Outlook Employment of judges and magistrates is expected to grow more slowly than the average through 2010. As in the past, most job openings will arise as judges retire. Contradictory social forces affect the demand forjudges. Grow ing public concerns about crime, safety, and efficient administra tion ofjustice should spur demand, while public budgetary pressures will limit job growth. Caseload filings—a good indicator of the demand for the services ofjudges—are steadily increasing in both the Federal and State court systems. Not only has the quantity of work increased, but many cases have become more complex because of developments in information technology, medical sci ence, e-commerce and globalization. The prestige associated with serving on the bench should ensure competition for judges and magistrates. Becoming a judge will be difficult because not only must judicial candidates compete with other qualified people, they often must also gain political support in order to be elected or appointed. Employment of arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Many people try to avoid litigation, which can involve lengthy 210 Occupational Outlook Handbook delays, high costs, unwanted publicity, and ill will. Arbitration and other alternative processes to litigation usually are faster, less ex pensive, and more conclusive, spurring demand for the services of arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators. Earnings Judges, magistrate judges, and magistrates had median annual earn ings of $86,760 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $42,780 and $113,410. The top 10 percent earned more than $134,660, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $19,320. Administrative law judges, adjudicators, and hearing officers earned a median of $61,240, and arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators earned a median of $43,060. Median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of judges, magistrate judges, and magistrates in 2000 were as follows: State government.....................................................................$104,560 Local government.................................................................... 50,150 According to the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts, the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court earned $186,300, and the Associate Justices earned $178,300. Federal district court judges had salaries of $145,100 in 2001, as did judges in the Court of Federal Claims and the Court of International Trade; court of appeals judges earned $ 15 3,900 a year. Federal judges with limited jurisdiction, such as magistrates and bankruptcy court judges, had salaries of $133,500. According to a survey by the National Center for State Courts, annual salaries of associate justices of States’ highest courts aver aged $ 116,200 in 2000, and ranged from about $85,550 to $ 153,100. Salaries of State intermediate appellate court judges averaged $114,280, and ranged from $86,000 to $147,000. Salaries of State judges of general jurisdiction trial courts averaged $104,400, and ranged from $77,500 to $136,700. Most salaried judges are provided health and life insurance, and contributions are made on their behalf to retirement plans. Related Occupations Legal training and mediation skills are useful in many other occu pations. Some of these are counselors; lawyers; paralegals and le gal assistants; title examiners, abstractors, and searchers; law clerks; and detectives and criminal investigators. Sources of Additional Information Information on judges, magistrates, and other judicial workers may be obtained from: >• National Center for State Courts, 300 Newport Ave., Williamsburg, VA 23185. Internet: http://www.ncsconline.org Information on arbitrators, mediators, and conciliators may be obtained from: >- American Arbitration Association, 335 Madison Ave., Floor 10, New York, NY 10017. Internet: http://www.adr.org Lawyers (0*NET 23-1011.00) Significant Points • Formal educational requirements for lawyers include a 4-year college degree, 3 years in law school, and successful completion of a written bar examination. • Competition for admission to most law schools is intense. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work The legal system affects nearly every aspect of our society, from buying a home to crossing the street. Lawyers form the backbone of this vital system, linking it to society in myriad ways. For this reason, they hold positions of great responsibility and are obligated to adhere to a strict code of ethics. Lawyers, also called attorneys, act both as advocates and advi sors in our society. As advocates, they represent one of the parties in criminal and civil trials by presenting evidence and arguing in court to support their client. As advisors, lawyers counsel their clients concerning their legal rights and obligations, and suggest particular courses of action in business and personal matters. Whether acting as an advocate or advisor, all attorneys research the intent of laws and judicial decisions and apply the law to the spe cific circumstances faced by their client. The more detailed aspects of a lawyer’s job depend upon his or her field of specialization and position. While all lawyers are li censed to represent parties in court, some appear in court more fre quently than others. Trial lawyers, who specialize in trial work, must be able to think quickly and speak with ease and authority. In addi tion, familiarity with courtroom mles and strategy are particularly important in trial work. Still, trial lawyers spend the majority of their time outside the courtroom conducting research, interviewing cli ents and witnesses, and handling other details in preparation for trial. Lawyers may specialize in a number of different areas, such as bankruptcy, probate, international, or elder law. Those specializing in environmental law, for example, may represent public interest groups, waste disposal companies, or construction firms in their dealings with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other Federal and State agencies. They help clients prepare and file for licenses and applications for approval before certain activities may occur. In addition, they represent clients’ interests in adminis trative adjudications. Some lawyers concentrate in the growing field of intellectual property. These lawyers help protect clients’ claims to copyrights, art work under contract, product designs, and computer programs. Still other lawyers advise insurance companies about the legality of insurance transactions. They write insurance policies to conform with the law and to protect companies from unwarranted claims. When claims are filed against insurance companies, they review the claims and represent the companies in court. The majority of lawyers are found in private practice, where they concentrate on criminal or civil law. In criminal law, lawyers repre sent individuals who have been charged with crimes and argue their cases in courts of law. Attorneys dealing with civil law assist cli ents with litigation, wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, titles, and leases. Other lawyers handle only public interest cases—civil or criminal—which may have an impact extending well beyond the individual client. Lawyers are sometimes employed full time by a single client. If the client is a corporation, the lawyer is known as “house counsel,” and usually advises the company concerning legal issues related to its business activities. These issues might involve patents, govern ment regulations, contracts with other companies, property inter ests, or collective bargaining agreements with unions. A significant number of attorneys are employed at the various levels of government. Lawyers who work for State attorneys gen eral, prosecutors, public defenders, and courts play a key role in the criminal justice system. At the Federal level, attorneys investigate cases for the U.S. Department of Justice and other agencies. Gov ernment lawyers also help develop programs, draft and interpret laws and legislation, establish enforcement procedures, and argue civil and criminal cases on behalf of the government. Other lawyers work for legal-aid societies—private, nonprofit organizations established to serve disadvantaged people. These Professional and Related Occupations 211 lawyers generally handle civil, rather than criminal, cases. A rela tively small number of trained attorneys work in law schools. Most are faculty members who specialize in one or more subjects; how ever, some serve as administrators. Others work full time in non academic settings and teach part time. (For additional information, see the Handbook section on postsecondary teachers.) Lawyers increasingly use various forms of technology to per form their varied tasks more efficiently. While all lawyers continue to use law libraries to prepare cases, some supplement their search of conventional printed sources with computer sources, such as the Internet and legal databases. Software is used to search this legal literature automatically and to identify legal texts relevant to a spe cific case. In litigation involving many supporting documents, law yers may use computers to organize and index material. Lawyers also use electronic filing, videoconferencing, and voice-recogni tion technology to more effectively share information with other parties involved in a case. Working Conditions Lawyers do most of their work in offices, law libraries, and court rooms. They sometimes meet in clients’ homes or places of busi ness and, when necessary, in hospitals or prisons. They may travel to attend meetings, gather evidence, and appear before courts, leg islative bodies, and other authorities. Salaried lawyers usually have structured work schedules. Law yers in private practice may work irregular hours while conducting ISIS itaapif ills. pSiy. Lawyers counsel their clients concerning their legal rights and obligations, and suggest particular courses of action in business Digitizedand for personal FRASER matters. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research, conferring with clients, or preparing briefs during nonoffice hours. Lawyers often work long hours, and about half regularly work 40 hours or more per week. They may face particularly heavy pressure, especially when a case is being tried. Preparation for court includes keeping abreast of the latest laws and judicial decisions. Although legal work generally is not seasonal, the work of tax lawyers and other specialists may be an exception. Because law yers in private practice often can determine their own workload and time at which they will retire, many stay in practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Employment Lawyers held about 681,000 jobs in 2000. About 3 out of 4 law yers practiced privately, either in law firms or in solo practices. Most of the remaining lawyers held positions in government, the greatest number at the local level. In the Federal Government, lawyers work for many different agencies but are concentrated in the Departments of Justice, Treasury, and Defense. A small number of lawyers are employed as house counsel by public utilities, banks, insurance companies, real estate agencies, manufacturing firms, welfare and religious organizations, and other business firms and nonprofit or ganizations. Some salaried lawyers also have part-time indepen dent practices; others work as lawyers part time while working full time in another occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To practice law in the courts of any State or other jurisdiction, a person must be licensed, or admitted to its bar, under rules estab lished by the jurisdiction’s highest court. All States require that applicants for admission to the bar pass a written bar examination; most jurisdictions also require applicants to pass a separate written ethics examination. Lawyers who have been admitted to the bar in one jurisdiction occasionally may be admitted to the bar in another without taking an examination, if they meet the latter jurisdiction’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period of legal experience. Federal courts and agencies set their own qualifi cations for those practicing before them. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant usually must obtain a college degree and graduate from a law school accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. ABA accreditation signifies that the law school— particularly its library and faculty—meets certain standards devel oped to promote quality legal education. ABA currently accredits 185 law schools; others are approved by State authorities only. With certain exceptions, graduates of schools not approved by the ABA are restricted to taking the bar examination and practicing in the State or other jurisdiction in which the school is located; most of these schools are in California. In 2000, six States accepted the study of law in a law office as qualification for taking the bar ex amination; only California accepts the study of law by correspon dence. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board of Law Examiners, either before the students enter law school or during the early years of legal study. Although there is no nationwide bar examination, 48 States, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands require the 6-hour Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) as part of the bar examination; the MBE is not required in Louisiana and Washington. The MBE covers issues of broad interest and is sometimes given in addition to a locally prepared State bar examination. The 3-hour Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) is used as part of the State bar examination in several States. States vary in their use of MBE and MEE scores. Many states have begun to require Multistate Performance Test ing (MPT) to test the practical skills of beginning lawyers. This 212 Occupational Outlook Handbook program has been well received, and many more States are expected to require performance testing in the future. Requirements vary by State, although the test usually is taken at the same time as the bar exam and is a one-time requirement. The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study followed by 3 years of law school. Law school applicants must have a bachelor’s degree to qualify for admission. To meet the needs of students who can attend only part time, a number of law schools have night or part-time divisions, which usually require 4 years of study; about 1 in 10 graduates from AB A-approved schools attends part time. Although there is no recommended “prelaw ’ major, prospective lawyers should develop proficiency in writing and speaking, read ing, researching, analyzing, and thinking logically skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Regardless of major, a multidisciplinary background is recommended. Courses in English, foreign languages, public speaking, government, phi losophy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Students interested in a particular aspect of law may find related courses helpful. For example, prospective patent lawyers need a strong background in engineering or science, and future tax lawyers must have extensive knowledge of accounting. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good undergraduate grades, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), the quality of the applicant’s undergraduate school, any prior work ex perience, and, sometimes, a personal interview. However, law schools vary in the weight they place on each of these and other factors. All law schools approved by the ABA, except for those in Puerto Rico, require applicants to take the LSAT. Nearly all law schools require applicants to have certified transcripts sent to the Law School Data Assembly Service, which then sends applicants LSAT scores and their standardized records of college grades to the law schools of their choice. Both this service and the LSAT are administered by the Law School Admission Council. Competition for admission to many law schools is intense, espe cially for the most prestigious schools. Enrollments in these schools rose very rapidly during the 1970s, as applicants far outnumbered available seats. Although the overall number of law school appli cants decreased markedly in the 1990s, the number of applicants to most law schools still greatly exceeds the number that can be admitted. During the first year or year-and-a-half of law school, students usually study core courses such as constitutional law, contracts, prop erty law, torts, civil procedure, and legal writing. In the remaining time, they may elect specialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporate law. Law students often acquire practical experience by participation in school-sponsored legal clinic activities; in the school’s moot court competitions, in which students conduct ap pellate arguments; in practice trials under the supervision of experi enced lawyers and judges; and through research and writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. A number of law schools have clinical programs in which stu dents gain legal experience through practice trials and projects un der the supervision of practicing lawyers and law school faculty. Law school clinical programs might include work in legal aid clin ics, for example, or on the staff of legislative committees. Part time or summer clerkships in law firms, government agencies, and corporate legal departments also provide valuable experience. Such training can lead directly to a job after graduation and can help students decide what kind of practice best suits them. Clerkships may also be an important source of financial aid. In 1999, law students in 52 jurisdictions were required to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), which tests their knowledge of the ABA codes on professional responsibility https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and judicial conduct. In some States, the MPRE may be taken dur ing law school, usually after completing a course on legal ethics. Law school graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) as the first professional degree. Advanced law degrees may be de sirable for those planning to specialize, research, or teach. Some law students pursue joint degree programs, which usually require an additional semester or year. Joint degree programs are offered in a number of areas, including law and business administration or public administration. After graduation, lawyers must keep informed about legal and nonlegal developments that affect their practice. Currently, 39 States and jurisdictions mandate Continuing Legal Education (CLE). Many law schools and State and local bar associations provide continuing education courses that help lawyers stay abreast of recent develop ments. Some States allow CLE credits to be obtained through par ticipation in seminars on the Internet. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Indi viduals planning careers in law should like to work with people and be able to win the respect and confidence of their clients, associ ates, and the public. Perseverance, creativity, and reasoning ability also are essential to lawyers, who often analyze complex cases and handle new and unique legal problems. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions. Newly hired, salaried attorneys usually start as associates and work with more experienced lawyers or judges. After several years of gaining more responsibilities, some lawyers are admitted to partnership in their firm or go into practice for themselves. Others become full-time law school faculty or administrators; a growing number of these lawyers have advanced degrees in other fields as well. Some attorneys use their legal training in administrative or mana gerial positions in various departments of large corporations. A transfer from a corporation’s legal department to another depart ment often is viewed as a way to gain administrative experience and rise in the ranks of management. Job Outlook Employment of lawyers is expected to grow about as fast as the average through 2010. Continuing demand will result primarily from growth in the population and in the general level of business activities. Demand also will be spurred by growth of legal action in such areas as healthcare, intellectual property, international law, el der law, environmental law, and sexual harassment. In addition, the wider availability and affordability of legal clinics and prepaid legal service programs should result in increased use of legal ser vices by middle-income people. Demand will be somewhat mitigated because, in an effort to reduce the money spent on legal fees, many businesses increasingly are using large accounting firms and paralegals to perform some of the same functions that lawyers do. For example, accounting firms may provide employee-benefit counseling, process documents, or handle various other services previously performed by the law firm. Also, mediation and dispute resolution increasingly are used as alter natives to litigation. Competition for job openings should continue to be keen because of the large number of students graduating from law school each year. Graduates with superior academic records from well-regarded law schools will have the best job opportunities. Perhaps as a result of job competition for attorney positions, lawyers are increasingly finding work in nontraditional areas for which legal training is an asset, but not normally a requirement—for example, administra tive, managerial, and business positions in banks, insurance firms, real estate companies, government agencies, and other organiza tions. Employment opportunities are expected to continue to arise in these organizations at a growing rate. Professional and Related Occupations 213 As in the past, some graduates may have to accept positions in areas outside of their field of interest or for which they feel overquali fied. Some recent law school graduates who have been unable to find permanent positions are turning to the growing number of temporary staffing firms that place attorneys in short-term jobs until they are able to secure full-time positions. This service allows companies to hire lawyers on an “as needed basis and permits beginning lawyers to develop practical skills while looking for permanent positions. Due to the competition for jobs, a law graduate’s geographic mobility and work experience assume greater importance. The will ingness to relocate may be an advantage in getting a job but, to be licensed in another State, a lawyer may have to take an additional State bar examination. In addition, employers increasingly seek graduates who have advanced law degrees and experience in a spe cialty such as tax, patent, or admiralty law. Employment growth for lawyers will continue to be concentrated in salaried jobs, as businesses and all levels of government employ a growing number of staff attorneys, and as employment in the legal services industry grows in larger law firms. Most salaried positions are in urban areas where government agencies, law firms, and big corporations are concentrated. The number of self-employed law yers is expected to decrease slowly, reflecting the difficulty of es tablishing a profitable new practice in the face of competition from larger, established law firms. Moreover, the growing complexity of law, which encourages specialization, along with the cost of main taining up-to-date legal research materials, favors larger firms. For lawyers who wish to work independently, establishing a new practice will probably be easiest in small towns and expanding sub urban areas. In such communities, competition from larger estab lished law firms is likely to be less keen than in big cities, and new lawyers may find it easier to become known to potential clients. Some lawyers are adversely affected by cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, the demand declines for some discre tionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Also, corporations are less likely to litigate cases when declining sales and profits result in budgetary restrictions. Some corporations and law firms will not hire new attorneys until business improves and may even cut staff to contain costs. Several factors, however, mitigate the overall impact of re cessions on lawyers. During recessions, for example, individuals and corporations face other legal problems, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces requiring legal action. Earnings In 2000, the median annual earnings of all lawyers was $88,280. The middle half of the occupation earned between $60,700 and $130,170. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $44,590; at least 10 percent earned more than $145,600. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of lawyers in 2000 are shown below: Legal services......................................................................... $96,610 Federal Government............................................................... g7 QgQ Fire, marine, and casualty insurance........................................ 82,170 Local government................................................................... 56 280 State government.................................................................... 64,190 Median salaries of lawyers 6 months after graduation from law school in 2000 varied by type of work, as indicated by table 1. Salaries of experienced attorneys vary widely according to the type, size, and location of their employer. Lawyers who own their own practices usually earn less than do those who are partners in law firms. Lawyers starting their own practice may need to work part time in other occupations to supplement their income until their practice is well established. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Table 1. Median salaries of lawyers 6 months after graduation, 2000 All graduates........................................................................... $51,900 Type of work Private practice....................................................................... Business/industry.................................................................... Academe....... ........................................................................ Judicial clerkship and government.......................................... Public interest......................................................................... go 000 go 000 40.000 40,000 34 qqq SOURCE: National Association for Law Placement Most salaried lawyers are provided health and life insurance, and contributions are made on their behalf to retirement plans! Lawyers who practice independently are covered only if they ar range and pay for such benefits themselves. Related Occupations Legal training is necessary in many other occupations. Some of these are paralegal and legal assistant; law clerk; title examiner, abstractor, and searcher; arbitrator, mediator, and conciliator; judge, magistrate judge, and magistrate; and administrative law judge, ad judicator, and hearing officer. Sources of Additional Information Information on law schools and a career in law may be obtained from: ► American Bar Association, 750 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL60611. Internet: http://www.abanet.org Information on the LSAT, the Law School Data Assembly Ser vice, the law school application process, and the financial aid avail able for law students may be obtained from: ► Law School Admission Council, P.O. Box 40, Newtown, PA 18940. Internet: http://www.lsac.org Information on obtaining a job as a lawyer with the Federal Gov ernment is available from the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone direc tory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757 3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. The requirements for admission to the bar in a particular State or other jurisdiction also may be obtained at the State capital, from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the administrator of the State Board of Bar Examiners. Paralegals and Legal Assistants (0*NET 23-2011.00) Significant Points • While some paralegals train on the job, employers increasingly prefer graduates of postsecondary paralegal education programs, especially graduates of 4-year paralegal programs or college graduates who have completed paralegal certificate programs. • Paralegals are projected to grow faster than average, as they increasingly perform many legal tasks formerly carried out by lawyers. • Stiff competition is expected, as the number of graduates of paralegal training programs and others seeking to enter the profession outpaces job growth. 214 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work While lawyers assume ultimate responsibility for legal work, they often delegate many of their tasks to paralegals. In fact, parale gals—also called legal assistants—continue to assume a growing range of tasks in the Nation’s legal offices and perform many of the same tasks as lawyers. Nevertheless, they are still explicitly pro hibited from carrying out duties which are considered to be the prac tice of law, such as setting legal fees, giving legal advice, and presenting cases in court. One of a paralegal’s most important tasks is helping lawyers prepare for closings, hearings, trials, and corporate meetings. Para legals investigate the facts of cases and ensure that all relevant in formation is considered. They also identify appropriate laws, judicial decisions, legal articles, and other materials that are relevant to as signed cases. After they analyze and organize the information, para legals may prepare written reports that attorneys use in determining how cases should be handled. Should attorneys decide to file law suits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal ar guments, draft pleadings and motions to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist attorneys during trials. Paralegals also organize and track files of all important case documents and make them available and easily accessible to attorneys. In addition to this preparatory work, paralegals also perform a number of other vital functions. For example, they help draft con tracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments. They also may assist in preparing tax returns and planning estates. Some paralegals coordinate the activities of other law office employees and maintain financial office records. Various additional tasks may differ, depending on the employer. Paralegals are found in all types of organizations, but most are employed by law firms, corporate legal departments, and various government offices. In these organizations, they may work in all areas of the law, including litigation, personal injury, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, intellectual property, labor law, bankruptcy, immigration, family law, and real estate. Within spe cialties, functions often are broken down further so that paralegals may deal with a specific area. For example, paralegals specializing in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits. The duties of paralegals also differ widely based on the type of organization in which they are employed. Paralegals who work for corporations often assist attorneys with employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock-option plans, and employee benefit plans. They also may help prepare and file annual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and resolutions, and secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals often monitor and review govern ment regulations to ensure that the corporation operates within the law. The duties of paralegals who work in the public sector usually vary within each agency. In general, they analyze legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for attor neys, and collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings. They may then prepare informative or explanatory material on laws, agency regulations, and agency policy for general use by the agency and the public. Paralegals employed in community legal-service projects help the poor, the aged, and others in need of legal assis tance. They file forms, conduct research, prepare documents, and when authorized by law, may represent clients at administrative hearings. Paralegals in small and medium-sized law firms usually perform a variety of duties that require a general knowledge of the law. For example, they may research judicial decisions on improper police arrests or help prepare a mortgage contract. Paralegals employed by large law firms, government agencies, and corporations, how ever, are more likely to specialize in one aspect of the law. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis T Paralegals investigate the facts of a case and organize the information that lawyers use to determine how the case should be handled. Computer use and technical knowledge has become essential to paralegal work.. Computer software packages and the Internet are increasingly used to search legal literature stored in computer data bases and on CD-ROM. In litigation involving many supporting documents, paralegals may use computer databases to retrieve, or ganize, and index various materials. Imaging software allows para legals to scan documents directly into a database, while billing programs help them to track hours billed to clients. Computer soft ware packages also may be used to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strategies for clients. Working Conditions Paralegals employed by corporations and government usually work a standard 40-hour week. Although most paralegals work year round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year, then released when the workload diminishes. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes work very long hours when they are under pressure to meet deadlines. Some law firms reward such loyalty with bonuses and additional time off. These workers handle many routine assignments, particularly when they are inexperienced. As they gain experience, paralegals usually assume more varied tasks with additional responsibility. Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law librar ies. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties. Employment Paralegals and legal assistants held about 188,000 jobs in 2000. Private law firms employed the vast majority; most of the remain der worked for corporate legal departments and various levels of government. Within the Federal Government, the U.S. Department of Justice is the largest employer, followed by the U.S. Departments of Treasury and Defense, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corpo ration. Other employers include State and local governments, pub licly funded legal-service centers, banks, real estate development companies, and insurance companies. A small number of parale gals own their own businesses and work as freelance legal assis tants, contracting their services to attorneys or corporate legal departments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to become a paralegal. Employers usually require formal paralegal training obtained through associate or bachelor’s degree programs or through a certification program. In creasingly, employers prefer graduates of 4-year paralegal programs or college graduates who have completed paralegal certificate pro grams. Some employers prefer to train paralegals on the job, hiring college graduates with no legal experience or promoting experi enced legal secretaries. Other entrants have experience in a techni cal field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice, or nursing or health admin istration for personal injury practice. Over 800 formal paralegal training programs are offered by 4year colleges and universities, law schools, community and junior colleges, business schools, and proprietary schools. There are cur rently 247 programs approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). Although this approval is neither required nor sought by many programs, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for admission to these programs vary. Some require certain college courses or a bachelor’s degree; others accept high school graduates or those with legal experience; and a few schools require standard ized tests and personal interviews. Paralegal programs include 2-year associate’s degree programs, 4-year bachelor’s degree programs, and certificate programs that take only a few months to complete. Many certificate programs only require a high school diploma or GED for admission, but they usually are designed for students who already hold an associate or baccalaureate degree. Programs typically include courses on law and legal research techniques, in addition to courses covering spe cialized areas of law, such as real estate, estate planning and pro bate, litigation, family law, contracts, and criminal law. Many employers prefer applicants with specialized training. The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better pro grams usually include job placement. Programs increasingly in clude courses introducing students to the legal applications of computers. Many paralegal training programs include an intern ship in which students gain practical experience by working for several months in a private law firm, office of a public defender or attorney general, bank, corporate legal department, legal-aid orga nization, or government agency. Experience gained in internships is an asset when seeking a job after graduation. Prospective stu dents should examine the experiences of recent graduates before enrolling in those programs. Although most employers do not require certification, earning a voluntary certificate from a professional society may offer advan tages in the labor market. The National Association of Legal Assis tants, for example, has established standards for certification requiring various combinations of education and experience. Para legals who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day exami nation, given three times each year at several regional testing centers. Those who pass this examination may use the designation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). In addition, the Paralegal Advanced Com petency Exam, established in 1996 and administered through the National Federation of Paralegal Associations, offers professional recognition to paralegals with a bachelor’s degree and at least 2 years of experience. Those who pass this examination may use the designation Registered Paralegal (RP). Paralegals must be able to document and present their findings and opinions to their supervising attorney. They need to under stand legal terminology and have good research and investigative skills. Familiarity with the operation and applications of comput ers legal research and litigation support also is increasingly Digitized for in FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 215 important. Paralegals should stay informed of new developments in the laws that affect their area of practice. Participation in con tinuing legal education seminars allows paralegals to maintain and expand their legal knowledge. Because paralegals frequently deal with the public, they should be courteous and uphold the ethical standards of the legal profes sion. The National Association of Legal Assistants, the National Federation of Paralegal Associations, and a few States have estab lished ethical guidelines for paralegals to follow. Paralegals usually are given more responsibilities and less su pervision as they gain work experience. Experienced paralegals who work in large law firms, corporate legal departments, and gov ernment agencies may supervise and delegate assignments to other paralegals and clerical staff. Advancement opportunities also in clude promotion to managerial and other law-related positions within the firm or corporate legal department. However, some paralegals find it easier to move to another law firm when seeking increased responsibility or advancement. Job Outlook Paralegals and legal assistants are projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Employment growth stems from law firms and other employers with legal staffs increas ingly hiring paralegals to lower the cost and increase the availabil ity and efficiency of legal services. The majority of job openings for paralegals in the future will be new jobs created by rapid em ployment growth, but additional job openings will arise as people leave the occupation. Despite projections of fast employment growth, stiff competition for jobs should continue as the number of graduates of paralegal training programs and others seeking to en ter the profession outpaces job growth. Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals, but a growing array of other organizations, such as cor porate legal departments, insurance companies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks will also continue to hire paralegals. Demand for paralegals is expected to grow as an increasing popula tion requires additional legal services, especially in areas such as intellectual property, healthcare, international, elder, sexual harass ment, and environmental law. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for legal services. Paralegal employment is expected to increase as organizations presently em ploying paralegals assign them a growing range of tasks, and as paralegals are increasingly employed in small and medium-sized establishments. A growing number of experienced paralegals are expected to establish their own businesses. Job opportunities for paralegals will expand in the public sector as well. Community legal-service programs, which provide assis tance to the poor, aged, minorities, and middle-income families, will employ additional paralegals to minimize expenses and serve the most people. Federal, State, and local government agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers. To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business cycle. During recessions, demand declines for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Corporations are less inclined to initiate litigation when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tighten ing. As a result, full-time paralegals employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off or have their work hours reduced. On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals are more likely to face other problems that require legal assistance, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces. Para legals, who provide many of the same legal services as lawyers at 216 Occupational Outlook Handbook a lower cost, tend to fare relatively better in difficult economic conditions. abstractors, and searchers; claims adjusters, appraisers, examin ers, and investigators; and occupational health and safety special ists and technicians. Earnings Earnings of paralegals and legal assistants vary greatly. Salaries depend on education, training, experience, type and size of employer, and geographic location of the job. In general, paralegals who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. In 2000, full-time, wage and salary paralegals and legal assistants had median annual earnings of $35,360. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,700 and $45,010. The top 10 percent earned more than $56,060, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $23,350. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of paralegals in 2000 were as follows: $48,560 34,230 34,120 32,680 Federal Government Legal services......... Local government... State government.... According to the National Association of Legal Assistants, para legals had an average salary of $38,000 in 2000. In addition to a salary, many paralegals received a bonus, which averaged about $2,400. According to the National Federation of Paralegal Asso ciations, starting salaries of paralegals with 1 year or less experi ence averaged $38,100 in 1999. Related Occupations Several other occupations call for a specialized understanding of the law and the legal system, but do not require the extensive train ing of a lawyer. These include law clerks; title examiners, Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a paralegal can be obtained from: >- Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 541 North Fairbanks Court, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.abanet.org For information on the Certified Legal Assistant exam, schools that offer training programs in a specific State, and standards and guidelines for paralegals, contact: >- National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1516 South Boston St., Suite 200, Tulsa, OK 74119. Internet: http://www.nala.org Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer train ing programs, job postings for paralegals, the Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from: >- National Federation of Paralegal Associations, P.O. Box 33108, Kansas City, MO 64114. Internet: http://www.paralegals.org Information on paralegal training programs, including the pam phlet “How to Choose a Paralegal Education Program,” may be obtained from: >- American Association for Paralegal Education, 2965 Flowers Road South, Atlanta, GA 30341. Internet: http://www.aafpe.org Information on obtaining a position as a paralegal specialist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877 8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site, http:// www.usajobs.opm.gov. Life Scientists Agricultural and Food Scientists (0*NET 19-1011.00, 19-1012.00, 19-1013.01, 19-1013.02) • • Significant Points A large proportion, about 41 percent, of salaried agricultural and food scientists works for Federal, State, and local governments. A bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is sufficient for some jobs in applied research; a master’s or doctoral degree is required for basic research. Nature of the Work The work of agricultural and food scientists plays an important part in maintaining the Nation’s food supply by ensuring agricul tural productivity and the safety of the food supply. Agricultural scientists study farm crops and animals, and develop ways of im proving their quantity and quality. They look for ways to improve crop yield with less labor, control pests and weeds more safely and effectively, and conserve soil and water. They research meth ods of converting raw agricultural commodities into attractive and healthy food products for consumers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Agricultural science is closely related to biological science, and agricultural scientists use the principles of biology, chemistry, phys ics, mathematics, and other sciences to solve problems in agricul ture. They often work with biological scientists on basic biological research and on applying to agriculture the advances in knowledge brought about by biotechnology. Many agricultural scientists work in basic or applied research and development. Others manage or administer research and de velopment programs, or manage marketing or production opera tions in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Some agricultural scientists are consultants to business firms, private clients, or government. Depending on the agricultural or food scientist’s area of special ization, the nature of the work performed varies. Food science. Food scientists and technologists usually work in the food processing industry, universities, or the Federal Govern ment, and help meet consumer demand for food products that are healthful, safe, palatable, and convenient. To do this, they use their knowledge of chemistry, microbiology, and other sciences to de velop new or better ways of preserving, processing, packaging, stor ing, and delivering foods. Some food scientists engage in basic research, discovering new food sources; analyzing food content to determine levels of vitamins, fat, sugar, or protein; or searching for substitutes for harmful or undesirable additives, such as nitrites. Professional and Related Occupations 217 They also develop ways to process, preserve, package, or store food according to industry and government regulations. Others enforce government regulations, inspecting food processing areas and en suring that sanitation, safety, quality, and waste management stan dards are met. Food technologists generally work in product development, applying the findings from food science research to the selection, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and use of safe, nutritious, and wholesome food. Plant science. Agronomy, crop science, entomology, and plant breeding are included in plant science. Scientists in these disci plines study plants and their growth in soils, helping producers of food, feed, and fiber crops to continue to feed a growing popula tion while conserving natural resources and maintaining the envi ronment. Agronomists and crop scientists not only help increase productivity, but also study ways to improve the nutritional value of crops and the quality of seed. Some crop scientists study the breeding, physiology, and management of crops and use genetic engineering to develop crops resistant to pests and drought. Ento mologists conduct research to develop new technologies to con trol or eliminate pests in infested areas and to prevent the spread of harmful pests to new areas, as well as technologies that are com patible with the environment. They also conduct research or en gage in oversight activities aimed at halting the spread of insect-bome disease. Soil science. Soil scientists study the chemical, physical, bio logical, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to plant . Many agricultural and food scientists conduct research in offices Digitizedand for laboratories. FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or crop growth. They also study the responses of various soil types to fertilizers, tillage practices, and crop rotation. Many soil scien tists who work for the Federal Government conduct soil surveys, classifying and mapping soils. They provide information and rec ommendations to farmers and other landowners regarding the best use of land, plant growth, and methods to avoid or correct problems such as erosion. They may also consult with engineers and other technical personnel working on construction projects about the ef fects of, and solutions to, soil problems. Because soil science is closely related to environmental science, persons trained in soil sci ence also apply their knowledge to ensure environmental quality and effective land use. Animal science. Animal scientists work to develop better, more efficient ways of producing and processing meat, poultry, eggs, and milk. Dairy scientists, poultry scientists, animal breeders, and other related scientists study the genetics, nutrition, reproduction, growth, and development of domestic farm animals. Some animal scien tists inspect and grade livestock food products, purchase livestock, or work in technical sales or marketing. As extension agents or consultants, animal scientists advise agricultural producers on how to upgrade animal housing facilities properly, lower mortality rates, handle waste matter, or increase production of animal products, such as milk or eggs. Working Conditions Agricultural scientists involved in management or basic research tend to work regular hours in offices and laboratories. The work environment for those engaged in applied research or product de velopment varies, depending on the discipline of agricultural sci ence and on the type of employer. For example, food scientists in private industry may work in test kitchens while investigating new processing techniques. Animal scientists working for Federal, State, or university research stations may spend part of their time at dair ies, farrowing houses, feedlots, or farm animal facilities or out doors conducting research associated with livestock. Soil and crop scientists also spend time outdoors conducting research on farms and agricultural research stations. Entomologists work in labora tories, insectories, or agricultural research stations, and may also spend time outdoors studying or collecting insects in their natural habitat. Employment Agricultural and food scientists held about 17,000jobsin2000. In addition, several thousand persons held agricultural science faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on postsecondary teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 41 percent of all nonfaculty salaried agricultural and food scientists work for Federal, State, or local governments. Nearly 2 out of 3 worked for the Federal Government in 2000, mostly in the Department of Agriculture. In addition, large num bers worked for State governments at State agricultural colleges or agricultural research stations. Some worked for agricultural service companies; others worked for commercial research and development laboratories, seed companies, pharmaceutical com panies, wholesale distributors, and food products companies. About 4,000 agricultural scientists were self-employed in 2000, mainly as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for agricultural scientists depend on their spe cialty and on the type of work they perform. A bachelor’s degree in 218 Occupational Outlook Handbook agricultural science is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or for assisting in basic research, but a master s or doctoral degree is required for basic research. A Ph.D. in agricultural science usu ally is needed for college teaching and for advancement to adminis trative research positions. Degrees in related sciences such as biology, chemistry, or physics or in related engineering specialties also may qualify persons for some agricultural science jobs. All States have a land-grant college that offers agricultural sci ence degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer agri cultural science degrees or some agricultural science courses. However, not every school offers all specialties. A typical under graduate agricultural science curriculum includes communications, economics, business, and physical and life sciences courses, in ad dition to a wide variety of technical agricultural science courses. For prospective animal scientists, these technical agricultural sci ence courses might include animal breeding, reproductive physiol ogy, nutrition, and meats and muscle biology. Students preparing as food scientists take courses such as food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, food engineering, and food processing operations. Those preparing as crop or soil scientists take courses in plant pathology, soil chemistry, ento mology, plant physiology, and biochemistry, among others. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, labo ratory research, and a thesis or dissertation based on independent research Agricultural and food scientists should be able to work indepen dently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Most of these scientists also need an understanding of basic business principles, and the ability to apply basic statistical techniques. Employers increasingly prefer job applicants who are able to apply computer skills to determine solutions to problems, to collect and analyze data, and for the con trol of processes. The American Society ofAgronomy offers certification programs in crops, agronomy, crop advising, soils, horticulture, plant pathol ogy, and weed science. To become certified, applicants must pass designated examinations and meet certain standards with respect to education and professional work experience. Agricultural scientists who have advanced degrees usually be gin in research or teaching. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs or managers of other agriculture-related activities. Job Outlook Employment of agricultural scientists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Addi tionally, the need to replace agricultural and food scientists who retire or otherwise leave the occupation permanently will account for many more job openings than will projected growth, particu larly in academia. Past agricultural research has resulted in the development of higher yielding crops, crops with better resistance to pests and plant pathogens, and chemically based fertilizers and pesticides. Fur ther research is necessary as insects and diseases continue to adapt to pesticides, and as soil fertility and water quality continue to need improvement. Agricultural scientists are using new avenues of research in biotechnology to develop plants and food crops that require less fertilizer, fewer pesticides and herbicides, and even less water for growth. Agricultural scientists will be needed to balance increased agricultural output with protection and preser vation of soil, water, and ecosystems. They will increasingly Digitized encourage for FRASERthe practice of “sustainable agriculture” by developing and implementing plans to manage pests, crops, soil fertility and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis erosion, and animal waste in ways that reduce the use of harmful chemicals and do little damage to the natural environment. Also, an expanding population and an increasing public focus on diet, health, and food safety will result in job opportunities for food scientists and technologists. Graduates with advanced degrees will be in the best position to enter jobs as agricultural scientists. Bachelor’s degree holders can work in some applied research and product development positions, but usually only in certain subfields, such as food science and tech nology. Also, the Federal Government hires bachelor’s degree hold ers to work as soil scientists. Despite the more limited opportunities for those with only a bachelor’s degree to obtain jobs as agricul tural scientists, a bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is useful for managerial jobs in businesses that deal with ranchers and farm ers, such as feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equipment manufactur ers; retailers or wholesalers; and farm credit institutions. Four-year degrees also may help persons enter occupations such as farmer, or farm or ranch manager; cooperative extension service agent; agri cultural products inspector; or purchasing or sales agent for agri cultural commodity or farm supply companies. Earnings Median annual earnings of agricultural and food scientists were $52,160 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,720 and $66,370. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,740. Average Federal salaries for employees in nonsupervisory, su pervisory and managerial positions in certain agricultural science specialties in 2001 were as follows: Animal science, $76,582; agronomy, $62,311; soil science, $58,878; horticulture, $59,472; and entomology, $70,133. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, beginning salary offers in 2001 for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in animal science averaged $28,031 a year. Related Occupations The work of agricultural scientists is closely related to that ofbiologists and other natural scientists, such as chemists, conservation scientists, and foresters. It is also related to managers of agricul tural production, such as farmers, ranchers, agricultural managers. Certain specialties of agricultural science also are related to other occupations. For example, the work of animal scientists is related to that of veterinarians and horticulturists perform duties similar to those of landscape architects. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in agricultural science is available from: >- American Society ofAgronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711-1086. ► Food and Agricultural Careers for Tomorrow, Purdue University, 1140 Agricultural Administration Bldg., West Lafayette, IN 47907-1140. For information on careers in food technology, write to: >. Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 300, 221 N. LaSalle St., Chicago IL 60601-1291. . . Information on acquiring a job as an agricultural scientist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system. Consult your tele phone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Professional and Related Occupations 219 Biological and Medical Scientists (0*NET 19-1021.01, 19-1021.02, 19-1022.00, 19-1023.00, 19-1029 99 19-1041.00, 19-1042.00, 19-1099.99) Significant Points • A Ph.D. degree usually is required for independent research, but a master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research or product development; a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. • Medical scientist jobs require a Ph.D. degree in a biological science, but some jobs need a medical degree. • Doctoral degree holders face considerable competition for independent research positions; holders of bachelor’s or master’s degrees in biological science can expect better opportunities in nonresearch positions. Nature of the Work Biological and medical scientists study living organisms and their relationship to their environment. They research problems dealing with life processes. Most specialize in some area of biology such as zoology (the study of animals) or microbiology (the study of micro scopic organisms). Many biological scientists and virtually all medical scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to advance knowledge of living organisms, including viruses, bac teria, and other infectious agents. Past research has resulted in the development of vaccines, medicines, and treatments for cancer and other diseases. Basic biological and medical research continues to provide the building blocks necessary to develop solutions to hu man health problems, and to preserve and repair the natural envi ronment. Biological and medical scientists mostly work independently in private industry, university, or government labo ratories, often exploring new areas of research or expanding on spe cialized research started in graduate school. Those who are not wage and salary workers in private industry typically submit grant proposals to obtain funding for their projects. Colleges and univer sities, private industry, and Federal Government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Founda tion, contribute to the support of scientists whose research propos als are determined to be financially feasible and have the potential to advance new ideas or processes. Biological and medical scientists who work in applied research or product development use knowledge provided by basic research to develop new drugs and medical treatments, increase crop yields, and protect and clean up the environment. They usually have less autonomy than basic researchers to choose the emphasis of their research, relying instead on market-driven directions based on the firm s products and goals. Biological and medical scientists doing applied research and product development in private industry may be required to express their research plans or results to nonscien tists who are in a position to veto or approve their ideas, and they must understand the business impact of their work. Scientists in creasingly are working as part of teams, interacting with engineers, scientists of other disciplines, business managers, and technicians. Some biological and medical scientists also work with customers Digitizedorfor FRASERand manage budgets. suppliers, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Those who conduct research usually work in laboratories and use electron microscopes, computers, thermal cyclers, or a wide variety of other equipment. Some conduct experiments using labo ratory animals or greenhouse plants. This is particularly true of botanists, physiologists, and zoologists. For some biological scien tists, a good deal of research is performed outside of laboratories. For example, a botanist may do research in tropical rain forests to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist may study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Some biological and medical scientists work in managerial or administrative positions, usually after spending some time doing research and learning about the firm, agency, or project. They may plan and administer programs for testing foods and drugs, for example, or direct activities at zoos or botanical gardens. Some work as consultants to business firms or to government, while oth ers test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products. In the 1980s, swift advances in basic biological knowledge re lated to genetics and molecules spurred growth in the field of bio technology. Biological and medical scientists using this technology manipulate the genetic material of animals or plants, attempting to make organisms more productive or resistant to disease. Research using biotechnology techniques, such as recombining DNA, has led to the discovery of important drugs, including human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances not previously avail able in large quantities are starting to be produced by biotechno logical means; some may be useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Today, many of these scientists are involved in biotech nology, including those who work on the Human Genome project, isolating, identifying, and sequencing human genes and then de termining their functionality. This work continues to lead to the discovery of the genes associated with specific diseases and inher ited traits, such as certain types of cancer or obesity. These ad vances in biotechnology have opened up research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, including commercial applications in agriculture, environmental remediation, and the food and chemical industries. Most biological scientists who come under the categoiy of bi ologist are further classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform, although recent advances in the understanding of basic life processes at the molecular and cel lular levels have blurred some traditional classifications. Aquatic biologists study plants and animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt water organisms, and limnologists study fresh water organisms. Marine biologists are sometimes mistak enly called oceanographers, but oceanography is the study of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean floor. (See the statement on environmental scientists and geoscientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions in volved in metabolism, reproduction, growth, and heredity. Biochem ists and molecular biologists do most of their work in biotechnology, which involves understanding the complex chemistry of life. Botanists study plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life; others specialize in areas such as identification and classification of plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures of plant diseases, and the geological record of plants. Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of mi croscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Medical mi crobiologists study the relationship between organisms and disease or the effect of antibiotics on microorganisms. Other microbiolo gists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or industrial microbiology, virology (the study of viruses), or immunology (the 220 Occupational Outlook Handbook study of mechanisms that fight infections). Many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance knowledge of cell reproduction and human disease. Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism. Biophysicists study the application of principles of physics, such as electrical and mechanical energy and related phenomena, to liv ing cells and organisms. Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife— their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experi ment with live animals in controlled or natural surroundings while others dissect dead animals to study their structure. They may also collect and analyze biological data to determine the environmental effects of current and potential use of land and water areas. Zoolo gists usually are identified by the animal group studied—ornitholo gists (birds), mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and ichthyologists (fish). Ecologists study the relationships among organisms and between organisms and their environments and the effects of influences such as population size, pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Uti lizing knowledge of various scientific disciplines, they may collect, study, and report data on air, food, soil, and water. >v scientists who study plants and animals living in water DigitizedBiological for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org are called aquatic biologists. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Soil scientists study soil characteristics, map soil types, and inves tigate responses of soil to determine its capabilities and productivity. Agricultural andfood scientists, who are sometimes referred to as biological scientists, are included in a separate statement else where in the Handbook. Biological scientists who do biomedical research are usually called medical scientists. Medical scientists work on basic research into normal biological systems to understand the causes of and to discover treatment for disease and other health problems. Medical scientists try to identify changes in a cell, chromosome, or even gene that signal the development of medical problems, such as dif ferent types of cancer. After identifying structures of or changes in organisms that provide clues to health problems, medical scientists work on the treatment of problems. For example, a medical scien tist involved in cancer research may formulate a combination of drugs that will lessen the effects of the disease. Medical scientists with a medical degree can administer these drugs to patients in clini cal trials, monitor their reactions, and observe the results. (Medical scientists without a medical degree normally collaborate with a medical doctor who deals directly with patients.) The medical sci entist will return to the laboratory to examine the results and, if necessary, adjust the dosage levels to reduce negative side effects or to try to induce even better results. In addition to using basic research to develop treatments for health problems, medical scien tists attempt to discover ways to prevent health problems from de veloping, such as affirming the link between smoking and increased risk of lung cancer, or between alcoholism and liver disease. Working Conditions Biological and medical scientists usually work regular hours in of fices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or un healthy conditions. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety proce dures to avoid contamination. Medical scientists also spend time working in clinics and hospitals administering drugs and treatments to patients in clinical trials. Many biological scientists such as bota nists, ecologists, and zoologists take field trips that involve strenu ous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Some biological and medical scientists depend on grant money to support their research. They may be under pressure to meet dead lines and to conform to rigid grant-writing specifications when pre paring proposals to seek new or extended funding. Employment Biological and medical scientists held about 138,000 jobs in 2000; about half were biological scientists. Four in ten biological scien tists were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Fed eral biological scientists worked mainly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, the Interior, and Defense, and in the National Insti tutes of Health. Most of the rest worked in the drug industry, which includes pharmaceutical and biotechnology establishments, hospi tals, or research and testing laboratories. About 1 in 8 medical scientists worked in Government, with most of the remainder found in research and testing laboratories, educational institutions, the drug industry, and hospitals. In addition, many biological and medical scientists held biology faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on teachers—postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For biological scientists, the Ph.D. degree usually is necessary for independent research and for advancement to administrative posi tions. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied re search or product development and for jobs in management, Professional and Related Occupations 221 inspection, sales, and service. The bachelor’s degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. For example, some graduates with a bachelor’s degree start as biological scientists in testing and inspec tion, or get jobs related to biological science, such as technical sales or service representatives. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor’s degree are able to work in a laboratory environment on their own projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research assistants. Others become biological technicians, medical laboratory technolo gists or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the statements on clinical laboratory technologists and techni cians, science technicians; and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many with a bachelor’s degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools. In addition to required courses in chemistry and biology, under graduate biological science majors usually study allied disciplines such as mathematics, physics, and computer science. Computer courses are essential, as employers increasingly prefer job appli cants who are able to apply computer skills to modeling and simu lation tasks and to operate computerized laboratory equipment. Those interested in studying the environment also should take courses in environmental studies and become familiar with current legislation and regulations. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degrees in bio logical science and many offer advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany, but not all universities offer all curriculums. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratoiy re search, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists who have advanced degrees often take temporary postdoctoral research posi tions that provide specialized research experience. In private in dustry, some may become managers or administrators within the field of biology; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administrative, or sales jobs. Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those in private industry, especially those who aspire to management or administrative positions, should possess strong business and communication skills and be familiar with regulatory issues and marketing and management techniques. Those doing field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. The Ph.D. degree in a biological science is the minimum educa tion required for prospective medical scientists because the work of medical scientists is almost entirely research oriented. A Ph.D. de gree qualifies one to do research on basic life processes or on par ticular medical problems or diseases, and to analyze and interpret the results of experiments on patients. Medical scientists who ad minister drug or gene therapy to human patients, or who otherwise interact medically with patients—such as drawing blood, excising tissue, or performing other invasive procedures—must have a medi cal degree. It is particularly helpful for medical scientists to earn both Ph.D. and medical degrees. In addition to formal education, medical scientists usually spend several years in a postdoctoral position before they apply for per manent jobs. Postdoctoral work provides valuable laboratory ex perience, including experience in specific processes and techniques, such as gene splicing, which are transferable to other research projects. In some institutions, the postdoctoral position can lead to a permanent position. Job Outlook Despite prospects of faster-than-average job growth for biological and medical scientists over the 2000-10 period, doctoral degree https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis holders can expect to face considerable competition for basic research positions. The Federal Government funds much basic research and development, including many areas of medical research. Recent budget tightening has led to smaller increases in Federal basic research and development expenditures, further limiting the dollar amount of each grant, although the number of grants awarded to researchers remains fairly constant. At the same time, the num ber of newly trained scientists has continued to increase at a steady rate, so both new and established scientists have experienced greater difficulty winning and renewing research grants. If the number of advanced degrees awarded continues to grow unabated, this com petitive scenario is likely to persist. Additionally, applied research positions in private industry may become more difficult to obtain if more scientists seek jobs in private industry than have done so in the past due to the competitive job market for college and univer sity faculty. Opportunities for those with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in biological science are expected to be better. The number of sci ence-related jobs in sales, marketing, and research management, for which non-Ph.D.s usually qualify, are expected to be more plen tiful than independent research positions. Non-Ph.D.s also may fill positions as science or engineering technicians or health technolo gists and technicians. Some become high school biology teachers, while those with a doctorate in biological science may become col lege and university faculty. Biological and medical scientists enjoyed very rapid gains in employment between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s, in part reflect ing increased staffing requirements in new biotechnology compa nies. Employment growth should slow somewhat as increases in the number of new biotechnology firms slow and existing firms merge or are absorbed into larger ones. However, much of the ba sic biological research done in recent years has resulted in new knowledge, including the isolation and identification of new genes. Biological and medical scientists will be needed to take this knowl edge to the next stage, which is the understanding of how certain genes function within an entire organism, so that gene therapies can be developed to treat diseases. Even pharmaceutical and other firms not solely engaged in biotechnology are expected to increas ingly use biotechnology techniques, spurring employment increases for biological and medical scientists. In addition, efforts to dis cover new and improved ways to clean up and preserve the envi ronment will continue to add to growth. More biological scientists will be needed to determine the environmental impact of industry and government actions and to prevent or correct environmental problems. Expected expansion in research related to health issues such as AIDS, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease also should result in employment growth. Biological and medical scientists are less likely to lose their jobs during recessions than are those in many other occupations because many are employed on long-term research projects. However, a recession could further influence the amount of money allocated'to new research and development efforts, particularly in areas of risky or innovative research. A recession could also limit the possibility of extension or renewal of existing projects. Earnings Median annual earnings of biological scientists were $49,239 in 2000. Median annual earnings of medical scientists were $57,196 in 2000, with epidemiologists earning $48,390 and medical scien tists, except epidemiologists, earning $57,810. Median annual earn ings of medical scientists were $54,260 in research and testing laboratories and $41,010 in hospitals in 1999. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, beginning salary offers in 2000 averaged $29,235 a year for 222 Occupational Outlook Handbook bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science, $35,667 for master s degree recipients, and $42,744 for doctoral degree recipients. In the Federal Government in 2001, general biological scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average salary of $61,236; microbiologists, $67,835, ecologists, $61,936; physiologists, $78,366; and geneticists, $72,510. Related Occupations Many other occupations deal with living organisms and require a level of training similar to that of biological and medical scientists. These include agricultural and food scientists, and conservation sci entists and foresters, as well as health occupations such as physi cians and surgeons, dentists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in the biological sciences, contact. > American Institute of Biological Sciences, Suite 200, 1444 I St. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aibs.org For information on careers in physiology, contact: >- American Physiological Society, Education Office, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.the-aps.org For information on careers in biochemistry or biological sciences, contact: . > Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.faseb.org For a brochure entitled Is a Career in the Pharmaceutical Sciences Right for Me?, contact: >- American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS), 2107 Wilson Blvd., Suite #700, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.aaps.org/sciaffairs/careerinps.htm For information on careers in microbiology, contact: > American Society for Microbiology, Office of Education and Training— Career Information, 1325 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.asmusa.org Information on obtaining a biological or medical scientist position with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based sys tem Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site. http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Conservation Scientists and Foresters (0*NET 19-1031.01, 19-1031.02, 19-1031.03, 19-1032.00) ___ Significant Points • Nearly 3 out of 4 work for Federal, State, or local • governments. A bachelor’s degree in forestry, range management, or a related field is the minimum educational requirement. • Projected average employment growth will stem from continuing emphasis on environmental protection and responsible land management. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Forests and range lands supply wood products, livestock forage, minerals, and water; serve as sites for recreational activities; and provide habitats for wildlife. Conservation scientists and foresters manage, develop, use, and help to protect these and other natural resources. Foresters manage forested lands for a variety of purposes. Those working in private industry may manage company forestland or pro cure timber from private landowners. Company forests are usually managed to produce a sustainable supply or wood for company mills. Procurement foresters contact local forest owners and gain permis sion to take inventory of the type, amount, and location of all stand ing timber on the property, a process known as timber cruising. Foresters then appraise the timber’s worth, negotiate its purchase, and draw up a contract for procurement. Next, they subcontract with loggers or pulpwood cutters for tree removal, aid in road lay out, and maintain close contact with the subcontractor’s workers and the landowner to ensure that the work meets the landowner s requirements, as well as Federal, State, and local environmental specifications. Forestry consultants often act as agents for the for est owner, performing these duties and negotiating timber sales with industrial procurement foresters. Throughout the forest management and procurement processes, foresters consider the economics as well as the environmental im pact on natural resources. To do this, they determine how best to conserve wildlife habitats, creek beds, water quality, and soil sta bility and how best to comply with environmental regulations. For esters must balance the desire to conserve forested ecosystems for future venerations with the need to use forest resources for recre ational or economic purposes. Through a process called regeneration, foresters also supervise the planting and growing of new trees. They choose and prepare the site, using controlled burning, bulldozers, or herbicides to clear weeds, brush, and logging debris. They advise on the type, num ber, and placement of trees to be planted. Foresters then monitor the seedlings to ensure healthy growth and to determine the best time for harvesting. If they detect signs of disease or harmful in sects, they consult with forest pest management specialists to de cide on the best course of treatment. Foresters who work for Federal and State governments manage public forests and parks and work with private landowners to protect and manage forest land outside of the public domain. They may also design campgrounds and rec reation areas. Foresters use a number of tools to perform their jobs. Clinom eters measure the height, diameter tapes measure the diameter, and increment borers and bark gauges measure the growth of trees so that timber volumes can be computed and growth rates estimated. Photogrammetry and remote sensing (aerial photographs and other imagery taken from airplanes and satellites) often are used for map ping large forest areas and for detecting widespread trends of forest and land use. Computers are used extensively, both in the office and in the field, for the storage, retrieval, and analysis of informa tion required to manage the forest land and its resources. Range managers, also called range conservationists, range ecologists, or range scientists, study, manage, improve, and protect range lands to maximize their use without damaging the environ ment. Range lands cover about 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in western States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources, including grass and shrubs for animal grazing, wildlife habitats, water from vast watersheds, recreation facilities, and valu able mineral and energy resources. Range managers help ranchers attain optimum livestock production by determining the number and kind of animals to graze, the grazing system to use, and the best season for grazing. At the same time, however, they maintain soil Professional and Related Occupations 223 ®ISS ■ lm b . mm m , . ■ y }•* <5'/’;“ Conservation scientists andforesters determine how to best conserve wildlife habitats, water quality, and soil stability in order to protect the ecosystem. stability and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife habitats and outdoor recreation. They also plan and implement revegetation of disturbed sites. Soil conservationists provide technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, forest managers, State and local agencies, and others con cerned with the conservation of soil, water, and related natural re sources. They develop programs designed to make the most productive use of land without damaging it. Soil conservationists visit areas with erosion problems, find the source of the problem, and help landowners and managers develop management practices to combat it. Foresters and conservation scientists often specialize in one area, such as forest resource management, urban forestry, wood technol ogy, or forest economics. Working Conditions Working conditions vary considerably. Although some of the work is solitary, foresters and conservation scientists also deal regularly with landowners, loggers, forestry technicians and aides, farmers, ranchers, government officials, special interest groups, and the public in general. Some foresters and conservation scientists work regular hours in offices or labs. Others may split their time between field work and office work, while independent consultants and especially new, less experienced workers spend the majority of their time out doors overseeing or participating in hands-on work. The work can be physically demanding. Some foresters and con servation scientists work outdoors in all types of weather, sometimes in isolated areas. Other foresters may need to walk long distances through densely wooded land to carry out their work. Foresters also may work long hours fighting fires. Conservation scientists often are called in to prevent erosion after a forest fire, and they provide emergency help after floods, mudslides, and tropical storms. Employment Conservation scientists and foresters held about 29,000jobs in 2000. Nearly 4 out of 10 workers were employed by the Federal Govern ment, many in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Forest ers were concentrated in the USDA’s Forest Service; soil conservationists in the USDA’s Natural Resource Conservation Service. Most range managers worked in the Department of the Interior s Bureau ofLand Management, the USDA’s Natural Resource https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Conservation Service or Forest Service. About 1 out of 4 conserva tion scientists and foresters worked for State governments, and nearly 1 out of 10 worked for local governments. The remainder worked in private industry, mainly in research and testing services, the for estry industry, and logging and lumber companies and sawmills. Some were self-employed as consultants for private landowners, Federal and State governments, and forestry-related businesses. Although conservation scientists and foresters work in every State, employment of foresters is concentrated in the western and southeastern States, where many national and private forests and parks, and most of the lumber and pulpwood-producing forests, are located. Range managers work almost entirely in the western States, where most of the rangeland is located. Soil conservationists, on the other hand, are employed in almost every county in the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in forestry is the minimum educational require ment for professional careers in forestry. In the Federal Govern ment, a combination of experience and appropriate education occasionally may substitute for a 4-year forestry degree, but job competition makes this difficult. Sixteen States have mandatory licensing or voluntary registra tion requirements that a forester must meet in order to acquire the title “professional forester” and practice forestry in the State. Li censing or registration requirements vary by State, but usually en tail completing a 4-year degree in forestry and a minimum period of training, and passing an exam. Foresters who wish to perform specialized research or teach should have an advanced degree, preferably a Ph.D. Most land-grant colleges and universities offer bachelor’s or higher degrees in forestry; about 100 of these programs are accred ited by the Society of American Foresters. Curriculums stress sci ence, mathematics, communications skills, and computer science, as well as technical forestry subjects. Courses in forest economics and business administration supplement the student’s scientific and technical knowledge. Forestry curriculums increasingly include courses on best management practices, wetland analysis, water and soil quality, and wildlife conservation, in response to the growing focus on protecting forested lands during timber harvesting opera tions. Prospective foresters should have a strong grasp of policy issues and of increasingly numerous and complex environmental regulations, which affect many forestry-related activities. Many colleges require students to complete a field session either in a camp operated by the college or in a cooperative work-study program with a Federal or State agency or private industry. All schools en courage students to take summer jobs that provide experience in forestry or conservation work. A bachelor’s degree in range management or range science is the usual minimum educational requirement for range managers; graduate degrees usually are required for teaching and research po sitions. In 2000, about 40 colleges and universities offered degrees in range management or range science or in a closely related disci pline with a range management or range science option. A number of other schools offered some courses in range management or range science. Specialized range management courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include economics, forestry, hy drology, agronomy, wildlife, animal husbandry, computer science, and recreation. Very few colleges and universities offer degrees in soil conserva tion. Most soil conservationists have degrees in environmental stud ies, agronomy, general agriculture, hydrology, or crop or soil science; a few have degrees in related fields such as wildlife biology, for estry, and range management. Programs of study usually include 224 Occupational Outlook Handbook 30 semester hours in natural resources or agriculture, including at least 3 hours in soil science. In addition to meeting the demands of forestry and conservation research and analysis, foresters and conservation scientists gener ally must enjoy working outdoors, be physically hardy, and be will ing to move to where the jobs are. They also must work well with people and have good communications skills. Recent forestry and range management graduates usually work under the supervision of experienced foresters or range managers. After gaining experience, they may advance to more responsible positions. In the Federal Government, most entry-level foresters work in forest resource management. An experienced Federal for ester may supervise a ranger district, and may advance to forest supervisor, to regional forester, or to a top administrative position in the national headquarters. In private industry, foresters start by learning the practical and administrative aspects of the business and acquiring comprehensive technical training. They are then introduced to contract writing, timber harvesting, and decisionmaking. Some foresters work their way up to top manage rial positions within their companies. Foresters in management usually leave the fieldwork behind, spending more of their time in an office, working with teams to develop management plans and supervising others. After gaining several years of experience, some foresters may become consulting foresters, working alone or with one or several partners. They contract with State or local govern ments, private landowners, private industry, or other forestry con sulting groups. Soil conservationists usually begin working within one county or conservation district and, with experience, may advance to the area, State, regional, or national level. Also, soil conservationists can transfer to related occupations such as farm or ranch manage ment advisor or land appraiser. Job Outlook Employment of conservation scientists and foresters is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Growth should be strongest in State and local governments and in research and testing services, where demand will be spurred by a continuing emphasis on environmental protection and respon sible land management. Job opportunities are expected to be best for soil conservationists and other conservation scientists as gov ernment regulations, such as those regarding the management of stormwater and coastlines, have created demand for persons knowl edgeable about runoff and erosion on farms and in cities and sub urbs. Soil and water quality experts also will be needed as States attempt to improve water quality by preventing pollution by agri cultural producers and industrial plants. Fewer opportunities for conservation scientists and foresters are expected in the Federal Government, partly due to budgetary con straints. Also, Federal land management agencies, such as the For est Service, have de-emphasized their timber programs and increasingly focused on wildlife, recreation, and sustaining eco systems, thereby increasing demand for other life and social scien tists relative to foresters. However, a large number of foresters are expected to retire or leave the Government for other reasons, re sulting in many job openings between 2000 and 2010. In addition, a small number of new jobs will result from the need for range and soil conservationists to provide technical assistance to owners of grazing land through the Natural Resource Conservation Service. Reductions in timber harvesting on public lands, most of which are located in the Northwest and California, also will dampen job growth for private industry foresters in these regions. Opportunities will be better for foresters in the Southeast, where much forested land is privately owned. Rising demand for timber on private lands https://fraser.stlouisfed.org will increase theSt.need Federal Reserve Bank of Louisfor forest management plans that maximize production while sustaining the ecosystem for future growth. Sala ried foresters working for private industry—such as paper compa nies, sawmills, and pulp wood mills—and consulting foresters will be needed to provide technical assistance and management plans to landowners. Research and testing firms have increased their hiring of conser vation scientists and foresters in recent years in response to demand for professionals to prepare environmental impact statements and ero sion and sediment control plans, monitor water quality near logging sites, and advise on tree harvesting practices required by Federal, State, or local regulations. Hiring in these firms should continue during the 2000-10 period, though at a slower rate than over the last 10 years. Earnings Median annual earnings of conservation scientists in 2000 were $47,140. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,610 and $56,040. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $68,300. Median annual earnings of foresters in 2000 were $43,640. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,760 and $53,740. The low est 10 percent earned less than $27,330, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,960. In 2001, most bachelor’s degree graduates entering the Federal Government as foresters, range managers, or soil conservationists started at $23,776 or $30,035, depending on academic achieve ment. Those with a master’s degree could start at $30,035 or $42,783. Holders of doctorates could start at $52,162 or, in re search positions, at $61,451. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. In 2001, the average Federal salary for foresters in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $55,006; for soil con servationists, $53,591; for rangeland managers, $50,715, and for forest products technologists, $71,572. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, graduates with a bachelor s degree in conservation and renewable natural resources received an average starting salary offer of $28,571 in 2001. In private industry, starting salaries for students with a bachelor’s degree were comparable with starting salaries in the Federal Gov ernment, but starting salaries in State and local governments were usually lower. Conservation scientists and foresters who work for Federal, State, and local governments and large private firms generally receive more generous benefits than do those working for smaller firms. Related Occupations Conservation scientists and foresters manage, develop, and protect natural resources. Other workers with similar responsibilities in clude agricultural engineers; environmental engineers; agricultural and food scientists; biological scientists; environmental scientists and geoscientists; and fanners, ranchers, and agricultural managers. Sources of Additional Information For infonnation about the forestry profession and lists of schools offering education in forestry, send a self-addressed, stamped busi ness envelope to: ► Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.safnet.org For information about career opportunities in forestry in the Fed eral Government, contact: >- Chief, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20090-6090. Internet: http://www.fs.fed.us Infonnation about a career as a range manager, as well as a list of schools offering training, is available from: >- Society for Range Management, 445 Union Blvd., Suite 230, Lakewood, CO 80228-1259. Internet: http://srm.org Professional and Related Occupations 225 Physical Scientists Atmospheric Scientists (0*NET 19-2021.00) interpret past records of wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature in specific areas or regions. Their studies are used to design build ings, plan heating and cooling systems, and aid in effective land use and agricultural production. Other research meteorologists ex amine the most effective ways to control or diminish air pollution. Significant Points • The Federal Government employs more than 4 out of 10 atmospheric scientists and is their largest employer. • A bachelor’s degree in meteorology, or in a closely related field with courses in meteorology, is the minimum educational requirement; a master’s degree is necessary for some positions, and a Ph.D. is required for most research positions. • Applicants may face competition for jobs if the number of degrees awarded in atmospheric science and meteorology remain near current levels. Nature of the Work Atmospheric science is the study of the atmosphere—the blanket of air covering the Earth. Atmospheric scientists, commonly called meteorologists, study the atmosphere’s physical characteristics, motions, and processes, and the way it affects the rest of our envi ronment. The best known application of this knowledge is in fore casting the weather. However, weather information and meteorological research are also applied in air-pollution control, agriculture, air and sea transportation, defense, and the study of trends in Earth’s climate such as global warming, droughts, or ozone depletion. Atmospheric scientists who forecast the weather, known profes sionally as operational meteorologists, are the largest group of spe cialists. They study information on air pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind velocity; and apply physical and mathematical relationships to make short- and long-range weather forecasts. Their data come from weather satellites, weather radars, and sensors and observers in many parts of the world. Meteorologists use sophisti cated computer models of the world’s atmosphere to make long term, short-term, and local-area forecasts. These forecasts inform not only the general public, but also those who need accurate weather information for both economic and safety reasons, as in the ship ping, air transportation, agriculture, fishing, and utilities industries. The use of weather balloons, launched a few times a day to mea sure wind, temperature, and humidity in the upper atmosphere, is currently supplemented by sophisticated atmospheric monitoring equipment that transmits data as frequently as every few minutes. Doppler radar, for example, can detect airflow patterns in violent storm systems—allowing forecasters to better predict tornadoes and other hazardous winds, as well as to monitor the storm’s direction and intensity. Combined radar and satellite observations allow me teorologists to predict flash floods. Some atmospheric scientists work in research. Physical meteo rologists, for example, study the atmosphere’s chemical and physi cal properties; the transmission of light, sound, and radio waves; and the transfer of energy in the atmosphere. They also study fac tors affecting the formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather phenomena, such as severe storms. Synoptic meteorologists develop new tools for weather forecasting using computers and sophisti cated mathematical models. Climatologists collect, analyze, and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most weather stations operate around the clock 7 days a week. Jobs in such facilities usually involve night, weekend, and holiday work, often with rotating shifts. During weather emergencies, such as hurricanes, operational meteorologists may work overtime. Op erational meteorologists are also often under pressure to meet fore cast deadlines. Weather stations are found all over—at airports, in or near cities, and in isolated and remote areas. Some atmo spheric scientists also spend time observing weather conditions and collecting data from aircraft. Weather forecasters who work for radio or television stations broadcast their reports from station studios, and may work evenings and weekends. Meteorologists in smaller weather offices often work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Meteorologists not involved in forecasting tasks work regular hours, usually in offices. Those who work for pri vate consulting firms or for companies analyzing and monitoring V • ;• .'' 'r m Atmospheric scientists commonly use atmospheric charts and graphs for analysis and prediction of weather systems. 226 Occupational Outlook Handbook emissions to improve air quality usually work with other scien tists or engineers. L/U1U1UJ iiivtii , Atmospheric scientists held about 6,900 jobs in 2000. The Federal Government is the largest single employer of civilian meteorolo gists, employing about 3,000. The National Oceanic and Atmo spheric Administration (NOAA) employed most Federal meteorologists in the National Weather Service stations throughout the Nation; the remainder of NO AA’s meteorologists worked mainly in research and development or management. The Department of Defense employed several hundred civilian meteorologists. Others worked for research and testing services, private weather consult ing services, radio and television broadcasting, air carriers, and com puter and data processing services. Although several hundred people teach atmospheric science and related courses in college and university departments of meteorol ogy or atmospheric science, physics, earth science, and geophysics, these individuals are classified as college or university faculty, rather than atmospheric scientists. (See the statement on postsecondary teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to civilian meteorologists, hundreds of Armed Forces members are involved in forecasting and other meteorological work. (See the statement on job opportunities in the Armed Forces else where in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in meteorology or atmospheric science, or in a closely related field with courses in meteorology, usually is the mini mum educational requirement for an entry-level position as an atmos pheric scientist. The preferred educational requirement for entry-level meteorolo gists in the Federal Government is a bachelor’s degree—not neces sarily in meteorology—but with at least 24 semester hours of meteorology courses, including 6 hours in the analysis and predic tion of weather systems and 2 hours of remote sensing of the atmo sphere or instrumentation. Other required courses include differential and integral calculus, differential equations, 6 hours of college physics, and at least 9 hours of courses appropriate for a physical science major—such as statistics, computer science, chem istry, physical oceanography, or physical climatology. Sometimes, a combination of experience and education may be substituted for a degree. Although positions in operational meteorology are available tor those with only a bachelor’s degree, obtaining a master s degree enhances employment opportunities and advancement potential. A master’s degree usually is necessary for conducting applied research and development, and a Ph.D. is required for most basic research positions. Students planning on a career in research and develop ment need not necessarily major in atmospheric science or meteo rology as an undergraduate. In fact, a bachelor s degree in mathematics, physics, or engineering provides excellent prepara tion for graduate study in atmospheric science. Because atmospheric science is a small field, relatively few col leges and universities offer degrees in meteorology or atmospheric science, although many departments of physics, earth science, ge ography, and geophysics offer atmospheric science and related courses. Prospective students should make certain that courses re quired by the National Weather Service and other employers are offered at the college they are considering. Computer science courses, additional meteorology courses, a strong background in mathematics and physics, and good communication skills are im portant to prospective employers. Many programs combine the study of meteorology with another field, such as agriculture, oceanography, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis engineering, or physics. For example, hydrometeorology is the blending of hydrology (the science of Earth’s water) and meteorol ogy, and is the field concerned with the effect of precipitation on the hydrologic cycle and the environment. Students who wish to become broadcast meteorologists for radio or television stations should develop excellent communication skills through courses in speech, journalism, and related fields. Those interested in air qual ity work should take courses in chemistry and supplement their tech nical training with coursework in policy or government affairs. Beginning atmospheric scientists often do routine data collec tion, computation, or analysis, and some basic forecasting. Entrylevel operational meteorologists in the Federal Government usually are placed in intern positions for training and experience. During this period, they leam about the Weather Service s forecasting equip ment and procedures, and rotate to different offices to leam about various weather systems. After completing the training period, they are assigned a permanent duty station. Experienced meteorologists may advance to supervisory or administrative jobs, or may handle more complex forecasting jobs. After several years of experience, some meteorologists establish their own weather consulting services. The American Meteorological Society offers professional certi fication of consulting meteorologists, administered by a Board of Certified Consulting Meteorologists. Applicants must meet formal education requirements (though not necessarily have a college de gree), pass an examination to demonstrate thorough meteorologica knowledge, have a minimum of 5 years of experience or a combi nation of experience plus an advanced degree, and provide charac ter references from fellow professionals. Job Outlook Employment of atmospheric scientists is projected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010, but pro spective atmospheric scientists may face competition if the number of degrees awarded in atmospheric science and meteorology remain near current levels. The National Weather Service (NWS) has com pleted an extensive modernization of its weather forecasting equip ment and finished all hiring of meteorologists needed to staff the upgraded stations. The NWS has no plans to increase the number of weather stations or the number of meteorologists in existing sta tions for many years. Employment of meteorologists in other Fed eral agencies is expected to decline slightly as efforts to reduce the Federal Government workforce continue. On the other hand, job opportunities for atmospheric scientists in private industry are expected to be better than in the Federal Gov ernment over the 2000-10 period. As research leads to continuing improvements in weather forecasting, demand should grow for pri vate weather consulting firms to provide more detailed information than has formerly been available, especially to weather-sensitive industries. Farmers, commodity investors, radio and television sta tions, and utilities, transportation, and construction firms can greatly benefit from additional weather information more closely targeted to their needs than the general information provided by the Na tional Weather Service. Additionally, research on seasonal and other long-range forecasting is yielding positive results, which should spur demand for more atmospheric scientists to interpret these forecasts and advise weather-sensitive industries. However, because many customers for private weather services are in industries sensitive to fluctuations in the economy, the sales and growth of private weather services depend on the health of the economy. There will continue to be demand for atmospheric scientists to analyze and monitor the dispersion of pollutants into the air to en sure compliance with Federal environmental regulations outlined in the Clean Air Act of 1990, but employment increases are ex pected to be small. Professional and Related Occupations 227 Earnings Median annual earnings of atmospheric scientists in 2000 were $58,510. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,780 and $72,740. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,880, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,060. The average salary for meteorologists in nonsupervisory, super visory, and managerial positions employed by the Federal Govern ment was about $68,100 in 2001. Meteorologists in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received a starting salary of $24,245 or $29,440, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $29,440 or $36,606; those with the Ph.D., at $47,039 or $59,661. Beginning salaries for all degree levels are slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level is higher. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations concerned with the physical environ ment include environmental scientists and geoscientists, physicists and astronomers, mathematicians, and civil, chemical, and envi ronmental engineers. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in meteorology is available from: >- American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, MA 02108. Internet: http ://www.ametsoc.org/AMS Information on obtaining a meteorologist position with the Fed eral Government is available from the Office of Personnel Manage ment through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first num ber is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is avail able from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Chemists and Materials Scientists (Q*NET 19-2031.00, 19-2032.00) Significant Points • A bachelor’s degree in chemistry or a related discipline is the minimum educational requirement; however, many research jobs require a Ph.D. • Job growth will be concentrated in pharmaceutical companies and in research and testing services firms. • Strong demand will exist for those with a master’s or Ph.D. degree. Nature of the Work Everything in the environment, whether naturally occurring or of human design, is composed of chemicals. Chemists and materials scientists search for and use new knowledge about chemicals. Chemical research has led to the discovery and development of new and improved synthetic fibers, paints, adhesives, drugs, cosmetics, electronic components, lubricants, and thousands of other products. Chemists and materials scientists also develop processes that save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refining and pet rochemical processing methods. Research on the chemistry of liv ing things spurs advances in medicine, agriculture, food processing, and other fields. Materials scientists research and study the structures and chemi cal properties of various materials to develop new products or enhance existing ones. They also determine ways to strengthen or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis combine materials or develop new materials for use in a variety of products. Materials science encompasses the natural and synthetic materials used in a wide range of products and structures, from air planes, cars, and bridges to clothing and household goods. Compa nies whose products are made of metals, ceramics, and rubber employ most material scientists. Other applications of this field include studies of superconducting materials, graphite materials, integrated-circuit chips, and fuel cells. Materials scientists, apply ing chemistry and physics, study all aspects of these materials. Chemistry plays an increasingly dominant role in materials science, because it provides information about the structure and composi tion of materials. Many chemists and materials scientists work in research and de velopment (R&D). In basic research, they investigate properties, composition, and structure of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements and reactions of substances. In applied R&D, they create new products and processes or improve existing ones, often using knowledge gained from basic research. For ex ample, synthetic rubber and plastics resulted from research on small molecules uniting to form large ones, a process called polymeriza tion. R&D chemists and material scientists use computers and a wide variety of sophisticated laboratory instrumentation for model ing and simulation in their work. The use of computers to analyze complex data has had the dra matic impact of allowing chemists and materials scientists to prac tice combinatorial chemistry. This technique makes and tests large quantities of chemical compounds simultaneously in order to find compounds with desired properties. As an integral part of drug and materials discovery, combinatorial chemistry speeds up material designing and research and development, permitting useful com pounds to be developed more quickly and inexpensively than was formerly possible. Combinatorial chemistry has allowed chemists to produce thousands of compounds each year and to assist in the completion of sequencing human genes. Chemists also work in production and quality control in chemical manufacturing plants. They prepare instructions for plant workers that specify ingredients, mixing times, and temperatures for each stage in the process. They also monitor automated processes to ensure proper product yield, and test samples of raw materials or finished products to ensure that they meet industry and government standards, including the regulations governing pollution. Chemists report and document test results and analyze those results in hopes of further improving existing theories or developing new test methods. Chemists often specialize in a subfield. Analytical chemists deter mine the structure, composition, and nature of substances by exam ining and identifying the various elements or compounds that make up a substance. They are absolutely crucial to the pharmaceutical industry because pharmaceutical companies need to know the iden tity of compounds that they hope to turn into drugs. Furthermore, they study the relations and interactions of the parts of compounds and develop analytical techniques. They also identify the presence and concentration of chemical pollutants in air, water, and soil. Organic chemists study the chemistry of the vast number of carbon compounds that make up all living things. Organic chemists who synthesize elements or simple compounds to create new compounds or substances that have different properties and applications have developed many commercial products, such as drugs, plastics, and elastomers (elastic substances similar to rubber). Inorganic chem ists study compounds consisting mainly of elements other than car bon, such as those in electronic components. Physical and theoretical chemists study the physical characteristics of atoms and molecules and the theoretical properties of matter, and investigate how chemi cal reactions work. Their research may result in new and better energy sources. Macromolecular chemists study the behavior of atoms and 228 Occupational Outlook Handbook exposed to health or safety hazards when handling certain chemi cals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. *^83«ss Job growthfor chemists will be concentrated in research and testing service firms. molecules. Medicinal chemists study the structural properties of compounds intended for applications to human medicine. Materi als chemists study and develop new materials to improve existing products or make new ones. In fact, virtually all chemists are in volved in this quest in one way or another. Developments in the field of chemistry that involve life sciences will expand, resulting in more interaction between biologists and chemists. (Biochemists, whose work encompasses both biology and chemistry, are discussed in the Handbook statement on biological scientists). Materials scientists also may specialize in specific areas such as ceramics or metals. Working Conditions Chemists and materials scientists usually work regular hours in offices and laboratories. Research and development chemists and materials scientists spend much time in laboratories, but also work in offices when they do theoretical research or plan, record, and report on their lab research. Although some laboratories are small, others are large enough to incorporate prototype chemical manufac turing facilities as well as advanced equipment for chemists. In addition to working in a laboratory, materials scientists also work with engineers and processing specialists in industrial manufactur ing facilities. After a material is sold, materials scientists often help customers tailor the material to suit their needs. Chemists do some of their work in a chemical plant or outdoors—while gathering water samples to test for pollutants, for example. Some chemists are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment Chemists and materials scientists held about 92,000 jobs in 2000. Over half of all chemists are employed in manufacturing firms— mostly in the chemical manufacturing industry, which includes firms that produce plastics and synthetic materials, drugs, soaps and clean ers, paints, industrial organic chemicals, and other miscellaneous chemical products. Chemists also work for State and local govern ments and for Federal agencies. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (which includes the Food and Drug Adminis tration, the National Institutes of Health, and the Center for Disease Control) is the major Federal employer of chemists. The Depart ments of Defense and Agriculture and the Environmental Protec tion Agency also employ chemists. Other chemists work for research, development, and testing services. In addition, thousands of persons with a background in chemistry and materials science hold teaching positions in high schools and in colleges and univer sities. (See the two statements on teachers—postsecondary and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and second ary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Chemists and materials scientists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are mainly concentrated in large industrial areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in chemistry or a related discipline is usually the minimum educational requirement for entry-level chemist jobs. However, many research jobs require a Ph.D. While some materials scientists hold a degree in materials science, a bachelor’s degree in chemistry, physics, or electric engineering also is accepted. For research and development jobs, a Ph.D. in materials science or a related science is often required. Many colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree pro gram in chemistry; about 620 are approved by the American Chemi cal Society (ACS). The number of colleges that offer a degree program in materials science is small, but gradually increasing. Sev eral hundred colleges and universities also offer advanced degree programs in chemistry; around 320 master’s programs, and about 190 doctoral programs are ACS-approved. Students planning careers as chemists and materials scientists should take courses in science and mathematics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and perform ing laboratory experiments and computer modeling. Perseverance, curiosity, and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work inde pendently are essential. Interaction among specialists in this field is increasing, especially for chemists in drug development. One type of chemist often relies on the findings of another type of chemist. For example, an organic chemist must understand findings on the identity of compounds prepared by an analytical chemist. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, undergraduate chemistry majors usually study biological sciences, mathematics, and physics. Those inter ested in the environmental field should also take courses in envi ronmental studies and become familiar with current legislation and regulations. Computer courses are essential, as employers increas ingly prefer job applicants who are able to apply computer skills to modeling and simulation tasks and operate computerized labora tory equipment. This is increasingly important as combinatorial chemistry techniques are more widely applied. Scientists with out dated skills or who are unfamiliar with combinatorial chemistry are often retrained by companies in-house. Because research and development chemists and materials sci entists are increasingly expected to work on interdisciplinary teams, Professional and Related Occupations 229 some understanding of other disciplines, including business and marketing or economics, is desirable, along with leadership ability and good oral and written communication skills. Experience, ei ther in academic laboratories or through internships, fellowships, or co-op programs in industry, also is useful. Some employers of research chemists, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry, pre fer to hire individuals with several years of postdoctoral experience Graduate students typically specialize in a subfield of chemis try, such as analytical chemistry or polymer chemistry, depending on their interests and the kind of work they wish to do. For ex ample, those interested in doing drug research in the pharmaceuti cal industry usually develop a strong background in synthetic organic chemistry. However, students normally need not specialize at the undergraduate level. In fact, undergraduates who are broadly trained have more flexibility when job hunting or changing jobs than if they narrowly define their interests. Most employers provide new graduates additional training or education. In government or industry, beginning chemists with a bachelor’s degree work in quality control, perform analytical testing, or assist senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Many employers prefer chemists and material scientists with a Ph.D. or at least a master’s degree to lead basic and applied research. None theless, relevant work experience is an asset. Chemists who hold a Ph.D. and have previous industrial experience may be particularly attractive to employers because such people are more likely to un derstand the complex regulations that apply to the pharmaceutical industry. Within materials science, a broad background in various sciences is preferred. This broad base may be obtained through degrees in physics, engineering, or chemistry. While many compa nies prefer hiring Ph.D.’s, many materials scientists have bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Additionally, both chemists and materials scientists need the ability to apply basic statistical techniques. Job Outlook Employment of chemists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Job growth will be con centrated in drug manufacturing and in research, development, and testing services firms. The chemical industry, the major employer of chemists, should face continued demand for goods such as new and better pharmaceuticals and personal care products, as well as for more specialty chemicals designed to address specific problems or applications. To meet these demands, chemical firms will con tinue to devote money to research and development—through in house teams or outside contractors—spurring employment growth of chemists. Strong demand is expected for chemists with a master’s or Ph.D. degree. Within the chemical industry, job opportunities are expected to be most plentiful in phannaceutical and biotechnology firms. Bio technological research, including studies of human genes, contin ues to offer possibilities for the development of new drugs and products to combat illnesses and diseases which have previously been unresponsive to treatments derived by traditional chemical pro cesses. Stronger competition among drug companies and an aging population are contributing to the need for innovative and improved drugs discovered through scientific research. Chemical firms that develop and manufacture personal products such as toiletries and cosmetics must continually innovate and develop new and better products to remain competitive. Additionally, as the population grows and becomes better informed, the demand for different or improved grooming products—including vegetable-based products, products with milder formulas, treatments for aging skin, and prod ucts that have been developed using more benign chemical pro cesses than in the past—will remain strong, spurring the need for chemists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In most of the remaining segments of the chemical industry, employment growth is expected to decline as companies downsize and turn to outside contractors to provide specialized services. As a result, research and testing firms will experience healthy growth. To control costs, some chemical companies, including drug manu facturers, are increasingly turning to these firms to perform special ized research and other work formerly done by in-house chemists. Despite downsizing, some job openings will result from the need to replace chemists who retire or otherwise leave the labor force. Quality control will continue to be an important issue in the chemical and other industries that use chemicals in their manufacturing processes. Chemists also will be needed to develop and improve the technolo gies and processes used to produce chemicals for all purposes, and to monitor and measure air and water pollutants to ensure compli ance with local, State, and Federal environmental regulations. Environmental research will offer many new opportunities for chemists and materials scientists. To satisfy public concerns and to comply with government regulations, the chemical industry will continue to invest billions of dollars each year for technology that reduces pollution and cleans up existing waste sites. Chemists also are needed to find ways to use less energy and to discover new sources of energy. During periods of economic recession, layoffs of chemists may occur—especially in the industrial chemicals industry. This indus try provides many of the raw materials to the auto manufacturing and construction industries, both of which are vulnerable to tempo rary slowdowns during recessions. Earnings Median annual earnings of chemists in 2000 were $50,080. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,480 and $68,240. The low est 10 percent earned less than $29,620, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,030. Median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of chemists in 2000 were: Federal Government............................................................................. Drugs........................................................................................................ Research and testing services............................................................. $65,950 50,820 41,820 A survey by the American Chemical Society reports that the median salary of all their members with a bachelor’s degree was $55,000 a year in 2000; with a master’s degree, $65,000 ; and with a Ph.D., $82,200. Median salaries were highest for those working in private industry; those in academia earned the least. According to an ACS survey of recent graduates, inexperienced chemistry graduates with a bachelor’s degree earned a median starting salary of $33,500 in 2000; with a master’s degree, $44,100 ; and with a Ph.D., $64,500 . Among bachelor’s degree graduates, those who had completed internships or had other work experience while in school commanded the highest starting salaries. In 2001, chemists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and manage rial positions in the Federal Government averaged $70,435 a year. Related Occupations The research and analysis conducted by chemists and materials sci entists is closely related to work done by agricultural and food sci entists, biological and medical scientists, chemical engineers, materials engineers, physicists, and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chem ists is available from: >- American Chemical Society, Education Division, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.acs.org 230 Occupational Outlook Handbook Information on obtaining a position as a chemist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first num ber is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is avail able from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. For general information on materials science, contact: >- Materials Research Society (MRS), 506 Keystone Dr., Warrendale, PA 15086-7573. Internet: http://www.mrs.org physics, in addition to biology and chemistry, to study the world’s oceans and coastal waters. They study the motion and circulation of the ocean waters and their physical and chemical properties, and how these properties affect coastal areas, climate, and weather. Geoscientists can spend a large part of their time in the field identifying and examining rocks, studying information collected by remote sensing instruments in satellites, conducting geological surveys, constructing field maps, and using instruments to mea sure the Earth’s gravity and magnetic field. For example, they often perform seismic studies, which involve bouncing energy waves off buried rock layers, to search for oil and gas or understand the structure of subsurface rock layers. Seismic signals generated by earthquakes are used to determine the earthquake’s location and Environmental Scientists and Geoscientists ___ intensity. In laboratories, geologists and geophysicists examine the chemi cal and physical properties of specimens. They study fossil remains of animal and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Some geoscientists use two- or three-dimen sional computer modeling to portray water layers and the flow of water or other fluids through rock cracks and porous materials. They use a variety of sophisticated laboratory instruments, including x ray diffractometers, which determine the crystal structure of miner als, and petrographic microscopes, for the study of rock and sedi (0*NET 19-2041.00, 19-2042.01, 19-2043.00) Significant Points • • • Work at remote field sites is common. A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry-level jobs; better jobs with good advancement potential usually require at least a master’s degree. A Ph.D. degree is required for most research positions in colleges and universities and in government. Nature of the Work Environmental scientists and geoscientists use their knowledge of the physical makeup and history of the Earth to locate water, min eral, and energy resources; protect the environment; predict future geologic hazards; and offer advice on construction and land use projects. Environmental scientists conduct research to identify and abate or eliminate sources of pollutants that affect people, wildlife, and their environments. They analyze and report measurements and observations of air, water, soil, and other sources to make recom mendations on how best to clean and preserve the environment. They often use their skills and knowledge to design and monitor waste disposal sites, preserve water supplies, and reclaim contaminated land and water to comply with Federal environmental regulations. Geoscientists study the composition, structure, and other physi cal aspects of the Earth. By using sophisticated instruments and analyses of the earth and water, geoscientists study the Earth’s geo logic past and present in order to make predictions about its future. For example, they may study the Earth’s movements to try to pre dict when and where the next earthquake or volcano will occur and the probable impact on surrounding areas to minimize the damage. Many geoscientists are involved in the search for oil and gas, while others work closely with environmental scientists in preserving and cleaning up the environment. Geoscientists usually study, and are subsequently classified in, one of several closely related fields of geoscience, including geol ogy, geophysics, and oceanography. Geologists study the compo sition, processes, and history of the Earth. They try to find out how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since for mation. They also study the evolution of life by analyzing plant and animal fossils. Geophysicists use the principles of physics, mathematics, and chemistry to study not only the Earth s surface, but also its internal composition; ground and surface waters; at mosphere; oceans; and its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces. Oceanographers use their knowledge of geology and geo https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ment samples. Geoscientists working in mining or the oil and gas industry some times process and interpret data produced by remote sensing satel lites to help identify potential new mineral, oil, or gas deposits. Seismic technology also is an important exploration tool. Seismic waves are used to develop a three-dimensional picture of under ground or underwater rock formations. Seismic reflection technol ogy may also reveal unusual underground features that sometimes indicate accumulations of natural gas or petroleum, facilitating ex ploration and reducing the risks associated with drilling in previ ously unexplored areas. Numerous subdisciplines or specialties fall under the two major disciplines of geology and geophysics that further differentiate the type of work geoscientists do. For example, petroleum geologists explore for oil and gas deposits by studying and mapping the sub surface of the ocean or land. They use sophisticated geophysical instrumentation, well log data, and computers to interpret geologi cal information. Engineering geologists apply geologic principles to the fields of civil and environmental engineering, offering ad vice on major construction projects and assisting in environmental remediation and natural hazard reduction projects. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to com position and structure and study their environment in order to find new mineral resources. Paleontologists study fossils found in geo logical formations to trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic history of the Earth. Stratigraphers study the for mation and layering of rocks to understand the environment in which they were formed. Volcanologists investigate volcanoes and volca nic phenomena to try to predict the potential for future eruptions and possible hazards to human health and welfare. Geophysicists may specialize in areas such as geodesy, seismol ogy, or magnetic geophysics. Geodesists study the size and shape of the Earth, its gravitational field, tides, polar motion, and rotation. Seismologists interpret data from seismographs and other geophysi cal instruments to detect earthquakes and locate earthquake-related faults. Geochemists study the nature and distribution of chemical elements in ground water and Earth materials. Geomagnetists mea sure the Earth’s magnetic field and use measurements taken over the past few centuries to devise theoretical models to explain the Earth’s origin. Paleomagnetists interpret fossil magnetization in rocks and sediments from the continents and oceans, to record the Professional and Related Occupations 231 spreading of the sea floor, the wandering of the continents, and the many reversals of polarity that the Earth’s magnetic field has under gone through time. Other geophysicists study atmospheric sciences and space physics. (See atmospheric scientists and physicists and astronomers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Hydrology is closely related to the disciplines of geology and geophysics. Hydrologists study the quantity, distribution, circula tion, and physical properties of underground and surface waters. They study the form and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the soil, its movement through the Earth, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere. The work they do is particularly important in environmental preservation, remediation, and flood control. Oceanography also has several subdisciplines. Physical ocean ographers study the ocean tides, waves, currents, temperatures, den sity, and salinity. They study the interaction of various forms of energy, such as light, radar, sound, heat, and wind with the sea, in addition to investigating the relationship between the sea, weather, and climate. Their studies provide the Maritime Fleet with up-todate oceanic conditions. Chemical oceanographers study the dis tribution of chemical compounds and chemical interactions that occur in the ocean and sea floor. They may investigate how pollu tion affects the chemistry of the ocean. Geological and geophysi cal oceanographers study the topographic features and the physical makeup of the ocean floor. Their knowledge can help oil and gas producers find these minerals on the bottom of the ocean. Bio logical oceanographers, often called marine biologists, study the Environmental scientists and geoscientists use a variety of sophisticated equipment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis distribution and migration patterns of the many diverse forms of sea life in the ocean. (See biological scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Some geoscientists spend the majority of their time in an office, but many others divide their time between fieldwork and office or labo ratory work. Geologists often travel to remote field sites by heli copter or four-wheel drive vehicles and cover large areas on foot. An increasing number of exploration geologists and geophysicists work in foreign countries, sometimes in remote areas and under difficult conditions. Oceanographers may spend considerable time at sea on academic research ships. Fieldwork often requires work ing long hours, but workers are usually rewarded by longer than normal vacations. Environmental scientists and geoscientists in research positions with the Federal Government or in colleges and universities often are required to design programs and write grant proposals in order to continue their data collection and research. Environmental scientists and geoscientists in consulting jobs face similar pressures to market their skills and write proposals to main tain steady work. Travel often is required to meet with prospective clients or investors. Employment Environmental scientists and geoscientists held about 97,000 jobs in 2000. Environmental scientists accounted for 64,000 of the total; geoscientists, 25,000; and hydrologists, 8,000. Many more individuals held environmental science and geoscience faculty po sitions in colleges and universities, but they are considered college and university faculty. (See postsecondary teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Among salaried geoscientists, nearly 1 in 3 were employed in engineering and management services, and slightly more than 1 in 5 worked for oil and gas extraction companies or metal mining companies. The Federal Government employed about 3,100 geo scientists, including geologists, geophysicists, and oceanographers in 2000, mostly within the U.S. Department of the Interior for the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and the U.S. Department of Defense. More than 2,600 worked for State agencies, such as State geological surveys and State departments of conservation. About 1 geoscientist in 25 was self-employed; most were consult ants to industry or government. For environmental scientists, about 2 in 5 were employed in State and local governments, about 1 in 8 in management and public relations, 1 in 10 in engineering and architectural services, and 1 in 10 in the Federal Government. A small number were selfemployed. Nearly 1 in 3 hydrologist worked in the Federal Government in 2000. Another 1 in 5 worked in management and public relations, 1 in 6 in engineering and architectural services, and 1 in 6 for State governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for some entry-level geoscientist jobs, but more job opportunities and better jobs with good advancement potential usually require at least a master’s degree in geology or geophysics. Environmental scien tists require at least a bachelor’s degree in hydrogeology; environ mental, civil, or geological engineering; or geochemistry or geology, but employers usually prefer candidates with master’s degrees. A master’s degree is required for most entry-level research posi tions in colleges and universities, Federal agencies, and State geo logical surveys. A Ph.D. is necessary for most high-level research positions. 232 Occupational Outlook Handbook Hundreds of colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in geology; fewer schools offer programs in geophysics, hydrogeology, or other geosciences. Other programs offering re lated training for beginning geological scientists include geophysi cal technology, geophysical engineering, geophysical prospecting, engineering geology, petroleum geology, geohydrology, and geochemistry. In addition, several hundred universities award ad vanced degrees in geology or geophysics. Traditional geoscience courses emphasizing classical geologic methods and topics (such as mineralogy, petrology, paleontology, stratigraphy, and structural geology) are important for all geoscien tists and make up the majority of college training. Persons study ing physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, engineering, or computer science may also quality for some environmental science and geoscience positions if their coursework includes study in geology. Those students interested in working in the environmen tal or regulatory fields, either in environmental consulting firms or for Federal or State governments, should take courses in hydrology, hazardous waste management, environmental legislation, chemis try, fluid mechanics, and geologic logging. An understanding of environmental regulations and government permit issues is also valuable for those planning to work in mining and oil and gas ex traction. Hydrologists and environmental scientists should have some knowledge of the potential liabilities associated with some environmental work. Computer skills are essential for prospective environmental scientists and geoscientists; students who have some experience with computer modeling, data analysis and integration, digital mapping, remote sensing, and geographic information sys tems (GIS) will be the most prepared entering the job market. A knowledge of the Global Positioning System (GPS)—a locator sys tem that uses satellites—also is very helpful. Some employers seek applicants with field experience, so a summer internship may be beneficial to prospective geoscientists. Environmental scientists and geoscientists must have excellent interpersonal skills, because they usually work as part of a team with other scientists, engineers, and technicians. Strong oral and written communication skills also are important, because writing technical reports and research proposals, as well as communicat ing research results to others, are important aspects of the work. Because many jobs require foreign travel, knowledge of a second language is becoming an important attribute to employers. Geo scientists must be inquisitive and able to think logically and have an open mind. Those involved in fieldwork must have physical stamina. Environmental scientists and geoscientists often begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants or technicians in laboratories or offices. They are given more difficult assign ments as they gain experience. Eventually, they may be promoted to project leader, program manager, or another management and geologists and geoscientists involved in research. Instead, increased construction and exploration for oil and natural gas abroad may require geoscientists to work overseas unless additional sites in the United States are opened for exploration. In the past, employment of geologists and some other geoscien tists has been cyclical and largely affected by the price of oil and gas. When prices were low, oil and gas producers curtailed explo ration activities and laid off geologists. When prices were up, com panies had the funds and incentive to renew exploration efforts and hire geoscientists in large numbers. In recent years, a growing worldwide demand for oil and gas and new exploration and recov ery techniques—particularly in deep water and previously inacces sible sites—have returned some stability to the petroleum industry, with a few companies increasing their hiring of geoscientists. Growth in this area, though, will be limited due to increasing effi ciencies in finding oil and gas. Geoscientists who speak a foreign language and who are willing to work abroad should enjoy the best opportunities. The need for companies to comply with environmental laws and regulations is expected to contribute to the demand for environ mental scientists and some geoscientists, especially hydrologists and engineering geologists. Issues of water conservation, deteriorating coastal environments, and rising sea levels also will stimulate em ployment growth of these workers. As the population increases and moves to more environmentally sensitive locations, environ mental scientists and hydrologists will be needed to assess building sites for potential geologic hazards and to address issues of pollu tion control and waste disposal. Hydrologists and environmental scientists also will be needed to conduct research on hazardous wastesites to determine the impact of hazardous pollutants on soil and groundwater so engineers can design remediation systems. The need for environmental scientists and geoscientists who understand both the science and engineering aspects of waste remediation is growing. An expected increase in highway building and other in frastructure projects will be an additional source of jobs for engi neering geologists. Employment of environmental scientists and geoscientists is more sensitive to changes in governmental energy or environmental policy than employment of other scientists. If environmental regulations are rescinded or loosened, job opportunities will shrink. On the other hand, increased exploration for energy sources will result in improved job opportunities for geoscientists. Jobs with the Federal and State governments and with organi zations dependent on Federal funds for support will experience little growth over the next decade, unless budgets increase signifi cantly. The Federal Government is expected to increasingly outsource environmental services to private consulting firms. This lack of funding will affect mostly geoscientists performing basic research. research position. Job Outlook Employment of environmental scientists and hydrologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, while employment of geoscientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average. The need to replace environmental scientists and geoscientists who retire will result in many job openings over the next decade. Driving the growth of environmental scientists and geoscientists will be the continuing need for companies and organi zations to comply with environmental laws and regulations, par ticularly those regarding groundwater contamination and flood control. However, oil company mergers and stagnant or declining government funding for research may affect the hiring of petroleum https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of environmental scientists were $44,180 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,570 and $58,490. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $73,790. Median annual earnings of geoscientists were $56,230 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,320 and $77,180. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $33,910, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $106,040. Median annual earnings of hydrologists were $55,410 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,740 and $68,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,910, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $85,260. Professional and Related Occupations 233 Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of environmental scientists in 2000 were as follows: Federal Government............................................................................. $59,590 Engineering and architectural services................................................ 43,920 Management and public relations......................................................... 43,900 Local government..................................................................................... 42,880 State government....................................................................................... 39,330 According to the National Association of Colleges and Employ ers, beginning salary offers in 2001 for graduates with bachelor’s degrees in geology and the geological sciences averaged about $35,568 a year; graduates with a master’s degree averaged $41,100; graduates with a doctoral degree averaged $57,500. In 2001, the Federal Government’s average salary for geologists in managerial, supervisory, and nonsupervisory positions was $70,763; for geophysicists, $79,660; for hydrologists, $64,810; and for oceanographers, $71,881. The petroleum, mineral, and mining industries offer higher sala ries, but less job security, than other industries. These industries are vulnerable to recessions and changes in oil and gas prices, among other factors, and usually release workers when exploration and drilling slow down. Related Occupations Many geoscientists work in the petroleum and natural gas industry. This industry also employs many other workers in the scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas exploration and ex traction, including engineering technicians, science technicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors, cartographers and photogrammetrists. Also, some physicists, chemists, and atmospheric scien tists—as well as mathematicians and systems analysts, computer scientists, and database administrators—perform related work in both petroleum and natural gas exploration and extraction and in environment-related activities. Sources of Additional Information Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is available from: >- American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA 22302 1502. Internet: http://www.agiweb.orgGeological Society of America, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301-9140. Telephone: (717) 447-2020. Internet: http://www.geosociety.org. >- American Association of Petroleum Geologists, P.O. Box 979, Tulsa, OK 74101. Internet: http://www.aapg.org Information on training and career opportunities for geophysi cists is available from: ► American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20009. Telephone: (202) 777-7512. Internet: http://www.agu.org ► Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 8801 South Yale, Tulsa, OK 74137. Telephone: (918)497-5500. Internet: http://www.seg.org A packet of free career information, and a list of education and training programs in oceanography and related fields priced at $6.00, is available from: ► Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St. NW., Suite 906, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.mtsociety.org Information on acquiring a job as a geologist, geophysicist, hy drologist, or oceanographer with the Federal Government may be obtained through a telephone-based system from the Office of Per sonnel Management. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number, or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service (800) 877-8339. This number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Physicists and Astronomers (0*NET 19-2011.00, 19-2012.00) Significant Points • A doctoral degree is the usual educational requirement because most jobs are in basic research and development; a bachelor’s or master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and development. • Because funding for research grows slowly, new Ph.D. graduates will face competition for basic research jobs. Nature of the Work Physicists explore and identify basic principles governing the struc ture and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of energy, and the interaction of matter and energy. Some physicists use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of time and the origin of the universe; others apply their physics knowledge to prac tical areas, such as the development of advanced materials, elec tronic and optical devices, and medical equipment. Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclo trons, telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. Based on observations and analysis, they attempt to discover and explain laws describing the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagne tism, and nuclear interactions. Physicists also find ways to apply physical laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electron ics, optics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, navi gation equipment, and medical instrumentation. Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics. As tronomers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun, moon, planets, stars, and galaxies. They also apply their knowl edge to solve problems in navigation, space flight, and satellite com munications, and to develop the instrumentation and techniques used to observe and collect astronomical data. Most physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scientific knowledge. Physicists who conduct applied research build upon the discoveries made through basic research and work to develop new devices, products, and pro cesses. For example, basic research in solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and, then, of integrated circuits used in computers. Physicists also design research equipment. This equipment of ten has additional unanticipated uses. For example, lasers are used in surgery, microwave devices are used in ovens, and measuring instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods. A small number of physicists work in inspection, testing, quality con trol, and other production-related jobs in industry. Much physics research is done in small or medium-size labora tories. However, experiments in plasma, nuclear, and high energy and in some other areas of physics require extremely large, expen sive equipment, such as particle accelerators. Physicists in these subfields often work in large teams. Although physics research may require extensive experimentation in laboratories, research physicists still spend time in offices planning, recording, analyz ing, and reporting on research. Almost all astronomers do research. Some are theoreticians, working on the laws governing the structure and evolution of astro nomical objects. Others analyze large quantities of data gathered by observatories and satellites, and write scientific papers or reports on their findings. Some astronomers actually operate, usually as 234 Occupational Outlook Handbook part of a team, large space- or ground-based telescopes. However, astronomers may spend only a few weeks each year making obser vations with optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instru ments. For many years, satellites and other space-based instruments have provided tremendous amounts of astronomical data. New tech nology resulting in improvements in analytical techniques and in struments, such as computers and optical telescopes and mounts, is leading to a resurgence in ground-based research. A small number of astronomers work in museums housing planetariums. These as tronomers develop and revise programs presented to the public and may direct planetarium operations. Physicists generally specialize in one of many subfields—elemen tary particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic and molecular phys ics, physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics), optics, acoustics, space physics, plasma physics, or the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields. For example, within condensed matter physics, specialties include su perconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors. However, all physics involves the same fundamental principles, so specialties may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to an other. Also, growing numbers of physicists work in combined fields, such as biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Working Conditions Physicists often work regular hours in laboratories and offices. At times, however, those who are deeply involved in research may work long or irregular hours. Most do not encounter unusual hazards in mm A doctoral degree usually is necessaryfor most basic research and development positions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis their work. Some physicists temporarily work away from home at national or international facilities with unique equipment, such as particle accelerators. Astronomers who make observations using ground-based telescopes may spend long periods in observatories; this work usually involves travel to remote locations. Long hours, including routine night work, may create temporarily stressful conditions. Physicists and astronomers whose work is dependent on grant money often are under pressure to write grant proposals to keep their work funded. Employment Physicists and astronomers held about 10,000 jobs in 2000. Jobs for astronomers accounted for only a small number—10 percent—of the total. About 40 percent of all nonfaculty physicists and astrono mers worked for commercial or noncommercial research, develop ment, and testing laboratories. The Federal Government employed almost 35 percent, mostly in the U.S. Department of Defense, but also in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and in the U.S. Departments of Commerce, Health and Human Services, and Energy. Other physicists and astronomers worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty positions, or for State govern ments, drag companies, or electronic equipment manufacturers. Besides the jobs described above, many physicists and astrono mers held faculty positions in colleges and universities. (See the statement on postsecondary teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although physicists and astronomers are employed in all parts of the country, most work in areas in which universities, large re search and development laboratories, or observatories are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because most jobs are in basic research and development, a doc toral degree is the usual educational requirement for physicists and astronomers. Additional experience and training in a postdoctoral research appointment, although not required, is important for physi cists and astronomers aspiring to permanent positions in basic re search in universities and government laboratories. Many physics and astronomy Ph.D.-holders ultimately teach at the college or uni versity level. Master’s degree holders usually do not qualify for basic research positions but do qualify for many kinds of jobs requiring a physics background, including positions in manufacturing and applied re search and development. Physics departments in some colleges and universities are creating professional master’s degree programs to specifically prepare students for physics-related research and devel opment in private industry that do not require a Ph.D. degree. A master’s degree may suffice for teaching jobs in 2-year colleges. Those with bachelor’s degrees in physics are rarely qualified to fill positions as research or teaching physicists. They are, however, usu ally qualified to work in engineering-related areas, in software de velopment and other scientific fields, as technicians, or to assist in setting up computer networks and sophisticated laboratory equip ment. Some may qualify for applied research jobs in private indus try or nonresearch positions in the Federal Government. Some become science teachers in secondary schools. Astronomy bachelor’s or master’s degree holders often enter a field unrelated to astronomy, and they are qualified to work in planetariums running science shows, to assist astronomers doing research, and to operate space- and ground-based telescopes and other astronomical instrumentation. (See the statements on engineers; geologists, geophysicists, and oceanographers; computer programmers; and computer systems ana lysts, engineers, and scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 507 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. Undergraduate programs provide a broad background in Professional and Related Occupations 235 the natural sciences and mathematics. Typical physics courses include electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic phys ics, and quantum mechanics. In 2000, 183 colleges and universities had departments offering Ph.D. degrees in physics. Another 72 departments offered a master’s as their highest degree. Graduate students usually concentrate in a subfield of physics, such as elementary particles or condensed mat ter. Many begin studying for their doctorate immediately after receiving their bachelor’s degree. About 69 universities grant degrees in astronomy, either through an astronomy, physics, or combined physics/astronomy department. Applicants to astronomy doctoral programs face competition for available slots. Those planning a career in astronomy should have a very strong physics background. In fact, an undergraduate degree in either physics or astronomy is excellent preparation, followed by a Ph.D. in astronomy. Mathematical ability, problem-solving and analytical skills, an inquisitive mind, imagination, and initiative are important traits for anyone planning a career in physics or astronomy. Prospective physicists who hope to work in industrial laboratories applying physics knowledge to practical problems should broaden their edu cational background to include courses outside of physics, such as economics, computer technology, and business management. Good oral and written communication skills also are important because many physicists work as part of a team, write research papers or proposals, or have contact with clients or customers with nonphysics backgrounds. Many physics and astronomy Ph.D.’s begin their careers in a postdoctoral research position, where they may work with experi enced physicists as they continue to learn about their specialty and develop ideas and results to be used in later work. Initial work may be under the close supervision of senior scientists. After some ex perience, physicists perform increasingly complex tasks and work more independently. Those who develop new products or processes sometimes form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Job Outlook Historically, many physicists and astronomers have been employed on research projects—often defense-related. Because defense ex penditures are expected to increase over the next decade, employ ment of physicists and astronomers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations, through the year 2010. The need to replace physicists and astronomers who retire will, how ever, account for most expected job openings. The Federal Gov ernment funds numerous noncommercial research facilities. The Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs), whose missions include a significant physics component, are largely funded by the Department of Energy (DOE) or the Department of Defense (DOD), and their R&D budgets did not keep pace with inflation during much of the 1990s. However, Federal budgets have recently increased for physics-related research at these centers, as well as other agencies such as NASA. If R&D funding continues to grow at these agencies, job opportunities for physicists and as tronomers, especially those dependent on Federal research grants, should be better than they have been in many years. Although research and development budgets in private industry will continue to grow, many research laboratories in private indus try are expected to continue to reduce basic research, which in cludes much physics research, in favor of applied or manufacturing research and product and software development. Nevertheless, many persons with a physics background continue to be in demand in the areas of information technology, semiconductor technology, Digitizedand for FRASER other applied sciences. This trend is expected to continue; https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis however, many of these positions will be under job titles such as computer software engineer, computer programmer, engineer, and systems developer, rather than physicist. For several years, the number of doctorates granted in physics has been much greater than the number of openings for physicists, resulting in keen competition, particularly for research positions in colleges and universities and in research and development centers. Competitive conditions are beginning to ease, because the number of doctorate degrees awarded has begun dropping, following re cent declines in enrollment in graduate physics programs. How ever, new doctoral graduates should still expect to face competition for research jobs, not only from fellow graduates, but also from an existing supply of postdoctoral workers seeking to leave low-pay ing, temporary positions and non-U. S. citizen applicants. Opportunities may be more numerous for those with a master’s degree, particularly graduates from programs preparing students for applied research and development, product design, and manu facturing positions in industry. Many of these positions, however, will have titles other than physicist, such as engineer or computer scientist. Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics or astronomy are not qualified to enter most physicist or astronomer research jobs but may qualify for a wide range of positions in engineering, tech nician, mathematics, and computer- and environment-related occu pations. Those who meet State certification requirements can become high school physics teachers, an occupation reportedly in strong demand in many school districts. (See the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Despite competi tion for traditional physics and astronomy research jobs, individu als with a physics degree at any level will find their skills useful for entry to many other occupations. Earnings Median annual earnings of physicists and astronomers in 2000 were $82,535. Median annual earnings of astronomers were $74,510, while physicists earned $83,310. The middle 50 percent of physi cists earned between $65,820 and $102,270. The lowest 10 per cent earned less than $51,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $116,290. According to a 2001 National Association of Colleges and Em ployers survey, the average annual starting salary offer to physics doctoral degree candidates was $68,273. The American Institute of Physics reported a median annual sal ary of $78,000 in 2000 for its members with Ph.D’s (excluding those in postdoctoral positions); with master’s degrees, $63,800; and with bachelor’s degrees, $60,000. Those working in temporary post doctoral positions earned significantly less. The average annual salary for physicists employed by the Fed eral Government was $86,799 in 2001; for astronomy and space scientists, $89,734. Related Occupations The work of physicists and astronomers relates closely to that of engineers, chemists, atmospheric scientists, computer scientists, computer programmers, and mathematicians. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from: >- American Institute of Physics, Career Services Division and Education and Employment Division, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740 3843. Internet: http://www.aip.org >- The American Physical Society, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3844. Internet: http://www.aps.org 236 Occupational Outlook Handbook Science Technicians (C)*NET 19-4011.01, 19-4011.02, 19-4021.00, 19-4031.00, 19-4041.01, 19-4041.02, 19-4051.01, 19-4051.02, 19-4091.00, 19-4092.00, 19 4093.00) • • Significant Points Science technicians in production jobs often work in 8hour shifts around the clock. Job opportunities are expected to be best for qualified graduates of science technician training programs or applied science technology programs. Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development and to help invent and improve products and processes. However, their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. Techni cians set up, operate, and maintain laboratory instruments, monitor experiments, make observations, calculate and record results, and often develop conclusions. They must keep detailed logs of all their work-related activities. Those who work in production moni tor manufacturing processes and may be involved in ensuring qual ity by testing products for proper proportions of ingredients, purity, or for strength and durability. As laboratory instrumentation and procedures have become more complex in recent years, the role of science technicians in research and development has expanded. In addition to performing routine tasks, many technicians also develop and adapt laboratory proce dures to achieve the best results, interpret data, and devise solu tions to problems, under the direction of scientists. Moreover, technicians must master the laboratory equipment so that they can adjust settings when necessary and recognize when equipment is malfunctioning. The increasing use of robotics to perform many routine tasks has freed technicians to operate more sophisticated laboratory equip ment. Science technicians make extensive use of computers, com puter-interfaced equipment, robotics, and high-technology industrial applications, such as biological engineering. Most science technicians specialize, learning skills and work ing in the same disciplines as scientists. Occupational titles, there fore, tend to follow the same structure as scientists. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food, fiber, and animal research, production, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Food science technicians assist food scien tists and technologists in research and development, production technology, and quality control. For example, food science techni cians may conduct tests on food additives and preservatives to en sure FDA compliance on factors such as color, texture, and nutrients. They analyze, record, and compile test results; order supplies to maintain laboratory inventory; and clean and sterilize laboratory equipment. Biological technicians work with biologists studying living or ganisms. Many assist scientists who conduct medical research— helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example. Those who work in pharmaceutical companies help develop and manufacture medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations. Those working in the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis field of microbiology generally work as lab assistants, studying liv ing organisms and infectious agents. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances, such as blood, food, and drugs, and some examine evidence in criminal investigations. Biological tech nicians working in biotechnology labs use the knowledge and tech niques gained from basic research by scientists, including gene splicing and recombinant DNA, and apply these techniques in prod uct development. Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engi neers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Most do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. For example, they might test packaging for design, integrity of materials, and environmental acceptability; assemble and operate new equipment to develop new products; monitor prod uct quality; or develop new production techniques. Some chemical technicians collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels. Those who focus on basic research might produce compounds through complex organic synthesis. Chemical techni cians within chemical plants are also referred to as process techni cians. They may operate equipment, monitor plant processes and analyze plant materials. Environmental science and protection technicians perform labo ratory and field tests to monitor environmental resources and deter mine the contaminants and sources of pollution. They may collect samples for testing or be involved in abating, controlling, or remediating sources of environmental pollutants. Some are respon sible for waste management operations, control and management of hazardous materials inventory, or general activities involving regu latory compliance. There is a growing emphasis on pollution pre vention activities. Forensic science technicians investigate crimes by collecting and analyzing physical evidence. Often, they specialize in areas such as DNA analysis or firearm examination, performing tests on weap ons or substances, such as fiber, hair, tissue, or body fluids to deter mine significance to the investigation. They also prepare reports to document their findings and the laboratory techniques used. When criminal cases come to trial, forensic science technicians often pro vide testimony, as expert witnesses, on specific laboratory findings by identifying and classifying substances, materials, and other evi dence collected at the crime scene. Forest and conservation technicians compile data on the size, content, and condition of forest land tracts. These workers travel through sections of forest to gather basic information, such as species and population of trees, disease and insect damage, tree seedling mortality, and conditions that may cause fire danger. For est and conservation technicians also train and lead forest and con servation workers in seasonal activities, such as planting tree seedlings, putting out forest fires, and maintaining recreational facilities. Geological andpetroleum technicians measure and record physi cal and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells, using instruments lowered into wells or by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, these technicians collect and examine geological data or test geological samples to determine petroleum and mineral content. Some petroleum technicians, called scouts, collect infor mation about oil and gas well drilling operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts. Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equip ment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists Professional and Related Occupations 237 -1 Environmental science technicians perform laboratory tests to determine the presence or absence of various contaminants. in research. Some also operate remote control equipment to ma nipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radio activity. Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers. Working Conditions Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Most work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occasionally work irregular hours to monitor experiments that can not be completed during regular working hours. Production tech nicians often work in 8-hour shifts around the clock. Others, such as agricultural, forest and conservation, geological and petroleum, and environmental science and protection technicians, perform much of their work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations. Some science technicians may be exposed to hazards from equip ment, chemicals, or toxic materials. Chemical technicians some times work with toxic chemicals or radioactive isotopes, nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation, and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing organisms or radioactive agents. Forensic science technicians often are exposed to human body fluids and firearms. However, these working conditions pose little risk, if proper safety procedures are followed. For forensic science technicians, collecting evidence from crime scenes can be distressing and unpleasant Employment Science technicians held about 198,000jobsin2000. Employment was distributed as follows: Chemical technicians............................................................................ Biological technicians.......................................................................... Environmental science and protection technicians, including health................................................................................. Forest and conservation technicians.................................................. Agricultural and food science technicians...................................... Geological and petroleum technicians ............................................. Forensic science technicians.............................................................. Nuclear technicians............................................................................... 73,000 41,000 27,000 18,000 18,000 10,000 6,400 3,300 Chemical technicians held jobs in a wide range of manufac turing and service industries, but were concentrated in chemical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis manufacturing, where they held over 30,000 jobs. A significant number, 12,000, worked in research and testing firms. About 45 percent of biological technicians also worked in research and test ing firms. Most of the rest of biological technicians worked in drug manufacturing or for Federal, State, or local governments. Significant numbers of environmental science and protection tech nicians also worked for State and local governments and research and testing services. Others worked for engineering and architec tural services and management and public relations firms. Nearly 68 percent of forest and conservation technicians held jobs in Fed eral Government; another 22 percent worked for State govern ments. More than 30 percent of agricultural and food science technicians worked for food processing companies; the rest worked for research and testing firms, State governments, and non-veterinary animal services. More than 47 percent of geological and petroleum technicians worked for oil and gas extraction compa nies, and forensic science technicians worked primarily for State and local governments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for a job as a science technician. Many employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of spe cialized training or an associate degree in applied science or sci ence-related technology. Because employers’ preferences vary, however, some science technicians have a bachelor’s degree in chem istry, biology, or forensic science, or have taken several science and math courses at 4-year colleges. Many technical and community colleges offer associate degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in science and mathematics. A number of 2-year associate degree programs are designed to provide easy transfer to a 4-year college or university, if desired. Technical institutes usually offer technician training, but provide less theory and general education than technical or com munity colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes var ies, although 1-year certificate programs and 2-year associate degree programs are common. About 20 colleges or universities offer bachelor’s degree pro grams in forensic technology, often with an emphasis in a specialty area, such as criminalistics, pathology, jurisprudence, odontology, or toxicology. In contrast to some other science technician posi tions that require only a 2-year degree, a 4-year degree in forensics science is usually necessary to work in the field. Forestry and con servation technicians can choose from 23 associate degree programs accredited by the Society of American Foresters. Some schools offer cooperative-education or internship pro grams, allowing students the opportunity to work at a local com pany or other workplace, while attending classes in alternate terms. Participation in such programs can significantly enhance a student’s employment prospects. Persons interested in careers as science technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate’s or bachelor’s program, should be laboratory oriented, with an emphasis on bench skills. Because computers and computer-interfaced equipment of ten are used in research and development laboratories, technicians should have strong computer skills. Communication skills are also important; technicians often are required to report their findings both through speaking and in writing. Additionally, technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork is com mon. Organizational ability, an eye for detail, and skill in interpret ing scientific results are also important. Prospective science technicians can acquire good career prepa ration through 2-year formal training programs that combine the 238 Occupational Outlook Handbook teaching of scientific principles and theory with practical hands-on application in a laboratory setting with up-to-date equipment. Gradu ates of 4-year bachelor’s degree programs in science who have con siderable experience in laboratory-based courses, have completed internships, or held summer jobs in laboratories, are also well-quali fied for science technician positions and are preferred by some employers. However, those with a bachelor’s degree who accept technician jobs generally cannot find employment that uses their advanced academic education. Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions, under the direct supervision of a scientist or a more experienced technician. Job candidates whose training or educational background encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of labo ratory equipment, including computers and related equipment, usu ally require a short period of on-the-job training. As they gain experience, technicians take on more responsibility and carry out assignments under only general supervision, and some eventually become supervisors. However, technicians employed at universi ties often have their fortunes tied to particular professors; when professors retire or leave, these technicians face uncertain employ ment prospects. Job Outlook Overall employment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Continued growth of scientific and medical research, as well as the development and production of technical products, should stimulate demand for science technicians in many indus tries. In particular, the growing number of agricultural and medicinal products developed from using biotechnology tech niques will increase the need for biological technicians. Also, stronger competition among drug companies and an aging popu lation are expected to contribute to the need for innovative and improved drugs, further spurring demand for biological techni cians. Fastest employment growth of biological technicians should occur in the drug manufacturing industry and research and testing service firms. The chemical and drug industry, the major employers of chemi cal technicians, should face stable demand for new and better phar maceuticals and personal care products. To meet these demands, chemical and drug manufacturing firms are expected to continue to devote money to research and development, either through in-house teams or outside contractors, spurring employment growth of chemi cal technicians. An increasing focus on quality assurance will fur ther stimulate demand for these workers. However, growth will be moderated somewhat by an expected slowdown in overall employ ment in the chemical industry. Overall employment growth of science technicians will also be fueled by demand for environmental technicians to help regulate waste products; to collect air, water, and soil samples for measuring levels of pollutants; to monitor compliance with environmental regu lations; and to clean up contaminated sites. Demand for forest and conservation technicians at the Federal and State government levels will result from a continuing emphasis on sustainability issues, such as environmental protection and re sponsible land management. However, employment growth may be moderated by downsizing in the Federal Government and con tinuing reductions in timber harvesting on Federal lands. Agricultural and food science technicians will be needed to as sist agricultural scientists in biotechnology research as it becomes increasingly important to balance greater agricultural output with protection and preservation of soil, water, and the ecosystem. Jobs Digitizedfor forforensic FRASERscience technicians are expected to grow slowly. Crime https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis scene technicians who work for State Public Safety Departments may experience favorable employment prospects if the number of qualified applicants remains low. Job opportunities are expected to be best for qualified graduates of science technician training programs or applied science technology programs who are well-trained on equipment used in industrial and government laboratories and production facilities. As the instrumentation and techniques used in industrial research, development, and production become increasingly more complex, employers are seeking well-trained individuals with highly devel oped technical and communication skills. Along with opportunities created by growth, many job openings should arise from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. During periods of economic re cession, layoffs of science technicians may occur. Earnings Median hourly earnings of science technicians in 2000 were as follows: Nuclear technicians............................................................................... Forensic science technicians............................................................... Geological and petroleum technicians............................................. Chemical technicians............................................................................ Environmental science and protection technicians, including health................................................................................. Biological technicians.......................................................................... Forest and conservation technicians.................................................. Agricultural and food science technicians ...................................... $28.44 18.04 17.55 17.05 16.26 15.16 14.22 13.02 In the Federal Government in 2001, science technicians started at $17,483, $19,453, or $22,251, depending on education and experi ence. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The aver age annual salary for biological science technicians in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions employed by the Federal Gov ernment in 2001 was $32,753; for physical science technicians, $42,657; for geodetic technicians, $53,143; for hydrologic techni cians, $39,518; and for meteorologic technicians, $48,630. Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles at a level usually taught in 2-year associate degree programs include engineering tech nicians, broadcast technicians and sound engineering technicians and radio operators, drafters, and various health technologists and technicians, including clinical laboratory technologists and techni cians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and radiologic technolo gists and technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: ► American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Publications, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.acs.org For career information and a list of undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs in forensics sciences, contact: >• American Academy of Forensic Sciences, P.O. BOX 669, Colorado Springs, CO, 80901. Internet: http://www.aafs.org For information on forestry technicians and lists of schools of fering education in forestry, send a self-addressed, stamped busi ness envelope to: >■ Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.safnet.org Professional and Related Occupations 239 Social Scientists and Related Occupations Economists and Market and Survey Researchers (0**NET 19-3011.00, 19-3021.00, 19-3022.00) Significant Points • • Demand for qualified market and survey researchers should be strong. Candidates who hold an advanced degree will have the best employment prospects and advancement opportunities. Nature of the Work Economists. Economists study how society distributes scarce re sources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to pro duce goods and services. They conduct research, collect and analyze data, monitor economic trends, and develop forecasts. They research issues such as energy costs, inflation, interest rates, imports, or employment levels. Most economists are concerned with practical applications of economic policy. They use their understanding of economic rela tionships to advise businesses and other organizations, including insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry and trade associations, labor unions, and government agencies. Economists use mathematical models to help predict answers to questions such as the nature and length of business cycles, the effects of a specific rate of inflation on the economy, or the effects of tax legislation on unemployment levels. Economists devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. For example, sampling techniques may be used to conduct a survey, and various mathematical modeling techniques may be used to develop forecasts. Preparing reports, including tables and charts, on research results is an important part of an economist’s job. Presenting economic and statistical concepts in a clear and meaningful way is particularly important for economists whose re search is directed toward making policies for an organization. Economists who work for government agencies may assess eco nomic conditions in the United States or abroad, in order to esti mate the economic effects of specific changes in legislation or public policy. They may study areas such as how the dollar’s fluctuation against foreign currencies affects import and export levels. The majority of government economists work in the area of agriculture, labor, or quantitative analysis; however, economists work in almost every area of government. For example, economists in the U.S. Department of Commerce study production, distribution, and con sumption of commodities produced overseas, while economists employed with the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics analyze data on the domestic economy such as prices, wages, employment, produc tivity, and safety and health. An economist working in State or local government might analyze data on the growth of school-aged populations, prison growth, and employment and unemployment rates, in order to project future spending needs. Market Research Analysts. Market, or marketing, research ana lysts are concerned with the potential sales of a product or service. They analyze statistical data on past sales to predict future sales. They gather data on competitors and analyze prices, sales, and meth Digitizedods for of FRASER marketing and distribution. Like economists, market research https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis analysts devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. They often design telephone, personal, or mail interview sur veys to assess consumer preferences. Trained interviewers, under the market research analyst’s direction, usually conduct the surveys. After compiling the data, market research analysts evaluate it and make recommendations to their client or employer based upon their findings. They provide a company’s management with infor mation needed to make decisions on the promotion, distribution, design, and pricing of products or services. The information may also be used to determine the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or otherwise diversifying the company’s operations. Analysts may conduct opinion research to determine public attitudes on various issues, which may help politi cal or business leaders and others assess public support for their electoral prospects or advertising policies. Survey Researchers. Survey researchers design and conduct surveys. They use surveys to collect information that is used for research, making fiscal or policy decisions, and measuring policy effectiveness, for example. As with market research analysts, sur vey researchers may use a variety of mediums to conduct surveys, such as the Internet, personal or telephone interviews, or mail ques tionnaires. They also may supervise interviewers who conduct sur veys in person or over the telephone. Survey researchers design surveys in many different formats, depending upon the scope of research and method of collection. Interview surveys, for example, are common because they can in crease survey participation rates. Survey researchers may consult with economists, statisticians, market research analysts, or other data users in order to design surveys. They also may present survey results to clients. Working Conditions Economists and market and survey researchers have structured work schedules. They often work alone, writing reports, preparing sta tistical charts, and using computers, but they also may be an inte gral part of a research team. Most work under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules, which may require overtime. Their routine MPMi Preparing reports, including tables and charts, on research results is an important part ofthejobfor economists and market and survey researchers. 240 Occupational Outlook Handbook may be interrupted by special requests for data, as well as by the need to attend meetings or conferences. Frequent travel may be necessary. Employment Economists and market and survey researchers held about 134,000 jobs in 2000. Private industry provided about 9 out of 10 jobs for salaried workers, particularly economic and marketing research firms, management consulting firms, banks, securities and commodi ties brokers, and computer and data processing companies. A wide range of government agencies provided the remaining jobs, prima rily for economists. The U.S. Departments of Labor, Agriculture, and Commerce are the largest Federal employers of economists. A number of economists and market and survey researchers combine a full-time job in government, academia, or business with part-time or consulting work in another setting. Employment of economists and market and survey researchers is concentrated in large cities. Some work abroad for companies with major international operations, for U.S. Government agencies, and for international organizations like the World Bank and the United Nations. Besides the jobs described above, many economists and market and survey researchers held faculty positions in colleges and uni versities. Economics and marketing faculties have flexible work schedules, and may divide their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administration. (See the statement on teachers— postsecondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate education is required for many private sector economist and market and survey research jobs, and for advancement to more responsible positions. Economics includes many specialties at the graduate level, such as advanced economic theory, econometrics, international economics, and labor economics. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are inter ested. Undergraduate economics majors can choose from a variety of courses, ranging from microeconomics, macroeconomics, and econometrics, to more philosophical courses, such as the history of economic thought. In the Federal Government, candidates for entry-level econo mist positions must have a bachelor’s degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. Market and survey researchers may earn advanced degrees in economics, business administration, marketing, statistics, or some closely related discipline. Some schools help graduate students find internships or part-time employment in government agencies, eco nomic consulting firms, financial institutions, or marketing research firms prior to graduation. In addition to courses in business, marketing, and consumer be havior, marketing majors should take other liberal arts and social science courses, including economics, psychology, English, and sociology. Because of the importance of quantitative skills to econo mists and market and survey researchers, courses in mathematics, statistics, econometrics, sampling theory and survey design, and computer science are extremely helpful. Whether working in government, industry, research organizations, marketing, or consulting firms, economists and market and survey researchers with bachelor degrees usually qualify for most entrylevel positions as a research assistant, administrative or manage ment trainee, marketing interviewer, or any of a number of professional sales jobs. A master’s degree usually is required to qualify for more responsible research and administrative positions. businesses, research and consulting firms, and government DigitizedMany for FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis agencies seek individuals who have strong computer and quantita tive skills and can perform complex research. A Ph.D. is necessary for top economist or marketing positions in many organizations. Many corporation and government executives have a strong back ground in economics or marketing. A master’s degree is usually the minimum requirement for a job as an instructor in junior and community colleges. In most colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. is necessary for appointment as an instructor. A Ph.D. and extensive publications in academic journals are required for a professorship, tenure, and promotion. Aspiring economists and market and survey researchers should gain experience gathering and analyzing data, conducting interviews or surveys, and writing reports on their findings while in college. This experience can prove invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in the field, since much of their work, in the beginning, may center on these duties. With experience, economists and mar ket and survey researchers eventually are assigned their own re search projects. Those considering careers as economists or market and survey researchers should be able to pay attention to details because much time is spent on precise data analysis. Patience and persistence are necessary qualities since economists and market and survey research ers must spend long hours on independent study and problem solv ing. At the same time, they must work well with others, especially market and survey researchers, who often oversee interviews for a wide variety of individuals. Economists and market and survey researchers must be able to present their findings, both orally and in writing, in a clear, concise manner. Job Outlook Employment of economists and market and survey researchers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Many job openings are likely to result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Employment growth of economists is expected to be as fast as average over the projection period, while growth for market research analysts and survey re searchers is expected to be faster than average. Opportunities for economists should be best in private industry, especially in research, testing, and consulting firms, as more com panies contract out for economic research services. The growing complexity of the global economy, competition, and increased reli ance on quantitative methods for analyzing the current value of fu ture funds, business trends, sales, and purchasing should spur demand for economists. The growing need for economic analyses in virtu ally every industry should result in additional jobs for economists. Employment of economists in the Federal Government should de cline more slowly than other occupations in the Federal workforce. Slow employment growth is expected among economists in State and local government. Candidates who meet State certification requirements may be come high school economics teachers. The demand for secondary school economics teachers is expected to grow, as economics be comes an increasingly important and popular course. (See the state ment on teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Demand for qualified market research analysts should be healthy because of an increasingly competitive economy. Marketing re search provides organizations valuable feedback from purchasers, allowing companies to evaluate consumer satisfaction and more effectively plan for the future. As companies seek to expand their market and consumers become better informed, the need for mar keting professionals will increase. Professional and Related Occupations 241 Opportunities for market research analysts with graduate degrees should be good in a wide range of employment settings, particu larly in marketing research firms, as companies find it more profit able to contract out for marketing research services rather than support their own marketing department. Other organizations, in cluding financial services organizations, healthcare institutions, ad vertising firms, manufacturing firms producing consumer goods, and insurance companies may offer job opportunities for market research analysts. Opportunities for survey researchers should be strong as the de mand for market and opinion research increase. Employment op portunities will be especially favorable in commercial market and opinion research as an increasingly competitive economy requires businesses to more effectively and efficiently allocate advertising funds. An advanced degree coupled with a strong background in eco nomic theory, mathematics, statistics, and econometrics provides the basis for acquiring any specialty within the economics and mar ket and survey research field. Those skilled in quantitative tech niques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting, coupled with good communications skills, should have the best job opportunities. Bachelor’s degree holders may face competition for the lim ited number of positions for which they qualify. They will qualify for a number of other positions, however, where they can take advantage of their economic knowledge in conducting research, developing surveys, or analyzing data. Many graduates with bachelor’s degrees will find good jobs in industry and business as management or sales trainees, or administrative assistants. Bachelor’s degree holders with good quantitative skills and a strong background in mathematics, statistics, survey design, and com puter science also may be hired by private firms as research assis tants or interviewers. Ph.D. degree holders in economics and marketing should have good opportunities in most areas such as industry and consulting firms. However, Ph.D. holders are likely to face keen competition for tenured teaching positions in colleges and universities. Earnings Median annual earnings of economists were $64,830 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,370 and $87,890. The low est 10 percent earned less than $35,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $114,580. The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry-level positions. The entrance sal ary for economists having a bachelor’s degree was about $21,900 a year in 2001; however, those with superior academic records could begin at $27,200. Those having a master’s degree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of $33,300. Those with a Ph.D. could begin at $40,200, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $48,200. Starting salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay was higher. The average annual salary for economists employed by the Federal Government was $74,090 a year in 2001. Median annual earnings of market research analysts in 2000 were $51,190. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,030 and $71,660. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,570, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $96,360. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of market re search analysts in 2000 were as follows: Computer and data processing services............................................ Management and public relations...................................................... Digitized Research for FRASER and testing services............................................................. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis $61,320 44,580 43,660 Median annual earnings of survey researchers in 2000 were $26,200. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,330 and $47,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,050, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $71,790. Median annual earn ings of survey researchers in 2000 were $52,470 in computer and data processing services and $ 18,780 in research and testing services. Related Occupations Economists are concerned with understanding and interpreting fi nancial matters, among other subjects. Other jobs in this area in clude actuaries; budget analysts; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; financial managers; insurance underwriters; loan counselors and officers; and purchasing managers, buyers, and pur chasing agents. Market research analysts do research to find out how well the market receives products or services. This may include planning, implementation, and analysis of surveys to determine people’s needs and preferences. Other jobs using these skills include psycholo gists, sociologists, and urban and regional planners. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in business economics, contact: >■ National Association for Business Economics, 1233 20th St. NW., Suite 505, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nabe.com For information about careers and salaries in market and survey research, contact: ► Marketing Research Association, 1344 Silas Deane Hwy., Suite 306, Rocky Hill, CT 06067-0230. Internet: http://www.mra-net.org > Council of American Survey Research Organizations, 3 Upper Devon, Port Jefferson, NY 11777. Internet: http://www.casro.org Information on obtaining a position as an economist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877 8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Psychologists (0**NET 19-3031.01, 19-3031.02, 19-3031.03, 19-3032.00) Significant Points • • • More than 4 out of 10 psychologists are self-employed, about 6 times the average for professional workers. A doctoral degree usually is required for employment as a licensed clinical or counseling psychologist. Opportunities for employment in psychology for those with only a bachelor’s degree are extremely limited. Nature of the Work Psychologists study the human mind and human behavior. Research psychologists investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or so cial aspects of human behavior. Psychologists in applied fields pro vide mental health care in hospitals, clinics, schools, or private settings. Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their validity. Research methods vary depend ing on the topic under study. Psychologists sometimes gather infor mation through controlled laboratory experiments or by 242 Occupational Outlook Handbook administering personality, performance, aptitude, and intelligence tests. Other methods include observation, interviews, questionnaires, clinical studies, and surveys. Psychologists apply their knowledge to a wide range of endeav ors, including health and human services, management, education, law, and sports. In addition to a variety of work settings, psycholo gists usually specialize in one of a number of different areas. Clinical psychologists—who constitute the largest specialty— usually work in counseling centers, independent or group practices, hospitals, or clinics. They help mentally and emotionally disturbed clients adjust to life and may help medical and surgical patients deal with illnesses or injuries. Some work in physical rehabilita tion settings, treating patients with spinal cord injuries, chronic pain or illness, stroke, arthritis, and neurologic conditions. Others help people deal with times of personal crisis, such as divorce or the death of a loved one. Clinical psychologists often interview patients and give diag nostic tests. They may provide individual, family, or group psycho therapy, and design and implement behavior modification programs. Some clinical psychologists collaborate with physicians and other specialists to develop and implement treatment and intervention programs that patients can understand and comply with. Other clini cal psychologists work in universities and medical schools, where they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health and behavioral medicine services. Some administer community mental health programs. Areas of specialization within clinical psychology include health psychology, neuropsychology, and geropsychology. Health psy chologists promote good health through health maintenance coun seling programs designed to help people achieve goals such as to stop smoking or lose weight. Neuropsychologists study the rela tion between the brain and behavior. They often work in stroke and head injury programs. Geropsychologists deal with the special prob lems faced by the elderly. The emergence and growth of these spe cialties reflects the increasing participation of psychologists in providing direct services to special patient populations. Counseling psychologists use various techniques, including in terviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal with prob lems of everyday living. They work in settings such as university counseling centers, hospitals, and individual or group practices. (Also see the statements on counselors and social workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) School psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools or school district offices to resolve students’ learning and behavior problems. They collaborate with teachers, parents, and school per sonnel to improve classroom management strategies or parenting skills, counter substance abuse, work with students with disabili ties or gifted and talented students, and improve teaching and learn ing strategies. They may evaluate the effectiveness of academic programs, behavior management procedures, and other services pro vided in the school setting. Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists apply psychologi cal principles and research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of worklife. They also are involved in research on management and marketing problems. They conduct applicant screening, training and development, coun seling, and organizational development and analysis. An industrial psychologist might work with management to reorganize the work setting to improve productivity or quality of life in the workplace. They frequently act as consultants, brought in by management in order to solve a particular problem. Developmental psychologists study the physiological, cognitive, and social development that takes place throughout life. Some spe Digitizedcialize for FRASER in behavior during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine working conditions. changes that occur during maturity or old age. They also may study developmental disabilities and their effects. Increasingly, research is developing ways to help elderly people stay as independent as possible. Social psychologists examine people’s interactions with others and with the social environment. They work in organizational con sultation, marketing research, systems design, or other applied psy chology fields. Prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and perception. Experimental or research psychologists work in university and private research centers and in business, nonprofit, and governmental organizations. They study behavior processes with human beings and animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent areas of study in experimental research include motivation, thinking, at tention, learning and memory, sensory and perceptual processes, effects of substance abuse, and genetic and neurological factors af fecting behavior. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of employment determine work ing conditions. Clinical, school, and counseling psychologists in private practice have their own offices and set their own hours. How ever, they often offer evening and weekend hours to accommodate their clients. Those employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health facilities may work shifts including evenings and weekends, while those who work in schools and clinics generally work regular hours. Psychologists employed as faculty by colleges and universities divide their time between teaching and research and also may have administrative responsibilities. Many have part-time consulting practices. Most psychologists in government and industry have structured schedules. Increasingly, many work as part of a team and consult with other psychologists and professionals. Many psychologists experience pressures due to deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine may be interrupted frequently. Travel usually is required to attend conferences or conduct research. Employment Psychologists held about 182,000 jobs in 2000. Educational insti tutions employed about 4 out of 10 salaried psychologists in posi tions other than teaching, such as counseling, testing, research, and administration. Three out of 10 were employed in health services, Professional and Related Occupations 243 primarily in hospitals, mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities. Government agencies at the Federal, State, and local levels employed more than 1 in 10 in hospitals, clinics, correctional facilities, and other settings. The U.S. Departments of Veterans Affairs and of Defense employ a majority of the psychologists working for Federal agencies. Some psychologists work in social service organizations, research orga nizations, management consulting firms, marketing research firms, and other businesses. After several years of experience, some psychologists—usually those with doctoral degrees—enter private practice or set up pri vate research or consulting firms. More than 4 out of 10 psycholo gists were self-employed. In addition to the jobs described above, many psychologists held faculty positions at colleges and universities, and as high school psychology teachers. (See the statements on teachers— postsecondary and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree is usually required for employment as a licensed clinical or counseling psychologist. Psychologists with a Ph.D. qualify for a wide range of teaching, research, clinical, and coun seling positions in universities, healthcare services, elementary and secondary schools, private industry, and government. Psycholo gists with a Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree usually work in clinical positions or in private practices. An Educational Specialist (Ed.S.) degree will qualify an individual to work as a school psy chologist. Persons with a master’s degree in psychology may work as industrial-organizational psychologists. They also may work as psychological assistants, under the supervision of doctoral-level psychologists, and conduct research or psychological evaluations. A bachelor’s degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist psy chologists and other professionals in community mental health cen ters, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional programs. They may work as research or administrative assistants or become sales or management trainees in business. Some work as techni cians in related fields such as marketing research. Clinical psychologists usually must have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and served an internship. Vocational and guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in coun seling and 1 year of counseling experience. School psychology requires, a master’s degree followed by a 1-year internship. In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semes ter hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for en try-level positions. However, competition for these jobs is keen because this is one of the few areas in which one can work as a psychologist without an advanced degree. A doctoral degree usually requires 5 to 7 years of graduate study. The Ph.D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original re search. Courses in quantitative research methods, which include the use of computer-based analysis, are an integral part of graduate study and are necessary to complete the dissertation. The Psy.D. may be based on practical work and examinations rather than a dis sertation. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral degree usually include at least a 1-year internship. A master’s degree in psychology requires at least 2 years of full time graduate study. Requirements usually include practical expe rience in an applied setting and a master’s thesis based on an original research project. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psy chology. Others prefer only course work in basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences; and statis Digitizedtics for and FRASER mathematics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of patient care—including clinical, counseling, and school psy chologists—must meet certification or licensing requirements in all States and the District of Columbia. Licensing laws vary by State and by type of position and require licensed or certified psycholo gists to limit their practice to areas in which they have developed professional competence through training and experience. Clinical and counseling psychologists usually require a doctorate in psy chology, completion of an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years of professional experience. In addition, all States require that appli cants pass an examination. Most State boards administer a stan dardized test and many supplement that with additional oral or essay questions. Most States certify those with a master’s degree as school psychologists after completion of an internship. Some States re quire continuing education for license renewal. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently ac credits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, with the assistance of the National Association of School Psychologists, also is involved in the accreditation of advanced degree programs in school psychology. The APA also accredits institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling psychology. The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) rec ognizes professional achievement by awarding certification, prima rily in clinical psychology, clinical neuropsychology, counseling, forensic, industrial-organizational, and school psychology. Candi dates for ABPP certification need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, professional endorsements, and a passing grade on an examination. Aspiring psychologists who are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, compassion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important qualities for clinical work and coun seling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Excellent communications skills are necessary to succeed in research. Patience and persever ance are vital qualities because results from psychological treat ment of patients or from research usually take a long time. Job Outlook Employment of psychologists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Employment in healthcare will grow fastest in outpatient mental health and sub stance abuse treatment clinics. Numerous job opportunities will also arise in schools, public and private social service agencies, and management consulting services. Companies will use psycholo gists’ expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to provide marketing evaluation and statistical analysis. The increase in em ployee assistance programs, which offer employees help with per sonal problems, also should spur job growth. Opportunities for people holding doctorates from leading uni versities in areas with an applied emphasis, such as counseling, health, and educational psychology, should be good. Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research methods and com puter science may have a competitive edge over applicants without this background. Graduates with a master’s degree in psychology qualify for po sitions in school and industrial-organizational psychology. Gradu ates of master’s degree programs in school psychology should have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to increase student counseling and mental health services. Masters’ degree holders with several years of business and industry experience can obtain jobs in consulting and marketing research. Other master’s degree 244 Occupational Outlook Handbook holders may find jobs as psychological assistants or counselors pro viding mental health services under the direct supervision of a li censed psychologist. Still others may find jobs involving research and data collection and analysis in universities, government, or pri vate companies. Very few opportunities directly related to psychology will exist for bachelor’s degree holders. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation centers, or in other jobs involving data collection and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements may be come high school psychology teachers. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried psychologists were $48,596 in 2000. Median annual earnings were $48,320 for clinical, counsel ing, and school psychologists and $66,880 for industrial-organiza tional psychologists. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of psychologists in 2000 were as follows: Hospitals...................................................................................... $52,460 Elementary and secondary schools.............................................. 51,310 Offices of other health practitioners............................................ 50,990 Offices and clinics of medical doctors........................................ 47,890 Individual and family services..................................................... 35,720 The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry-level positions. In general, the starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor s degree was about $21,900 in 2001; those with superior academic records could begin at $27,200. Psychologists with a master’s degree and 1 year of experience could start at $33,300. Psychologists having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $40,200, and some individuals with experience could start at $48,200. Begin ning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average an nual salary for psychologists in the Federal Government was $72,830 in 2001. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups with special needs. Others who do this kind of work include clergy, counselors, physi cians and surgeons, social workers, sociologists, and special educa tion teachers. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers, educational requirements, financial as sistance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact: >• American Psychological Association, Research Office and Education in Psychology and Accreditation Offices, 750 1st St. NE., Washington, DC 20002. Internet: http://www.apa.org For information on careers, educational requirements, certifica tion, and licensing of school psychologists, contact: >- National Association of School Psychologists, 4030 East West Hwy., Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.nasponline.org Information about State licensing requirements is available from: > Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, P.O. Box241245, Montgomery, AL 36124-1245. Internet: http://www.asppb.org Information on obtaining a position as a psychologist with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Man agement through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first num ber is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is avail able from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Urban and Regional Planners (0*NET 19-3051.00) • • Significant Points Most entry-level jobs require a master’s degree, although a bachelor’s degree and related work experience is sufficient for some positions. Most new jobs will arise in more affluent, rapidly growing urban and suburban communities. Nature of the Work Planners develop long- and short-term land use plans to provide for growth and revitalization of urban, suburban, and rural communi ties, while helping local officials make decisions concerning so cial, economic, and environmental problems. Because local governments employ the majority of urban and regional planners, they often are referred to as community, regional, or city planners. Planners promote the best use of a community’s land and re sources for residential, commercial, institutional, and recreational purposes. Planners may be involved in various other activities, in cluding decisions on alternative public transportation system plans, resource development, and protection of ecologically sensitive re gions. They address issues such as traffic congestion, air pollution, and the effect of growth and change on a community. They may formulate plans relating to the construction of new school build ings, public housing, or other infrastructure. Some planners are involved in environmental issues ranging from pollution control to wetland preservation, forest conservation, or the location of new landfills. Planners also may be involved with drafting legislation on environmental, social, and economic issues, such as sheltering the homeless, planning a new park, or meeting the demand for new correctional facilities. Planners examine proposed community facilities such as schools to be sure these facilities will meet the changing demands placed upon them over time. They keep abreast of economic and legal issues involved in zoning codes, building codes, and environmen tal regulations. They ensure that builders and developers follow these codes and regulations. Planners also deal with land use is sues created by population movements. For example, as suburban growth and economic development create more new jobs outside cities, the need for public transportation that enables workers to get to these jobs increases. In response, planners develop transporta tion models for possible implementation and explain their details to planning boards and the general public. Before preparing plans for community development, planners re port on the current use of land for residential, business, and commu nity purposes. These reports include information on the location and capacity of streets, highways, airports, water and sewer lines, schools, libraries, and cultural and recreational sites. They also pro vide data on the types of industries in the community, characteristics of the population, and employment and economic trends. With this information, along with input from citizens’ advisory committees, planners design the layout of land uses lor buildings and other facili ties such as subway lines and stations. Planners prepare reports show ing how their programs can be carried out and what they will cost. Planners use computers to record and analyze information and to prepare reports and recommendations for government executives and others. Computer databases, spreadsheets, and analytical tech niques are widely used to project program costs and forecast future trends in employment, housing, transportation, or population. Com puterized geographic information systems enable planners to map Professional and Related Occupations 245 Urban and regional planners use computers to record and analyze information and to prepare reports and recommendations. land areas and overlay maps with geographic variables, such as population density, as well as to combine and manipulate geo graphic information to produce alternative plans for land use or development. Urban and regional planners often confer with land developers, civic leaders, and public officials. They may function as media tors in community disputes and present alternatives acceptable to opposing parties. Planners may prepare material for community relations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before leg islative committees and elected officials to explain and defend their proposals. In large organizations, planners usually specialize in a single area such as transportation, demography, housing, historic preser vation, urban design, environmental and regulatory issues, or eco nomic development. In small organizations, planners must be able to do various kinds of planning. Working Conditions Urban and regional planners often are required to travel to inspect the features of land under consideration for development or regula tion, including its current use and the types of structures on it. Some local government planners involved in site development inspections spend most of their time in the field. Although most planners have a scheduled 40-hour workweek, they frequently attend evening or weekend meetings or public hearings with citizens’ groups. Plan ners may experience the pressure of deadlines and tight work sched ules, as well as political pressure generated by interest groups affected by land use proposals. Employment Urban and regional planners held about 30,000 jobs in 2000. About 7 out of 10 were employed by local governments. Companies in volved with research and testing or management and public rela tions employ an increasing proportion of planners in the private sector. Others are employed in State agencies dealing with hous ing, transportation, or environmental protection, and a small num ber work for the Federal Government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For jobs as urban and regional planners, employers prefer workers who have advanced training. Most entry-level jobs in Federal, State, and local government agencies require a master’s degree in urban Digitized FRASER or for regional planning, urban design, geography, or a similar course https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of study. A bachelor’s degree from an accredited planning program, coupled with a master’s degree in architecture, landscape architec ture, or civil engineering, is good preparation for entry-level plan ning jobs in areas such as urban design, transportation, or the environment. A master’s degree from an accredited planning pro gram provides the best training for a number of planning fields. Although graduates from one of the limited number of accredited bachelor’s degree programs qualify for many entry-level positions, their advancement opportunities often are limited unless they ac quire an advanced degree. Courses in related disciplines such as architecture, law, earth sciences, demography, economics, finance, health administration, geographic information systems, and management are highly rec ommended. In addition, familiarity with computer models and sta tistical techniques is necessary. In 2001, about 80 colleges and universities offered an accred ited master’s degree program, and about 10 offered an accredited bachelor’s degree program in urban or regional planning. These programs are accredited by the Planning Accreditation Board, which consists of representatives of the American Institute of Certified Planners, the American Planning Association, and the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning. Most graduate programs in plan ning require a minimum of 2 years. Specializations most commonly offered by planning schools are environmental planning, land use and comprehensive planning, eco nomic development, housing, historic preservation, and social plan ning. Other popular offerings include community development, transportation, and urban design. Graduate students spend consid erable time in studios, workshops, and laboratory courses learning to analyze and solve planning problems. They often are required to work in a planning office part time or during the summer. Local government planning offices frequently offer students internships, providing experience that proves invaluable in obtaining a full-time planning position after graduation. The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP), a profes sional institute within the American Planning Association (APA), grants certification to individuals who have the appropriate combi nation of education and professional experience and pass an ex amination. Certification may be helpful for promotion. Planners must be able to think in terms of spatial relationships and visualize the effects of their plans and designs. They should be flexible and able to reconcile different viewpoints and to make con structive policy recommendations. The ability to communicate ef fectively, both orally and in writing, is necessary for anyone interested in this field. After a few years of experience, planners may advance to as signments requiring a high degree of independent judgment, such as designing the physical layout of a large development or recom mending policy and budget options. Some public sector planners are promoted to community planning director and spend a great deal of time meeting with officials, speaking to civic groups, and supervising a staff. Further advancement occurs through a transfer to a larger jurisdiction with more complex problems and greater responsibilities, or into related occupations, such as director of com munity or economic development. Job Outlook Employment of urban and regional planners is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Em ployment growth will be driven by the need for State and local gov ernments to provide public services such as regulation of commercial development, the environment, transportation, housing, and land use and development. Nongovernmental initiatives dealing with historic preservation and redevelopment will provide additional 246 Occupational Outlook Handbook openings. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace experienced planners who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Most planners work for local governments with limited resources and many demands for services. When communities need to cut expenditures, planning services may be cut before more basic ser vices such as police or education. As a result, the number of open ings in private industry for consulting positions is expected to grow more rapidly than the number of openings in government. Most new jobs for urban and regional planners will arise in more affluent, rapidly expanding communities. Local governments need planners to address an array of problems associated with popula tion growth. For example, new housing developments require roads, sewer systems, fire stations, schools, libraries, and recreation fa cilities that must be planned while considering budgetary constraints. Small town chambers of commerce, economic development authori ties, and tourism bureaus may hire planners, preferring candidates with some background in marketing and public relations. Earnings Median annual earnings of urban and regional planners were $46,500 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,510 and $57,900. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,890, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $72,090. Median annual earn ings in local government, the industry employing the largest num bers of urban and regional planners, were $45,300. Related Occupations Urban and regional planners develop plans for the growth of urban, suburban, and rural communities. Others whose work is similar include architects, civil engineers, environmental engineers, land scape architects, and geographers. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers, salaries, and certification in urban and re gional planning is available from: >- American Planning Association, Education Division, 122 South Michigan Ave., Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60603-6107. Internet: http ://wwvv.planning.org Social Scientists, Other____ _____ (0**NET 19-3041.00, 19-3091.01, 19-3091.02, 19-3092.00, 19-3093.00, 19-3094.00) Significant Points • • Educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of all occupations. Job opportunities are expected to be best in social service agencies, research and testing services, and management consulting firms. Nature of the Work The major social science occupations covered in this statement include anthropologists, archaeologists, geographers, historians, political sci entists, and sociologists. (Economists, psychologists, and urban and regional planners are covered elsewhere in the Handbook.) Social scientists study all aspects of society—from past events and achievements to human behavior and relationships between groups. Their research provides insights that help us understand different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, and respond to change. Through their studies and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis analyses, social scientists suggest solutions to social, business, per sonal, governmental, and environmental problems. Research is a major activity for many social scientists. They use various methods to assemble facts and construct theories. Applied research usually is designed to produce information that will en able people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively. Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Information collection takes many forms including living and working among the population being studied; field investigations, the analysis of historical records and documents; experiments with human or animal subjects in a labo ratory; administration of standardized tests and questionnaires; and preparation and interpretation of maps and computer graphics. The work of the major specialties in social science—other than psy chologists, economists, and urban and regional planners—varies greatly, although, specialists in one field may find that their research overlaps work being conducted in another discipline. Anthropologists study the origin and the physical, social, and cultural development and behavior of humans. They may study the way of life, archaeological remains, language, or physical charac teristics of people in various parts of the world. Some compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cultures. Anthro pologists usually concentrate in sociocultural anthropology, archae ology, linguistics, or biological-physical anthropology. Sociocultural anthropologists study customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in settings that vary from unindustrialized societies to modem urban centers. Archaeologists recover and examine material evidence, such as mins, tools, and pottery remaining from past human cultures in or der to determine the history, customs, and living habits of earlier civilizations. Linguistic anthropologists study the role and changes over time of language in various cultures. Biological-physical an thropologists study the evolution of the human body, look for the earliest evidences of human life, and analyze how culture and biol ogy influence one another. Most anthropologists specialize in one particular region of the world. Geographers analyze distributions of physical and cultural phe nomena on local, regional, continental, and global scales. Economic geographers study the distribution of resources and economic ac tivities. Political geographers are concerned with the relationship of geography to political phenomena, whereas cultural geographers study the geography of cultural phenomena. Physical geographers study variations in climate, vegetation, soil, and landforms, and their implications for human activity. Urban and transportation geogra phers study cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geogra phers study the physical, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of regions, ranging in size from a congressional dis trict to entire continents. Medical geographers study health care delivery systems, epidemiology (the study of the causes and control of epidemics), and the effect of the environment on health. (Some occupational classification systems include geographers under physi cal scientists rather than social scientists.) Historians research, analyze, and interpret the past. They use many sources of information in their research, including govern ment and institutional records, newspapers and other periodicals, photographs, interviews, films, and unpublished manuscripts such as personal diaries and letters. Historians usually specialize in a country or region; a particular time period; or a particular field, such as social, intellectual, cultural, political, or diplomatic history. Biographers collect detailed information on individuals. Other his torians help study and preserve archival materials, artifacts, and his toric buildings and sites. Political scientists study the origin, development, and operation of political systems and public policy. They conduct research on a Professional and Related Occupations 247 wide range of subjects such as relations between the United States and other countries, the institutions and political life of nations, the politics of small towns or a major metropolis, or the decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. Studying topics such as public opinion, political decision-making, ideology, and public policy, they ana lyze the structure and operation of governments as well as various political entities. Depending on the topic, a political scientist might conduct a public opinion survey, analyze election results, analyze public documents, or interview public officials. Sociologists study society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions people form, as well as various so cial, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the behavior and interaction of groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual mem bers. They are concerned with the characteristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s daily life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, adminis trators, and others interested in resolving social problems and for mulating public policy. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as so cial organization, stratification, and mobility; racial and ethnic re lations; education; family; social psychology; urban, rural, political, and comparative sociology; sex roles and relations; demography; gerontology; criminology; or sociological practice. Research is a major activity for many social scientists. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most social scientists have regular hours. Generally working be hind a desk, either alone or in collaboration with other social scien tists, they read and write research reports. Many experience the pressures of writing and publishing articles, deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes they must work overtime, for which they usually are not reimbursed. Social scientists often work as an inte gral part of a research team, where good communications skills are important. Travel may be necessary to collect information or attend meetings. Social scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures, climates, and languages. Some social scientists do fieldwork. For example, anthropolo gists, archaeologists, and geographers may travel to remote areas, live among the people they study, learn their languages, and stay for long periods at the site of their investigations. They may work un der rugged conditions, and their work may involve strenuous physi cal exertion. Social scientists employed by colleges and universities usually have flexible work schedules, often dividing their time among teach ing, research and writing, consulting, or administrative responsi bilities. Employment Social scientists held about 15,000 jobs in 2000. Many worked as researchers, administrators, and counselors for a wide range of em ployers, including Federal, State, and local governments, educa tional institutions, social service agencies, research and testing services, and management consulting firms. Other employers in clude international organizations, associations, museums, and his torical societies. Many additional individuals with training in a social science dis cipline teach in colleges and universities, and in secondary and el ementary schools. (For more information, see teachers— postsecondary and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) The propor tion of social scientists that teach varies by specialty—for example, the academic world usually is a more important source of jobs for graduates in history than for graduates in the other fields of study. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of all occupations. The Ph.D. or equivalent degree is a minimum re quirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is im portant for advancement to many top-level nonacademic research and administrative posts. Graduates with master’s degrees in ap plied specialties usually have better professional opportunities out side of colleges and universities, although the situation varies by field. Graduates with a master’s degree in a social science may qualify for teaching positions in community colleges. Bachelor’s degree holders have limited opportunities and in most social sci ence occupations do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor s degree does, however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of entry-level jobs, such as research assis tant, administrative aide, or management or sales trainee. With the addition of sufficient education courses, social science graduates also can qualify for teaching positions in secondary and elementary schools. Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for many so cial scientists. Mathematical and quantitative research methods in creasingly are used in geography, political science, and other fields. The ability to use computers for research purposes is mandatory in most disciplines. Depending on their jobs, social scientists may need a wide range of personal characteristics. Because they constantly seek new 248 Occupational Outlook Handbook information about people, things, and ideas, intellectual curiosity and creativity are fundamental personal traits. The ability to think logically and methodically is important to a political scientist com paring, for example, the merits of various forms of government. Objectivity, open-mindedness, and systematic work habits are im portant in all kinds of social science research. Perseverance is es sential for an anthropologist, who might spend years accumulating artifacts from an ancient civilization. Excellent written and oral communication skills are essential for all these professionals. Job Outlook Overall employment of social scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. Prospects are best for those with advanced degrees, and usually are better in disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and archaeology, which offer more opportunities in nonacademic settings. Government agencies, social service organizations, marketing, research and consulting firms, and a wide range of businesses seek social science graduates, although often in jobs with titles unre lated to their academic discipline. Social scientists will face stiff competition for academic positions. However, the growing impor tance and popularity of social science subjects in secondary schools is strengthening the demand for social science teachers at that level. Candidates seeking positions as social scientists can expect to encounter competition in many areas of social science. Some so cial science graduates, however, will find good employment oppor tunities in areas outside traditional social science, often in related jobs that require good research, communication, and quantitative skills. Earnings Median annual earnings of all other social scientists (excluding economists, psychologists, and urban and regional planners) were $48,330 in 2000. Anthropologists and archeologists had median annual earnings of $36,040; geographers, $46,690; historians, $39,860; political scientists, $81,040; and sociologists, $45,670., In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at $21,900 or $27,200 a year in 2001, depending on their college records. Those with a master’s degree could start at $33,300, and those with a Ph.D. degree could begin at $40,200, while some individuals with experience and an advanced degree could start at $48,200. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Related Occupations A number of occupations requiring training and personal qualities similar to those of social scientists are covered elsewhere in the Handbook. These include computer programmers; computer soft ware engineers; counselors; lawyers; mathematicians, news ana lysts, reporters, and correspondents; postsecondary teachers, social workers; statisticians; and systems analysts. Sources of Additional Information Detailed information about economists and market and survey re searchers, psychologists, and urban and regional planners is pre sented elsewhere in the Handbook. For information about careers in anthropology, contact: ► The American Anthropological Association, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22203-1620. Internet: http://www.aaanet.org For information about careers in archaeology, contact: >- Society for American Archaeology, 900 2nd St. NE., Suite 12, Washing ton, DC 20002-3557. Internet: http://www.saa.org >- Archaeological Institute ofAmerica, 656 Beacon St., Boston, MA022152006. Internet: http://www.archaeological.org For information about careers in geography, contact: >• Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, DC 20009-3198. Internet: http://www.aag.org Information on careers for historians is available from: ► American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, DC 20003 3889. Internet: http://www.theaha.org ► Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan Ave., Bloomington, IN 47408-4199. Internet: http://www.oah.org >- American Association for State and Local History, 1717 Church St., Nash ville, TN 37203-2991. Internet: http://www.aaslh.org For information about careers in political science, contact. ► National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1120 G St. NW., Suite 730, Washington, DC 20005-3869. Internet: http://www.naspaa.org Information about careers in sociology is available from: ► American Sociological Association, 1307 New York Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20005-4712. Internet: http://www.asanet.org For information about careers in demography, contact: >- Population Association of America, 8630 Fenton St., Suite 722, Silver Spring, MD 20910-3812. Internet: http://www.popassoc.org Health Diagnosing and Treating Practitioners Chiropractors___ ________ _____ (0**NET 29-1011.00) __________________ ___________ Significant Points • • • Employment of chiropractors is expected to increase faster than average, and job prospects should be good. Chiropractic care of back, neck, extremities, and other joint damage has become more accepted as a result of recent research and changing attitudes. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning, but increase as the practice grows. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Chiropractors, also known as doctors ofchiropractic or chiropractic physicians, diagnose and treat patients whose health problems are associated with the body’s muscular, nervous, and skeletal systems, especially the spine. Chiropractors believe interference with these systems impairs normal functions and lowers resistance to disease. They also hold that spinal or vertebral dysfunction alters many im portant body functions by affecting the nervous system, and that skel etal imbalance through joint or articular dysfunction, especially in the spine, can cause pain. The chiropractic approach to healthcare is holistic, stressing the patient’s overall health and wellness. It recognizes that many fac tors affect health, including exercise, diet, rest, environment, and heredity. Chiropractors provide natural, drugless, nonsurgical health treatments, and rely on the body’s inherent recuperative abilities. Professional and Related Occupations 249 They also recommend lifestyle changes—in eating, exercise, and sleeping habits, for example—to their patients. When appropri ate, chiropractors consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners. Like other health practitioners, chiropractors follow a standard routine to secure the information needed for diagnosis and treat ment. They take the patient’s medical history, conduct physical, neurological, and orthopedic examinations, and may order labora tory tests. X rays and other diagnostic images are important tools because of the emphasis on the spine and its proper function. Chi ropractors also employ a postural and spinal analysis common to chiropractic diagnosis. In cases in which difficulties can be traced to involvement of musculoskeletal structures, chiropractors manually adjust the spi nal column. Some chiropractors use water, light, massage, ultra sound, electric, and heat therapy. They also may apply supports such as straps, tapes, and braces. Chiropractors counsel patients about wellness concepts such as nutrition, exercise, lifestyle changes, and stress management, but do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. Some chiropractors specialize in sports injuries, neurology, or thopedics, pediatrics, nutrition, internal disorders, or diagnostic imaging. Many chiropractors are solo or group practitioners who also have the administrative responsibilities of running a practice. In larger offices, chiropractors delegate these tasks to office manag ers and chiropractic assistants. Chiropractors in private practice ' ............... i ■Ml, S3 .l-’aSE? KlSife1 Digitized FRASER manually adjusts the spine to relieve pressure. A for chiropractor https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are responsible for developing a patient base, hiring employees, and keeping records. Working Conditions Chiropractors work in clean, comfortable offices. The average work week is about 40 hours, although longer hours are not uncommon. Solo practitioners set their own hours, but may work evenings or weekends to accommodate patients. Chiropractors, like other health practitioners, are sometimes on their feet for long periods. Chiropractors who take x rays must em ploy appropriate precautions against the dangers of repeated expo sure to radiation. Employment Chiropractors held about 50,000 jobs in 2000. Most chiropractors are in solo practice, although some are in group practice or work for other chiropractors. A small number teach, conduct research at chi ropractic institutions, or work in hospitals and clinics. Many chiropractors are located in small communities. There are geographic imbalances in the distribution of chiropractors, in part because many establish practices close to chiropractic institutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chi ropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet educational and examination requirements established by the State. Chiroprac tors can only practice in States where they are licensed. Some States have agreements permitting chiropractors licensed in one State to obtain a license in another without further examination, provided that educational, examination, and practice credentials meet State specifications. Most State boards require at least 2 years of undergraduate edu cation, and an increasing number require a 4-year bachelor’s de gree. All boards require completion of a 4-year chiropractic college course at an accredited program leading to the Doctor of Chiro practic degree. For licensure, most State boards recognize either all or part of the four-part test administered by the National Board of Chiroprac tic Examiners. State examinations may supplement the National Board tests, depending on State requirements. To maintain licensure, almost all States require completion of a specified number of hours of continuing education each year. Con tinuing education programs are offered by accredited chiropractic programs and institutions, and chiropractic associations. Specialty councils within some chiropractic associations also offer programs leading to clinical specialty certification, called “diplomate” certifi cation, in areas such as orthopedics, neurology, sports injuries, oc cupational and industrial health, nutrition, diagnostic imaging, thermography, and internal disorders. In 2000, there were 16 chiropractic programs and institutions in the United States accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Educa tion. All required applicants to have at least 60 semester hours of undergraduate study leading toward a bachelor’s degree, including courses in English, the social sciences or humanities, organic and inorganic chemistry, biology, physics, and psychology. Many ap plicants have a bachelor’s degree, which may eventually become the minimum entry requirement. Several chiropractic colleges of fer prechiropractic study, as well as a bachelor’s degree program. Recognition of prechiropractic education offered by chiropractic colleges varies among the State boards. During the first 2 years, most chiropractic programs emphasize classroom and laboratory work in basic science subjects such as anatomy, physiology, public health, microbiology, pathology, and biochemistry. The last 2 years stress courses in manipulation and 250 Occupational Outlook Handbook spinal adjustments, and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, neurology, orthopedics, geriatrics, physio therapy, and nutrition. Chiropractic programs and institutions grant the degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (DC). Chiropractic requires keen observation to detect physical abnor malities. It also takes considerable hand dexterity to perform ad justments, but not unusual strength or endurance. Chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle responsibility. As in other health-related occupations, empathy, understanding, and the desire to help others are good qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Newly licensed chiropractors can set up a new practice, pur chase an established one, or enter into partnership with an estab lished practitioner. They also may take a salaried position with an established chiropractor, a group practice, or a healthcare facility. Job Outlook Job prospects are expected to be good for persons who enter the practice of chiropractic. Employment of chiropractors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010 as consumer demand for alternative healthcare grows. Chiro practors emphasize the importance of healthy lifestyles and do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. As a result, chiropractic care is appealing to many health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treat ment of back, neck, extremities, and other joint damage has be come more accepted as a result of recent research and changing attitudes about alternative healthcare practices. The rapidly expand ing older population, with their increased likelihood of mechanical and structural problems, also will increase demand. Demand for chiropractic treatment is also related to the ability of patients to pay, either directly or through health insurance. Al though more insurance plans now cover chiropractic services, the extent of such coverage varies among plans. Increasingly, chiro practors must educate communities about the benefits of chiroprac tic care in order to establish a successful practice. In this occupation, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. Chiropractors usually remain in the occupation until they retire; few transfer to other occupations. Establishing a new practice will be easiest in areas with a low concentration of chiro practors. Earnings . Median annual earnings of salaried chiropractors were $67,030 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $44,030 and $ 105,520 a year. Self-employed chiropractors usually earn more than salaried chi ropractors. According to the American Chiropractic Association, in 2000, the average income for all chiropractors, including the selfemployed, was about $81,500 after expenses. In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning, and increase as the practice grows. Earnings also are influenced by the characteristics and qualifications of the prac titioner, and geographic location. Self-employed chiropractors must provide for their own health insurance and retirement. Related Occupations Chiropractors treat and work to prevent bodily disorders and inju ries. So do dentists, occupational therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: >■ American Chiropractic Association, 1701 Clarendon Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. Internet: http://www.amerchiro.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis > International Chiropractors Association, 1110 North Glebe Rd., Suite 1000, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.chiropractic.org >- World Chiropractic Alliance, 2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 1, Chandler, AZ 85224-1802. Internet: http://www.worldchiropracticalliance.org ► Dynamic Chiropractic, RO. Box 40109, Huntington, CA92605. Internet: http://www.chiroweb.com For a list of chiropractic programs and institutions, as well as general information on chiropractic education, contact. >- Council on Chiropractic Education, 7975 North Hayden Rd., Suite A210, Scottsdale, AZ 85258. For information on State education and licensure requirements, contact: >- Federation of Chiropractic Licensing Boards, 901 54th Ave., Suite 101, Greeley, CO 80634. Internet: http://www.fclb.org/fclb For information on requirements for admission to a specific chi ropractic college, as well as scholarship and loan information, con tact the admissions office of the individual college. Dentists ___ ____ ____ ____ (0**NET 29-1021.00, 29-1022.00, 29-1023.00, 29-1024.00, 29-1029.99) Significant Points • • • Most dentists have at least 8 years of education beyond high school. Although employment growth will provide some job opportunities, most jobs will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists projected to retire. Dental care will increasingly focus on prevention, which involves teaching people how better to care tor their teeth. Nature of the Work Dentists diagnose, prevent, and treat teeth and tissue problems. They remove decay, fill cavities, examine x rays, place protective plastic sealants on children’s teeth, straighten teeth, and repair frac tured teeth. They also perform corrective surgery on gums and sup porting bones to treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and make models and measurements for dentures to replace missing teeth. They provide instruction on diet, brushing, flossing, use of fluo rides, and other aspects of dental care, as well. They also adminis ter anesthetics and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. Dentists use a variety of equipment, including x-ray machines, drills, and instruments such as mouth mirrors, probes, forceps, brushes, and scalpels. They wear masks, gloves, and salety glasses to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Dentists in private practice oversee a variety of administrative tasks, including bookkeeping, and buying equipment and supplies. They may employ and supervise dental hygienists, dental assistants, dental laboratory technicians, and receptionists. (These occupa tions are described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most dentists are general practitioners, handling a variety of dental needs. Other dentists practice in 1 of 9 specialty areas. Orth odontists, the largest group of specialists, straighten teeth by apply ing pressure to the teeth with braces or retainers. The next largest group, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remainder may specialize as pediatric dentists (focusing on dentistry for children); periodontists (treating gums and bone supporting the teeth);prosthodontists (replacing missing teeth with permanent fixtures, such as crowns and bridges, or removable fix tures, such as dentures); endodontists (performing root canal Professional and Related Occupations 251 mm Nearly all dentists work in private practices. therapy); public health dentists (promoting good dental health and preventing dental diseases within the community); oral patholo gists (studying oral diseases); or oral and maxillofacial radiolo gists (diagnosing diseases in the head and neck through the use of imaging technologies). Working Conditions Most dentists work 4 or 5 days a week. Some work evenings and weekends to meet their patients’ needs. Most full-time dentists work about 40 hours a week, but others work more. Initially, den tists may work more hours as they establish their practice. Experi enced dentists often work fewer hours. A considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Most dentists are “solo practitioners,” meaning they own their own businesses and work alone or with a small staff. Some den tists have partners, and a few work for other dentists as associate dentists. Employment Dentists held about 152,000 jobs in 2000. Almost all dentists work in private practice. According to the American Dental Association, about 80 percent of dentists in private practice are sole proprietors, and 13 percent belong to a partnership. A small number of salaried dentists work in private or public hospitals and clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia require dentists to be licensed. In most States, a candidate must graduate from a dental school accredited by the American Dental Association’s Commis sion on Dental Accreditation, and pass written and practical exami nations to qualify for a license. Candidates may fulfill the written part of the State licensing requirements by passing the National Board Dental Examinations. Individual States or regional testing agencies administer the written or practical examinations. Currently, about 17 States require dentists to obtain a specialty license before practicing as a specialist. Requirements include 2 to 4 years of postgraduate education and, in some cases, completion of a special State examination. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. Dentists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 5 years in advanced dental training, in programs operated by dental schools or hospitals. Dental schools require a minimum of 2 years of college-level predental education. However, most dental students have at least a https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis bachelor’s degree. Predental education emphasizes coursework in the sciences. All dental schools require applicants to take the Dental Admis sions Test (DAT). When selecting students, schools consider scores earned on the DAT, applicants’ grade point average, and informa tion gathered through recommendations and interviews. Dental school usually lasts 4 academic years. Studies begin with classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences, includ ing anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, and physiology. Begin ning courses in clinical sciences, including laboratory techniques, also are provided at this time. During the last 2 years, students treat patients, usually in dental clinics, under the supervision of licensed dentists. Most dental schools award the degree of Doctor of Dental Sur gery (DDS). The rest award an equivalent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD). Dentistry requires diagnostic ability and manual skills. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, a high degree of manual dexterity, and scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and communication skills are help ful for success in private practice. High school and college stu dents who want to become dentists should take courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, and mathematics. Some dental school graduates work for established dentists as associates for a year or two in order to gain experience and save money to equip an office of their own. Most dental school gradu ates, however, purchase an established practice or open a new one immediately after graduation. Each year, about one-fourth to onethird of new graduates enroll in postgraduate training programs to prepare for a dental specialty. Job Outlook Employment of dentists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2010. Although employment growth will provide some job opportunities, most jobs will result from the need to replace the large number of dentists projected to retire. Job prospects should be good if the number of dental school graduates does not grow significantly, thus keeping the supply of newly qualified dentists near current levels. Demand for dental care should grow substantially through 2010. As members of the baby-boom generation advance into middle age, a large number will need maintenance on complicated dental work, such as bridges. In addition, elderly people are more likely to retain their teeth than were their predecessors, so they will require much more care than in the past. The younger generation will continue to need preventive checkups despite treatments such as fluoridation of the water supply, which decreases the incidence of tooth decay. Dental care will focus more on prevention, including teaching people how better to care for their teeth. Dentists will increasingly provide care that is aimed at preventing tooth loss—rather than sim ply providing treatments, such as fillings. Improvements in dental technology also will allow dentists to provide more effective and less painful treatment to their patients. However, the employment of dentists is not expected to grow as rapidly as the demand for dental services. As their practices ex pand, dentists are likely to hire more dental hygienists and dental assistants to handle routine services. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried dentists were $ 129,030 in 2000. Earnings vary according to number of years in practice, location, hours worked, and specialty. Self-employed dentists in private practice tend to earn more than do salaried dentists. A relatively large proportion of dentists is 252 Occupational Outlook Handbook self-employed. Like other business owners, these dentists must provide their own health insurance, life insurance, and retirement benefits. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, prevent, and treat diseases and abnor malities. So do chiropractors, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, psychologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on dentistry as a career and a list of accredited den tal schools, contact: . >- American Dental Association, Commission on Dental Accreditation, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on admission to dental schools, contact: >■ American Dental Education Association, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.adea.org The American Dental Association also will furnish a list of State boards of dental examiners. Persons interested in practicing den tistry should obtain the requirements for licensure from the board of dental examiners of the State in which they plan to work. Prospective dental students should contact the office of student financial aid at the schools to which they apply, in order to obtain information on scholarships, grants, and loans, including Federal financial aid. Dietitians and Nutritionists______ (0*NET 29-1031.00) • • _______ ____ Significant Points Employment of dietitians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010 as a result of increasing emphasis on disease prevention through improved health habits. Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service systems management, or a related area. Nature of the Work Dietitians and nutritionists plan food and nutrition programs, and supervise the preparation and serving of meals. They help prevent and treat illnesses by promoting healthy eating habits and suggest ing diet modifications, such as less salt for those with high blood pressure or reduced fat and sugar intake for those who are over weight. ... , , Dietitians run food service systems for institutions such as hos pitals and schools, promote sound eating habits through education, and conduct research. Major areas of practice include clinical, com munity, management, and consultant dietetics. Clinical dietitians provide nutritional services for patients in in stitutions such as hospitals and nursing homes. They assess pa tients’ nutritional needs, develop and implement nutrition programs, and evaluate and report the results. They also confer with doctors and other healthcare professionals in order to coordinate medical and nutritional needs. Some clinical dietitians specialize in the management of overweight patients, care of the critically ill, or of renal (kidney) and diabetic patients. In addition, clinical dietitians homes, small hospitals, or correctional facilities also may Digitizedin fornursing FRASER https://fraser.stlouisfed.org manage the food service department. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Dietitians and nutritionists help prevent and treat illnesses by promoting healthy eating habits. Community dietitians counsel individuals and groups on nutri tional practices designed to prevent disease and promote good health. Working in places such as public health clinics, home health agen cies, and health maintenance organizations, they evaluate individual needs, develop nutritional care plans, and instruct individuals and their families. Dietitians working in home health agencies provide instruction on grocery shopping and food preparation to the elderly, individuals with special needs, and children. Increased interest in nutrition has led to opportunities in food manufacturing, advertising, and marketing, in which dietitians ana lyze foods, prepare literature for distribution, or report on issues such as the nutritional content of recipes, dietary fiber, or vitamin supplements. Management dietitians oversee large-scale meal planning and preparation in healthcare facilities, company cafeterias, prisons, and schools. They hire, train, and direct other dietitians and food ser vice workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and sup plies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Consultant dietitians work under contract with healthcare fa cilities or in their own private practice. They perform nutrition screenings for their clients, and offer advice on diet-related con cerns such as weight loss or cholesterol reduction. Some work for wellness programs, sports teams, supermarkets, and other nutritionrelated businesses. They may consult with food service managers, providing expertise in sanitation, safety procedures, menu develop ment, budgeting, and planning. Working Conditions Most dietitians work a regular 40-hour week, although some work weekends. Many dietitians work part time. Dietitians and nutritionists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. However, some dietitians work in warm, congested kitchens. Many dietitians and nutritionists are on their feet for much of the workday. Employment Dietitians and nutritionists held about 49,000 jobs in 2000. More than half were in hospitals, nursing homes, or offices and clinics of physicians. State and local governments provided about 1 job in 10—mostly in health departments and other public health related areas. Other jobs were in restaurants, social service agencies, residential care Professional and Related Occupations 253 facilities, diet workshops, physical fitness facilities, school systems, colleges and universities, and the Federal Government—mostly in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Some dietitians and nu tritionists were employed by firms that provide food services on contract to such facilities as colleges and universities, airlines, cor rectional facilities, and company cafeterias. Some dietitians were self-employed, working as consultants to facilities such as hospitals and nursing homes, or providing dietary counseling to individual clients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school students interested in becoming a dietitian or nutrition ist should take courses in biology, chemistry, mathematics, health, and communications. Dietitians and nutritionists need at least a bachelor’s degree in dietetics, foods and nutrition, food service sys tems management, or a related area. College students in these ma jors take courses in foods, nutrition, institution management, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and physiology’ Other suggested courses include business, mathematics, statistics, computer science, psychology, sociology, and economics. Twenty-seven of the 41 States with laws governing dietetics re quire licensure, 13 require certification, and 1 requires registration. The Commission on Dietetic Registration of the American Dietetic Association (ADA) awards the Registered Dietitian credential to those who pass a certification exam after completing their academic coursework and supervised experience. Because practice require ments vary by State, interested candidates should determine the re quirements of the State in which they want to work before sitting for any exam. As of 2001, there were 234 bachelor’s and master’s degree pro grams approved by the ADA’s Commission on Accreditation for Dietetics Education (CADE). Supervised practice experience can be acquired in two ways. The first requires completion of an ADAaccredited coordinated program. As of2001, there were 51 accred ited programs, which combined academic and supervised practice experience and generally lasted 4 to 5 years. The second option requires completion of 900 hours of supervised practice experience in any of the 258 CADE-accredited/approved internships. Intern ships and may be full-time programs lasting 6 to 12 months, or part-time programs lasting 2 years. Students interested in research, advanced clinical positions, or public health may need an advanced degree. Experienced dietitians may advance to assistant, associate, or director of a dietetic department, or become self-employed. Some dietitians specialize in areas such as renal or pediatric dietetics. Others may leave the occupation to become sales representatives for equipment, pharmaceutical, or food manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of dietitians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010 as a result of increasing emphasis on disease prevention through improved dietary habits. A growing and aging population will increase the demand for meals and nutritional counseling in nursing homes, schools, prisons, com munity health programs, and home healthcare agencies. Public in terest in nutrition and the emphasis on health education and prudent lifestyles will also spur demand, especially in management. In ad dition to employment growth, job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the occupation. The number of dietitian positions in hospitals is expected to grow slowly as hospitals continue to contract out food service operations. On the other hand, employment is expected to grow fast in contract providers of food services, social services agencies, and offices and clinics of physicians. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Employment growth for dietitians and nutritionists may be some what constrained by some employers substituting other workers such as health educators, food service managers, and dietetic technicians. Growth also is constrained by limitations on insurance reimburse ment for dietetic services. Earnings Median annual earnings of dietitians and nutritionists were $38,450 m 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,070 and $45,950 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,680, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,940 a year. Me dian annual earnings in hospitals, the industry employing the larg est numbers of dietitians and nutritionists, were $39,450. According to the American Dietetic Association, median annual income for registered dietitians in 1999 varied by practice area as follows: $48,810 in consultation and business, $48,370 in food and nutrition management, $47,040 in education and research, $37,990 in community nutrition, and $37,565 in clinical nutrition. Salaries also vary by years in practice, educational level, geographic region, and size of community. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who may apply the principles of food and nutrition include food service managers, health educators, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information For a list of academic programs, scholarships, and other informa tion about dietetics, contact: > The American Dietetic Association, 216 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. Internet: http://www.eatright.org Occupational Therapists (Q*NET 29-1122.00) Significant Points • Employment is projected to increase faster than the average, as rapid growth in the number of middle-aged and elderly individuals increases the demand for therapeutic services. • Occupational therapists are increasingly taking on supervisory roles. More than one-third of occupational therapists work part time. • Nature of the Work Occupational therapists (OTs) help people improve their ability to perform tasks in their daily living and working environments. They work with individuals who have conditions that are mentally, physi cally, developmentally, or emotionally disabling. They also help them to develop, recover, or maintain daily living and work skills. Occupational therapists not only help clients improve basic motor functions and reasoning abilities, but also compensate for perma nent loss of function. Their goal is to help clients have indepen dent, productive, and satisfying lives. Occupational therapists assist clients in performing activities of all types, ranging from using a computer, to caring for daily needs such as dressing, cooking, and eating. Physical exercises may be used to increase strength and dexterity, while paper and pencil ex ercises may be chosen to improve visual acuity and the ability to 254 Occupational Outlook Handbook discern patterns. A client with short-term memory loss, for instance, might be encouraged to make lists to aid recall. A person with coordination problems might be assigned exercises to improve handeye coordination. Occupational therapists also use computer pro grams to help clients improve decision making, abstract reasoning, problem solving, and perceptual skills, as well as memory, sequenc ing, and coordination—all of which are important for independent living. .... , ■ , For those with permanent functional disabilities, such as spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, or muscular dystrophy, therapists in struct in the use of adaptive equipment such as wheelchairs, splints, and aids for eating and dressing. They also design or make special equipment needed at home or at work. Therapists develop com puter-aided adaptive equipment and teach clients with severe limi tations how to use it. This equipment enables clients to communicate better and to control other aspects of their environment. Some occupational therapists, called industrial therapists, treat individuals whose ability to function in a work environment has been impaired. They arrange employment, plan work activities, and evaluate the client’s progress. Occupational therapists may work exclusively with individu als in a particular age group, or with particular disabilities. In schools, for example, they evaluate children’s abilities, recommend and provide therapy, modify classroom equipment, and in gen eral, help children participate as fully as possible in school pro grams and activities. Occupational therapy is also beneficial to the elderly population. Therapists help senior citizens lead more productive, active and independent lives through a variety of meth ods, including the use of adaptive equipment. Occupational therapists in mental health settings treat individu als who are mentally ill, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed. To treat these problems, therapists choose activities that help people learn to cope with daily life. Activities include time management skills, budgeting, shopping, homemaking, and use of public trans portation. They may also work with individuals who are dealing with alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, eating disorders, or stress related disorders. Recording a client’s activities and progress is an important part of an occupational therapist’s job. Accurate records are essential for evaluating clients, billing, and reporting to physicians and others. Working Conditions Occupational therapists in hospitals and other health care and com munity settings usually work a 40-hour week. Those in schools https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Occupational therapists use a variety of treatments to relieve pain. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis may also participate in meetings and other activities, during and after the school day. More than one-third of occupational thera pists work part time. In large rehabilitation centers, therapists may work in spacious rooms equipped with machines, tools, and other devices generating noise. The job can be tiring, because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Those providing home healthcare may spend time driving from appointment to appointment. Therapists also face hazards such as back strain from lifting and moving clients and equipment. . . „ , Therapists are increasingly taking on supervisory roles. Due to rising healthcare costs, third party payers are beginning to encour age occupational therapist assistants and aides to take more handson responsibility. By having assistants and aides work more closely with clients under the guidance of a therapist, the cost of therapy should be more modest. Occupational therapists held about 78,000 jobs in 2000. About 1 in 6 occupational therapists held more than one job in 2000. The largest number ofjobs was in hospitals, including many in rehabili tation and psychiatric hospitals. Other major employers include offices and clinics of occupational therapists and other health prac titioners, school systems, home health agencies, nursing homes, community mental health centers, adult daycare programs, job train ing services, and residential care facilities. Some occupational therapists are self-employed in private prac tice. They see clients referred by physicians or other health profes sionals, or provide contract or consulting services to nursing homes, schools, adult daycare programs, and home health agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy is the minimum require ment for entry into this field. All States, Puerto Rico, and the Dis trict of C olumbia regulate occupational therapy. To obtain a license, applicants must graduate from an accredited educational program, and pass a national certification examination. Those who pass the test are awarded the title of registered occupational therapist. ^ In 1999, entry-level education was offered in 88 bachelor’s de gree programs; 11 postbachelor’s certificate programs for students with a degree other than occupational therapy; and 53 entry-level master’s degree programs. Nineteen programs offered a combined bachelor’s and master’s degree and 2 offered an entry-level doc toral degree. Most schools have full-time programs, although a growing number also offer weekend or part-time programs. Occupational therapy coursework includes physical, biological, and behavioral sciences, and the application of occupational therapy theory and skills. Completion of 6 months of supervised fieldwork also is required. Persons considering this profession should take high school courses in biology, chemistry, physics, health, art, and the social sciences. College admissions offices also look favorably at paid or volunteer experience in the healthcare field. Occupational therapists need patience and strong interpersonal skills to inspire trust and respect in their clients. Ingenuity and imagination in adapting activities to individual needs are assets. Those working in home health care must be able to successfully adapt to a variety of settings. Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Federal legisla tion imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for occupational therapists in the Professional and Related Occupations 255 near term. However, over the long run, the demand for occupa tional therapists should continue to rise as a result of growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function requir ing therapy services. The baby-boom generation’s movement into middle age, a period when the incidence of heart attack and stroke increases, will increase the demand for therapeutic services. The rapidly growing population 75 years of age and above (an age that suffers from a high incidence of disabling conditions), also will demand additional services. Medical advances now enable more patients with critical problems to survive. These patients may need extensive therapy. Hospitals will continue to employ a large number of occupa tional therapists to provide therapy services to acutely ill inpatients. Hospitals will also need occupational therapists to staff their outpa tient rehabilitation programs. Employment growth in schools will result from expansion of the school-age population and extended services for disabled stu dents. Therapists will be needed to help children with disabilities prepare to enter special education programs. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational therapists were $49,450 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $40,460 and $57,890. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,040, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $70,810. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of occupational therapists in 2000 were as follows: Nursing and personal care facilities............................................ Hospitals...................................................................................... Offices of other health practitioners............................................ Elementary and secondary schools.............................................. $51 220 50 430 49 520 45,340 Related Occupations Occupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help individu als perform daily living skills and achieve maximum independence. Other workers performing similar duties include chiropractors, physical therapists, recreational therapists, rehabilitation counse lors, respiratory therapists, and speech-language pathologists and audiologists. Nature of the Work More than half of the people in the United States wear glasses or contact lenses. Optometrists, also known as doctors of optometry, or ODs, provide most primary vision care. Optometrists examine people’s eyes to diagnose vision prob lems and eye diseases. They use instruments and observation to examine eye health and to test patients’ visual acuity, depth and color perception, and ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. Optometrists analyze test results and develop a treatment plan. Optometrists prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses, and pro vide vision therapy and low vision rehabilitation. They adminis ter drugs to patients to aid in the diagnosis of eye vision problems and prescribe drugs to treat some eye diseases. Optometrists often provide preoperative and postoperative care to cataract, laser vision correction, and other eye surgery patients. They also diag nose conditions due to systemic diseases such as diabetes and high blood pressure, and refer patients to other health practitio ners as needed. Optometrists should not be confused with ophthalmologists or dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who per form eye surgery, and diagnose and treat eye diseases and injuries. Like optometrists, they also examine eyes and prescribe eyeglasses and contact lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses and in some States may fit contact lenses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (See the sections on physicians and surgeons; and opticians, dispensing, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most optometrists are in general practice. Some specialize in work with the elderly, children, or partially sighted persons who need specialized visual devices. Others develop and implement ways to protect workers’ eyes from on-the-job strain or injury. Some specialize in contact lenses, sports vision, or vision therapy. A few teach optometry, perform research, or consult. Most optometrists are private practitioners who also handle the business aspects of running an office, such as developing a patient base, hiring employees, keeping records, and ordering equipment and supplies. Optometrists who operate franchise optical stores also may have some of these duties. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupational therapy as a career, contact: The American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Ln., P.O. Box 31220, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org . Optometrists (0**NET 29-1041.00) • • • Significant Points Licensed optometrists must earn a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass a written and a clinical State board examination. Competition for admission to optometry school is keen. Because optometrists usually remain in practice until they retire, replacement needs arise almost entirely from retirements. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mM h. Optometrists diagnose vision problems and eye diseases. 256 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices which are clean, well-lighted, and comfortable. Most full-time optometrists work about 40 hours a week. Many work Saturdays and evenings to suit the needs of patients. Emergency calls, once uncommon, have increased with the passage of therapeutic drug laws expand ing optometrists’ ability to prescribe medications. Employment Optometrists held about 31,000 jobs in 2000. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing optometrists because some optometrists hold two or more jobs. For example, an optometrist may have a private practice, but also work in another practice, clinic, or vision care center. According to the American Optometric Asso ciation, about two-thirds of practicing optometrists are in private practice. . Although many optometrists practice alone, a growing number are in a partnership or group practice. Some optometrists work as salaried employees of other optometrists or of ophthalmologists, hospitals, health maintenance organizations (HMOs), or retail opti cal stores. A small number of optometrists are consultants for in dustrial safety programs, insurance companies, manufacturers of ophthalmic products, HMOs, and others. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Op tometry degree from an accredited optometry school and pass both a written and a clinical State board examination. In many States, applicants can substitute the examinations of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, usually taken during the student’s aca demic career, for part or all of the written examination. Licenses are renewed every 1 to 3 years and in all States, continuing educa tion credits are needed for renewal. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires completion of a 4year program at an accredited optometry school preceded by at least 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university (most optometry students hold a bachelor’s or higher degree). In 2000,17 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry held an accredited status with the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education of the American Optometric Association. Requirements for admission to schools of optometry include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. A few schools require or recommend courses in psychology, his tory, sociology, speech, or business. Applicants must take the Optometry Admissions Test, which measures academic ability and scientific comprehension. Most applicants take the test after their sophomore or junior year. Competition for admission is keen. Optometry programs include classroom and laboratory study of health and visual sciences, as well as clinical training in the diagno sis and treatment of eye disorders. Courses in pharmacology, op tics, vision science, biochemistry, and systemic disease are included. Business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal tactfully with patients are important for success. The work of optometrists requires attention to detail and good manual dexterity. Optometrists wishing to teach or do research may study for a master’s or Ph.D. degree in visual science, physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health, health administration, health information and communication, or health education. One-year post graduate clinical residency programs are available for optometrists who wish to specialize in family practice optometry, pediatric opto metry, geriatric optometry, vision therapy, contact lenses, hospital https://fraser.stlouisfed.org based optometry, primary care optometry, or ocular disease. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of optometrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010 in response to the vi sion care needs of a growing and aging population. As baby boomers age, they will be more likely to visit optometrists and ophthalmolo gist’s because of the onset of vision problems in middle age, includ ing those resulting from the extensive use of computers. The demand for optometric services also will increase because of growth in the oldest age group, with their increased likelihood of cataracts, glau coma, diabetes, and hypertension. Employment of optometrists also will grow due to greater recognition of the importance of vision care, rising personal incomes, and growth in employee vision care plans. Employment of optometrists would grow more rapidly were it not for anticipated productivity gains that will allow each optom etrist to see more patients. These expected gains stem from greater use of optometric assistants and other support personnel, who will reduce the amount of time optometrists need with each patient. Also, new surgical procedures using lasers are available that can correct some vision problems, but they remain expensive. Optometrists will still be needed to perform pre-operative and post-operative care for laser surgery; however, patients who successfully undergo this surgery may not require optometrists to prescribe glasses or con tacts for several years. In addition to growth, the need to replace optometrists who leave the occupation will create employment opportunities. Relatively few opportunities from this source are expected, however, because optometrists usually continue to practice until they retire; lew transfer to other occupations. Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists were $82,860 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $60,310 and $ 111,520. Median annual earnings of salaried optometrists in 2000 were $89,460 in offices and clinics of medical doctors and $85,470 in offices of other health practitioners. Salaried optometrists tend to earn more initially than do optometrists who set up their own inde pendent practice. In the long run, those in private practice usually earn more. According to the American Optometric Association, median net income for all optometrists in private practice ranged from about $115,000 to $120,000 in 2000. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiroprac tors, dentists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, speech-language pathologists and audiologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on optometry as a career and a list of accredited optometric educational institutions, contact: ► Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry, 6110 Executive Blvd., Suite 510, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.opted.org Additional career information is available from: >- American Optometric Association, Educational Services, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141-7881. Internet. http://www.aoanet.org The Board of Optometry in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. For information on specific admission requirements and sources of financial aid, contact the admissions officer of individual op tometry schools. Professional and Related Occupations 257 Pharmacists (0*NET 29-1051.00) • Significant Points Pharmacists are becoming more involved in drug therapy decisionmaking and patient counseling. • A license is required; one must serve an internship under a licensed pharmacist, graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy, and pass a State examination. • Very good employment opportunities are expected. • Earnings are very high, but some pharmacists work long hours, nights, weekends, and holidays. Nature of the Work Pharmacists dispense dmgs prescribed by physicians and other health practitioners and provide information to patients about medications and their use. They advise physicians and other health practitioners on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medica tions. Pharmacists must understand the use; clinical effects; and composition of dmgs, including their chemical, biological, and physi cal properties. Compounding—the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions—is only a small part of a pharmacist’s practice, because most medicines are produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. Most pharmacists work either in a community setting, such as a retail drug store, or in a hospital or clinic. Pharmacists in community or retail pharmacies counsel patients and answer questions about prescription drags, such as those about possible adverse reactions or interactions. They provide informa tion about over-the-counter drags and make recommendations af ter asking a series of health questions, such as whether the customer is taking any other medications. They also give advice about du rable medical equipment and home healthcare supplies. They also may complete third-party insurance forms and other paperwork. Those who own or manage community pharmacies may sell nonhealth-related merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Some community pharmacists provide specialized services to help patients manage conditions such as diabetes, asthma, smoking cessation, or high blood pressure. Pharmacists are trained to understand the effects of medications. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dispense medications and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drags. They may make sterile solutions and buy medical supplies. They also assess, plan, and monitor drug programs or regimens. They coun sel patients on the use of drags while in the hospital, and on their use at home when the patients are discharged. Pharmacists also may evaluate drag use patterns and outcomes for patients in hospi tals or managed care organizations. Pharmacists who work in home healthcare monitor drag therapy and prepare infusions—solutions that are injected into patients— and other medications for use in the home. Most pharmacists keep confidential computerized records of pa tients’ drag therapies to ensure that harmful drag interactions do not occur. They frequently teach pharmacy students serving as in terns in preparation for graduation and licensure. Some pharmacists specialize in specific drag therapy areas, such as intravenous nutrition support, oncology (cancer), nuclear phar macy (used for chemotherapy), and pharmacotherapy (the treatment of mental disorders with drags). Pharmacists are responsible for the accuracy of every prescrip tion that is filled, but they often rely upon pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides to assist them. Thus, the pharmacist may del egate prescription-filling and administrative tasks and supervise their completion. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Many pharmacists spend most of their workday on their feet. When working with sterile or potentially dangerous pharmaceuti cal products, pharmacists wear gloves and masks and work with other special protective equipment. Many community and hospital pharmacies are open for extended hours or around the clock, so pharmacists may work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Consultant pharmacists may travel to nursing homes or other facili ties to monitor patient’s drug therapy. About 1 out of 7 pharmacists worked part time in 2000. Most full-time salaried pharmacists worked about 40 hours a week. Some, including many self-employed pharmacists, worked more than 50 hours a week. Employment Pharmacists held about 217,000 jobs in 2000. About 6 out of 10 worked in community pharmacies, either independently owned or part of a drag store chain, grocery store, department store, or mass merchandiser. Most community pharmacists were salaried employ ees, but some were self-employed owners. About 21 percent of salaried pharmacists worked in hospitals, and others worked in clin ics, mail-order pharmacies, pharmaceutical wholesalers, home healthcare agencies, or the Federal Government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. To obtain a license, one must serve an internship under a licensed pharmacist, graduate from an accredited college of pharmacy, and pass a State examination. All States, except California and Florida, currently grant a license with out extensive re-examination to qualified pharmacists already li censed by another State; one should check with State boards of pharmacy for details. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. States may require continuing education for license renewal. In 2000, 82 colleges of pharmacy were accredited to confer degrees by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education. Phar macy programs grant the degree of Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), 258 Occupational Outlook Handbook which requires at least 6 years of postsecondary study and the pass ing of the licensure examination of a State board of pharmacy. The Pharm.D. is a 4-year program that requires at least 2 years of college study prior to admittance. This degree has replaced the Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree, which will cease to be awarded after 2005. Colleges of pharmacy require at least 2 years of college-level prepharmacy education. Entry requirements usually include mathematics and natural sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, as well as courses in the humanities and social sciences. Some colleges require the applicant to take the Pharmacy College Admissions Test. All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, designed to teach students to dispense prescriptions and to commu nicate with patients and other health professionals. Such courses also strengthen students’ understanding of professional ethics and allow them to practice management responsibilities. Pharmacists training increasingly emphasizes direct patient care, as well as con sultative services to other health professionals. In the 2000-01 academic year, 64 colleges of pharmacy awarded the master of science degree or the Ph.D. degree. Both the master s and Ph.D. degrees are awarded after completion of a Pharm.D. de gree. These degrees are designed for those who want more labora tory and research experience. Many master’s and Ph.D. holders work in research for a drug company or teach at a university. Other options for pharmacy graduates who are interested in further train ing include 1- or 2-year residency programs or fellowships. Phar macy residencies are postgraduate training programs in pharmacy practice. Pharmacy fellowships are highly individualized programs designed to prepare participants to work in research laboratories. Some pharmacists who run their own pharmacy obtain a master’s degree in business administration (MBA). Areas of graduate study include pharmaceutics and pharma ceutical chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), and pharmacy administration. Prospective pharmacists should have scientific aptitude, good communication skills, and a desire to help others. They also must be conscientious and pay close attention to detail, because the deci sions they make affect human lives. . In community pharmacies, pharmacists usually begin at the stair level. After they gain experience and secure the necessary capital, some become owners or part owners of pharmacies. Pharmacists in chain drug stores may be promoted to pharmacy supervisor or man ager at the store level, then to manager at the district or regional level, and later to an executive position within the chain s headquarters. Hospital pharmacists may advance to supervisory or administra tive positions. Pharmacists in the pharmaceutical industry may ad vance in marketing, sales, research, quality control, production, packaging, or other areas. Job Outlook Very good employment opportunities are expected for pharmacists over the 2000-10 period because the number of degrees granted in pharmacy are not expected to be as numerous as the number of job openings created by employment growth and the need to replace pharmacists who retire or otherwise leave the occupation. Employment of pharmacists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010, due to the in creased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population and greater use of medication. The growing numbers of middle-aged and elderly people—who, on average, use more prescription drugs than do younger people—will continue to spur demand for phar macists in all practice settings. Other factors likely to increase the demand for pharmacists include scientific advances that will make https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis more drug products available, new developments in genome research and medication distribution systems, and increasingly sophisticated consumers seeking more information about drugs. Retail pharmacies are taking steps to increase their prescription volume to make up for declining dispensing fees. Automation of drug dispensing and greater use of pharmacy technicians and phar macy aides will help them to dispense more prescriptions. The num ber of community pharmacists needed in the future will depend on the rate of expansion of chain drug stores and the willingness of insurers to reimburse pharmacists for providing clinical services to patients taking prescription medications. With its emphasis on cost control, managed care encourages growth of lower cost prescrip tion drug distributors, such as mail-order firms, for certain medica tions. Faster than average employment growth is expected in retail pharmacies. Employment in hospitals is expected to grow about as fast as average, as hospitals reduce inpatient stays, downsize, and consoli date departments. Pharmacy services are shifting to long-term, ambulatory, and home care settings, where opportunities for phar macists will be best. New opportunities are emerging for pharma cists in managed-care organizations, where they may analyze trends and patterns in medication use for their populations of patients, and for pharmacists trained in research, disease management, and pharmacoeconomics—determining the costs and benefits of differ ent drug therapies. , Cost-conscious insurers and health systems may continue to em phasize the role of pharmacists in primary and preventive health services. They realize that the expense of using medication to treat diseases and conditions often is considerably less than the potential costs for patients whose conditions go untreated. Pharmacists also can reduce the expenses resulting from unexpected complications due to allergic reactions or medication interactions. Median annual earnings of pharmacists in 2000 were S70,950. The middle 50 percent earned between $61,860 and $81,690 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $51,570, and the highest 10 percent, more than $89,010 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacists in 2000 were as follows: Department stores........................ Grocery stores............................... Drug stores and proprietary stores Hospitals....................................... $73,730 72,440 72,110 68,760 According to a survey by Drug Topics magazine, published by Medical Economics Co., average starting base salaries of full-time, salaried pharmacists were $67,824 in 2000. Pharmacists working in chain drug stores had an average annual base salary of $71,486 while pharmacists working in independent drug stores averaged $62,040 and hospital pharmacists averaged $61,250. Many phar macists also receive compensation in the form of bonuses, over time, and profit-sharing. Related Occupations Pharmacy technicians and pharmacy aides also work in pharma cies. Persons in other professions who may work with pharmaceu tical compounds include biological and medical scientists and chemists and materials scientists. Sources of Additional Information For information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and pro fessional requirements, programs offered by colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid, contact: Professional and Related Occupations 259 >• American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 1426 Prince St., Alex andria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.aacp.org > National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 700 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, IL 60068. Internet: http://www.nabp.net General information on careers in pharmacy is available from: >- National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 413 N. Lee St., P.O. Box 1417-D49, Alexandria, VA 22313-1480. Internet: http://www.nacds.org State licensure requirements are available from each State’s Board of Pharmacy. Information on specific college entrance requirements, curriculums, and financial aid is available from any college of pharmacy. Physical Therapists ^ 4. ... (CHNET 29-1123.00)* • • • Significant Points Employment is expected to increase faster than the average, as rapid growth in the number of middle-aged and elderly individuals increases the demand for therapeutic services. After graduating from an accredited physical therapist educational program, therapists must pass a licensure exam before they can practice. Nature of the Work Physical therapists (PTs) provide services that help restore func tion, improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or disease. They restore, maintain, and promote overall fitness and health. Their patients include accident victims and individuals with disabling con ditions such as low back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Therapists examine patients’ medical histories, then test and mea sure their strength, range of motion, balance and coordination, pos ture, muscle performance, respiration, and motor function. They also determine patients’ ability to be independent and reintegrate into the community or workplace after injury or illness. Next, they develop treatment plans describing a treatment strategy, its purpose, and anticipated outcome. Physical therapist assistants, under the direction and supervision of a physical therapist, may be involved in implementing treatment plans with patients. Physical therapist aides perform routine support tasks, as directed by the therapist. (Physical therapist assistants and aides are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have been immobilized and lack flexibility, strength, or endurance. They en courage patients to use their own muscles to further increase flex ibility and range of motion before finally advancing to other exercises improving strength, balance, coordination, and endurance. Their goal is to improve how an individual functions at work and home. Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot packs or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain and reduce swell ing. They may use traction or deep-tissue massage to relieve pain. Therapists also teach patients to use assistive and adaptive devices such as crutches, prostheses, and wheelchairs. They also may show patients exercises to do at home to expedite their recovery. As treatment continues, physical therapists document progress, conduct periodic examinations, and modify treatments when nec essary. Such documentation is used to track the patient’s progress, Digitized foridentify FRASERareas requiring more or less attention. and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A patient, under the care of a physical therapist, works to regain mobility. Physical therapists often consult and practice with a variety of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists, nurses, educators, social workers, occupational therapists, speech-language patholo gists, and audiologists. Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments; others specialize in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics, orthopedics, sports medicine, neurology, and cardiopulmonary physical therapy. Working Conditions Physical therapists practice in hospitals, clinics, and private offices that have specially equipped facilities, or they treat patients in hos pital rooms, homes, or schools. Most full-time physical therapists work a 40-hour week, which may include some evenings and weekends. The job can be physi cally demanding because therapists often have to stoop, kneel, crouch, lift, and stand for long periods. In addition, physical therapists move heavy equipment and lift patients or help them turn, stand, or walk. Employment Physical therapists held about 132,000 jobs in 2000; about 1 in 4 worked part time. The number ofjobs is greater than the number of practicing physical therapists because some physical therapists hold two or more jobs. For example, some may work in a private prac tice, but also work part time in another health facility. About two-thirds of physical therapists were employed in either hospitals or offices of physical therapists. Other jobs were in home health agencies, outpatient rehabilitation centers, offices and clin ics of physicians, and nursing homes. Some physical therapists are self-employed in private practices. They may provide services to individual patients or contract to provide services in hospitals, re habilitation centers, nursing homes, home health agencies, adult daycare programs, and schools. They may be in solo practice or be part of a consulting group. Physical therapists also teach in aca demic institutions and conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require physical therapists to pass a licensure exam be fore they can practice, after graduating from an accredited physical therapist educational program. According to the American Physical Therapy Association, there were 199 accredited physical therapist programs in 2001. Of the accredited programs, 165 offered master’s degrees, and 33 offered doctoral degrees. By 2002, all physical therapist programs seeking accreditation are required to offer degrees at the master’s degree 260 Occupational Outlook Handbook level and above, in accordance with the Commission on Accredita tion in Physical Therapy Education. Physical therapist programs start with basic science courses such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and then introduce specialized courses such as biomechanics, neuroanatomy, human growth and development, manifestations of disease, examination techniques, and therapeutic procedures. Besides classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical experience. Courses useful when applying to physical therapist educational programs include anatomy, biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Before granting admission, many professional edu cation programs require experience as a volunteer in a physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal skills to suc cessfully educate patients about their physical therapy treatments. They should also be compassionate and possess a desire to help patients. Similar traits also are needed to interact with the patient’s family. Physical therapists are expected to continue professional devel opment by participating in continuing education courses and work shops. Anumber of States require continuing education to maintain licensure. Job Outlook Employment of physical therapists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for physical therapists in the near term. How ever, over the long run, the demand for physical therapists should continue to rise as a result of growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function requiring therapy services. The rapidly growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. Also, the baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. More young people will need physical therapy as technological advances save the lives of a larger proportion of new borns with severe birth defects. Future medical developments should also permit a higher per centage of trauma victims to survive, creating additional demand for rehabilitative care. Growth also may result from advances in medi cal technology which permit treatment of more disabling conditions. Widespread interest in health promotion also should increase demand for physical therapy services. A growing number of em ployers are using physical therapists to evaluate worksites, develop exercise programs, and teach safe work habits to employees in the hope of reducing injuries. Earnings Median annual earnings of physical therapists were $54,810 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $46,660 and $67,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $3 8,510, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $83,370. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of physical therapists in 2000 were as follows: Offices and clinics of medical doctors Home health care services.................. Offices of other health practitioners... Nursing and personal care facilities ... Hospitals............................................ Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are avail able from: >■ American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alex andria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org Physician Assistants ______ (0*NET 29-1071.00) • • Significant Points The typical physician assistant program lasts about 2 years and usually requires at least 2 years of college and some healthcare experience for admission. Earnings are high and job opportunities should be good. Nature of the Work Physician assistants (PAs) provide healthcare services under the su pervision of physicians. They should not be confused with medical assistants, who perform routine clinical and clerical tasks. (Medi cal assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) PAs are formally trained to provide diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive healthcare services, as delegated by a physician. Working as mem bers of the healthcare team, they take medical histories, examine and treat patients, order and interpret laboratory tests and x rays, make diagnoses, and prescribe medications. They also treat minor injuries by suturing, splinting, and casting. PAs record progress notes, instruct and counsel patients, and order or carry out therapy. In 47 States and the District of Columbia, physician assistants may prescribe medications. PAs also may have managerial duties. Some order medical and laboratory supplies and equipment and may su pervise technicians and assistants. Physician assistants work under the supervision of a physician. However, PAs may be the principal care providers in rural or inner city clinics, where a physician is present for only 1 or 2 days each week. In such cases, the PA confers with the supervising physician and other medical professionals as needed or as required by law. PAs also may make house calls or go to hospitals and nursing homes to check on patients and report back to the physician. 3 $58,390 57.830 55.830 54,740 54,430 Related Occupations Physical therapists rehabilitate persons with physical disabilities. DigitizedOthers for FRASER who work in the rehabilitation field include occupational https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis therapists, recreational therapists, rehabilitation counselors, respira tory therapists, and speech-language pathologists and audiologists. Physician assistants treat all types ofpatients, young and old. Professional and Related Occupations 261 The duties of physician assistants are determined by the super vising physician and by State law. Aspiring PAs should investigate the laws and regulations in the States in which they wish to practice. Many PAs work in primary care areas such as general internal medicine, pediatrics, and family medicine. Others work in specialty areas, such as general and thoracic surgery, emergency medicine, orthopedics, and geriatrics. PAs specializing in surgery provide preand postoperative care, and may work as first or second assistants during major surgery. Working Conditions Although PAs usually work in a comfortable, well-lighted environ ment, those in surgery often stand for long periods, and others do considerable walking. Schedules vary according to practice setting, and often depend on the hours of the supervising physician. The workweek of PAs in physicians’ offices may include weekends, night hours, or early morning hospital rounds to visit patients. These work ers also may be on call. PAs in clinics usually work a 40-hour week. Employment Physician assistants held about 58,000 jobs in 2000. The number of jobs is greater than the number of practicing PAs because some hold two or more jobs. For example, some PAs work with a supervising physician, but also work in another practice, clinic, or hospital. Ac cording to the American Academy ofPhysician Assistants, there were about 40,469 certified PAs in clinical practice as of January 2000. Almost 56 percent of jobs for PA’s were in the offices and clin ics of physicians, dentists, or other health practitioners. About 32 percent were in hospitals. The rest were mostly in public health clinics, temporary help agencies, schools, prisons, home healthcare agencies, and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, about one-third of all PAs provide healthcare to communities with fewer than 50,000 residents, in which physicians may be in limited supply. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require that new PAs complete an accredited, formal edu cation program. As of July 2001, there were 129 accredited or pro visionally accredited educational programs for physician assistants; 64 of these programs offered a master’s degree. The rest offered either a bachelor’s degree or an associate degree. Most PA gradu ates have at least a bachelor’s degree. Admission requirements vary, but many programs require 2 years of college and some work experience in the healthcare field. Stu dents should take courses in biology, English, chemistry, math, psy chology, and social sciences. More than two-thirds of all applicants hold a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Many applicants are former emergency medical technicians, other allied health professionals, or nurses. PA programs usually last at least 2 years. Most programs are in schools of allied health, academic health centers, medical schools, or 4-year colleges; a few are in community colleges, the military, or hospitals. Many accredited PA programs have clinical teaching af filiations with medical schools. PA education includes classroom instruction in biochemistry, pa thology, human anatomy, physiology, microbiology, clinical phar macology, clinical medicine, geriatric and home healthcare, disease prevention, and medical ethics. Students obtain supervised clinical training in several areas, including primary care medicine, inpatient medicine, surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, geriatrics, emergency medicine, psychiatry, and pediatrics. Sometimes, PA students serve one or more of these “rotations” under the supervision of a physi cian who is seeking to hire a PA. These rotations often lead to permanent employment. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis All States and the District of Columbia have legislation govern ing the qualifications or practice of physician assistants. All juris dictions require physician assistants to pass the Physician Assistants National Certifying Examination, administered by the National Com mission on Certification of Physician Assistants (NCCPA)—open to graduates of accredited PA educational programs. Only those successfully completing the examination may use the credential “Physician Assistant-Certified (PA-C).” In order to remain certi fied, PAs must complete 100 hours of continuing medical educa tion every 2 years. Every 6 years, they must pass a recertification examination or complete an alternate program combining learning experiences and a take-home examination. Some PA’s pursue additional education in a specialty area such as surgery, neonatology, or emergency medicine. PA postgraduate residency training programs are available in areas such as internal medicine, rural primary care, emergency medicine, surgery, pediat rics, neonatology, and occupational medicine. Candidates must be graduates of an accredited program and be certified by the NCCPA. Physician assistants need leadership skills, self-confidence, and emotional stability. They must be willing to continue studying throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. As they attain greater clinical knowledge and experience, PAs can advance to added responsibilities and higher earnings. How ever, by the very nature of the profession, clinically practicing PAs always are supervised by physicians. Job Outlook Employment opportunities are expected to be good for physician assistants, particularly in areas or settings that have difficulty attracting physicians, such as rural and inner city clinics. Employ ment of PAs is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010 due to anticipated expan sion of the health services industry and an emphasis on cost con tainment. Physicians and institutions are expected to employ more PAs to provide primary care and to assist with medical and surgical proce dures because PAs are cost-effective and productive members of the healthcare team. Physician assistants can relieve physicians of routine duties and procedures. Telemedicine—using technology to facilitate interactive consultations between physicians and physi cian assistants—also will expand the use of physician assistants. Besides the traditional office-based setting, PAs should find a growing number of jobs in institutional settings such as hospitals, academic medical centers, public clinics, and prisons. Additional PAs may be needed to augment medical staffing in inpatient teach ing hospital settings if the number of physician residents is reduced. In addition, State-imposed legal limitations on the numbers of hours worked by physician residents are increasingly common and en courage hospitals to use PAs to supply some physician resident ser vices. Opportunities will be best in States that allow PAs a wider scope of practice. Earnings Median annual earnings of physician assistants were $61,910 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,970 and $73,890. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,690, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,100. Median annual earnings of phy sician assistants in 2000 were $64,430 in offices and clinics of medical doctors and $61,460 in hospitals. According to the American Academy of Physician Assistants, median income for physician assistants in full-time clinical prac tice in 2000 was about $65,177; median income for first-year gradu ates was about $56,977. Income varies by specialty, practice setting, geographical location, and years of experience. 262 Occupational Outlook Handbook Related Occupations Other health workers who provide direct patient care that requires a similar level of skill and training include occupational therapists, physical therapists, and speech-language pathologists and audiologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a physician assistant, contact: >- American Academy of Physician Assistants Information Center, 950 North Washington St., Alexandria, VA22314-1552. Internet: http://www.aapa.org For a list of accredited programs and a catalog of individual PA training programs, contact: >- Association of Physician Assistant Programs, 950 North Washington St.,Alexandria, VA22314-1552. Internet: http://www.apap.org For eligibility requirements and a description of the Physician Assistant National Certifying Examination, contact: >- National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants, Inc., 157 Technology Pkwy., Suite 800, Norcross, GA 30092-2913. Internet: http://www.nccpa.net Physicians and Surgeons __ (0**NET 29-1061.00, 29-1062.00, 29-1063.00, 29-1064.00, 29-1065.00, 29-1066.00, 29-1067.00) Significant Points • • Physicians are much more likely to work as salaried employees of group medical practices, clinics, or integrated healthcare systems than in the past. Formal education and training requirements are among the most demanding of any occupation, but earnings are among the highest. Nature of the Work Physicians and surgeons serve a fundamental role in our society and have an effect upon all our lives. They diagnose illnesses and prescribe and administer treatment for people suffering from injury or disease. Physicians examine patients, obtain medical histories, and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive healthcare. There are two types of physicians: The M.D.—Doctor of Medi cine—and the D.O.—Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. M.D.s also are known as allopathic physicians. While both M.D.s and D.O.s may use all accepted methods of treatment, including drugs and surgery, D.O.s place special emphasis on the body’s musculoskel etal system, preventive medicine, and holistic patient care. About a third of M.D.s—and more than half of D.O.s—are pri mary care physicians. They practice general and family medicine, general internal medicine, or general pediatrics and usually are the first health professionals patients consult. Primary care physicians tend to see the same patients on a regular basis for preventive care and to treat a variety of ailments. General and family practitioners emphasize comprehensive healthcare for patients of all ages and for the family as a group. Those in general internal medicine provide care mainly for adults who may have problems associated with the body’s organs. General pediatricians focus on the whole range of children’s health issues. When appropriate, primary care physicians refer patients to specialists, who are experts in medical fields such as obstetrics and gynecology, cardiology, psychiatry, or surgery (table 1). D.O.s are more likely to be primary care providers than M.D.s, although they can be found in all specialties. Over half of D.O.s practice general or family medicine, general internal medicine, or Digitizedgeneral for FRASER pediatrics. Common specialties for D.O.s include https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Table 1. Percent distribution of M.D.s by specialty, 1999 Percent Total Primary care Internal medicine................................................................................... General and family practice................................................................ Pediatrics........................................................................................................ Medical specialties Allergy................................................................. Cardiovascular diseases................................... Dermatology...................................................... Gastroenterology.............................................. Obstetrics and gynecology ............................. Pediatric cardiology.......................................... Pulmonary diseases.......................................... Surgical specialties Colon and rectal surgery.................................. General surgery.................................................. Neurological surgery....................................... Ophthalmology.................................................. Orthopedic surgery........................................... Otolaryngology.................................................. Plastic surgery................................................... Thoracic surgery............................................... Urological surgery............................................ Other specialties Aerospace medicine.......................................... Anesthesiology.................................................. Child psychiatry............................................... Diagnostic radiology....................................... Emergency medicine....................................... Forensic pathology........................................... General preventive medicine......................... Neurology........................................................... Nuclear medicine.............................................. Occupational medicine.................................... Pathology........................................................... Physical medicine and rehabilitation........... Psychiatry........................................................... Public health..................................................... Radiology........................................................... Radiation oncology.......................................... Other specialty.................................................. Unspecified/unknown/inactive..................... 100.0 16.1 10.7 7-5 0.5 2.5 1.2 1.3 4.9 0.2 1.0 0.1 4.9 0.6 2.2 2.7 1.1 0.7 0.1 1.3 0.1 4.4 0.7 2.6 2.8 0.1 0.4 1.5 0.2 0.4 2.3 0.8 4.9 0.2 1.0 0.5 0.7 16.0 SOURCE: American Medical Association emergency medicine, anesthesiology, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery. Surgeons are physicians who specialize in the treatment of in jury, disease, and deformity through operations. With patients un der general or local anesthesia, a surgeon operates using a variety of instruments to correct physical deformities, repair bone and tis sue after injuries, or perform preventive surgeries on patients with debilitating diseases or disorders. Though a large number perform general surgery, many surgeons choose to specialize in a specific area. One of the most prevalent specialties is orthopedic surgery, the treatment of the skeletal system and associated organs. Others include ophthalmology (treatment of the eye), neurological surgery (treatment of the brain and nervous system), and plastic or recon structive surgery. Surgeons, like primary care and other specialist physicians, also examine patients, perform, and interpret diagnos tic tests, and counsel patients on preventive healthcare. Professional and Related Occupations 263 A growing number of physicians are partners or salaried employ ees of group practices. Organized as clinics or as groups of physi cians, medical groups can afford expensive medical equipment and realize other business advantages. Also, hospitals are integrating physician practices into healthcare networks that provide a continuum of care both inside and outside the hospital setting. The New England and Middle Atlantic States have the highest ratio of physicians to population; the South Central States have the lowest. D.O.s are more likely than M.D.s to practice in small cities and towns and in rural areas. M.D.s tend to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers. Hpai!* ■ .. . ill* lliill . :i - V Sslil Physicians and surgeons work in various specialties, including sports medicine. Working Conditions Many physicians work in small private offices or clinics, often as sisted by a small staff of nurses and other administrative personnel. Increasingly, physicians practice in groups or healthcare organiza tions that provide back-up coverage and allow for more time off. These physicians often work as part of a team coordinating care for a population of patients; they are less independent than solo practi tioners of the past. Surgeons typically work in well-lighted, sterile environments while performing surgery and often stand for long periods. Most work in hospitals or in surgical outpatient centers. Many physi cians and surgeons work long, irregular hours. Almost one-third of physicians worked 60 hours or more a week in 2000. They must travel frequently between office and hospital to care for their pa tients. Physicians and surgeons who are on call deal with many patients’ concerns over the phone, and may make emergency visits to hospitals or nursing homes. Employment Physicians and surgeons held about 598,000 jobs in 2000. About 7 out of 10 were in office-based practice and about 2 out of 10 were employed by hospitals. Others practiced in the Federal Government, most in U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals and clinics or in the Public Health Service of the Department of Health and Hu man Services. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training and Other Qualifications It takes many years of education and training to become a physi cian: 4 years of undergraduate school, 4 years of medical school, and 3 to 8 years of internship and residency, depending on the spe cialty selected. A few medical schools offer a combined under graduate and medical school program that lasts 6 years instead of the customary 8 years. Premedical students must complete undergraduate work in phys ics, biology, mathematics, English, and inorganic and organic chem istry. Students also take courses in the humanities and the social sciences. Some students also volunteer at local hospitals or clinics to gain practical experience in the health professions. The minimum educational requirement for entry into a medical school is 3 years of college; most applicants, however, have at least a bachelor’s degree, and many have advanced degrees. There are 144 medical schools in the United States—125 teach allopathic medicine and award a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree; 19 teach osteopathic medicine and award the Doctor of Osteopathic Medi cine (D.O.) degree. Acceptance to medical school is very competi tive. Applicants must submit transcripts, scores from the Medical College Admission Test, and letters of recommendation. Schools also consider character, personality, leadership qualities, and par ticipation in extracurricular activities. Most schools require an in terview with members of the admissions committee. Students spend most of the first 2 years of medical school in laboratories and classrooms taking courses such as anatomy, bio chemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathology, medical ethics, and laws governing medicine. They also learn to take medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose ill ness. During the last 2 years, students work with patients under the supervision of experienced physicians in hospitals and clinics to learn acute, chronic, preventive, and rehabilitative care. Through rotations in internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gyne cology, pediatrics, psychiatry, and surgery, they gain experience in the diagnosis and treatment of illness. Following medical school, almost all M.D.s enter a residency— graduate medical education in a specialty that takes the form of paid on-the-job training, usually in a hospital. Most D.O.s serve a 12-month rotating internship after graduation before entering a resi dency which may last 2 to 6 years. Physicians may benefit from residencies in managed care settings by gaining experience with this increasingly common type of medical practice. All States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories license physicians. To be licensed, physicians must graduate from an ac credited medical school, pass a licensing examination, and complete 1 to 7 years of graduate medical education. Although physicians licensed in one State can usually get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit reciprocity. Gradu ates of foreign medical schools usually can qualify for licensure af ter passing an examination and completing a U.S. residency. M.D.s and D.O.s seeking board certification in a specialty may spend up to 7 years—depending on the specialty—in residency 264 Occupational Outlook Handbook training. A final examination immediately after residency, or after 1 or 2 years of practice, also is necessary for board certification by the American Board ofMedical Specialists (ABMS) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA). There are 24 specialty boards, ranging from allergy and immunology to urology. For certification in a subspecialty, physicians usually need another 1 to 2 years of residency. A physician’s training is costly and, whereas education costs have increased, student financial assistance has not. More than 80 percent of medical students borrow money to cover their expenses. People who wish to become physicians must have a desire to serve patients, be self-motivated, and be able to survive the pres sures and long hours of medical education and practice. Physi cians also must have a good bedside manner, emotional stability, and the ability to make decisions in emergencies. Prospective phy sicians must be willing to study throughout their career to keep up with medical advances. They also will need to be flexible to re spond to the changing demands of a rapidly evolving health care environment. Job Outlook Employment of physicians and surgeons will grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010 due to contin ued expansion of the health care industries. The growing and aging population will drive overall growth in the demand for physician services. In addition, new technologies will permit more intensive care: Physicians will be able to do more tests, perform more proce dures, and treat conditions previously regarded as untreatable. Although job prospects may be better for primary care physi cians such as general and family practitioners, general pediatricians, and general internists, a substantial number of jobs for specialists will also be created in response to patient demand for access to specialty care. The number of physicians in training has leveled off and is likely to decrease over the next few years, alleviating the effects of any physician oversupply. However, future physicians may be more likely to work fewer hours, retire earlier, have lower earnings, or have to practice in underserved areas. Opportunities should be good in rural and low income areas, because some physicians find these areas unattractive due to lower earnings potential, isolation from medical colleagues, or other reasons. Unlike their predecessors, newly trained physicians face radically different choices of where and how to practice. New physicians are much less likely to enter solo practice and more likely to take sala ried jobs in group medical practices, clinics, and integrated healthcare systems. Earnings Physicians have among the highest earnings of any occupation. According to the latest data available from the American Medical Association, median income, after expenses, for allopathic physi cians was about $160,000 in 1998. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 120,000 and $240,000 a year. Self-employed physicians— those who own or are part owners of their medical practice—had higher median incomes than salaried physicians. Earnings vary ac cording to number of years in practice, geographic region, hours worked, and skill, personality, and professional reputation. As shown in table 2, median income of allopathic physicians, after expenses, also varies by specialty. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disor ders, and injuries. Professionals in other occupations requiring similar skills and critical judgment include chiropractors, dentists, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Table 2. Median net income of M.D.s after expenses, 1998 All physicians........................................................................................... $160,000 Surgery...................................................................................................... 240,000 Radiology................................................................................................ 230,000 Anesthesiology....................................................................................... 210,000 Obstetrics/gynecology.......................................................................... 200,000 Emergency medicine............................................................................. 184,000 Pathology................................................................................................. 184,000 General internal medicine..................................................................... 140,000 General/Family practice....................................................................... 130,000 Psychiatry................................................................................................ 130,000 Pediatrics................................................................................................. 126,000 SOURCE: American Medical Association optometrists, physician assistants, podiatrists, speech-language pa thologists and audiologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For a list of medical schools and residency programs, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: >- Association of American Medical Colleges, Section for Student Services, 2450 N St. NW, Washington, DC 20037-1126. Internet: http://www.aamc.org >- American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 5550 Friendship Blvd., Suite 310, Chevy Chase, MD 20815-7321. Internet: http://www.aacom.org For general information on physicians, contact: >- American Medical Association, Department of Communications and Public Relations, 515 N. State St., Chicago, IL 60610. Internet: http://www.ama-assn.org ► American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations, 142 East Ontario St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.aoa-net.org Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at schools of medicine. Information on licensing is available from State boards of exam iners. Podiatrists (0**NET 29-1081.00) Significant Points • • • A limited number of job openings for podiatrists is expected because the occupation is small and most podiatrists remain in the occupation until they retire. Most podiatrists are solo practitioners, although more are entering partnerships and multispecialty group practices. Podiatrists enjoy very high earnings. Nature of the Work Americans spend a great deal of time on their feet. As the Nation becomes more active across all age groups, the need for footcare will become increasingly important to maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The human foot is a complex structure. It contains 26 bones— plus muscles, nerves, ligaments, and blood vessels—and is designed for balance and mobility. The 52 bones in your feet make up about one-fourth of all the bones in your body. Podiatrists, also known as doctors ofpodiatric medicine (DPMs), diagnose and treat disorders, Professional and Related Occupations 265 A podiatrist adjusts a brace on a patient’s leg, ensuring a properfit. diseases, and injuries of the foot and lower leg to keep this part of the body working properly. Podiatrists treat corns, calluses, ingrown toenails, bunions, heel spurs, and arch problems; ankle and foot injuries, deformities and infections; and foot complaints associated with diseases such as dia betes. To treat these problems, podiatrists prescribe drugs, order physi cal therapy, set fractures, and perform surgery. They also fit corrective inserts called orthotics, design plaster casts and strappings to correct deformities, and design custom-made shoes. Podiatrists may use a force plate to help design the orthotics. Patients walk across a plate connected to a computer that “reads” the patients’ feet, picking up pressure points and weight distribution. From the computer readout, podiatrists order the correct design or recommend treatment. To diagnose a foot problem, podiatrists also order x rays and laboratory tests. The foot may be the first area to show signs of serious conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, and heart disease. For example, diabetics are prone to foot ulcers and infections due to poor circulation. Podiatrists consult with and refer patients to other health practitioners when they detect symptoms of these disorders. Most podiatrists have a solo practice, although more are form ing group practices with other podiatrists or health practitioners. Some specialize in surgery, orthopedics, primary care, or public health. Besides these board-certified specialties, podiatrists may practice a subspecialty such as sports medicine, pediatrics, derma tology, radiology, geriatrics, or diabetic foot care. Podiatrists who are in private practice are responsible for running a small business. They may hire employees, order supplies, and keep records, among other tasks. In addition, some educate the commu nity on the benefits of footcare through speaking engagements and advertising. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work in their own offices. They also may spend time visiting patients in nursing homes or performing surgery at a hospital, but usually have fewer after-hours emergencies than other doctors. Those with private practices set their own hours, but may work evenings and weekends to meet the needs of their patients. Employment Podiatrists held about 18,000 jobs in 2000. Most podiatrists are solo practitioners, although more are entering partnerships and multi specialty group practices. Others are employed in hospitals, homes, the U.S. Public Ftealth Service, and the U.S. Depart Digitizednursing for FRASER ment of Veterans Affairs. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatric medicine. Each defines its own licensing re quirements. Generally, the applicant must be a graduate of an ac credited college of podiatric medicine and pass written and oral examinations. Some States permit applicants to substitute the ex amination of the National Board of Podiatric Examiners, given in the second and fourth years of podiatric medical college, for part or all of the written State examination. Most States also require comple tion of a postdoctoral residency program. Many States grant reci procity to podiatrists who are licensed in another State. Most States require continuing education for licensure renewal. Prerequisites for admission to a college of podiatric medicine include the completion of at least 90 semester hours of undergradu ate study, an acceptable grade point average, and suitable scores on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). All require 8 semes ter hours each of biology, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics, and 6 hours of English. The science courses should be those designed for premedical students. Potential podiatric medi cal students may also be evaluated on the basis of extracurricular and community activities, personal interviews, and letters of rec ommendation. More than 90 percent of podiatric students have at least a bachelor’s degree. Colleges of podiatric medicine offer a 4-year program whose core curriculum is similar to that in other schools of medicine. During the first 2 years, students receive classroom instruction in basic sci ences, including anatomy, chemistry, pathology, and pharmacology. Third- and fourth-year students have clinical rotations in private prac tices, hospitals, and clinics. During these rotations, they learn how to take general and podiatric histories, perform routine physical ex aminations, interpret tests and findings, make diagnoses, and per form therapeutic procedures. Graduates receive the doctor of podiatric medicine (DPM) degree. Most graduates complete a hospital residency program after re ceiving a DPM. Residency programs last from 1 to 3 years. Resi dents receive advanced training in podiatric medicine and surgery and serve clinical rotations in anesthesiology, internal medicine, pa thology, radiology, emergency medicine, and orthopedic and general surgery. Residencies lasting more than 1 year provide more exten sive training in specialty areas. There are a number of certifying boards for the podiatric spe cialties of orthopedics, primary medicine, or surgery. Certification means that the DPM meets higher standards than those required for licensure. Each board requires advanced training, completion of written and oral examinations, and experience as a practicing po diatrist. Most managed care organizations prefer board-certified podiatrists. People planning a career in podiatry should have scientific apti tude, manual dexterity, interpersonal skills, and good business sense. Podiatrists may advance to become professors at colleges of po diatric medicine, department chiefs of hospitals, or general health administrators. Job Outlook Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010. More people will turn to podiatrists for footcare as the elderly population grows. The eld erly have more years of wear and tear on their feet and legs than most younger people, so they are more prone to foot ailments. Inju ries sustained by an increasing number of men and women of all ages leading active lifestyles will also spur demand for podiatric care. Medicare and most private health insurance programs cover acute medical and surgical foot services, as well as diagnostic x 266 Occupational Outlook Handbook rays and leg braces. Details of such coverage vary among plans. However, routine foot care—including the removal of corns and calluses—is ordinarily not covered, unless the patient has a sys temic condition that has resulted in severe circulatory problems or areas of desensitization in the legs or feet. Like dental services, podiatric care is more dependent on disposable income than other medical services. Employment of podiatrists would grow even faster were it not for continued emphasis on controlling the costs of specialty healthcare. Insurers will balance the cost of sending patients to podiatrists against the cost and availability of substitute practitio ners, such as physicians and physical therapists. Opportunities will be better for board-certified podiatrists, because many managed care organizations require board-certification. Opportunities for newly trained podiatrists will be better in group medical practices, clinics, and health networks than in a traditional solo practice. Establish ing a practice will be most difficult in the areas surrounding col leges of podiatric medicine because podiatrists are concentrated in these locations. Over the next 10 years, members of the “baby boom” genera tion will begin to retire, creating vacancies. Relatively few job openings from this source are expected, however, because the oc cupation is small. Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried podiatrists were $107,560 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $77,440 and $ 134,900 a year. According to a survey by Podiatry Management magazine, median net income of podiatrists in solo practice, including the selfemployed, was $89,681 in 2000. Those in group practices or part nerships earned median net income of $96,200 in 2000. Self-employed podiatrists must provide for their own health insur ance and retirement. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who apply scientific knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat disorders and injuries are chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information For information on podiatric medicine as a career, contact: >• American Podiatric Medical Association, 9312 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-1621. Internet: http://www.apma.org Information on colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance require ments, curriculums, and student financial aid is available from: Nature of the Work Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recreation specialists, provide treatment services and recreation activities to individuals with disabilities, illnesses, or other disabling condi tions. Therapists treat and maintain the physical, mental, and emo tional well-being of clients using a variety of techniques, including the use of arts and crafts, animals, sports, games, dance and move ment, drama, music, and community outings. Therapists help individuals reduce depression, stress, and anxiety. They also help individuals recover basic motor functioning and reasoning abilities, build confidence, and socialize effectively to enable greater independence, as well as to reduce or eliminate the effects of illness or disability. Additionally, they help integrate people with disabilities into the community by helping them use com munity resources and recreational activities. Recreational thera pists should not be confused with recreation and fitness workers, who organize recreational activities primarily for enjoyment. (Rec reation and fitness workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In acute healthcare settings, such as hospitals and rehabilitation centers, recreational therapists treat and rehabilitate individuals with specific health conditions, usually in conjunction or collaboration with physicians, nurses, psychologists, social workers, and physical and occupational therapists. In long-term and residential care facili ties, recreational therapists use leisure activities—especially struc tured group programs—to improve and maintain general health and well-being. They may also treat clients and provide interventions to prevent further medical problems and secondary complications re lated to illness and disabilities. Recreational therapists assess clients, based on information from standardized assessments, observations, medical records, medical staff, family, and clients themselves. They then develop and carry out therapeutic interventions consistent with client needs and inter ests. For example, clients isolated from others, or with limited so cial skills, may be encouraged to play games with others, or right-handed persons with right-side paralysis may be instructed to adapt to using their nonaffected left side to throw a ball or swing a racket. Recreational therapists may instruct patients in relaxation techniques to reduce stress and tension, stretching and limbering exercises, proper body mechanics for participation in recreation activities, pacing and energy conservation techniques, and individual as well as team activities. Additionally, therapists observe and docu ment patients’ participation, reactions, and progress. >- American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 1350 Piccard Dr., Suite 322, Rockville, MD 20850-4307. Internet: http://www.aacpm.org | Hir Recreational Therapists (0**NET 29-1125.00) Significant Points • Employment growth is expected in assisted living, physical and psychiatric rehabilitation, and services for people with disabilities. • Opportunities should be best for persons with a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation or in recreation with a concentration in therapeutic recreation. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ■gBH Recreational therapists provide treatment services and recreation activities to individuals with disabilities and illnesses. Professional and Related Occupations 267 Community-based therapeutic recreation specialists may work in park and recreation departments, special education programs for school districts, or programs for older adults and people with dis abilities. Included in the latter group are programs and facilities such as assisted living, adult day care, and substance abuse reha bilitation centers. In these programs, therapists use interventions to develop specific skills while providing opportunities for exercise, mental stimulation, creativity, and fun. Although most therapists are employed in other areas, those who work in schools help coun selors, teachers, and parents address the special needs of students— most importantly, easing the transition into adult life for disabled students. Working Conditions Recreational therapists provide services in special activity rooms but also plan activities and prepare documentation in offices. When working with clients during community integration programs, they may travel locally to instruct clients on the accessibility of public transportation and other public areas, such as parks, playgrounds, swimming pools, restaurants, and theaters. Therapists often lift and carry equipment as well as lead recre ational activities. Recreational therapists generally work a 40-hour week that may include some evenings, weekends, and holidays. Employment Recreational therapists held about 29,000 jobs in 2000. Almost 40 percent of salaried jobs for therapists were in nursing and personal care facilities, and over 30 percent were in hospitals. Others worked in residential facilities, community mental health centers, adult day care programs, correctional facilities, community programs for people with disabilities, and substance abuse centers. Only a small number of therapists were self-employed, generally contracting with long-term care facilities or community agencies to develop and over see programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation, or in recreation with a concentration in therapeutic recreation, is the usual requirement for entry-level positions. Persons may qualify for paraprofessional positions with an associate degree in therapeutic recreation or a health care related field. An associate degree in recreational therapy; training in art, drama, or music therapy; or qualifying work experi ence may be sufficient for activity director positions in nursing homes. There are approximately 160 programs that prepare recreational therapists. Most offer bachelor’s degrees, although some also offer associate, master’s, or doctoral degrees. Programs include courses in assessment, treatment and program planning, intervention de sign, and evaluation. Students also study human anatomy, physiol ogy, abnormal psychology, medical and psychiatric terminology, characteristics of illnesses and disabilities, professional ethics, and the use of assistive devices and technology. Most employers prefer to hire candidates who are certified thera peutic recreation specialists (CTRS). The National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification (NCTRC) certifies therapeu tic recreation specialists. To presently become certified, specialists must have a bachelor’s degree, pass a written certification exami nation, and complete an internship of at least 360 hours. Beginning in 2003, however, specialists will be required to complete an in ternship of at least 480 hours, in addition to the degree and exami Digitizednation for FRASER requirements. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Recreational therapists should be comfortable working with per sons who are ill or have disabilities. Therapists must be patient, tactful, and persuasive when working with people who have a variety of special needs. Ingenuity, a sense of humor, and imagi nation are needed to adapt activities to individual needs; and good physical coordination is necessary to demonstrate or participate in recreational activities. Therapists may advance to supervisory or administrative posi tions. Some teach, conduct research, or consult for health or social services agencies. Job Outlook Overall employment of recreational therapists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Employment will decline slightly in the two largest sectors employing recreational therapists, hospitals and nursing homes, as services shift to outpatient settings and employers emphasize cost containment. However, fast employment growth is expected in as sisted living, outpatient physical and psychiatric rehabilitation, and services for people with disabilities. Opportunities should be best for persons with a bachelor’s degree in therapeutic recreation or in recreation with an option in therapeutic recreation. Healthcare facilities will provide a growing number of jobs in hospital-based adult day care and outpatient programs and in units offering short-term mental health and alcohol or drug abuse ser vices. Rehabilitation, home healthcare, transitional programs, and psychiatric facilities will provide additional jobs. The rapidly growing number of older adults is expected to spur job growth for therapeutic recreation specialists and recreational therapy paraprofessionals in assisted living facilities, adult daycare programs, and social service agencies. Continued growth also is expected in community residential facilities, as well as day care programs for individuals with disabilities. Earnings Median annual earnings of recreational therapists were $28,650 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,780 and $36,070 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,810 a year. Median an nual earnings for recreational therapists in 2000 were $32,520 in hospitals and $23,240 in nursing and personal care facilities. Related Occupations Recreational therapists primarily design activities to help people with disabilities lead more fulfilling and independent lives. Other workers who have similar jobs are occupational therapists, physi cal therapists, recreation and fitness workers, and rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information on how to order materials describing careers and academic programs in recreational therapy, write to: > American Therapeutic Recreation Association, 1414 Prince St., Suite 204, Alexandria, VA 22314-2853. Internet: http://www.atra-tr.org >■ National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 22377 Belmont Ridge Rd., Ashbum, VA 20148-4501. Internet: http://www.nrpa.org/branches/ntrs.htm Certification information may be obtained from: >- National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification, 7 Elmwood Dr., New City, NY 10956. Internet: http://www.nctrc.org 268 Occupational Outlook Handbook Registered Nurses (0*NET 29-1111.00) Significant Points • • • • The largest health care occupation, with more than 2 million jobs. One of the 10 occupations projected to have the largest numbers of new jobs. Job opportunities are expected to be very good. Earnings are above average, particularly for advanced practice nurses, who have additional education or training. Nature of the Work Registered nurses (RNs) work to promote health, prevent disease, and help patients cope with illness. They are advocates and health educators for patients, families, and communities. When providing direct patient care, they observe, assess, and record symptoms, re actions, and progress; assist physicians during treatments and ex aminations; administer medications; and assist in convalescence and rehabilitation. RNs also develop and manage nursing care plans; instruct patients and their families in proper care; and help indi viduals and groups take steps to improve or maintain their health. While State laws govern the tasks that RNs may perform, it is usu ally the work setting that determines their daily job duties. Hospital nurses form the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses, who provide bedside nursing care and carry out medical regimens. They also may supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides. Hospital nurses usually are assigned to one area, such as surgery, maternity, pediatrics, emergency room, intensive care, or treatment of cancer patients. Some may rotate among departments. Office nurses care for outpatients in physicians’ offices, clinics, surgicenters, and emergency medical centers. They prepare patients for and assist with examinations, administer injections and medica tions, dress wounds and incisions, assist with minor surgery, and maintain records. Some also perform routine laboratory and office work. Nursing home nurses manage nursing care for residents with conditions ranging from a fracture to Alzheimer’s disease. Although they often spend much of their time on administrative and supervi sory tasks, RNs also assess residents’ health condition, develop treat ment plans, supervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides, and perform difficult procedures such as starting intravenous flu ids. They also work in specialty-care departments, such as long term rehabilitation units for patients with strokes and head-injuries. Home health nurses provide periodic services to patients at home. After assessing patients’ home environments, they care for and in struct patients and their families. Home health nurses care for a broad range of patients, such as those recovering from illnesses and accidents, cancer, and childbirth. They must be able to work inde pendently, and may supervise home health aides. Public health nurses work in government and private agencies and clinics, schools, retirement communities, and other commu nity settings. They focus on populations, working with individu als, groups, and families to improve the overall health of communities. They also work as partners with communities to plan and implement programs. Public health nurses instruct individu als, families, and other groups regarding health issues, disease pre vention, nutrition, and childcare. They arrange for immunizations, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis blood pressure testing, and other health screening. These nurses also work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and physi cians in community health education. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care at worksites to employees, customers, and others with minor inju ries and illnesses. They provide emergency care, prepare accident reports, and arrange for further care if necessary. They also offer health counseling, assist with health examinations and inoculations, and assess work environments to identify potential health or safety problems. Head nurses or nurse supervisors direct nursing activities. They plan work schedules and assign duties to nurses and aides, provide or arrange for training, and visit patients to observe nurses and to ensure the proper delivery of care. They also may see that records are maintained and equipment and supplies are ordered. At the advanced level, nurse practitioners provide basic primary healthcare. They diagnose and treat common acute illnesses and injuries. Nurse practitioners also can prescribe medications—but certification and licensing requirements vary by State. Other ad vanced practice nurses include clinical nurse specialists, certified registered nurse anesthetists, and certified nurse-midwives. Ad vanced practice nurses must meet higher educational and clinical practice requirements beyond the basic nursing education and licensing required of all RNs. ;vV; •' J) ■ : ; Hospital nurses usually are assigned to one area, such as surgery, maternity, pediatrics, emergency room, intensive care, or treatment of cancer patients. Professional and Related Occupations 269 Working Conditions Most nurses work in well-lighted, comfortable healthcare facilities. Home health and public health nurses travel to patients’ homes, schools, community centers, and other sites. Nurses may spend considerable time walking and standing. They need emotional sta bility to cope with human suffering, emergencies, and other stresses. Patients in hospitals and nursing homes require 24-hour care; con sequently, nurses in these institutions may work nights, weekends, and holidays. RNs also may be on-call—available to work on short notice. Office, occupational health, and public health nurses are more likely to work regular business hours. Almost 1 in 10 RNs held more than one job in 2000. Nursing has its hazards, especially in hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics where nurses may care for individuals with infectious diseases. Nurses must observe rigid guidelines to guard against disease and other dangers, such as those posed by radiation, chemi cals used for sterilization of instruments, and anesthetics. In addi tion, they are vulnerable to back injury when moving patients, shocks from electrical equipment, and hazards posed by compressed gases. Employment As the largest healthcare occupation, registered nurses held about 2.2 million jobs in 2000. About 3 out of 5 jobs were in hospitals, in inpatient and outpatient departments. Others were mostly in of fices and clinics of physicians and other health practitioners, home healthcare agencies, nursing homes, temporary help agencies, schools, and government agencies. The remainder worked in resi dential care facilities, social service agencies, religious organiza tions, research facilities, management and public relations firms, insurance agencies, and private households. About 1 out of 4 RNs worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In all States and the District of Columbia, students must graduate from an approved nursing program and pass a national licensing examination to obtain a nursing license. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination, by endorsement of a license issued by another State, or through a multi-State licensing agreement. All States require periodic license renewal, which may involve continuing education. There are three major educational paths to registered nursing: associate degree in nursing (A.D.N.), bachelor of science degree in nursing (B.S.N.), and diploma. A.D.N. programs, offered by community and junior colleges, take about 2 to 3 years. About half of the 1,700 RN programs in 2000 were at the A.D.N. level. B.S.N. programs, offered by colleges and universities, take 4 or 5 years. More than one-third of all programs in 2000 offered degrees at the bachelor’s level. Diploma programs, administered in hospi tals, last 2 to 3 years. Only a small number of programs offer diploma-level degrees. Generally, licensed graduates of any of the three program types qualify for entry-level positions as staff nurses. Many A.D.N. and diploma-educated nurses later enter bachelor’s programs to prepare for a broader scope of nursing practice. They can often find a staff nurse position and then take advantage of tuition reimbursement programs to work toward a B.S.N. Individuals considering nursing should carefully weigh the pros and cons of enrolling in a B.S.N. program because, if they do so, their advancement opportunities usually are broader. In fact, some career paths are open only to nurses with bachelor’s or advanced degrees. A bachelor’s degree is often necessary for administra Digitizedtive for FRASER positions, and it is a prerequisite for admission to graduate https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis nursing programs in research, consulting, teaching, or a clinical specialization. Nursing education includes classroom instruction and supervised clinical experience in hospitals and other health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, nutri tion, psychology and other behavioral sciences, and nursing. Coursework also includes the liberal arts. Supervised clinical experience is provided in hospital depart ments such as pediatrics, psychiatry, maternity, and surgery. A grow ing number of programs include clinical experience in nursing homes, public health departments, home health agencies, and ambu latory clinics. Nurses should be caring and sympathetic. They must be able to accept responsibility, direct or supervise others, follow orders pre cisely, and determine when consultation is required. Experience and good performance can lead to promotion to more responsible positions. Nurses can advance, in management, to as sistant head nurse or head nurse. From there, they can advance to assistant director, director, and vice president. Increasingly, man agement-level nursing positions require a graduate degree in nurs ing or health services administration. They also require leadership, negotiation skills, and good judgment. Graduate programs prepar ing executive-level nurses usually last 1 to 2 years. Within patient care, nurses can advance to clinical nurse spe cialist, nurse practitioner, certified nurse-midwife, or certified reg istered nurse anesthetist. These positions require 1 or 2 years of graduate education, leading to a master’s degree or, in some in stances, to a certificate. Some nurses move into the business side of healthcare. Their nursing expertise and experience on a healthcare team equip them to manage ambulatory, acute, home health, and chronic care ser vices. Healthcare corporations employ nurses for health planning and development, marketing, and quality assurance. Other nurses work as college and university faculty or do research. Job Outlook Job opportunities for RNs are expected to be very good. Employ ment of registered nurses is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through 2010, and because the occupation is very large, many new jobs will result. Thousands of job open ings also will result from the need to replace experienced nurses who leave the occupation, especially as the median age of the regis tered nurse population continues to rise. Some States report current and projected shortages of RNs, pri marily due to an aging RN workforce and recent declines in nurs ing school enrollments. Imbalances between the supply of and demand for qualified workers should spur efforts to attract and re tain qualified RNs. For example, employers may restructure workloads, improve compensation and working conditions, and subsidize training or continuing education. Faster than average growth will be driven by technological ad vances in patient care, which permit a greater number of medical problems to be treated, and an increasing emphasis on preventive care. In addition, the number of older people, who are much more likely than younger people to need nursing care, is projected to grow rapidly. Employment in hospitals, the largest sector, is expected to grow more slowly than in other healthcare sectors. While the intensity of nursing care is likely to increase, requiring more nurses per patient, the number of inpatients (those who remain in the hospital for more than 24 hours) is not likely to increase much. Patients are being discharged earlier and more procedures are being done on an out patient basis, both in and outside hospitals. However, rapid growth 270 Occupational Outlook Handbook is expected in hospital outpatient facilities, such as those providing same-day surgery, rehabilitation, and chemotherapy. Employment in home healthcare is expected to grow rapidly. This is in response to the growing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances that make it possible to bring increas ingly complex treatments into the home. The type of care demanded will require nurses who are able to perform complex procedures. Employment in nursing homes is expected to grow faster than average due to increases in the number of elderly, many of whom require long-term care. In addition, the financial pressure on hospi tals to discharge patients as soon as possible should produce more nursing home admissions. Growth in units that provide specialized long-term rehabilitation for stroke and head injury patients or that treat Alzheimer’s victims also will increase employment. An increasing proportion of sophisticated procedures, which once were performed only in hospitals, are being performed in physi cians’ offices and clinics, including ambulatory surgicenters and emergency medical centers. Accordingly, employment is expected to grow faster than average in these places as healthcare in general expands. In evolving integrated health care networks, nurses may rotate among employment settings. Because jobs in traditional hospital nursing positions are no longer the only option, RNs will need to be flexible. Opportunities should be excellent, particularly for nurses with advanced education and training. Earnings Median annual earnings of registered nurses were $44,840 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,870 and $54,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,890, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $64,360. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of registered nurses in 2000 were as follows: Personnel supply services.................................................................... Hospitals.................................................................................................. Home health care services................................................................... Offices and clinics of medical doctors.............................................. Nursing and personal care facilities.................................................. $46,860 45,780 43,640 43,480 41,330 Many employers offer flexible work schedules, childcare, edu cational benefits, and bonuses. Related Occupations Workers in other healthcare occupations with responsibilities and duties related to those of registered nurses are emergency medical technicians and paramedics, occupational therapists, physical thera pists, physician assistants, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a registered nurse and nursing edu cation, contact: >- National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org For a list of B.S.N. and graduate nursing programs, write to: >- American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Suite 530, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.aacn.nche.edu Information on registered nurses also is available from: >■ American Nurses Association, 600 Maryland Ave. SW., Washington, DigitizedDC for20024-2571. FRASER Internet: http://www.nursingworld.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Respiratory Therapists ____ ___ (0*NET 29-1126.00, 29-2054.00) Significant Points • • Hospitals will continue to employ more than 8 out of 10 respiratory therapists, but a growing number of therapists will work in respiratory therapy clinics, nursing homes, home health agencies, and firms that supply respiratory equipment for home use. Job opportunities will be best for therapists with cardiopulmonary care skills or experience working with newborns and infants. Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists and respiratory therapy technicians—also known as respiratory care practitioners—evaluate, treat, and care for patients with breathing disorders. Respiratory therapists assume primary responsibility for all respiratory care treatments, including the supervision ofrespiratory therapy technicians. Respiratory therapy technicians provide specific, well-defined respiratory care procedures under the direction of respiratory therapists and physicians. In clini cal practice, many of the daily duties of therapists and technicians overlap, although therapists generally have more experience than technicians. In this statement, the term respiratory therapists in cludes both respiratory therapists and respiratory therapy technicians. To evaluate patients, respiratory therapists test the capacity of the lungs and analyze oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration. They also measure the patient’s potential of hydrogen (pH), which indicates the acidity or alkalinity level of the blood. To measure lung capacity, patients breathe into an instrument that measures the volume and flow of oxygen during inhalation and exhalation. By comparing the reading with the norm for the patient’s age, height, weight, and sex, respiratory therapists can determine whether lung deficiencies exist. To analyze oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH lev els, therapists draw an arterial blood sample, place it in a blood gas analyzer, and relay the results to a physician. Respiratory therapists treat all types of patients, ranging from premature infants whose lungs are not fully developed, to elderly people whose lungs are diseased. These workers provide tempo rary relief to patients with chronic asthma or emphysema, as well as emergency care to patients who are victims of a heart attack, stroke, drowning, or shock. To treat patients, respiratory therapists use oxygen or oxygen mixtures, chest physiotherapy, and aerosol medications. To increase a patient’s concentration of oxygen, therapists place an oxygen mask or nasal cannula on a patient and set the oxygen flow at the level prescribed by a physician. Therapists also connect patients who cannot breathe on their own to ventilators that deliver pressurized oxygen into the lungs. They insert a tube into a patient’s trachea, or windpipe; connect the tube to the ventilator; and set the rate, vol ume, and oxygen concentration of the oxygen mixture entering the patient’s lungs. Therapists regularly check on patients and equipment. If the patient appears to be having difficulty, or if the oxygen, carbon di oxide, or pH level of the blood is abnormal, they change the venti lator setting according to the doctor’s order or check equipment for mechanical problems. In homecare, therapists teach patients and their families to use ventilators and other life support systems. Additionally, they visit several times a month to inspect and clean equipment and ensure its proper use and make emergency visits, if equipment problems arise. Professional and Related Occupations 271 Respiratory therapists and technicians evaluate, treat, and carefor patients with breathing disorders. Respiratory therapists perform chest physiotherapy on patients to remove mucus from their lungs and make it easier for them to breathe. For example, during surgery, anesthesia depresses respira tion, so this treatment may be prescribed to help get the patient’s lungs back to normal and to prevent congestion. Chest physiotherapy also helps patients suffering from lung diseases, such as cystic fibro sis, that cause mucus to collect in the lungs. In this procedure, thera pists place patients in positions to help drain mucus, thump and vibrate patients’ rib cages, and instruct them to cough. Respiratory therapists also administer aerosols—liquid medica tions suspended in a gas that forms a mist which is inhaled—and teach patients how to inhale the aerosol properly to assure its effec tiveness. In some hospitals, therapists perform tasks that fall outside their traditional role. Tasks are expanding into cardiopulmonary proce dures like electrocardiograms and stress testing, as well as other tasks like drawing blood samples from patients. Therapists also keep records of materials used and charges to patients. Working Conditions Respiratory therapists generally work between 35 and 40 hours a week. Because hospitals operate around the clock, therapists may work evenings, nights, or weekends. They spend long periods stand ing and walking between patients’ rooms. In an emergency, thera pists work under a great deal of stress. Because gases used by respiratory therapists are stored under pressure, they are potentially hazardous. However, adherence to safety precautions and regular maintenance and testing of equip ment minimize the risk of injury. As in many other health occupa tions, respiratory therapists run a risk of catching infectious diseases, but carefully following proper procedures minimizes this risk. Employment Respiratory therapists held about 110,000jobs in 2000. More than 4 out of 5 jobs were in hospital departments of respiratory care, anes thesiology, or pulmonary medicine. Respiratory therapy clinics, of fices of physicians, nursing homes, and firms that supply respiratory equipment for home use accounted for most of the remaining jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training is necessary for entry to this field. Training is of fered at the postsecondary level by medical schools, colleges and trade schools, vocational-technical institutes, and the universities, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary in length and in the credential or degree awarded. Some programs award associate’s or bachelor’s degrees and prepare graduates for jobs as registered res piratory therapists (RRTs). Other, shorter programs award certifi cates and lead to jobs as entry-level certified respiratory therapists (CRTs). According to the Committee on Accreditation for Respira tory Care (CoARC), there were 334 accredited RRT programs and 102 accredited CRT programs in the United States in 2000. Areas of study for respiratory therapy programs include human anatomy and physiology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, and mathematics. Technical courses deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. More than 40 States license respiratory care personnel. Aspir ing respiratory care practitioners should check on licensure require ments with the board of respiratory care examiners for the State in which they plan to work. The National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC) offers volun tary certification and registration to graduates of CoARC-accred ited programs. Two credentials are awarded to respiratory therapists who satisfy the requirements: Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) and Certified Respiratory Therapist (CRT). Graduates from 2- and 4-year programs in respiratory therapy may take the CRT examination. CRTs who meet education and experience require ments can take two separate examinations, leading to the award of the RRT. Either the CRT or RRT examination is the standard in the States requiring licensure. Most employers require applicants for entry-level or generalist positions to hold the CRT or be eligible to take the certification examination. Supervisory positions and those in intensive care spe cialties usually require the RRT (or RRT eligibility). Therapists should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psycho logical needs. Respiratory care practitioners must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in respiratory care should take courses in health, biology, mathematics, chemistry, and physics. Respiratory care involves basic mathematical problem solving and an understanding of chemical and physical principles. For example, respiratory care workers must be able to compute medication dosages and calculate gas concentrations. Respiratory therapists advance in clinical practice by moving from care of general to critical patients who have significant prob lems in other organ systems, such as the heart or kidneys. Respira tory therapists, especially those with 4-year degrees, may also advance to supervisory or managerial positions in a respiratory therapy department. Respiratory therapists in home care and equip ment rental firms may become branch managers. Some respiratory therapists advance by moving into teaching positions. Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to remain good. Employment of respiratory therapists is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010, because of substantial growth of the middle-aged and elderly population—a development that will heighten the incidence of cardiopulmonary disease. Older Americans suffer most from respiratory ailments and car diopulmonary diseases such as pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, em physema, and heart disease. As their numbers increase, the need for respiratory therapists will increase, as well. In addition, ad vances in treating victims of heart attacks, accident victims, and premature infants (many of whom are dependent on a ventilator during part of their treatment) will increase the demand for the ser vices of respiratory care practitioners. 272 Occupational Outlook Handbook Opportunities are expected to be favorable for respiratory thera pists with cardiopulmonary care skills and experience working with infants. Although hospitals will continue to employ the vast majority of therapists, a growing number of therapists can expect to work out side of hospitals in respiratory therapy clinics, offices of physicians, nursing homes, or homecare. Earnings Median annual earnings of respiratory therapists were $37,680 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,140 and $43,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,620, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,660. In hospitals, median annual earnings of respiratory therapists were $38,040 in 2000. Median annual earnings of respiratory therapy technicians were $32,860 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,280 and $39,740. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,830, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $46,800. Median annual earnings of respiratory therapy technicians employed in hospitals were $32,830 in 2000. Related Occupations Respiratory therapists, under the supervision of a physician, admin ister respiratory care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties. Other workers who care for, treat, or train people to improve their physical condition include registered nurses, occupa tional therapists, physical therapists, and radiation therapists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning a career in respiratory care is available from: >• American Association for Respiratory Care, 11030 Abies Ln., Dallas, TX 75229-4593. Internet: http://www.aarc.org For the current list of CoARC-accredited educational programs for respiratory care practitioners, write to: >- Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care, 1248 Harwood Rd., Bedford, TX 76021-4244. Internet: http://www.coarc.com Information on gaining credentials in respiratory care and a list of State licensing agencies can be obtained from: > The National Board for Respiratory Care, Inc., 8310 Nieman Rd., Lenexa, KS 66214-1579. Internet: http://www.nbrc.org Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists_______________ (0**NET 29-1121.00, 29-1127.00) Significant Points • • • Employment of speech-language pathologists and audiologists is expected to grow rapidly because the growing population in older age groups is prone to medical conditions that result in hearing and speech problems. About half work in schools, and most others are employed by healthcare facilities. A master’s degree in speech-language pathology or audiology is the standard credential. Nature of the Work Speech-language pathologists assess, diagnose, treat, and help to prevent speech, language, cognitive, communication, voice, swal lowing, fluency, and other related disorders; audiologists identify, Digitizedassess, for FRASER and manage auditory, balance, and other neural systems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Speech-language pathologists work with people who cannot make speech sounds, or cannot make them clearly; those with speech rhythm and fluency problems, such as stuttering; people with voice quality problems, such as inappropriate pitch or harsh voice; those with problems understanding and producing language; those who wish to improve their communication skills by modifying an ac cent; and those with cognitive communication impairments, such as attention, memory, and problem solving disorders. They also work with people who have oral motor problems causing eating and swallowing difficulties. Speech and language problems can result from a variety of prob lems including hearing loss, brain injury or deterioration, cerebral palsy, stroke, cleft palate, voice pathology, mental retardation, or emotional problems. Problems can be congenital, developmental, or acquired. Speech-language pathologists use written and oral tests, as well as special instruments, to diagnose the nature and extent of impairment and to record and analyze speech, language, and swal lowing irregularities. Speech-language pathologists develop an in dividualized plan of care, tailored to each patient’s needs. For individuals with little or no speech capability, speech-language pa thologists may select augmentative or alternative communication methods, including automated devices and sign language, and teach their use. They teach these individuals how to make sounds, im prove their voices, or increase their language skills to communicate more effectively. Speech-language pathologists help patients de velop, or recover, reliable communication skills so patients can ful fill their educational, vocational, and social roles. Most speech-language pathologists provide direct clinical ser vices to individuals with communication or swallowing disorders. In speech and language clinics, they may independently develop and carry out treatment programs. In medical facilities, they may work with physicians, social workers, psychologists, and other thera pists. Speech-language pathologists in schools develop individual or group programs, counsel parents, and may assist teachers with classroom activities. Speech-language pathologists keep records on the initial evalu ation, progress, and discharge of clients. This helps pinpoint prob lems, tracks client progress, and justifies the cost of treatment when applying for reimbursement. They counsel individuals and their families concerning communication disorders and how to cope with the stress and misunderstanding that often accompany them. They also work with family members to recognize and change behavior patterns that impede communication and treatment and show them communication-enhancing techniques to use at home. Some speech-language pathologists conduct research on how people communicate. Others design and develop equipment or tech niques for diagnosing and treating speech problems. Audiologists work with people who have hearing, balance, and related problems. They use audiometers, computers, and other test ing devices to measure the loudness at which a person begins to hear sounds, the ability to distinguish between sounds, and the na ture and extent of hearing loss. Audiologists interpret these results and may coordinate them with medical, educational, and psycho logical information to make a diagnosis and determine a course of treatment. Hearing disorders can result from a variety of causes including trauma at birth, viral infections, genetic disorders, exposure to loud noise, or aging. Treatment may include examining and cleaning the ear canal, fitting and dispensing hearing aids or other assistive devices, and audiologic rehabilitation (including auditory training or instruction in speech or lip reading). Audiologists may recom mend, fit, and dispense personal or large area amplification sys tems, such as hearing aids and alerting devices. Audiologists provide fitting and tuning of cochlear implants and provide the Professional and Related Occupations 273 services in schools, physician’s offices, hospitals, or nursing homes, or work as consultants to industry. \ Using sophisticated equipment, an audiologist measures a patient’s hearing ability. necessary rehabilitation for adjustment to listening with implant am plification systems. They also measure noise levels in workplaces and conduct hearing protection programs in industry, as well as in schools and communities. Audiologists provide direct clinical services to individuals with hearing or balance disorders. In audiology (hearing) clinics, they may independently develop and carry out treatment programs. Audiologists, in a variety of settings, work as members of interdis ciplinary professional teams in planning and implementing service delivery for children and adults, from birth to old age. Similar to speech-language pathologists, audiologists keep records on the ini tial evaluation, progress, and discharge of clients. These records help pinpoint problems, track client progress, and justify the cost of treatment, when applying for reimbursement. Audiologists may conduct research on types of, and treatment for, hearing, balance, and related disorders. Others design and de velop equipment or techniques for diagnosing and treating these disorders. Working Conditions Speech-language pathologists and audiologists usually work at a desk or table in clean comfortable surroundings. The job is not physically demanding but does require attention to detail and in tense concentration. The emotional needs of clients and their fami lies may be demanding. Most full-time speech-language pathologists and audiologists work about 40 hours per week; some work part time. Those who work on a contract basis may spend a substantial amount of time traveling between facilities. Employment Speech-language pathologists and audiologists held about 101,000 jobs in 2000. Speech-language pathologists held about 88,000 jobs; and audiologists held about 13,000. About one-half of jobs for speech-language pathologists and audiologists were in preschools, elementary and secondary schools, or colleges and universities. Others were in offices of speech-language pathologists and audi ologists; hospitals; offices of physicians; speech, language, and hearing centers; home health agencies; or other facilities. Audiolo gists are more likely to be employed in independent healthcare of fices, while speech-language pathologists are more likely to work in school settings. A small number of speech-language pathologists and audiolo gists are self-employed in private practice. They contract to provide https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Of the States that regulate licensing (45 for speech-language pathologists and 47 for audiologists), almost all require a master’s degree or equivalent. Other requirements are 300 to 375 hours of supervised clinical experience, a passing score on a national exam ination, and 9 months of postgraduate professional clinical experi ence. Forty-one States have continuing education requirements for licensure renewal. Medicaid, medicare, and private health insurers generally require a practitioner to be licensed to qualify for reimbursement. About 242 colleges and universities offer graduate programs in speech-language pathology. Courses cover anatomy and physiol ogy of the areas of the body involved in speech, language, and hear ing; the development of normal speech, language, and hearing; the nature of disorders; acoustics; and psychological aspects of com munication. Graduate students also learn to evaluate and treat speech, language, and hearing disorders and receive supervised clini cal training in communication disorders. About 112 colleges and universities offer graduate programs in audiology in the United States. Course work includes anatomy; physiology; basic science; math; physics; genetics; normal and ab normal communication development; auditory, balance and neural systems assessment and treatment; audiologic rehabilitation; and ethics. Speech-language pathologists can acquire the Certificate of Clini cal Competence in Speech-Language Pathology (CCC-SLP) offered by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, and audi ologists can earn the Certificate of Clinical Competence in Audiol ogy (CCC-A). To earn a CCC, a person must have a graduate degree and 375 hours of supervised clinical experience, complete a 36week postgraduate clinical fellowship, and pass a written examina tion. According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, as of 2007, audiologists will need to have a bachelor’s degree and complete 75 hours of credit toward a doctoral degree in order to seek certification. As of 2012, audiologists will have to earn a doctoral degree in order to be certified. Speech-language pathologists and audiologists should be able to effectively communicate diagnostic test results, diagnoses, and pro posed treatment in a manner easily understood by their clients. They must be able to approach problems objectively and provide support to clients and their families. Because a client’s progress may be slow, patience, compassion, and good listening skills are necessary. Job Outlook Employment of speech-language pathologists and audiologists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Because hearing loss is strongly associated with aging, rapid growth in the population age 55 and over will cause the number of persons with hearing impairment to increase markedly. In addition, baby boomers are now entering middle age, when the possibility of neurological disorders and associated speech, language, and hearing impairments increases. Medical advances are also improving the survival rate of premature infants and trauma and stroke victims, who then need assessment and possible treat ment. In health services facilities, Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for therapy providers over the near term. Employment in schools will increase along with growth in ele mentary and secondary school enrollments, including enrollment of special education students. Federal law guarantees special edu cation and related services to all eligible children with disabilities. 274 Occupational Outlook Handbook Greater awareness of the importance of early identification and diag nosis of speech, language, and hearing disorders will also increase employment. The number of speech-language pathologists and audiologists in private practice will rise due to the increasing use of contract services by hospitals, schools, and nursing homes. In addition to job openings stemming from employment growth, some openings for speech-language pathologists and audiologists will arise from the need to replace those who leave the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings of speech-language pathologists were $46,640 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,670 and $56,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,980. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of speechlanguage pathologists in 2000 were as follows: Hospitals.................................................................................................. Offices of other health practitioners.................................................. Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... $49,960 47,170 43,710 Median annual earnings of audiologists were $44,830 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,000 and $55,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,850, and the highest 10 per cent earned more than $68,570. According to a 2000 survey by the American Speech-Language Hearing Association, the median annual salary for full-time certi fied speech-language pathologists who worked 11 or 12 months annually was $44,000; for audiologists, $48,000. For those who worked 9 or 10 months annually, the median annual salary for speechlanguage pathologists was $41,000; for audiologists, $45,000. Speech-language pathologists with doctorate degrees who worked 11 or 12 months annually earned $62,500; and audiologists, $70,000. Related Occupations Speech-language pathologists and audiologists specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of speech and language and hearing problems. Workers in related occupations include occupa tional therapists, optometrists, physical therapists, psychologists, recreational therapists, and rehabilitation counselors. Nature of the Work Veterinarians play a major role in the healthcare of pets, livestock, and zoo, sporting, and laboratory animals. Some veterinarians use their skills to protect humans against diseases carried by animals and conduct clinical research on human and animal health prob lems. Others work in basic research, broadening the scope of fun damental theoretical knowledge, and in applied research, developing new ways to use knowledge. Most veterinarians perform clinical work in private practices. More than one-half of these veterinarians predominately, or exclu sively, treat small animals. Small animal practitioners usually care for companion animals, such as dogs and cats, but also treat birds, reptiles, rabbits, and other animals that can be kept as pets. Some veterinarians work in mixed animal practices where they see pigs, goats, sheep, and some nondomestic animals, in addition to com panion animals. Veterinarians in clinical practice diagnose animal health problems; vaccinate against diseases, such as distemper and rabies; medicate animals suffering from infections or illnesses; treat and dress wounds; set fractures; perform surgery; and advise own ers about animal feeding, behavior, and breeding. A small number ofprivate practice veterinarians work exclusively with large animals, focusing mostly on horses or cows but may also care for various kinds of food animals. These veterinarians usually drive to farms or ranches to provide veterinary services for herds or individual animals. Much of this work involves preventive care to maintain the health of the food animals. These veterinarians test for mem tv m SI##! Sources of Additional Information State licensing boards can provide information on licensure require ments. State departments of education can supply information on certification requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. General information on careers in speech-language pathology and audiology is available from: > American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, http://professional.asha.org Information on a career in audiology is also available from: Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: >- American Academy of Audiology, 8201 Greensboro Dr., Suite 300, McLean, VA 22102. Veterinarians _________ (0**NET 29-1131.00) Significant Points • Graduation from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and a license to practice are required. Digitized•for FRASER Competition for admission to veterinary school is keen. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Veterinarians perform a variety ofmedical services on animals such as cats and dogs. Professional and Related Occupations 275 and vaccinate against diseases and consult with farm or ranch own ers and managers on animal production, feeding, and housing is sues. They also treat and dress wounds, set fractures, and perform surgery—including cesarean sections on birthing animals. Veteri narians also euthanize animals when necessary. Other veterinar ians care for zoo, aquarium, or laboratory animals. Veterinarians who treat animals use medical equipment, such as stethoscopes; surgical instruments; and diagnostic equipment, such as radiographic and ultra-sound equipment. Veterinarians working in research use a full range of sophisticated laboratory equipment. Veterinarians can contribute to human as well as animal health. A number of veterinarians work with physicians and scientists as they research ways to prevent and treat human health problems, such as cancer, AIDS, and alcohol or drug abuse. Some determine the effects of drug therapies, antibiotics, or new surgical techniques by testing them on animals. Some veterinarians are involved in food safety at various levels. Veterinarians who are livestock inspectors check animals for trans missible diseases, advise owners on treatment, and may quarantine animals. Veterinarians who are meat, poultry, or egg product in spectors examine slaughtering and processing plants, check live animals and carcasses for disease, and enforce government regula tions regarding food purity and sanitation. Working Conditions Veterinarians often work long hours, with well over one-third of full time workers spending 50 or more hours on the job. Those in group practices may take turns being on call for evening, night, or weekend work; and solo practitioners can work extended and weekend hours, responding to emergencies or squeezing in unexpected appointments. Veterinarians in large animal practice also spend time driving between their office and farms or ranches. They work outdoors in all kinds of weather, and have to treat animals or perform surgery under less-than-sanitary conditions. When working with animals that are frightened or in pain, veterinarians risk being bitten, kicked, or scratched. Veterinarians working in non-clinical areas, such as public health and research, have working conditions similar to those of other pro fessionals in those lines of work. In these cases, veterinarians enjoy clean, well lit offices or laboratories and spend much of their time dealing with people rather than animals. Employment Veterinarians held about 59,000 jobs in 2000. About 28 percent were self-employed in solo or group practices. Most others were employees of another veterinary practice. The Federal Government employed about 800 civilian veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. De partments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local governments, col leges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research laborato ries, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies. A few veterinarians work for zoos; but most veterinarians caring for zoo animals are private practitioners who contract with zoos to pro vide services, usually on a part-time basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Prospective veterinarians must graduate from a 4-year program at an accredited college of veterinary medicine with a Doctor of Vet erinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree and obtain a license to practice. There are 27 colleges in 26 States that meet accreditation standards set by the Council on Education of the American Veteri nary Medical Association. The prerequisites for admission vary by veterinary medical college. Many of these colleges do not require a Digitizedbachelor’s for FRASER degree for entrance; but all require a significant number https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of credit hours—ranging from 45 to 90 semester hours—at the un dergraduate level. However, most of the students admitted have completed an undergraduate program. Preveterinary courses emphasize the sciences; and veterinary medical colleges typically require classes in organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, biochemistry, general biology, animal biology, animal nutrition, genetics, vertebrate embryology, cellular biology, microbiology, zoology, and systemic physiology. Some programs require calculus; some require only statistics, college algebra and trigonometry, or precalculus; and others require no math at all. Most veterinary medical colleges also require core courses, including some in English or literature, the social sciences, and the humanities. Most veterinary medical colleges will only consider applicants who have a minimum grade point average (GPA). The required GPA varies by school, from a low of 2.5 to a high of 3.2, based on a maximum GPA of 4.0. However, the average GPA of candidates at most schools is higher than these minimums. Those who receive offers of admission usually have a GPA of 3.0 or better. In addition to satisfying preveterinary course requirements, ap plicants must also submit test scores from the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), the Veterinary College Admission Test (VCAT), or the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), depending on the preference of each college. Additionally, in the admissions process, veterinary medical col leges weigh heavily a candidate’s veterinary and animal experience. Formal experience, such as work with veterinarians or scientists in clinics, agribusiness, research, or in some area of health science, is particularly advantageous. Less formal experience, such as work ing with animals on a farm or ranch or at a stable or animal shelter, is also helpful. Students must demonstrate ambition and an eager ness to work with animals. Competition for admission to veterinary school is keen. The number of accredited veterinary colleges has remained at 27 since 1983, whereas the number of applicants has risen. About 1 in 3 applicants was accepted in 1998. Most veterinary medical colleges are public, State-supported institutions and reserve the majority of their openings for in-state residents. Twenty-one States that do not have a veterinary medical college agree to pay a fee or subsidy to help cover the cost of veterinary education for a limited number of their residents at one or more out-of-state colleges. Nonresident students who are admitted under such a contract may have to pay out-of-state tuition, or they may have to repay their State of resi dency all, or part, of the subsidy provided to the contracting col lege. Residents of the remaining 3 States (Connecticut, Maine, and Vermont) and the District of Columbia may apply to any of the 27 veterinary medical colleges as an at-large applicant. The number of positions available to at-large applicants is very limited at most schools, making admission difficult. While in veterinary medical college, students receive additional academic instruction in the basic sciences for the first 2 years. Later in the program, students are exposed to clinical procedures, such as diagnosing and treating animal diseases and performing surgery. They also do laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, medicine, and other scientific subjects. At most veterinary medical colleges, students who plan a career in research can earn both a D.V.M de gree and a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree at the same time. Veterinary graduates who plan to work with specific types of animals or specialize in a clinical area, such as pathology, surgery, radiology, or laboratory animal medicine, usually complete a 1 -year internship. Interns receive a small salary but usually find that their internship experience leads to a higher beginning salary, relative to other starting veterinarians. Veterinarians who seek board certifi cation in a specialty must also complete a 2- to 3-year residency program that provides intensive training in specialties, such as 276 Occupational Outlook Handbook internal medicine, oncology, radiology, surgery, dermatology, anes thesiology, neurology, cardiology, ophthalmology, and exotic small animal medicine. All States and the District of Columbia require that veterinar ians be licensed before they can practice. The only exemptions are for veterinarians working for some Federal agencies and some State governments. Licensing is controlled by the States and is not strictly uniform, although all States require successful completion of the D.V.M. degree—or equivalent education—and passage of a national board examination. The Educational Commission for Foreign Vet erinary Graduates (ECFVG) grants certification to individuals trained outside the U.S. who demonstrate that they meet specified require ments for the English language and clinical proficiency. ECFVG certification fulfills the educational requirement for licensure in all States except Nebraska. Applicants for licensure satisfy the exami nation requirement by passing the North American Veterinary Licensing Exam (NAVLE), which recently replaced the National Board Examination (NBE) and the Clinical Competency Test (CCT). The new NAVLE, administered on computer, takes one day to com plete and consists of 360 multiple-choice questions, covering all aspects of veterinary medicine. The NAVLE also includes visual materials designed to test diagnostic skills. The majority of States also require candidates to pass a State jurisprudence examination covering State laws and regulations. Some States also do additional testing on clinical competency. There are few reciprocal agreements between States, making it difficult for a veterinarian to practice in a different State without first taking another State examination. Forty-one States have continuing education requirements for li censed veterinarians. Requirements differ by State and may in volve attending a class or otherwise demonstrating knowledge of recent medical and veterinary advances. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. Despite the substantial financial investment in equip ment, office space, and staff, many veterinarians with experience set up their own practice or purchase an established one. Newly trained veterinarians can become U.S. Government meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Army, or U.S. Air Force. A State license may be required. Prospective veterinarians must have good manual dexterity. They should have an affinity for animals and the ability to get along with animal owners. Additionally, they should be able to quickly make decisions in emergencies. Job Outlook Employment of veterinarians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Job openings stemming from the need to replace veterinarians who retire or oth erwise leave the labor force will be almost as numerous as new jobs resulting from employment growth over the 2000-10 period. Most veterinarians practice in animal hospitals or clinics and care primarily for companion animals. The number of dogs as pets is expected to increase more slowly during the projection period than in the previous decade. However, faster growth of the cat popu lation is expected to increase the demand for feline medicine and veterinary services, offsetting any reduced demand for veterinary care for dogs. Also, as non-necessity income generally increases with age, those who own pets may be more inclined to seek veteri nary services. Small increases in the total number of household pets, coupled with the movement of baby boomers into the 34 to 59 year age group, means that the willingness by pet owners to pay for veterinary services should continue. In addition, pet owners are https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis becoming more aware of the availability of advanced care and may increasingly take advantage of nontraditional veterinary services, such as preventive dental care, and may more willingly pay for intensive care than in the past. Finally, new technologies and medi cal advancements should permit veterinarians to offer better care to animals. New graduates continue to be attracted to small animal medi cine because they prefer to deal with pets and to live and work near highly populated areas. This situation will not necessarily limit the ability of veterinarians to find employment or to set up and main tain a practice in a particular area. Rather, beginning veterinarians may take positions requiring evening or weekend work to accom modate the extended hours of operation that many practices are of fering. Some veterinarians take salaried positions in retail stores offering veterinary services. Self-employed veterinarians usually have to work hard and long to build a sufficient client base. The number ofjobs for large animal veterinarians is expected to grow slowly, because productivity gains in the agricultural produc tion industry mean demand for fewer veterinarians than before to treat food animals. Nevertheless, job prospects may be better for veterinarians who specialize in farm animals than for small animal practitioners, because most veterinary medical college graduates do not have the desire to work in rural or isolated areas. Continued support for public health and food safety, interna tional and national disease control programs, and biomedical re search on human health problems will contribute to the demand for veterinarians, although such positions are few in number. How ever, anticipated budget tightening in the Federal Government may lead to low funding levels for some programs, limiting job growth. Veterinarians with training in public health and epidemiology should have the best opportunities for a career in the Federal Government. Earnings Median annual earnings of veterinarians were $60,910 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,020 and $84,220. The low est 10 percent earned less than $36,670, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $128,720. According to a survey by the American Veterinary Medical As sociation, average starting salaries of 2000 veterinary medical col lege graduates varied by type of practice as follows: Small animal, predominant Small animal, exclusive..... Large animal, exclusive..... Large animal, predominant Mixed animal....................... Equine.................................... $42,918 42,640 41,629 41,439 40,358 28,526 New veterinary medical college graduates who enter the Federal Government usually start at $35,808. Beginning salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. The average annual salary for veterinarians in the Fed eral Government in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $ 67,482 in 2001. Related Occupations Veterinarians prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals. Those who do similar work for humans include chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, physicians and surgeons, and podiatrists. Veterinarians have extensive training in physical and life sciences, and some do scientific and medical research, closely paralleling occupation biological and medical scientists. Animal care and service workers and veterinary technologists, technicians and assistants work extensively with animals. Like veterinarians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with Professional and Related Occupations 111 animals. However, the level of training required for these occupa tions is substantially less than that needed by veterinarians. > American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. Internet: http://www.avma.org For information on veterinary education, write to: Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers in veterinary medicine and a list of U.S. schools and colleges of veterinary medicine and accreditation policies, send a letter-size, self-addressed, stamped envelope to: ► Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 710, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aavmc.org For information on scholarships, grants, and loans, contact the financial aid officer at the veterinary schools to which you wish to apply. Health Technologists and Technicians Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians (0**NET 29-2031.00) Significant Points • • • Employment will grow faster than the average, but the number of job openings created will be low, because the occupation is small. Job prospects will be good due to an aging population and increased need for vascular technology and sonography as an alternative for more costly and invasive heart surgery. About 7 out of 10 jobs are in hospitals, in both inpatient and outpatient settings. Nature of the Work Cardiovascular technologists and technicians assist physicians in diagnosing and treating cardiac (heart) and peripheral vascular (blood vessel) ailments. Cardiovascular technologists may specialize in three areas of practice: Invasive cardiology, echocardiography, and vascular technology. Cardiovascular technicians who specialize in electrocardiograms (EKGs), stress testing, and Holter monitors are known as cardiographic or EKG technicians. Cardiovascular technologists specializing in invasive procedures are called cardiology technologists. They assist physicians with cardiac catheterization procedures in which a small tube, or cath eter, is wound through a patient’s blood vessel from a spot on the patient’s leg into the heart. The procedure can determine if a block age exists in the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle and help diagnose other problems. Part of the procedure may involve bal loon angioplasty, which can be used to treat blockages of blood vessels or heart valves, without the need for heart surgery. Cardiol ogy technologists assist physicians as they insert a catheter with a balloon on the end to the point of the obstruction. Technologists prepare patients for cardiac catheterization and balloon angioplasty by first positioning them on an examining table and then shaving, cleaning, and administering anesthesia to the top of the patient’s leg near the groin. During the procedures, they monitor patients’ blood pressure and heart rate using EKG equip ment and notify the physician if something appears wrong. Tech nologists also may prepare and monitor patients during open-heart surgery and the implantation of pacemakers. Cardiovascular technologists who specialize in echocardiography or vascular technology often run noninvasive tests using ultra sound instrumentation, such as doppler ultrasound. Tests are called https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis “noninvasive” if they do not require the insertion of probes or other instruments into the patient’s body. The ultrasound instrumenta tion transmits high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body and then processes reflected echoes of the sound waves to form an image. Technologists view the ultrasound image on a screen that may be recorded on videotape or photographed for interpreta tion and diagnosis by a physician. While performing the scan, tech nologists check the image on the screen for subtle differences between healthy and diseased areas, decide which images to in clude, and judge if the images are satisfactory for diagnostic pur poses. They also explain the procedure to patients, record additional medical history, select appropriate equipment settings, and change the patient’s position as necessary. (See the statement on diagnos tic medical sonographers elsewhere in the Handbook to learn more about other sonographers.) Those who assist physicians in the diagnosis of disorders affect ing circulation are known as vascular technologists or vascular sonographers. They perform a medical history and evaluate pulses by listening to the sounds of the arteries for abnormalities. Then they perform a noninvasive procedure using ultrasound instrumen tation to record vascular information, such as vascular blood flow, blood pressure, limb volume changes, oxygen saturation, cerebral circulation, peripheral circulation, and abdominal circulation. Many of these tests are performed during or immediately after surgery. Technologists who use ultrasound to examine the heart cham bers, valves, and vessels are referred to as cardiac sonographers, or echocardiographers. They use ultrasound instrumentation to cre ate images called echocardiograms. This may be done while the patient is either resting or physically active. Technologists may ad minister medication to a physically active patient to assess their heart function. Cardiac sonographers may also assist physicians who per form transesophageal echocardiography, which involves placing a tube in the patient’s esophagus to obtain ultrasound images. Cardiovascular technicians who obtain EKGs are known as elec trocardiograph (or EKG) technicians. To take a basic EKG, which traces electrical impulses transmitted by the heart, technicians at tach electrodes to the patient’s chest, arms, and legs, and then ma nipulate switches on an EKG machine to obtain a reading. A printout is made for interpretation by the physician. This test is done before most kinds of surgery and as part of a routine physical examination, especially for persons who have reached middle age or have a his tory of cardiovascular problems. EKG technicians with advanced training perform Holter moni tor and stress testing. For Holter monitoring, technicians place elec trodes on the patient’s chest and attach a portable EKG monitor to the patient’s belt. Following 24 or more hours of normal activity for the patient, the technician removes a tape from the monitor and places it in a scanner. After checking the quality of the recorded impulses on an electronic screen, the technician usually prints the 278 Occupational Outlook Handbook information from the tape so that a physician can interpret it later. Physicians use the output from the scanner to diagnose heart ail ments, such as heart rhythm abnormalities or problems with pace makers. For a treadmill stress test, EKG technicians document the patient’s medical history, explain the procedure, connect the patient to an EKG monitor, and obtain a baseline reading and resting blood pres sure. Next, they monitor the heart’s performance while the patient is walking on a treadmill, gradually increasing the treadmill’s speed to observe the effect of increased exertion. Like vascular technolo gists and cardiac sonographers, cardiographic technicians who per form EKG, Holter monitor, and stress tests are known as “noninvasive” technicians. Some cardiovascular technologists and technicians schedule appointments, type doctor interpretations, maintain patient files, and care for equipment. Working Conditions Technologists and technicians generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week that may include weekends. Those in catheterization labs tend to work longer hours and may work evenings. They also may be on call during the night and on weekends. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians spend a lot of time walking and standing. Those who work in catheterization labs may face stressful working conditions, because they are in close contact with patients with serious heart ailments. Some patients, for example, may encounter complications from time to time that have life or death implications. Employment Cardiovascular technologists and technicians held about 39,000jobs in 2000. Most worked in hospital cardiology departments, whereas some worked in offices of cardiologists or other physicians, cardiac rehabilitation centers, or ambulatory surgery centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a few cardiovascular technologists, vascular technologists, and cardiac sonographers are currently trained on the job, most re ceive training in 2- to 4-year programs. Cardiovascular technolo gists, vascular technologists, and cardiac sonographers normally complete a 2-year junior or community college program. One year is dedicated to core courses followed by a year of specialized in struction in either invasive, noninvasive cardiovascular, or noninvasive vascular technology. Those who are qualified in a re lated allied health profession only need to complete the year of spe cialized instruction. Graduates from the 23 programs accredited by the Joint Review Committee on Education in Cardiovascular Technology are eligible to obtain professional certification through Cardiovascular Credentialing International in cardiac catheterization, echocardio graphy, vascular ultrasound, and cardiographic techniques. Car diac sonographers and vascular technologists may also obtain certification with the American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers. For basic EKGs, Flolter monitoring, and stress testing, 1-year certificate programs exist; but most EKG technicians are still trained on the job by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist. On-the-job train ing usually lasts about 8 to 16 weeks. Most employers prefer to train people already in the health care field—nursing aides, for ex ample. Some EKG technicians are students enrolled in 2-year pro grams to become technologists, working part-time to gain experience and make contact with employers. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians must be reliable, have mechanical aptitude, and be able to follow detailed instruc tions. A pleasant, relaxed manner for putting patients at ease is an asset. Job Outlook Employment of cardiovascular technologists and technicians is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. Growth will occur as the population ages, because older people have a higher incidence of heart problems. Employ ment of vascular technologists and echocardiographers will grow as advances in vascular technology and sonography reduce the need for more costly and invasive procedures. Employment ofEKG tech nicians is expected to decline, as hospitals train nursing aides and others to perform basic EKG procedures. Individuals trained in Holter monitoring and stress testing are expected to have more fa vorable job prospects than those who can only perform a basic EKG. Some job openings for cardiovascular technologists and techni cians will arise from replacement needs, as individuals transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force. Relatively few job openings, due to both growth and replacement needs are expected, however, because the occupation is small. About 7 out of 10 cardiovascular technologists and technicians work in hospitals. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Earnings Median annual earnings of cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians were $33,350 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned be tween $24,590 and $43,450. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,540, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,930. Professional and Related Occupations 279 Median annual earnings of cardiovascular technologists and tech nicians in 2000 were $33,100 in offices and clinics of medical doc tors and $32,860 in hospitals. Related Occupations Cardiovascular technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment that helps physicians and other health practitioners diag nose and treat patients. So do diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation therapists, radiologic tech nologists and technicians, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career in cardiovascular technology, contact: >• Alliance of Cardiovascular Professionals, 4456 Corporation Ln., Suite 165, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.acp-online.org/index.html For a list of accredited programs in cardiovascular technology, contact: >■ Joint Review Committee on Education in Cardiovascular Technology, 3525 Ellicott Mills Dr., Suite N, Ellicott City, MD 21043-4547. Internet: http://www.sicp.com/jrc-cvt For information on vascular technology, contact: > The Society of Vascular Technology, 4601 Presidents Dr., Suite 260, Lanham, MD 20706-4365. Internet: http://www.svtnet.org For information on echocardiography, contact: > American Society of Echocardiography, 4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201, Raleigh, NC 27607. Internet: http://www.asecho.org specimens for examination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells. They use automated equipment and instruments capable of per forming a number of tests simultaneously, as well as microscopes, cell counters, and other sophisticated laboratory equipment. Then, they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. With increasing automation and the use of computer technology, the work of technologists and technicians has become less hands-on and more analytical. The complexity of tests performed, the level ofjudgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Medical and clinical laboratory technologists generally have a bachelor’s degree in medical technology or in one of the life sci ences, or they have a combination of formal training and work experi ence. They perform complex chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood, tissue, and other body substances. They make cultures of body fluid and tissue samples, to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other microorganisms. They analyze samples for chemical content or reaction and deter mine blood glucose and cholesterol levels. They also type and cross match blood samples for transfusions. Medical and clinical laboratory technologists evaluate test results, develop and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs, to ensure the accuracy of tests. Some medical and clinical laboratory technologists supervise medical and clinical laboratory technicians. For information regarding registration and certification, contact: >- Cardiovascular Credentialing International, 4456 Corporation Ln., Suite 110, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.cci-online.org >- American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 360, Rockville, MD 20852-1150. Internet: http://www.ardms.org ttrimti & * IflliiP® Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians (0**NET 29-2011.00, 29-2012.00) Significant Points • • Clinical laboratory technologists usually have a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clinical laboratory technicians need either an associate’s degree or a certificate. Employment is expected to grow as fast as average as the volume of laboratory tests increases with population growth and the development of new types of tests. Nature of the Work Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diag nosis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory technologists, also referred to as clinical laboratory scientists or medical tech nologists, and clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medi cal technicians or medical laboratory technicians, perform most of these tests. Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, tissues, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, and other micro organisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions; and test for drug levels in the blood to show how a patient is responding to treatment. These technologists also prepare https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis W-Ui*; mrwm Laboratory technologists and technicians examine and analyze body fluids, tissues, and cells. 280 Occupational Outlook Handbook Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, whereas those in large laboratories generally specialize. Technolo gists who prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hor monal contents of body fluids are clinical chemistry technologists. Those who examine and identity bacteria and other microorgan isms are microbiology technologists. Blood bank technologists, or immunohematology technologists, collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions. Immunology technologists examine elements and responses of the human immune system to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists prepare slides of body cells and microscopically examine these cells for abnormalities that may sig nal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Molecular biology tech nologists perform complex genetic testing on cell samples. Medical and clinical laboratory technicians perform less com plex tests and laboratory procedures than technologists. Techni cians may prepare specimens and operate automated analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests following detailed in structions. Like technologists, they may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Histology techni cians cut and stain tissue specimens for microscopic examination by pathologists, and phlebotomists collect blood samples. They usually work under the supervision of medical and clinical labora tory technologists or laboratory managers. Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions of clinical laboratory technolo gists and technicians vary, according to the size and type of em ployment setting. In large hospitals or in independent laboratories that operate continuously, personnel usually work the day, evening, or night shift and may work weekends and holidays. Laboratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts, rather than on a regular shift. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are on call several nights a week or on weekends, in case of an emergency. Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of infection control and steril ization are followed, few hazards exist. Protective masks, gloves, and goggles are often necessary to ensure the safety of laboratory personnel. Laboratories usually are well-lighted and clean; however, speci mens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory sometimes pro duce fumes. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 295,000 jobs in 2000. About half worked in hospitals. Most of the remain ing jobs were found in medical laboratories or offices and clinics of physicians. A small number were in blood banks, research and testing laboratories, and in the Federal Government—at U.S. De partment of Veterans Affairs hospitals and U.S. Public Health Ser vice facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for an entry-level position as a medical or clinical laboratory technologist is a bachelor’s degree with a major ir. medical technology or in one of the life sciences. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology programs. It also is pos sible to qualify through a combination of education, on-the-job, and specialized training. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, mathematics, statis tics, and specialized courses devoted to knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many programs also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. The Clinical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Laboratory Improvement Act (CLLA) requires technologists who perform certain highly complex tests to have at least an associate s degree. Medical and clinical laboratory technicians generally have ei ther an associate’s degree from a community or junior college or a certificate from a hospital, vocational or technical school, or from one of the U.S. Armed Forces. A few technicians learn their skills on the job. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sci ences (NAACLS) fully accredits 503 programs for medical and clini cal laboratory technologists, medical and clinical laboratory technicians, histologic technologists and technicians, and patholo gists’ assistants. NAACLS also approves 70 programs in phle botomy, cytogenetic technology, molecular biology, and clinical assisting. Other nationally recognized accrediting agencies include the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Pro grams (CAAHEP) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). Some States require laboratory personnel to be licensed or reg istered. Information on licensure is available from State depart ments of health or boards of occupational licensing. Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization, such as a professional society or certifying agency, grants recogni tion to an individual whose professional competence meets pre scribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certification is a prerequisite for most jobs and often is necessary for advancement. Agencies certifying medical and clini cal laboratory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology, the Ameri can Medical Technologists, the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, and the Board of Registry of the American Association of Bioanalysts. These agencies have different require ments for certification and different organizational sponsors. Clinical laboratory personnel need good analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Close attention to detail is es sential, because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be crucial for patient care. Manual dexter ity and normal color vision are highly desirable. With the wide spread use of automated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. In addition, technologists in particular are expected to be good at problem solving. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in labora tory work or become chief medical or clinical laboratory technolo gists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies seek experienced technologists to work in product development, mar keting, and sales. Graduate education in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemistry, management, or education usually speeds advancement. A doctorate is needed to become a laboratory director. However, federal regulation allows directors of moderate complexity laboratories to have either a master’s de gree or a bachelor’s degree combined with the appropriate amount of training and experience. Technicians can become technologists through additional education and experience. Job Outlook Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2010, as the volume of laboratory tests increases with population growth and the development of new types of tests. Technological advances will continue to have two opposing ef fects on employment through 2010. New, increasingly powerful diagnostic tests will encourage additional testing and spur employ ment. On the other hand, research and development efforts targeted Professional and Related Occupations 281 at simplifying routine testing procedures may enhance the ability of nonlaboratory personnel, physicians and patients, in particular, to perform tests now done in laboratories. Although significant, growth will not be the only source of op portunities. As in most occupations, many openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, re tire, or stop working for some other reason. Additional career information is available from: > American Association of Blood Banks, 8101 Glenbrook Rd„ Bethesda, MD 20814-2749. Internet: http://www.aabb.org >- American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science, 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 530, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ascls.org ► American Society for Clinical Pathology, 2100 West Harrison St., Chi cago, IL 60612. Internet: http://www.ascp.org Earnings Median annual earnings of medical and clinical laboratory technolo gists were $40,510 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,220 and $47,460. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,560. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medi cal and clinical laboratory technologists in 2000 were as follows: Hospitals.................................................................................................. Medical and dental laboratories......................................................... Offices and clinics of medical doctors............................................. Dental Hygienists (0*NET 29-2021.00) Significant Points $40,840 39,780 38,850 Median annual earnings of medical and clinical laboratory techni cians were $27,540 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,260 and $34,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 18,550, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,370. Median an nual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medi cal and clinical laboratory technicians in 2000 were as follows: Average Top $16.70 13.90 14.00 $21.30 18.00 17.90 15.30 14.00 9.90 $24.00 19.90 20.50 17.30 16.30 11.80 12.00 11.40 8.10 Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body flu ids, tissue, and other substances using a variety of tests. Similar or related procedures are performed by chemists and material scien tists, science technicians, and veterinary technologists, technicians, and assistants. Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited and approved educational programs for clini cal laboratory personnel, contact: • Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth will stimulate demand for dental hygienists. Opportunities for part-time work and flexible schedules are common. Nature of the Work Dental hygienists remove soft and hard deposits from teeth, teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene, and provide other pre ventive dental care. Hygienists examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the presence of diseases or abnormalities. They remove calculus, stains, and plaque from teeth; take and develop dental x rays; and apply cavity-preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants. In some States, hygienists administer anesthet ics; place and carve filling materials, temporary fillings, and peri odontal dressings; remove sutures; perform root-planing as a periodontal therapy; and smooth and polish metal restorations. Al though hygienists may not diagnose diseases, they can prepare clinical and laboratory diagnostic tests for the dentist to interpret. Hygien ists sometimes work chairside with the dentist during treatment. Dental hygienists also help patients develop and maintain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relationship be tween diet and oral health, or even the link between oral health and such serious conditions as heart disease and stroke. They also in form patients how to select toothbrushes and show them how to brush and floss their teeth. Dental hygienists use hand and rotary instruments and ultrason ics to clean and polish teeth, x-ray machines to take dental pictures, According to the American Society for Clinical Pathology, median hourly pay of staff clinical laboratory technologists and tech nicians in 2000 varied by specialty as follows: Beginning Dental hygienists are projected to be one of the 30 fastest growing occupations. • Hospitals.................................................................................................. $28,860 Colleges and universities..................................................................... 27 810 Offices and clinics of medical doctors................................................ 27,180 Medical and dental laboratories............................................................ 25,250 24,370 Health and allied health services, not elsewhere classified......... Cytotechnologist....................... Histotechnologist...................... Medical technologist............... Histologic technician............... Medical laboratory technician Phlebotomist.............................. • I >- National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 8410 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 670, Chicago, IL 60631. Internet: http://www.naacls.org Information on certification is available from: >■ American Association of Bioanalysts, 917 Locust St., Suite 1100, St. Louis, MO 63101. Internet: http://www.aab.org ► American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068. Internet: http://www.amtl.com >- American Society for Clinical Pathology, Board of Registry, 2100 West Harrison St., Chicago, IL 60612. Internet: http://www.ascp.org/bor >- National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, P.O. Box 15945-289, Lenexa, KS 66285-5935. Internet: http://www.nca-info.org https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Hygienists clean and examine teeth and gums, noting the presence of diseases or abnormalities. 282 Occupational Outlook Handbook syringes with needles to administer local anesthetics, and models of teeth to explain oral hygiene. Working Conditions Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full-time, part-time, evening, and weekend schedules are widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office. Dental hygienists work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict adherence to proper radiological procedures, and use of appropriate protective devices when admin istering anesthetic gas. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgical masks, and gloves to protect themselves from infectious diseases. Employment Dental hygienists held about 147,000 jobs in 2000. Because mul tiple jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs ex ceeds the number of hygienists. More than half of all dental hygienists worked part time—less than 35 hours a week. Almost all dental hygienists work in private dental offices. Some work in public health agencies, hospitals, and clinics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the State in which they prac tice. To qualify for licensure, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and clini cal examination. The American Dental Association Joint Commis sion on National Dental Examinations administers the written examination accepted by all States and the District of Columbia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical examina tion. In addition, most States require an examination on legal as pects of dental hygiene practice. Alabama allows candidates to take its examinations if they have been trained through a State-regu lated on-the-job program in a dentist’s office. In 2000, the Commission on Dental Accreditation accredited about 256 programs in dental hygiene. Although some programs lead to a bachelor’s degree, most grant an associate degree. A dozen universities offer master’s degree programs in dental hygiene or a related area. An associate degree is sufficient for practice in a private dental office. A bachelor’s or master’s degree usually is required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs. About half of the dental hygiene programs prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college. However, requirements vary from one school to another. Schools olfer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, his tology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences. Dental hygienists should work well with others and must have good manual dexterity because they use dental instruments within a patient’s mouth, with little room for error. High school students interested in becoming a dental hygienist should take courses in biology, chemistry, and mathematics. Job Outlook Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, in response to increasing demand for dental care and the greater substitution of services of hygienists for those previously performed by den Digitized the for FRASER tists. Job prospects are expected to remain very good unless the https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis number of dental hygienist program graduates grows much faster than during the last decade, and results in a much larger pool of qualified applicants. Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth will stimulate demand for dental hygienists. Older dentists, who are less likely to employ dental hygienists, will leave and be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to do so. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hy gienists to perform preventive dental care such as cleaning, so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental hygienists were $24.68 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $20.46 and $29.72 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15.53, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35.39 an hour. Earnings vary by geographic location, employment setting, and years of experience. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting, and may be contin gent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association’s 1999 Workforce Needs Assessment Survey, almost all full-time dental hygienists employed by private practitioners received paid vacation. The survey also found that 9 out of 10 full- and part time dental hygienists received dental coverage. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the Federal Government, or State agencies usually have substantial benefits. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners in an office setting include dental assistants, medical assistants, occupa tional therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, physician assistants, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career in dental hygiene and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: ► Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists’As sociation, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.adha.org For information about accredited programs and educational re quirements, contact: V Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State can supply information on licensing requirements. Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (0*NET 29-2032.00) ______________ Significant Points • • • Sonographers should experience favorable job opportunities as ultrasound becomes an increasingly attractive alternative to radiologic procedures. More than half of all sonographers are employed by hospitals, and most of the remainder work in physicians’ offices and clinics, including diagnostic imaging centers. Beginning in 2005, an associate or higher degree from an accredited program will be required for registration. Nature of the Work Diagnostic imaging embraces several procedures that aid in diag nosing ailments, the most familiar being the x ray. Another in creasingly common diagnostic imaging method, called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), uses giant magnets and radio waves rather than radiation to create an image. Not all imaging tech nologies use ionizing radiation or radio waves, however. Sonography, or ultrasonography, is the use of sound waves to gen erate an image used for assessment and diagnosis of various medi cal conditions. Many people associate sonography with obstetrics and the viewing of the fetus in the womb. But this technology has many other applications in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Diagnostic medical sonographers, also known as ultrasonographers, use special equipment to direct nonionizing, high frequency sound waves into areas of the patient’s body. Sonographers operate the equipment, which collects reflected echoes and forms an image that may be videotaped, transmitted, or photographed for interpre tation and diagnosis by a physician. Sonographers begin by explaining the procedure to the patient and recording any additional medical history that may be relevant to the condition being viewed. They then select appropriate equip ment settings and direct the patient to move into positions that will provide the best view. To perform the exam, sonographers use a transducer, which transmits sound waves in a cone- or rectangle shaped beam. Although techniques vary based on the area being examined, sonographers usually spread a special gel on the skin to aid the transmission of sound waves. Viewing the screen during the scan, sonographers look for subtle visual cues that contrast healthy areas from unhealthy ones. They decide whether the images are satisfactory for diagnostic purposes and select which ones to show to the physician. Diagnostic medical sonographers may specialize in obstetric and gynecologic sonography (the female reproductive system), abdomi nal sonography (the liver, kidneys, gallbladder, spleen, and pan creas), neurosonography (the brain), or ophthalmologic sonography (the eyes). In addition, sonographers also may specialize in vascu lar technology or echocardiography. (Vascular technologists and echocardiographers are covered in the Handbook statement on car diovascular technologists and technicians.) Obstetric and gynecologic sonographers specialize in the study of the female reproductive system. This includes one of the more well known uses of sonography: examining the fetus of a pregnant woman to track its growth and health. Abdominal sonographers inspect a patient’s abdominal cavity to help diagnose and treat conditions involving primarily the gall bladder, bile ducts, kidneys, liver, pancreas, and spleen. Abdomi nal sonographers also are able to scan parts of the heart, although diagnosis of the heart using ultrasound usually is done by echocardiographers. Neurosonographers use ultrasound technology to focus on the nervous system, including the brain. In neonatal care, neurosono graphers study and diagnose neurological and nervous system dis orders in premature infants. They also may scan blood vessels to check for abnormalities indicating a stroke in infants diagnosed with sickle cell anemia. Like other sonographers, neurosonographers operate transducers to perform the ultrasound, but use different fre quencies and beam shapes than obstetric and abdominal sonographers. Ophthalmologic sonographers use ultrasound to study the eyes. Ultrasound aids in the insertion of prosthetic lenses by allowing accurate measurement of the eyes. Ophthalmologic ultrasound also helps diagnose and track tumors, blood supply conditions, sepa rated retinas, and other ailments of the eye and the surrounding https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Professional and Related Occupations 283 am A diagnostic medical sonographer examines a patient using a transducer, creating images with sound waves. tissue. Ophthalmologic sonographers use high frequency trans ducers made exclusively to study the eyes, which are much smaller than those used in other specialties. In addition to working directly with patients, diagnostic medi cal sonographers keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate equip ment purchases, or manage a sonography or diagnostic imaging department. Working Conditions Most frill-time sonographers work about 40 hours a week; they may have evening weekend hours and times when they are on call and must be ready to report to work on short notice. Sonographers typically work in healthcare facilities that are clean and well lit. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment. Sonographers are on their feet for long periods and may have to lift or turn disabled patients. They work at diagnostic imaging machines but may also do some proce dures at patients’ bedsides. Employment Diagnostic medical sonographers held about 33,000 jobs in 2000. More than half of all sonographer jobs are in hospitals. Most of the rest are in physicians’ offices and clinics, primarily in offices 284 Occupational Outlook Handbook specializing in obstetrics and in diagnostic imaging centers. Accord ing to the 2000 Sonography Benchmark Survey conducted by the Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (SDMS), about three out of four sonographers worked in urban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several avenues for entry into the field of diagnostic medi cal sonography. Sonographers may train in hospitals, vocationaltechnical institutions, colleges and universities, and the Armed Forces. Some training programs prefer applicants with a background in science or experience in other health professions, but also will consider high school graduates with courses in math and science, as well as applicants with liberal arts backgrounds. Colleges and universities offer formal training in both 2- and 4year programs, culminating in an associate or bachelor’s degree. Two-year programs are most prevalent. Course work includes classes in anatomy, physiology, instrumentation, basic physics, patient care, and medical ethics. The Joint Review Committee on Education for Diagnostic Medical Sonography accredits most formal training pro grams—76 programs in 1999. Some health workers, such as obstetric nurses and radiologic technologists, seek to increase their marketability by cross-training in fields such as sonography. Many take 1 -year programs resulting in a certificate. Additionally, sonographers specializing in one dis cipline often seek competency in others; for example, obstetric sonographers might seek training in and exposure to abdominal sonography to broaden their opportunities. While no State requires licensure in diagnostic medical sonography, the American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers (ARDMS) certifies the competency of sonographers through registration. Because registration provides an independent, objective measure of an individual’s professional standing, many employers prefer to hire registered sonographers. Registration with ARDMS requires passing a general physics and instrumentation examination, in addition to passing an exam in a specialty such as obstetrics/gynecology, abdominal, or neurosonography. While formal education is not necessary to take the exams, an associate or bachelor’s degree from an accredited program is pre ferred. Beginning in 2005, ARDMS will consider for registration only those holding an associate or higher degree. To keep their registration current, sonographers must complete 30 hours of con tinuing education every 3 years to stay abreast of advances in the occupation and in technology. Sonographers need good communication and interpersonal skills because they must be able to explain technical procedures and re sults to their patients, some of whom may be nervous about the exam or the problems it may reveal. They also should have some back ground in math and science, especially when they must perform mathematical and scientific calculations in analyses for diagnosis. Job Outlook Employment of diagnostic medical sonographers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010 as the popu lation grows and ages, increasing the demand for diagnostic imag ing and therapeutic technology. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace sonographers who leave the occupation. Ultrasound is becoming an increasingly attractive alternative to radiologic procedures as patients seek safer treatment methods. Because ultrasound—unlike most diagnostic imaging methods— does not involve radiation, harmful side effects and complications from repeated use are rarer for both the patient and the sonographer. DigitizedSonographic for FRASER technology is expected to evolve rapidly and to spawn many new ultrasound procedures, such as 3D-ultrasonography for https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis use in obstetric and ophthalmologic diagnosis. However, high costs may limit the rate at which some promising new technologies are adopted. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of diagnostic medi cal sonographers. However, employment is expected to grow more rapidly in offices and clinics of physicians, including diagnostic imaging centers. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2010 due to the strong shift toward out patient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be per formed outside the hospital. Earnings Median annual earnings of diagnostic medical sonographers were $44,820 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,390 and $52,750 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $32,470, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $59,310. Median an nual earnings of diagnostic medical sonographers in 2000 were $43,950 in hospitals and $46,190 in offices and clinics of medical doctors. Related Occupations Diagnostic medical sonographers operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, nuclear medicine technologists, radiologic technolo gists and technicians, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For more information on a career as a diagnostic medical sonographer, contact: >- Society of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 12770 Coit Rd., Suite 708, Dallas, TX 75251. Internet: http://www.sdms.org >- The American Registry of Diagnostic Medical Sonographers, 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 360, Rockville, MD 20852-1150. Internet: http://www.ardms.org For a current list of accredited education programs in diagnostic medical sonography, write to: ► The Joint Review Committee on Education in Diagnostic Medical Sonography, 1248 Harwood Rd., Bedford, TX 76021-4244. Internet: http://www.caahep.org Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics __ (0*NET 29-2041.00) _______________ Significant Points • • • Job stress is common due to irregular hours and treating patients in life-or-death situations. Formal training and certification are required but State requirements vary. Employment is projected to grow faster than average as paid emergency medical technician positions replace unpaid volunteers. Nature of the Work People’s lives often depend on the quick reaction and competent care of emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics, EMTs with additional advanced training to perform more difficult Professional and Related Occupations 285 pre-hospital medical procedures. Incidents as varied as automobile accidents, heart attacks, drownings, childbirth, and gunshot wounds all require immediate medical attention. EMTs and paramedics pro vide this vital attention as they care for and transport the sick or injured to a medical facility. Depending on the nature of the emergency, EMTs and paramed ics typically are dispatched to the scene by a 911 operator and often work with police and fire department personnel. (Police and detec tives and firefighting occupations appear elsewhere in the Hand book.) Once they arrive, they determine the nature and extent of the patient’s condition while trying to ascertain whether the patient has preexisting medical problems. Following strict rules and guide lines, they give appropriate emergency care and, when necessary, transport the patient. Some paramedics are trained to treat patients with minor injuries on the scene of an accident or at their home without transporting them to a medical facility. Emergency treat ments for more complicated problems are carried out under the direc tion of medical doctors by radio preceding or during transport. EMTs and paramedics may use special equipment such as backboards to immobilize patients before placing them on stretch ers and securing them in the ambulance for transport to a medical facility. Usually, one EMT or paramedic drives while the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives additional care as needed. Some EMTs work as part of the flight crew of helicopters that trans port critically ill or injured patients to hospital trauma centers. <' Emergency medical technicians and paramedics often are the first to examine a patient during an emergency. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis At the medical facility, EMTs and paramedics help transfer pa tients to the emergency department, report their observations and actions to staff, and may provide additional emergency treatment. After each run, EMTs and paramedics replace used supplies and check equipment. If a transported patient had a contagious disease, EMTs and paramedics decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report cases to the proper authorities. Beyond these general duties, the specific responsibilities of EMTs and paramedics depend on their level of qualification and training. To determine this, the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) registers emergency medical service (EMS) providers at four levels: First Responder, EMT-Basic, EMT-Intermediate, and EMT-Paramedic. Some States, however, do their own certification and use numeric ratings from 1 to 4 to distinguish lev els of proficiency. The lowest level—First Responders—are trained to provide ba sic emergency medical care because they tend to be the first per sons to arrive at the scene of an incident. Many firefighters, police officers, and other emergency workers have this level of training. The EMT-Basic, also known as EMT-1, represents the first compo nent of the emergency medical technician system. An EMT-1 is trained to care for patients on accident scenes and on transport by ambulance to the hospital under medical direction. The EMT-1 has the emergency skills to assess a patient’s condition and manage res piratory, cardiac, and trauma emergencies. The EMT-Intermediate (EMT-2 and EMT-3) has more advanced training that allows administration of intravenous fluids, use of manual defibrillators to give lifesaving shocks to a stopped heart, and use of advanced airway techniques and equipment to assist pa tients experiencing respiratory emergencies. EMT-Paramedics (EMT-4) provide the most extensive pre-hospital care. In addition to the procedures already described, paramedics may administer drugs orally and intravenously, interpret electrocardiograms (EKGs), perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other com plex equipment. Working Conditions EMTs and paramedics work both indoors and outdoors, in all types of weather. They are required to do considerable kneeling, bend ing, and heavy lifting. These workers risk noise-induced hearing loss from sirens and back injuries from lifting patients. In addition, EMTs and paramedics may be exposed to diseases such as Hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as violence from drug overdose victims or mentally unstable patients. The work is not only physically strenu ous, but also stressful, involving life-or-death situations and suffer ing patients. Nonetheless, many people find the work exciting and challenging and enjoy the opportunity to help others. EMTs and paramedics employed by fire departments work about 50 hours a week. Those employed by hospitals frequently work between 45 and 60 hours a week, and those in private ambulance services, between 45 and 50 hours. Some of these workers, espe cially those in police and fire departments, are on call for extended periods. Because emergency services function 24 hours a day, EMTs and paramedics have irregular working hours that add to job stress. Employment EMTs and paramedics held about 172,000jobs in 2000. Most career EMTs and paramedics work in metropolitan areas. There are many more volunteer EMTs and paramedics, especially in smaller cities, towns, and rural areas. They volunteer for fire departments, emer gency medical services (EMS), or hospitals and may respond to only a few calls for service per month, or may answer the majority 286 Occupational Outlook Handbook of calls, especially in smaller communities. EMTs and paramedics work closely with firefighters, who often are certified as EMTs as well and act as first responders. Full- and part-time paid EMTs and paramedics were employed in a number of industries. About 4 out of 10 worked in local and suburban transportation, as employees of private ambulance ser vices. About 3 out of 10 worked in local government for fire de partments, public ambulance services and EMS. Another 2 out 10 were found in hospitals, where they worked full time within the medical facility or responded to calls in ambulances or helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. The remainder worked in various industries providing emergency services. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training and certification is needed to become an EMT or paramedic. All 50 States possess a certification procedure. In 38 States and the District of Columbia, registration with the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) is required at some or all levels of certification. Other States administer their own certification examination or provide the option of taking the NRMET examination. To maintain certification, EMTs and para medics must reregister, usually every 2 years. In order to re-regis ter, an individual must be working as an EMT or paramedic and meet a continuing education requirement. Training is offered at progressive levels: EMT-Basic, also known as EMT-1; EMT-Intermediate, or EMT-2 and EMT-3; and EMTparamedic, or EMT-4. The EMT-Basic represents the first level of skills required to work in the emergency medical system. Coursework typically emphasizes emergency skills such as managing respira tory, trauma, and cardiac emergencies and patient assessment. For mal courses are often combined with time in an emergency room or ambulance. The program also provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn to use and maintain com mon emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Graduates of approved EMT basic training programs who pass a written and prac tical examination administered by the State certifying agency or the NREMT earn the title of Registered EMT-Basic. The course also is a prerequisite for EMT-Intermediate and EMT-Paramedic training. EMT-Intermediate training requirements vary from State to State. Applicants can opt to receive training in EMT-Shock Trauma, where the caregiver learns to start intravenous fluids and give certain medi cations, or in EMT-Cardiac, which includes learning heart rhythms and administering advanced medications. Training commonly in cludes 35 to 55 hours of additional instruction beyond EMT-Basic coursework and covers patient assessment, as well as the use of advanced airway devices and intravenous fluids. Prerequisites for taking the EMT-Intermediate examination include registration as an EMT-Basic, required classroom work, and a specified amount of clinical experience. The most advanced level of training for this occupation is EMTParamedic. At this level, the caregiver receives additional training in body function and more advanced skills. The Paramedic Tech nology program usually lasts up to 2 years and results in an associ ate degree in applied science. Such education prepares the graduate to take the NREMT examination and become certified as an EMTParamedic. Extensive related coursework and clinical and field experience is required. Due to the longer training requirement, al most all EMT-Paramedics are in paid positions. Refresher courses and continuing education are available for EMTs and paramedics at all levels. and paramedics should be emotionally stable, have good Digitized for EMTs FRASER dexterity, agility, and physical coordination, and be able to lift and https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis carry heavy loads. They also need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision. Advancement beyond the EMT-Paramedic level usually means leaving fieldwork. An EMT-Paramedic can become a supervisor, operations manager, administrative director, or executive director of emergency services. Some EMTs and paramedics become in structors, dispatchers, or physician assistants, while others move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equipment. A num ber of people become EMTs and paramedics to assess their interest in healthcare and then decide to return to school and become regis tered nurses, physicians, or other health workers. Job Outlook Employment of emergency medical technicians and paramedics is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Population growth and urbanization will increase the de mand for full-time paid EMTs and paramedics rather than for vol unteers. In addition, a large segment of the population—the aging baby boomers—will further spur demand for EMT services, as they become more likely to have medical emergencies. There will still be demand for part-time, volunteer EMTs and paramedics in rural areas and smaller metropolitan areas. In addition to job growth, openings will occur because of replacement needs; some workers leave because of stressful working conditions, limited advancement potential, and the modest pay and benefits in the private sector. Most opportunities for EMTs and paramedics are expected to arise in hospitals and private ambulance services. Competition will be greater for jobs in local government, including fire, police, and independent third service rescue squad departments, where salaries and benefits tend to be slightly better. Opportunities will be best for those who have advanced certifications, such as EMT-Interme diate and EMT-Paramedic, as clients and patients demand higher levels of care before arriving at the hospital. Earnings Earnings of EMTs and paramedics depend on the employment set ting and geographic location as well as the individual s training and experience. Median annual earnings of EMTs and paramedics were $22,460 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,930 and $29,270. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,660, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $37,760. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of EMTs and paramedics in 2000 were: Local government............................. Hospitals............................................. Local and suburban transportation $24,800 23,590 20,950 Those in emergency medical services who are part of fire or po lice departments receive the same benefits as firefighters or police officers. For example, many are covered by pension plans that pro vide retirement at half pay after 20 or 25 years of service or if dis abled in the line of duty. Related Occupations Other workers in occupations that require quick and level-headed reactions to life-or-death situations are air traffic controllers, firefighting occupations, physician assistants, police and detectives, and registered nurses. Sources of Additional Information General information about emergency medical technicians and para medics is available from: ► National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, 408 Monroe St., Clinton, MS 39056. Internet: http://www.naemt.org Professional and Related Occupations 287 >- National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. Internet: http://www.nremt.org >- National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, EMS Division, 400 7th St. SW., NTS-14, Washington, DC. Internet: may make appointments, keep records, and perform other clerical duties. LPNs who work in private homes also may prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/ems Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses (0*NET 29-2061.00) Significant Points • Training lasting about 1 year is available in about 1,100 State-approved programs, mostly in vocational or technical schools. • • Nursing homes will offer the most new jobs. Job seekers in hospitals may face competition as the number of hospital jobs for LPNs declines. Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPNs), or licensed vocational nurses (LVNs) as they are called in Texas and California, care for the sick, injured, convalescent, and disabled under the direction of physi cians and registered nurses. (The work ofphysicians and surgeons and registered nurses is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most LPNs provide basic bedside care. They take vital signs such as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also treat bedsores, prepare and give injections and enemas, apply dressings, give alcohol rubs and massages, apply ice packs and hot water bottles, and monitor catheters. LPNs observe patients and report adverse reactions to medications or treatments. They collect samples for testing, perform routine laboratory tests, feed patients, and record food and fluid intake and output. They help patients with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene, keep them comfort able, and care for their emotional needs. In States where the law allows, they may administer prescribed medicines or start intrave nous fluids. Some LPNs help deliver, care for, and feed infants. Experienced LPNs may supervise nursing assistants and aides. LPNs in nursing homes provide routine bedside care, help evalu ate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise the care pro vided by nursing aides. In doctors’ offices and clinics, they also mm ■ fv ■ ■■ ' ‘iWfStw! Licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses take vital signs such as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Conditions Most licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nursing homes work a 40-hour week, but because patients need around-the-clock care, some work nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. LPNs may face hazards from caustic chemicals, radiation, and infectious diseases such as hepatitis. They are subject to back inju ries when moving patients and shock from electrical equipment. They often must deal with the stress of heavy workloads. In addi tion, the patients they care for may be confused, irrational, agitated, or uncooperative. Employment Licensed practical nurses held about 700,000jobs in 2000. Twentynine percent of LPNs worked in nursing homes, 28 percent worked in hospitals, and 14 percent in physicians’ offices and clinics. Oth ers worked for home healthcare services, residential care facilities, schools, temporary help agencies, or government agencies; about 1 in 5 worked part time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require LPNs to pass a li censing examination after completing a State-approved practical nursing program. A high school diploma, or equivalent, usually is required for entry, although some programs accept candidates with out a diploma or are designed as part of a high school curriculum. In 2000, approximately 1,100 State-approved programs provided practical nursing training. Almost 6 out of 10 students were en rolled in technical or vocational schools, while 3 out of 10 were in community and junior colleges. Others were in high schools, hos pitals, and colleges and universities. Most practical nursing programs last about 1 year and include both classroom study and supervised clinical practice (patient care). Classroom study covers basic nursing concepts and patient-care related subjects, including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice usually is in a hospital, but sometimes includes other settings. LPNs should have a caring, sympathetic nature. They should be emotionally stable because work with the sick and injured can be stressful. They also should have keen observational, decision mak ing, and communication skills. As part of a healthcare team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Job Outlook Employment of LPNs is expected to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through 2010 in response to the long-term care needs of a rapidly growing elderly population and the general growth of healthcare. Replacement needs will be a major source of job openings, as many workers leave the occupation permanently. Employment of LPNs in nursing homes is expected to grow faster than the average. Nursing homes will offer the most new jobs for LPNs as the number of aged and disabled persons in need of long term care rises. In addition to caring for the aged and disabled, nursing homes will be called on to care for the increasing number of patients who have been discharged from the hospital but who have not recovered enough to return home. LPNs seeking positions in hospitals may face competition, as the number of hospital jobs for LPNs declines. An increasing pro portion of sophisticated procedures, which once were performed 288 Occupational Outlook Handbook only in hospitals, are being performed in physicians’ offices and clinics, including ambulatory surgicenters and emergency medical centers, due largely to advances in technology. As a result, employ ment of LPNs is projected to grow much faster than average in these places as healthcare expands outside the traditional hospital setting. Employment of LPNs is expected to grow much faster than av erage in home healthcare services. This is in response to a growing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer pref erence for care in the home, and technological advances, which make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home. Earnings Median annual earnings of licensed practical nurses were $29,440 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,920 and $34,800. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,520, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,800. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of licensed practical nurses in 2000 were as follows: Personnel supply services.................. Home health care services................. Nursing and personal care facilities .... Hospitals.......................................... Offices and clinics of medical doctors $35,750 31,220 29,980 28,450 27,520 Related Occupations LPNs work closely with people while helping them. So do emer gency medical technicians and paramedics, social and human ser vice assistants, surgical technologists, and teacher assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about practical nursing, contact: >- National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org >■ National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 1400 Spring St., Suite 330, Silver Spring, MD 20910. > National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 893 US High way 70 West, Suite 202, Gamer, NC 27529-2597. Medical Records and Health Information Technicians of x rays and laboratory tests, diagnoses, and treatment plans. Medi cal records and health information technicians organize and evalu ate these records for completeness and accuracy. Medical records and health information technicians begin to as semble patients’ health information by first making sure their ini tial medical charts are complete. They ensure all forms are completed and properly identified and signed, and all necessary information is in the computer. Sometimes, they communicate with physicians or others to clarify diagnoses or get additional information. Technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure. They consult classification manuals and rely, also, on their knowledge of disease processes. Technicians then use a software program to assign the patient to one of several hundred “diagnosis-related groups,” or DRG’s. The DRG determines the amount the hospital will be reim bursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other insurance pro grams using the DRG system. Technicians who specialize in coding are called health information coders, medical record coders, coder/ abstractors, or coding specialists. In addition to the DRG system, coders use other coding systems, such as those geared towards ambu latory settings. Technicians also use computer programs to tabulate and analyze data to help improve patient care, control costs, for use in legal actions, in response to surveys, or for use in research studies. Tumor regis trars compile and maintain records of patients who have cancer to provide information to physicians and for research studies. Medical records and health information technicians’ duties vary with the size of the facility. In large to medium facilities, techni cians may specialize in one aspect of health information, or super vise health information clerks and transcriptionists while a medical records and health information administrator manages the depart ment. (See the statement on medical and health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In small facilities, a credentialed medi cal records and health information technician sometimes manages the department. Working Conditions Medical records and health information technicians usually work a 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals— where health information departments often are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week—technicians may work day, evening, and night shifts. Medical records and health information technicians work in pleasant and comfortable offices. This is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no physical contact with (0*NET 29-2071.00) ' : Significant Points • Medical records and health information technicians are projected to be one of the fastest growing occupations. • High school students can improve chances of acceptance into a medical record and health information education program by taking anatomy, physiology, medical terminology, and computer courses. Most technicians will be employed by hospitals, but job growth will be faster in offices and clinics of physicians, nursing homes, and home health agencies. • Nature of the Work Every time health care personnel treat a patient, they record what they observed, and how the patient was treated medically. This record includes information the patient provides concerning their symptoms and medical history, the results of examinations, reports https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 8^51 ________ The duties of medical records and health information technicians vary with the size of the facility. Professional and Related Occupations 289 patients. Because accuracy is essential, technicians must pay close attention to detail. Technicians who work at computer monitors for prolonged periods must guard against eyestrain and muscle pain. of physicians should result in fast employment growth, especially in large group practices. Rapid growth is also expected in nursing homes and home health agencies. Employment Medical records and health information technicians held about 136,000 jobs in 2000. About 4 out of 10 jobs were in hospitals. The rest were mostly in nursing homes, medical group practices, clinics, and home health agencies. Insurance firms that deal in health matters employ a small number of health information technicians to tabulate and analyze health information. Public health depart ments also hire technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research. Earnings Median annual earnings of medical records and health information technicians were $22,750 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,700 and $28,590. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $ 15,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,170. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of medical records and health information technicians in 2000 were as follows: Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical records and health information technicians entering the field usually have an associate degree from a community or junior col lege. In addition to general education, coursework includes medi cal terminology, anatomy and physiology, legal aspects of health information, coding and abstraction of data, statistics, database management, quality improvement methods, and computer train ing. Applicants can improve their chances of admission into a pro gram by taking biology, chemistry, health, and computer courses in high school. Hospitals sometimes advance promising health information clerks to jobs as medical records and health information technicians, although this practice may be less common in the future. Advance ment usually requires 2 to 4 years ofjob experience and completion of a hospital’s in-house training program. Most employers prefer to hire Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT), who must pass a written examination offered by AHIMA. To take the examination, a person must graduate from a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) of the American Medical Association. Technicians trained in nonCAAHEP accredited programs, or on the job, are not eligible to take the examination. In 2001, CAAHEP accredited 177 programs for health information technicians. Technicians who specialize in coding may also obtain voluntary certification. Experienced medical records and health information technicians usually advance in one of two ways—by specializing or managing. Many senior technicians specialize in coding, particularly Medi care coding, or in tumor registry. In large medical records and health information departments, experienced technicians may advance to section supervisor, over seeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or discharge sec tions, for example. Senior technicians with RHIT credentials may become director or assistant director of a medical records and health information department in a small facility. However, in larger insti tutions, the director is usually an administrator, with a bachelor’s degree in medical records and health information administration. (See the statement on health services managers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job Outlook Job prospects for formally trained technicians should be very good. Employment of medical records and health information technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupa tions through 2010, due to rapid growth in the number of medical tests, treatments, and procedures which will be increasingly scruti nized by third-party payers, regulators, courts, and consumers. Hospitals will continue to employ a large percentage of health information technicians, but growth will not be as fast as in other areas. Increasing demand for detailed records in offices and clinics https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nursing and personal care facilities........................................ $23,760 Hospitals................................................................................. 23^540 Offices and clinics of medical doctors..................................... 21,090 Related Occupations Medical records and health information technicians need a strong clinical background to analyze the contents of medical records. Workers in other occupations requiring knowledge of medical ter minology, anatomy, and physiology without physical contact with the patient are medical secretaries and medical transcriptionists. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in medical records and health information technology, including a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs is available from: >- American Health Information Management Association, 233 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 2150, Chicago, IL 60601-5800. Internet: http://www.ahima.org Nuclear Medicine Technologists (0**NET 29-2033.00) Significant Points • Faster-than-average growth will arise from an increase in the number of middle-aged and elderly persons, who are the primary users of diagnostic procedures. • Technologists with cross training in radiologic technology or other modalities will have the best prospects. Nature of the Work In nuclear medicine, radionuclides—unstable atoms that emit ra diation spontaneously—are used to diagnose and treat disease. Radionuclides are purified and compounded like other drugs to form radiopharmaceuticals. Nuclear medicine technologists administer these radiopharmaceuticals to patients, then monitor the character istics and functions of tissues or organs in which they localize. Abnormal areas show higher or lower concentrations of radioactiv ity than normal. Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in the patient’s body to create an image on photographic film or a computer monitor. Radiologic technolo gists and technicians also operate diagnostic imaging equipment, but their equipment creates an image by projecting an x ray through the patient. (See the statement on radiologic technologists and tech nicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nuclear medicine technologists explain test procedures to patients. They prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and administer it 290 Occupational Outlook Handbook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nuclear medicine technology programs range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate’s degree, or bachelor’s de gree. Generally, certificate programs are offered in hospitals, asso ciate programs in community colleges, and bachelor s programs in 4-year colleges and in universities. Courses cover physical sciences, the biological effects of radiation exposure, radiation protection and procedures, the use of radiopharmaceuticals, imaging techniques, A nuclear medical technologist can view images oftissues or organs on a computer monitor. by mouth, injection, or other means. When preparing radiopharma ceuticals, technologists adhere to safety standards that keep the radiation dose to workers and patients as low as possible. Technologists position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or “scanner,” which creates images of the distribution of a radiopharmaceutical as it localizes in and emits signals from the patient’s body. Technologists produce the images on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret. Some nuclear medi cine studies, such as cardiac function studies, are processed with the aid of a computer. Nuclear medicine technologists also perform radioimmunoas say studies that assess the behavior of a radioactive substance in side the body. For example, technologists may add radioactive substances to blood or serum to determine levels of hormones or therapeutic drug content. Technologists keep patient records and record the amount and type of radionuclides received, used, and disposed of. Working Conditions Nuclear medicine technologists generally work a 40-hour week. This may include evening or weekend hours in departments that operate on an extended schedule. Opportunities for part-time and shift work are also available. In addition, technologists in hospitals may have on-call duty on a rotational basis. Because technologists are on their feet much of the day, and may lift or turn disabled patients, physical stamina is important. Although there is potential for radiation exposure in this field, it is kept to a minimum by the use of shielded syringes, gloves, and other protective devices and adherence to strict radiation safety guidelines. Technologists also wear badges that measure radiation levels. Because of safety programs, however, badge measurements rarely exceed established safety levels. Employment Nuclear medicine technologists held about 18,000 jobs in 2000. About two-thirds of all jobs were in hospitals. The rest were in phy sicians’ offices and clinics, including diagnostic imaging centers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and computer applications. One-year certificate programs are for health professionals, espe cially radiologic technologists and diagnostic medical sonographers, who wish to specialize in nuclear medicine. They also attract medi cal technologists, registered nurses, and others who wish to change fields or specialize. Others interested in the nuclear medicine tech nology field have three options: A 2-year certificate program, a 2year associate program, or a 4-year bachelor’s program. The Joint Review Committee on Education Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology accredits most formal training programs in nuclear medicine technology. In 2000, there were 95 accredited programs in the continental United States and Puerto Rico. All nuclear medicine technologists must meet the minimum Fed eral standards on the administration of radioactive drugs and the operation of radiation detection equipment. In addition, about half of all States require technologists to be licensed. Technologists also may obtain voluntary professional certification or registration. Registration or certification is available from the American Regis try of Radiologic Technologists and from the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board. Most employers prefer to hire cer tified or registered technologists. Nuclear medicine technologists should be sensitive to patients physical and psychological needs. They must pay attention to de tail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. Technologists may advance to supervisor, then to chief technolo gist, and to department administrator or director. Some technolo gists specialize in a clinical area such as nuclear cardiology or computer analysis or leave patient care to take positions in research laboratories. Some become instructors or directors in nuclear medi cine technology programs, a step that usually requires a bachelor s degree or a master’s in nuclear medicine technology. Others leave the occupation to work as sales or training representatives for medical equipment and radiopharmaceutical manufacturing firms, or as radi ation safety officers in regulatory agencies or hospitals. Job Outlook Employment of nuclear medicine technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. The number of openings each year will be very low because the occupation is small. Growth will arise from an increase in the num ber of middle-aged and older persons who are the primary users of diagnostic procedures, including nuclear medicine tests. Technological innovations may increase the diagnostic uses of nuclear medicine. One example is the use of radiopharmaceuticals in combination with monoclonal antibodies to detect cancer at far earlier stages than is customary today, and without resorting to sur gery. Another is the use of radionuclides to examine the heart’s ability to pump blood. Wider use of nuclear medical imaging to observe metabolic and biochemical changes for neurology, cardiol ogy, and oncology procedures, also will spur some demand for nuclear medicine technologists. On the other hand, cost considerations will affect the speed with which new applications of nuclear medicine grow. Some promising nuclear medicine procedures, such as positron emission tomography Professional and Related Occupations 291 (PET), are extremely costly, and hospitals contemplating them will have to consider equipment costs, reimbursement policies, and the number of potential users. Earnings Median annual earnings of nuclear medicine technologists were $44,130 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $38,150 and $52,190. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,500. Median annual earnings of nuclear medicine technologists in 2000 were $44,000 in hospitals. Related Occupations Nuclear medical technologists operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical labo ratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, radiation therapists, radiologic technologists and tech nicians, and respiratory therapists also perform similar functions. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a nuclear medicine technolo gist is available from: >- The Society of Nuclear Medicine-Technologist Section, 1850 Samuel Morse Dr., Reston, VA 22090. Internet: http://www.snm.org For career information, send a stamped, self-addressed business size envelope with your request to: >■ American Society of Radiologic Technologists, Customer Service De partment, 15000 Central Ave. SE., Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917, or call (800) 444-2778. Internet: http://www.asrt.org/asrt.htm For a list of accredited programs in nuclear medicine technol ogy, write to: ► Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology, PMB 418, 1 2nd Avenue East, Suite C, Poison, MT 59860 2107. Internet: http://www.jrcnmt.org Information on certification is available from: >- American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org >■ Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board, 2970 Clairmont Rd., Suite 610, Atlanta, GA 30329. Internet: http://www.nmtcb.org Occupational Health and Safety Specialists and Technicians (Industrial engineers, including health and safety—who have simi lar goals—are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Occupational health and safety specialists analyze work environments and de sign programs to control, eliminate, and prevent disease or injury caused by chemical, physical, and biological agents or ergonomic factors. They may conduct inspections and enforce adherence to laws, regulations, or employer policies governing worker health and safety. Occupational health and safety technicians collect data on work environments for analysis by occupational health and safety specialists. Usually working under the supervision of specialists, they help implement and evaluate programs designed to limit risks to workers. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians iden tify hazardous conditions and practices. Sometimes, they develop methods to predict hazards from experience, historical data, and other information sources. Then they identify potential hazards in existing or future systems, equipment, products, facilities, or pro cesses. After reviewing the causes or effects of hazards, they evalu ate the probability and severity of accidents that may result. For example, they might uncover patterns in injury data that implicate a specific cause such as system failure, human error, incomplete or faulty decision making, or a weakness in existing policies or prac tices. Then they develop and help enforce a plan to eliminate haz ards, conducting training sessions for management, supervisors, and workers on health and safety practices and regulations, as neces sary. Lastly, they may check on the progress of the safety plan after its implementation. If improvements are not satisfactory, a new plan might be designed and put into practice. Many occupational health and safety specialists inspect and test machinery and equipment, such as lifting devices, machine shields, or scaffolding, to ensure they meet appropriate safety regulations. They may check that personal protective equipment, such as masks, respirators, safety glasses, or safety helmets, is being used in work places according to regulations. They also check that dangerous materials are stored correctly. They test and identify work areas for potential accident and health hazards, such as toxic fumes and ex plosive gas-air mixtures, and may implement appropriate control measures, such as adjustments to ventilation systems. Their inves tigations might involve talking with workers and observing their work, as well as inspecting elements in their work environment, such as lighting, tools, and equipment. To measure and control hazardous substances, such as the noise or radiation levels, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians prepare and calibrate scientific equipment. Samples of (0**NET 29-9011.00, 29-9012.00) Significant Points • • Almost half of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work in Federal, State, and local government agencies that enforce rules on health and safety. For positions as specialists, many employers, including the Federal Government, require 4-year college degrees in safety or a related field. Nature of the Work Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians, also known as occupational health and safety inspectors and industrial hygienists, help keep workplaces safe and workers unscathed. They promote occupational health and safety within organizations by Digitizeddeveloping for FRASERsafer, healthier, and more efficient ways of working. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Almost half of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians workfor Federal, State, or local government agencies. 292 Occupational Outlook Handbook dust, gases, vapors, and other potentially toxic materials must be collected and handled properly to ensure safety and accurate test results. If an accident occurs, occupational health and safety specialists help investigate unsafe working conditions, study possible causes, and recommend remedial action. Some occupational health and safety specialists and technicians assist with the rehabilitation of workers after accidents and injuries, and make sure they return to work successfully. Frequent communication with management may be necessary to report on the status of occupational health and safety programs. Consultation with engineers or physicians also may be required. Occupational health and safety specialists prepare reports includ ing observations, analysis of contaminants, and recommendation for control and correction of hazards. Those who develop expertise in certain areas may develop occupational health and safety sys tems, including policies, procedures, and manuals. Working Conditions Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work with many different people in a variety of environments. Their jobs often involve considerable fieldwork, and some travel frequently. Many occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work long and often irregular hours. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians may experience unpleasant, stressful, and dangerous working conditions. For example, health and safety inspectors are exposed to many of the same physically strenuous conditions and hazards as industrial employees, and the work may be performed in unpleasant, stressful, and dangerous working conditions. Health and safety inspectors may find themselves in adversarial roles when the organization or individual being inspected objects to the process or its consequences. Employment Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians held about 35,000 jobs in 2000. The Federal Government—chiefly the De partment of Labor—employed 8 percent, State governments em ployed 17 percent, and local governments employed 19 percent. The remainder were employed throughout the private sector in schools, hospitals, management consulting firms, public utilities, and manufacturing firms. Within the Federal government, most jobs are as Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) inspectors, who enforce U.S. Department of Labor regulations that ensure adequate safety principles, practices, and techniques are applied in workplaces. Employers may be fined for violation of OSHA standards. Within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, occupational health and safety specialists working for the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provide private compa nies with an avenue to evaluate the health and safety of their em ployees without the risk of being fined. Most large government agencies also employ occupational health and safety specialists and technicians who work to protect agency employees. Most private companies either employ their own safety person nel or contract safety professionals to ensure OSHA compliance, as needed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Requirements include a combination of education, experience, and passing scores on written examinations. Many employers, includ ing the Federal Government, require a 4-year college degree in safety or a related field for some positions. Experience as a safety profes Digitizedsional for FRASER is also a prerequisite for many positions. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis All occupational health and safety specialists and technicians are trained in the applicable laws or inspection procedures through some combination of classroom and on-the-job training. In gen eral, people who want to enter this occupation should be respon sible and like detailed work. Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians should be able to communicate well. Recommended high school courses include English, chemistry, biology, and physics. Certification is available through the Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) and the American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH). The BCSP offers the Certified Safety Professional (CSP) credential, while the ABIH proffers the Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) credential. Also, the Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technologists, a joint effort between the BCSP and ABIH, awards the Occupational Health and Safety Tech nologist (OHST) credential. Requirements for the OHST creden tial are less stringent than those for the CSP or CIH credentials. Once education and experience requirements have been met, certi fication may be obtained through an examination. Continuing edu cation is required for recertification. Although voluntary, many employers encourage certification. Federal Government occupational health and safety specialists and technicians whose job performance is satisfactory advance through their career ladder to a specified full-performance level. For positions above this level, usually supervisory positions, advancement is competitive and based on agency needs and indi vidual merit. Advancement opportunities in State and local gov ernments and the private sector are often similar to those in the Federal Government. With additional experience or education, promotion to a mana gerial position is possible. Research or related teaching positions at the college level require advanced education. Job Outlook Employment of occupational health and safety specialists and tech nicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through 2010, reflecting a balance of continuing public demand for a safe and healthy work environment against the desire for smaller government and fewer regulations. Additional job open ings will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. In private industry, employment growth will reflect industry growth and the continuing self-enforcement of government and company regulations and policies. Employment of occupational health and safety specialists and technicians is seldom affected by general economic fluctuations. Federal, State, and local governments, which employ almost half of all specialists and technicians, provide considerable job security. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational health and safety special ists and technicians were $42,750 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,060 and $54,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,780, while the highest 10 percent earned over $67,760. Median annual earnings of occupational health and safety special ists and technicians in 2000 were $41,330 in local government and $41,110 in State government. Most occupational health and safety specialists and technicians work for Federal, State, and local governments or in large private firms, most of which generally offer more generous benefits than do smaller firms. Professional and Related Occupations 293 Related Occupations Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians ensure that laws and regulations are obeyed. Others who enforce laws and regulations include agricultural inspectors, construction and build ing inspectors, correctional officers, financial examiners, fire in spectors, police and detectives, and transportation inspectors. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in Federal, State, and local government as well as in private industry is available from the States’ employment service offices. For information on a career as an industrial hygienist and a list of colleges and universities offering programs in industrial hygiene, contact: >- American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2700 Prosperity Ave., Suite 250, Fairfax, VA 22031. Internet: http://www.aiha.org For a list of colleges and universities offering safety and related degrees, including correspondence courses, contact: ► American Society of Safety Engineers, 1800 E Oakton St., Des Plaines, IL 60018. Internet: http://www.asse.org For information on the Certified Safety Professional credential, contact: >- Board of Certified Safety Professionals, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.bcsp.org For information on the Certified Industrial Hygiene credential, contact: >• American Board of Industrial Hygiene, 6015 West St. Joseph, Suite 102, Lansing, MI 48917. Internet: http://www.abih.org For information on the Occupational Health and Safety Tech nologist credential, contact: ► Council on Certification of Health, Environmental, and Safety Technologists, 208 Burwash Ave., Savoy, IL 61874. Internet: http://www.cchest.org For additional career information, contact: ► U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Con trol and Prevention, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Hubert H. Humphrey Bldg., 200 Independence Ave. SW., Room 715H, Wash ington, DC 20201. Internet: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html ► U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Adminis tration, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Internet: http://www.osha.gov Information on obtaining positions as occupational health and safety specialists and technicians with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through a tele phone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov. Nature of Work Dispensing opticians fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, following prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. (The work of optometrists is described in a statement elsewhere in the Hand book. See the statement on physicians and surgeons for informa tion about ophthalmologists.) Dispensing opticians examine written prescriptions to determine lens specifications. They recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer’s occupation, habits, and facial features. Dispensing opticians mea sure clients’ eyes, including the distance between the centers of the pupils and the distance between the eye surface and the lens. For customers without prescriptions, dispensing opticians may use a lensometer to record the present eyeglass prescription. They also may obtain a customer’s previous record, or verify a prescription with the examining optometrist or ophthalmologist. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthalmic laboratory technicians information needed to grind and insert lenses into a frame. The work order includes lens prescriptions and infor mation on lens size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians grind and insert lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verily that the lenses have been ground to specifications. Then they may reshape or bend the frame, by hand or using pliers, so that the eyeglasses fit the customer properly and comfortably. Some also fix, adjust, and refit broken frames. They instruct clients about adapting to, wearing, or caring for eyeglasses. Some dispensing opticians specialize in fitting contacts, artifi cial eyes, or cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure eye shape and size, select the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders specifying the prescription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires con siderable skill, care, and patience. Dispensing opticians observe customers’ eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special in struments and microscopes. During several visits, opticians show customers how to insert, remove, and care for their contacts, and ensure the fit is correct. Dispensing opticians keep records on customer prescriptions, work orders, and payments; track inventory and sales; and perform other administrative duties. Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in attractive, well-lighted, and well-ventilated surroundings. They may work in medical offices or small stores where customers are served one at a time, or in large Opticians, Dispensing (0**NET 29-2081.00) Significant Points • Most dispensing opticians receive training on-the-job or through apprenticeships lasting 2 or more years; 22 States require a license. • Projected employment growth reflects steadfast demand for corrective lenses and trends in fashion. • The number of job openings will be relatively small is small. because the occupation https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A dispensing optician ensures that eyeglass frames fit properly and comfortably. 294 Occupational Outlook Handbook stores where several dispensing opticians serve a number of cus tomers at once. Opticians spend a lot of time on their feet. If they prepare lenses, they need to take precautions against the hazards associated with glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery. Most dispensing opticians work a 40-hour week, although some work longer hours. Those in retail stores may work evenings and weekends. Some work part time. Employment Dispensing opticians held about 68,000 jobs in 2000. Almost half worked for ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. Many also work in retail optical stores that offer onestop shopping. Customers may have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. Some work in optical departments of drug and department stores. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually hire individuals with no background in opticianry or those who have worked as ophthalmic laboratory technicians and then provide the required training. (See the statement on oph thalmic laboratory technicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most dispensing opticians receive training on-the-job or through appren ticeships lasting 2 or more years. Some employers, however, seek people with postsecondary training in opticianry. Knowledge of physics, basic anatomy, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable because training usu ally includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machin ery and tools. Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and communicate well. Manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential. Large employers usually offer structured apprenticeship pro grams, and small employers provide more informal on-the-job train ing. In the 22 States that require dispensing opticians to be licensed, individuals without postsecondary training work from 2 to 4 years as apprentices. Apprenticeship or formal training is offered in most States as well. Apprentices receive technical training and leam office manage ment and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced optician, optometrist, or ophthalmologist, apprentices work directly with patients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. In the 21 States requiring licensure, information about apprenticeships and licens ing procedures is available from the State board of occupational licensing. Formal opticianry training is offered in community colleges and a few colleges and universities. In 2000, the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation accredited 25 programs that awarded 2year associate degrees in opticianry. There also are shorter pro grams of 1 year or less. Some States that offer a license to dispensing opticians allow graduates to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others require a few months to a year of experi ence. Dispensing opticians may apply to the American Board of Opticianry (ABO) and the National Contact Lens Examiners (NCLE) for certification of their skills. Certification must be renewed every 3 years through continuing education. Those li censed in States where licensing renewal requirements include con tinuing education credits may use proof of their renewed State license to meet the recertification requirements of the ABO. Like wise, the NCLE will accept proof of license renewal from any State that has contact lens requirements. Many experienced dispensing opticians open their own optical stores. Others become managers of optical stores or sales represen Digitizedtatives for FRASER for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Job Outlook Employment of dispensing opticians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010 as demand grows for corrective lenses. The number of middle-aged and eld erly persons is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many individuals use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons generally require more vision care than others. Fashion, too, influences demand. Frames come in a growing variety of styles and colors—encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Demand also is expected to grow in response to the avail ability of new technologies that improve the quality and look of corrective lenses, such as anti-reflective coatings and bifocal lenses without the line visible in old-style bifocals. Improvements in bifocal, extended wear, and disposable contact lenses also will spur demand. The need to replace those who leave the occupation will result in additional job openings. Nevertheless, the total number of job openings will be relatively small because the occupation is small. This occupation is vulnerable to changes in the business cycle be cause eyewear purchases often can be deferred for a time. Employ ment of opticians can fall somewhat during economic downturns. Earnings Median annual earnings of dispensing opticians were $24,430 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $ 19,200 and $31,770. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,900, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $39,660. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of dispensing opticians in 2000 were as follows: Offices and clinics of medical doctors............................................. Retail stores, not elsewhere classified.............................................. Offices of other health practitioners.................................................. Department stores.................................................................................. $28,220 25,120 22,670 21,410 Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include camera and photographic equipment repairers, dental labo ratory technicians, jewelers and precious stone and metal workers, locksmiths and safe repairers, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, orthotists and prosthetists, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career as a dispensing optician and about continuing education, as well as a list of State licensing boards for opticianry, contact: ► Opticians Association of America, 7023 Little River Turnpike, Suite 207, Annandale, VA 22003. Internet: http://www.opticians.org For general information about a career as a dispensing optician and a list of accredited training programs, contact: ► Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 7023 Little River Turnpike, Suite 207,Annandale, VA22003. Internet: http://www.coaccreditation.com For general information on opticianry and a list of home-study programs, seminars, and review materials, contact: ► National Academy of Opticianry, 8401 Corporate Dr., Suite 605, Landover, MD 20785. Internet: http://www.nao.org To leam about voluntary certification for opticians who fit spec tacles, as well as State licensing boards of opticianry, contact: ► American Board of Opticianry, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Spring field, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org For information on voluntary certification for dispensing opti cians who fit contact lenses, contact: >- National Contact Lens Examiners, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Spring field, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org Professional and Related Occupations 295 Pharmacy Technicians (0*NET 29-2052.00) Significant Points • • • Job opportunities are expected to be good, especially for those with certification or previous work experience. Many technicians work evenings, weekends, and some holidays. Two-thirds of all jobs are in retail pharmacies. Nature of the Work Pharmacy technicians help licensed pharmacists provide medica tion and other healthcare products to patients. Technicians usually perform routine tasks to help prepare prescribed medication for patients, such as counting tablets and labeling bottles. Technicians refer any questions regarding prescriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the statement on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Pharmacy aides work closely with pharmacy technicians. They are often clerks or cashiers who primarily answer telephones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. (See the statement on pharmacy aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Phar macy technicians usually perform more complex tasks than do phar macy aides, although, in some States, their duties and job titles overlap. Pharmacy technicians who work in retail pharmacies have vary ing responsibilities, depending on State rules and regulations. Tech nicians receive written prescriptions or requests for prescription refills from patients. They also may receive prescriptions sent elec tronically from the doctor’s office. They must verify that the infor mation on the prescription is complete and accurate. To prepare the prescription, technicians must retrieve, count, pour, weigh, mea sure, and sometimes mix the medication. Then, they prepare the prescription labels, select the type of prescription container, and affix the prescription and auxiliary labels to the container. Once the prescription is filled, technicians price and file the prescription, which must be checked by a pharmacist before it is given to a patient. Technicians may establish and maintain patient profiles, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. Pharmacy technicians help to ensure that patients get necessary medication. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In hospitals, technicians have added responsibilities. They read patient charts and prepare and deliver the medicine to patients. The pharmacist must check the order before it is delivered to the pa tient. The technician then copies the information about the pre scribed medication onto the patient’s profile. Technicians also may assemble a 24-hour supply of medicine for every patient. They package and label each dose separately. The package is then placed in the medicine cabinet of each patient until the supervising phar macist checks it for accuracy. It is then given to the patient. Working Conditions Pharmacy technicians work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Technicians work the same hours as pharmacists. This may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Because some hospital and retail pharmacies are open 24 hours a day, technicians may work varying shifts. As their seniority increases, technicians often have increased control over the hours they work. There are many oppor tunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings. Employment Pharmacy technicians held about 190,000 jobs in 2000. Two-thirds of all jobs were in retail pharmacies, either independently owned or part of a drug store chain, grocery store, department store, or mass retailer. More than 2 out of 10 jobs were in hospitals and a small number were in mail-order and Internet pharmacies, clinics, phar maceutical wholesalers, and the Federal Government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most pharmacy technicians receive informal on-the-job training, employers favor those who have completed formal train ing and certification. However, there are currently few State and no Federal requirements for formal training or certification of phar macy technicians. Employers who can neither afford, nor have the time to give, on-the-job training often seek formally educated phar macy technicians. Formal education programs and certification emphasize the technicians’ interest in and dedication to the work to potential employers. In addition to the military, some hospitals, proprietary schools, vocational or technical colleges, and commu nity colleges offer formal education programs. Formal pharmacy-technician education programs require class room and laboratory work in a variety of areas, including medical and pharmaceutical terminology, pharmaceutical calculations, phar macy recordkeeping, pharmaceutical techniques, and pharmacy law and ethics. Technicians also are required to leam medication names, actions, uses, and doses. Many training programs include intern ships, in which students gain hands-on experience in actual phar macies. Students receive a diploma, certificate, or an associate degree, depending on the program. Prospective pharmacy technicians with experience working as an aide in a community pharmacy or volunteering in a hospital may have an advantage. Employers also prefer applicants with strong customer service and communication skills and with experience managing inventories, counting, measuring, and using computers. Technicians entering the field need strong mathematics, spelling, and reading skills. A background in chemistry, English, and health education also may be beneficial. Some technicians are hired with out formal training, but under the condition that they obtain certifi cation within a specified period to retain employment. The Pharmacy Technician Certification Board administers the National Pharmacy Technician Certification Examination. This exam is voluntary and displays the competency of the individual to 296 Occupational Outlook Handbook act as a pharmacy technician. Eligible candidates must have a high school diploma or GED, and those who pass the exam earn the title of Certified Pharmacy Technician (CPhT). The exam is offered several times per year at various locations nationally. Employers, often pharmacists, know that individuals who pass the exam have a standardized body of knowledge and skills. Certified technicians must be recertified every 2 years. Techni cians must complete 20 contact hours of pharmacy-related topics within the 2-year certification period to become eligible for recerti fication. Contact hours are awarded for on-the-job training, attend ing lectures, and college coursework. At least 1 contact hour must be in pharmacy law. Contact hours can be earned from several different sources, including pharmacy associations, pharmacy col leges, and pharmacy technician training programs. Up to 10 con tact hours can be earned when the technician is employed under the direct supervision and instruction of a pharmacist. Successful pharmacy technicians are alert, observant, organized, dedicated, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take directions. They must enjoy precise work—details are sometimes a matter of life and death. Although a pharmacist must check and approve all their work, they should be able to work on their own without constant instruction from the pharmacist. Candidates in terested in becoming pharmacy technicians cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Strong interpersonal and communication skills are needed be cause there is a lot of interaction with patients, coworkers, and healthcare professionals. Teamwork is very important because tech nicians are often required to work with pharmacists, aides, and other technicians. Job Outlook Good job opportunities are expected for full-time and part-time work, especially for technicians with formal training or previous experi ence. Job openings for pharmacy technicians will result from the expansion of retail pharmacies and other employment settings, and from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of pharmacy technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2010 due to the increased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population, and to the greater use of medication. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people—who, on average, use more pre scription drags than do younger people—will spur demand for tech nicians in all practice settings. With advances in science, more medications are becoming available to treat more conditions. Cost-conscious insurers, pharmacies, and health systems will continue to emphasize the role of technicians. As a result, phar macy technicians will assume responsibility for more routine tasks previously performed by pharmacists. Pharmacy technicians also will need to learn and master new pharmacy technology as it sur faces. For example, robotic machines are used to dispense medi cine into containers; technicians must oversee the machines, stock the bins, and label the containers. Thus, while automation is in creasingly incorporated into the job, it will not necessarily reduce the need for technicians. Almost all States have legislated the maximum number of tech nicians who can safely work under a pharmacist at a time. In some States, increased demand for technicians has encouraged an ex panded ratio of technicians to pharmacists. Changes in these laws could directly affect employment. Earnings Median hourly earnings of pharmacy technicians in 2000 were $9.93. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.12 and $12.26; the lowest https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10 percent earned less than $7.00, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 14.56. Median hourly earnings in the industries employ ing the largest numbers of pharmacy technicians in 2000 were as follows: Hospitals.................................................................................................. Grocery stores......................................................................................... Drugs, proprietaries, andsundries....................................................... Drug stores and proprietarystores...................................................... Department stores.................................................................................. $11.44 10.57 10.09 9.00 8.75 Certified technicians may earn more. Shift differentials for work ing evenings or weekends also can increase earnings. Some techni cians belong to unions representing hospital or grocery store workers. Related occupations This occupation is most closely related to pharmacists and phar macy aides. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical transcriptionists, medical records and health information technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, secretaries and administrative assis tants, and surgical technologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on certification and a National Pharmacy Techni cian Certification Examination Candidate Handbook, contact: ► Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW, Washington DC 20037. Internet: http://www.ptcb.org Radiologic Technologists and Technicians (0**NET 29-2034.01, 29-2034.02) Significant Points • • • Faster-than-average growth will arise from an increase in the number of middle-aged and older persons who are the primary users of diagnostic procedures Although hospitals will remain the primary employer of radiologic technologists and technicians, a greater number of new jobs will be found in offices and clinics of physicians, including diagnostic imaging centers. Radiologic technologists and technicians with cross training in nuclear medicine technology or other modalities will have the best prospects. Nature of the Work Radiologic technologists and technicians take x rays and adminis ter nonradioactive materials into patients’ blood streams for diag nostic purposes. Some specialize in diagnostic imaging technologies such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imag ing (MRI). In addition to radiologic technologists and technicians, others who assist in diagnostic imaging procedures include cardiovascu lar technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and nuclear medicine technologists. (Each is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Radiologic technologists and technicians, also referred to as radiographers, produce x-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the hu man body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare Professional and Related Occupations 297 — shielding devices, as well as by instruments monitoring radiation exposure. Technologists and technicians wear badges measuring radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumulative lifetime dose. Employment Radiologic technologists and technicians held about 167,000 jobs in 2000. About 1 in 5 worked part time. More than half of all jobs are in hospitals. Most of the rest are in physicians’ offices and clinics, including diagnostic imaging centers. A radiologic technologist positions an x-ray machine at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, removing articles such as jewelry, through which x rays cannot pass, and positioning patients so that the parts of the body can be appropri ately radiographed. To prevent unnecessary radiation exposure, they surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the x-ray beam. Radiographers posi tion radiographic equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, they may measure the thickness of the section to be radiographed and set controls on the x-ray machine to produce radio graphs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. They place the x-ray film under the part of the patient’s body to be examined and make the exposure. They then remove the film and develop it. Experienced radiographers may perform more complex imaging procedures. For fluoroscopies, radiographers prepare a solution of contrast medium for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist, a physician who interprets radiographs, to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiographers, called CT technologists, operate computerized tomography scanners to produce cross sectional images of patients. Others operate machines using strong magnets and radio waves rather than radiation to create an image and are called magnetic resonance imaging (MR1) technologists. Radiologic technologists and technicians must follow physicians’ orders precisely and conform to regulations concerning use of ra diation to protect themselves, their patients, and coworkers from unnecessary exposure. In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, radio logic technologists and technicians keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate equipment purchases, or manage a radiology department. Working Conditions Most full-time radiologic technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week; they may have evening, weekend, or on-call hours. Opportunities for part-time and shift work are also available. Because technologists and technicians are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients, physical stamina is important. Technologists and technicians work at diagnostic ma chines but may also do some procedures at patients’ bedsides. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diag nostic equipment. Although potential radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they are minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this profession is offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, and the U.S. Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists and technicians, prefer to hire those with formal training. Formal training programs in radiography range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate’s degree, or bachelor’s degree. Two-year associate’s degree programs are most prevalent. Some 1-year certificate programs are available for experienced radiographers or individuals from other health occupations, such as medical technologists and registered nurses, who want to change fields or specialize in computerized tomography or magnetic reso nance imaging. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one of the ra diologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Tech nology accredits most formal training programs for this field. They accredited 584 radiography programs in 2000. Radiography pro grams require, at a minimum, a high school diploma or the equiva lent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both classroom and clini cal instruction in anatomy and physiology, patient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protection, principles of imaging, medi cal terminology, positioning of patients, medical ethics, radiobiol ogy, and pathology. In 1981, Congress passed the Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act, which aims to protect the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by ensur ing operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. Under the act, the Federal Government sets voluntary standards that the States, in turn, may use for accrediting training programs and certi fying individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. In 1999, 35 States and Puerto Rico licensed radiologic technolo gists and technicians. Voluntary registration is offered by the Ameri can Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) in radiography. To be eligible for registration, technologists generally must gradu ate from an accredited program and pass an examination. Many employers prefer to hire registered radiographers. To be recerti fied, radiographers must complete 24 hours of continuing educa tion every other year. Radiologic technologists and technicians should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. They must pay atten tion to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scanning, angiography, and mag netic resonance imaging. Experienced technologists may also be promoted to supervisor, chief radiologic technologist, and—ulti mately—department administrator or director. Depending on the institution, courses or a master’s degree in business or health admini stration may be necessary for the director’s position. Some tech nologists progress by becoming instructors or directors in radiologic 298 Occupational Outlook Handbook technology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers. Job Outlook Employment of radiologic technologists and technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010, as the population grows and ages, increasing the demand for diagnos tic imaging. Opportunities are expected to be favorable. Some employers report shortages of radiologic technologists and techni cians. Imbalances between the supply of qualified workers and demand should spur efforts to attract and retain qualified radio logic technologists and technicians. For example, employers may provide more flexible training programs, or improve compensation and working conditions. Although physicians are enthusiastic about the clinical benefits of new technologies, the extent to which they are adopted depends largely on cost and reimbursement considerations. For example, digital imaging technology can improve quality and efficiency, but remains expensive. Some promising new technologies may not come into widespread use because they are too expensive and third-party payers may not be willing to pay for their use. Radiologic technologists who are educated and credentialed in more than one type of diagnostic imaging technology, such as radi ography and sonography or nuclear medicine, will have better em ployment opportunities as employers look for new ways to control costs. In hospitals, multi-skilled employees will be the most sought after, as hospitals respond to cost pressures by continuing to merge departments. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic tech nologists and technicians. However, a greater number of new jobs will be found in offices and clinics of physicians, including diag nostic imaging centers. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow very rapidly through 2010 due to the strong shift toward outpatient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made pos sible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Some job openings will also arise from the need to replace technologists and technicians who leave the occupation. Earnings Median annual earnings of radiologic technologists and technicians were $36,000 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,220 and $43,380. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,310, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,050. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest num bers of radiologic technologists and technicians in 2000 were: Medical and dental laboratories......................................................... Hospitals.................................................................................................. Offices and clinics of medical doctors............................................. For the current list of accredited education programs in radiog raphy, write to: >- Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 600, Chicago, IL 60606-2901. Internet: http://www.jrcert.org For information on certification, contact: >- American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org Surgical Technologists (Q*NET 29-2055.00) Significant Points • • Most educational programs for surgical technologists last approximately 1 year and result in a certificate. Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow faster than average as the number of surgical procedures grows. Nature of the Work Surgical technologists, also called scrubs and surgical or operating room technicians, assist in surgical operations under the supervi sion of surgeons, registered nurses, or other surgical personnel. Surgical technologists are members of operating room teams, which most commonly include surgeons, anesthesiologists, and circulat ing nurses. Before an operation, surgical technologists help pre pare the operating room by setting up surgical instruments and equipment, sterile drapes, and sterile solutions. They assemble both sterile and nonsterile equipment, as well as adjust and check it to ensure it is working properly. Technologists also get patients ready for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting incision sites. They transport patients to the operating room, help position them on the operating table, and cover them with sterile surgical “drapes.” Tech nologists also observe patients’ vital signs, check charts, and assist the surgical team with putting on sterile gowns and gloves. During surgery, technologists pass instmments and other sterile supplies to surgeons and surgeon assistants. They may hold retrac tors, cut sutures, and help count sponges, needles, supplies, and instruments. Surgical technologists help prepare, care for, and dis pose of specimens taken for laboratory analysis and help apply dress ings. Some operate sterilizers, lights, or suction machines, and help operate diagnostic equipment. $39,400 36,280 34,870 Related Occupations Radiologic technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitio ners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical labo ratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation therapists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information For career information, send a stamped, self-addressed business size envelope with your request to: >• American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE., NM 87123-3917. Internet: http://www.asrt.org/asrt.htm Albuquerque, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Surgical technologists prepare operating rooms and assist surgical personnel during operations. Professional and Related Occupations 299 After an operation, surgical technologists may help transfer pa tients to the recovery room and clean and restock the operating room. Working Conditions Surgical technologists work in clean, well-lighted, cool environ ments. They must stand for long periods and remain alert during operations. At times they may be exposed to communicable dis eases and unpleasant sights, odors, and materials. Most surgical technologists work a regular 40-hour week, al though they may be on call or work nights, weekends and holidays on a rotating basis. Employment Surgical technologists held about 71,000 jobs in 2000. Almost threequarters are employed by hospitals, mainly in operating and delivery rooms. Others are employed in clinics and surgical centers, and in the offices of physicians and dentists who perform outpatient sur gery. A few, known as private scrubs, are employed directly by sur geons who have special surgical teams, like those for liver transplants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Surgical technologists receive their training in formal programs of fered by community and junior colleges, vocational schools, uni versities, hospitals, and the military. In 2001, the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) recognized 350 accredited programs. High school graduation nor mally is required for admission. Programs last 9 to 24 months and lead to a certificate, diploma, or associate degree. Programs provide classroom education and supervised clinical experience. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, micro biology, pharmacology, professional ethics, and medical terminol ogy. Other studies cover the care and safety of patients during surgery, aseptic techniques, and surgical procedures. Students also learn to sterilize instruments; prevent and control infection; and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. Technologists may obtain voluntary professional certification from the Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Tech nologist by graduating from a CAAHEP-accredited program and passing a national certification examination. They may then use the designation Certified Surgical Technologist, or CST. Continu ing education or reexamination is required to maintain certifica tion, which must be renewed every 6 years. Certification may also be obtained from the National Center for Competency Testing. To qualify to take the exam, candidates follow one of three paths: complete an accredited training program, undergo a 2-year hospi tal on-the-job training program, or acquire seven years experience working in the field. After passing the exam, individuals may use the designation National Certified Technician O.R. This certifica tion may be renewed every 5 years through either continuing edu cation or reexamination. Most employers prefer to hire certified technologists. Surgical technologists need manual dexterity to handle instru ments quickly. They also must be conscientious, orderly, and emo tionally stable to handle the demands of the operating room environment. Technologists must respond quickly and know pro cedures well to have instruments ready for surgeons without having to be told. They are expected to keep abreast of new developments in the field. Recommended high school courses include health, biology, chemistry, and mathematics. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Technologists advance by specializing in a particular area of surgery, such as neurosurgery or open heart surgery. They also may work as circulating technologists. A circulating technologist is the “unsterile” member of the surgical team who prepares pa tients; helps with anesthesia; obtains and opens packages for the “sterile” persons to remove the sterile contents during the proce dure; interviews the patient before surgery; keeps a written account of the surgical procedure; and answers the surgeon’s questions about the patient during the surgery. With additional training, some tech nologists advance to first assistants, who help with retracting, spong ing, suturing, cauterizing bleeders, and closing and treating wounds. Some surgical technologists manage central supply departments in hospitals, or take positions with insurance companies, sterile sup ply services, and operating equipment firms. Job Outlook Employment of surgical technologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010 as the volume of surgery increases. The number of surgical procedures is expected to rise as the population grows and ages. As the “baby boom” generation enters retirement age, the over 50 population will account for a larger portion of the general population. Older people require more surgical procedures. Technological advances, such as fiber optics and laser technology, will also permit new surgical pro cedures to be performed. Hospitals will continue to be the primary employer of surgical technologists, although much faster employment growth is expected in offices and clinics of physicians, including ambulatory surgical centers. Earnings Median annual earnings of surgical technologists were $29,020 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,490 and $34,160. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,490, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $40,310. Median annual earnings of sur gical technologists in 2000 were $31,190 in offices and clinics of medical doctors and $28,340 in hospitals. Related Occupations Other health occupations requiring approximately 1 year of train ing after high school include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical and clinical laboratory tech nicians, medical assistants, and respiratory therapy technicians. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on a career as a surgical technologist and a list of CAAHEP-accredited programs, contact: >- Association of Surgical Technologists, 7108-C South Alton Way, Englewood, CO 80112. Internet: http://www.ast.org For information on becoming a Certified Surgical Technologist, contact: >- Liaison Council on Certification for the Surgical Technologist, 7790 East Arapahoe Rd., Suite 240, Englewood, CO 80112-1274. Internet: http://www.lcc-st.org/index_ie.htm For information on becoming a National Certified Technician O.R., contact: >- National Center for Competency Testing, 7007 College Blvd., Suite 250, Overland Park, KS 6621. Internet: http://www.ncctinc.com Service Occupations Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations Building Cleaning Workers (0**NET 37-1011.01, 37-1011.02, 37-2011.00, 37-2012.00) Significant Points • Limited training requirements, low pay, and numerous part-time and temporary jobs should contribute to the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupation each year. • Businesses providing janitorial and cleaning services on a contract basis are expected to be one of the fastest growing employers of these workers. Nature of the Work Building cleaning workers—which includes janitors, executive housekeepers, and maids and housekeeping cleaners—keep office buildings, hospitals, stores, apartment houses, hotels, and other types of buildings clean and in good condition. Some only do cleaning, while others have a wide range of duties. Janitors and cleaners perform a variety of heavy cleaning duties, such as cleaning floors, shampooing rags, washing walls and glass, and removing rubbish. They may fix leaky faucets, empty trashcans, do painting and car pentry, replenish bathroom supplies, mow lawns, and see that heat ing and air-conditioning equipment works properly. On a typical day, janitors may wet- or dry-mop floors, clean bathrooms, vacuum carpets, dust furniture, make minor repairs, and exterminate insects and rodents. They also notify management of the need for repairs and clean snow or debris from sidewalks in front of buildings. Maids and housekeeping cleaners perform any combination of light clean ing duties to maintain private households or commercial establish ments, such as hotels, restaurants, and hospitals, in a clean and orderly manner. In hotels, aside from cleaning and maintaining the premises, they may deliver ironing boards, cribs, and rollaway beds to guests’ rooms. In hospitals, they also may wash bed frames, brash mattresses, make beds, and disinfect and sterilize equipment and supplies using germicides and sterilizing equipment. Janitors, maids, and cleaners use various equipment, tools, and cleaning materials. For one job, they may need a mop and bucket; for another, an electric polishing machine and a special cleaning solution. Improved building materials, chemical cleaners, and power equipment have made many tasks easier and less time-consuming, but cleaning workers must learn proper use of equipment and clean ers to avoid harming floors, fixtures, and themselves. Cleaning supervisors coordinate, schedule, and supervise the activities of janitors and cleaners. They assign tasks and inspect building areas to see that work has been done properly, issue sup plies and equipment, inventory stocks to ensure an adequate amount of supplies are present, screen and hire job applicants, and recom mend promotions, transfers, or dismissals. They also train new and experienced employees. Supervisors may prepare reports concern ing room occupancy, hours worked, and department expenses. Some also perform cleaning duties. 300 https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Building cleaning workers perform a variety of heavy cleaning duties, such as cleaning floors, shampooing rugs, washing walls and glass, and removing rubbish. Cleaners and servants in private households dust and polish fur niture; sweep, mop, and wax floors; vacuum; and clean ovens, refrigerators, and bathrooms. They also may wash dishes, polish silver, and change and make beds. Some wash, fold, and iron clothes; a few wash windows. General houseworkers also may take clothes and laundry to the cleaners, buy groceries, and do many other errands. Working Conditions Because most office buildings are cleaned while they are empty, many cleaning workers work evening hours. Some, however, such as school and hospital custodians, work in the daytime. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, janitors may be assigned to shifts. Most full-time building cleaners work about 40 hours a week. Part time cleaners usually work in the evenings and on weekends. Service Occupations 301 Building cleaning workers in large office and residential build ings often work in teams. These teams consist of workers who specialize in vacuuming, trash pickup, and restroom cleaning, among other things. Supervisors conduct inspections to ensure the build ing is cleaned properly and the team is functioning efficiently. Building cleaning workers usually work inside heated, welllighted buildings. However, they sometimes work outdoors sweep ing walkways, mowing lawns, or shoveling snow. Working with machines can be noisy, and some tasks, such as cleaning bathrooms and trash rooms, can be dirty and unpleasant. Janitors may suffer cuts, bruises, and bums from machines, handtools, and chemicals. They spend most of their time on their feet, sometimes lifting or pushing heavy furniture or equipment. Many tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. As a result, janitors also may suffer back injuries and sprains. Employment Building cleaning workers held nearly 4.2 million jobs in 2000. Less than 5 percent were self-employed. Janitors and cleaners work in nearly every type of establishment and held about 2.3 million jobs. They accounted for about 56 per cent of all building cleaning workers. About 28 percent worked for firms supplying building maintenance services on a contract basis; 20 percent in educational institutions; and 3 percent in hotels. Other employers included hospitals, restaurants, religious institutions, manufacturing firms, government agencies, and operators of apart ment buildings, office buildings, and other types of real estate. First-line supervisors of housekeeping and janitorial workers held about 219,000 jobs. About 16 percent were employed in hotels; 22 percent in firms supplying building maintenance services on a con tract basis; 5 percent in hospitals; and 6 percent in nursing and per sonal care facilities. Other employers included educational institutions, residential care establishments, and amusement and recreation facilities. Maids and housekeepers held about 1.6 million jobs. About 25 percent were employed in hotels and other lodging places; 8 percent in hospitals; and 6 percent in nursing and personal care facilities. Other employers included religious organizations and residential care facilities. Although cleaning jobs can be found in all cities and towns, most are located in highly populated areas where there are many office buildings, schools, apartment houses, and hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No special education is required for most janitorial or cleaning jobs, but beginners should know simple arithmetic and be able to follow instructions. High school shop courses are helpful for jobs involv ing repair work. Most building cleaners learn their skills on the job. Usually, beginners work with an experienced cleaner, doing routine clean ing. As they gain more experience, they are assigned more compli cated tasks. In some cities, programs run by unions, government agencies, or employers teach janitorial skills. Students learn how to clean buildings thoroughly and efficiently, how to select and safely use various cleansing agents, and how to operate and maintain machines, such as wet and dry vacuums, buffers, and polishers. Students leam to plan their work, to follow safety and health regulations, to inter act positively with people in the buildings they clean, and to work without supervision. Instruction in minor electrical, plumbing, and other repairs also may be given. Those who come in contact with the public should have good communication skills. Employers usu ally look for dependable, hard-working individuals who are in good health, follow directions well, and get along with other people. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Building cleaners usually find work by answering newspaper advertisements, applying directly to organizations where they would like to work, contacting local labor unions, or contacting State em ployment service offices. Advancement opportunities for workers usually are limited in organizations where they are the only maintenance worker. Where there is a large maintenance staff, however, cleaning workers can be promoted to supervisor and to area supervisor or manager. A high school diploma improves the chances for advancement. Some janitors set up their own maintenance business. Supervisors usually move up through the ranks. In many estab lishments, they are required to take some in-service training to im prove their housekeeping techniques and procedures, and to enhance their supervisory skills. A small number of cleaning supervisors and managers are mem bers of the International Executive Housekeepers Association (IEHA). IEHA offers two kinds of certification programs to clean ing supervisors and managers—Certified Executive Housekeeper (CEH) and Registered Executive Housekeeper (REH). The CEH designation is offered to those with a high school education, while the REH designation is offered to those who have a 4-year college degree. Both designations are earned by attending courses and pass ing exams, and must be renewed every 2 years to ensure that work ers keep abreast of new cleaning methods. Those with the REH designation usually oversee the cleaning services of hotels, hospi tals, casinos, and other large institutions that rely on well-trained experts for their cleaning needs. Job Outlook Overall employment of building cleaning workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010, though job growth will vary depending on where they work. Aver age growth is expected among both janitors and cleaners and insti tutional cleaning supervisors, many of whom work in the services to buildings industry. On the other hand, employment of maids and housekeeping cleaners, which includes those in private households, is expected to grow more slowly than the average. In addition to job openings due to growth, numerous openings should result from the need to replace those who leave this very large occupation each year. Limited formal education and training requirements, low pay, and numerous part-time and temporary jobs should contribute to these replacement needs. To clean the increasing number of office complexes, apartment houses, schools, factories, hospitals, and other buildings, more workers will be assigned to teams with more efficient cleaning equip ment and supplies. As many firms reduce costs by hiring indepen dent contractors, businesses providing janitorial and cleaning services on a contract basis are expected to be one of the faster growing employers of these workers. Earnings Median annual earnings ofjanitors and cleaners, except maids and housekeeping cleaners, were $17,180 in 2000. The middle 50 per cent earned between $14,030 and $22,340. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,280, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29,190. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers ofjanitors and cleaners, except maids and house keeping cleaners, in 2000 are shown below: Local government.................................................................................. Real estate operators and lessors....................................................... Elementary and secondary schools.................................................... Colleges and universities..................................................................... Services to buildings............................................................................ $22,900 22,110 21,100 20,320 15,370 302 Occupational Outlook Handbook Median annual earnings ofmaids and housekeepers were $ 15,410 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $13,230 and $18,030. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22,200. Median annual earn ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of maids and housekeepers in 2000 are shown below: Hospitals.................................................................................................. Real estate agents and managers........................................................ Nursing and personal care facilites................................................... Services to buildings............................................................................ Hotels and motels.................................................................................. $16,820 16,500 15,460 15,150 14,760 Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of housekeeping and janitorial workers were $25,760 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,920 and $33,740. The low est 10 percent earned less than $16,220, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,850. Median annual earnings in the indus tries employing the largest numbers of first-line supervisors/man agers of housekeeping and janitorial workers in 2000 are shown below: Elementary and secondary schools................................................... Hospitals.................................................................................................. Nursing and personal care facilities................................................ Services to buildings............................................................................ Hotels and motels.................................................................................. $29,540 27,010 25,290 23,000 21,820 Related Occupations Workers who specialize in one of the many job functions ofjanitors and cleaners include pest control workers; industrial machinery in stallation, repair, and maintenance workers; and grounds mainte nance workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about janitorial jobs may be obtained from State employ ment service offices. For information on certification in executive housekeeping, contact: > International Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., 1001 Eastwind Dr., Suite 301, Westerville, OH 43081-3361. Internet: http://www.ieha.org Grounds Maintenance Workers (0**NET 37-1012.01, 37-1012.02, 37-3011.00, 37-3012.00, 37-3013.00) Significant Points • • • Opportunities, especially for seasonal or part-time work, should be excellent due to significant job turnover. Many beginning jobs have low earnings and are physically demanding. Most workers learn through short-term on-the-job training. Nature of the Work Attractively designed, healthy, and well-maintained lawns, gardens, and grounds create a positive first impression, establish a peaceful mood, and increase property values. Grounds maintenance work ers perform the variety of tasks necessary to achieve a pleasant and functional outdoor environment. They also care for indoor gardens and plantings in commercial and public facilities, such as malls, hotels, and botanical gardens. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The duties of landscaping workers and groundskeeping workers are similar, and often overlap. Landscaping workers physically in stall and maintain landscaped areas. They grade property, install lighting or sprinkler systems, and build walkways, terraces, patios, decks, and fountains. In addition to initially transporting and plant ing new vegetation, they also transplant, mulch, fertilize, and water flowering plants, trees, and shrubs, and mow and water lawns. A growing number of residential and commercial clients, such as managers of office buildings, shopping malls, multiunit residential buildings, and hotels and motels, favor full-service landscape main tenance. Landscaping workers perform a range of duties for such clients on a regular basis during the growing season, including mowing, edging, trimming, fertilizing, dethatching, and mulching. Groundskeeping workers, also called groundskeepers, maintain a variety of facilities, including athletic fields, golf courses, cem eteries, university campuses, and parks. In addition to caring for sod, plants, and trees, they also rake and mulch leaves, clear snow from walkways and parking lots, and use irrigation methods to ad just the amount of water consumption and prevent waste. They see to the proper upkeep and repair of sidewalks, parking lots, groundskeeping equipment, pools, fountains, fences, planters, and benches. Groundskeeping workers who care for athletic fields keep natu ral and artificial turf fields in top condition and mark out bound aries and paint turf with team logos and names before events. They must make sure that the underlying soil on natural turf fields has the required composition to allow proper drainage and to support the appropriate grasses used on the field. They regularly mow, water, fertilize, and aerate the fields. Groundskeeping workers also vacuum and disinfect synthetic turf after use in order to prevent growth of harmful bacteria, and periodically remove the turf and replace the cushioning pad. Workers who maintain golf courses are called greenskeepers. Greenskeepers do many of the same things that other groundskeepers do. In addition, greenskeepers periodically relocate the holes on putting greens to eliminate uneven wear of the turf and to add inter est and challenge to the game. Greenskeepers also keep canopies, benches, ball washers, and tee markers repaired and freshly painted. Some groundskeeping workers specialize in caring for cemeter ies and memorial gardens. They dig graves to specified depths, generally using a backhoe. They may place concrete slabs on the bottom and around the sides of the grave to line it for greater sup port. When preparing a site for the burial ceremony, they position the casket-lowering device over the grave, cover the immediate area with an artificial grass carpet, erect a canopy, and arrange folding chairs to accommodate mourners. They regularly mow grass, ap ply fertilizers and other chemicals, prune shrubs and trees, plant flowers, and remove debris from graves. They also must periodi cally build the ground up around new gravesites to compensate for settling. Groundskeeping workers in parks and recreation facilities care for lawns, trees, and shrubs, maintain athletic fields and playgrounds, clean buildings, and keep parking lots, picnic areas, and other pub lic spaces free of litter. They also may remove snow and ice from roads and walkways, erect and dismantle snow fences, and main tain swimming pools. These workers inspect buildings and equip ment, make needed repairs, and keep everything freshly painted. Landscaping and groundskeeping workers use handtools such as shovels, rakes, pruning and regular saws, hedge and brush trim mers, and axes, as well as power lawnmowers, chain saws, snow blowers, and electric clippers. Some use equipment such as tractors and twin-axle vehicles. Landscaping and groundskeeping workers at parks, schools, cemeteries, and golf courses may use sod cutters to harvest sod that will be replanted elsewhere. Service Occupations 303 About 42 percent of wage and salary workers in grounds main tenance were employed in companies providing landscape and hor ticultural services. Others worked for firms operating and building real estate, amusement and recreation facilities such as golf courses and racetracks, and retail nurseries and garden stores. Some were employed by local governments, installing and maintaining land scaping for parks, schools, hospitals, and other public facilities. More than 1 out of every 6 grounds maintenance workers were self-employed, providing landscape maintenance directly to cus tomers on a contract basis. About 1 of every 7 worked part time; many of these were of school age. ■ -t* T Grounds maintenance workers transport and plant potted plants and shrubs. Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation, mix or apply pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, or insecticides through sprays, dusts, vapors, soil incorporation, or chemical application on trees, shrubs, lawns, or botanical crops. Those working for chemical lawn service firms are more specialized. They inspect lawns for problems and apply fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and other chemicals to stimulate growth and prevent or control weed, disease, or insect in festation, as well as practice integrated pest management techniques. Tree trimmers and pruners cut away dead or excess branches from trees or shrubs to maintain rights-of-way for roads, sidewalks, or utilities, or to improve the appearance, health, and value of trees. Tree trimmers also may fill cavities in trees to promote healing and prevent deterioration. Workers who specialize in pruning trim and shape ornamental trees and shrubs for private residences, golf courses, or other institutional grounds. Tree trimmers and pruners use handsaws, pruning hooks, shears, and clippers. When trim ming near powerlines, they usually use truck-mounted lifts and power pruners. Working Conditions Many of the jobs for grounds maintenance workers are seasonal, meaning that they are in demand mainly in the spring, summer, and fall when most planting, mowing and trimming, and cleanup is nec essary. The work, most of which is performed outdoors in all kinds of weather, can be physically demanding and repetitive, involving much bending, lifting, and shoveling. Workers in landscaping and groundskeeping may be under pressure to get the job completed, especially when preparing for scheduled events such as athletic competitions or burials. Those who work with pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemi cals, as well as potentially dangerous equipment and tools such as power lawnmowers, chain saws, and power clippers, must exercise safety precautions. Workers who use motorized equipment must take care to protect themselves against hearing damage. Employment Grounds maintenance workers held about 1.1 million jobs in 2000. Employment was distributed as follows: Landscaping and groundskeeping workers..................................... First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers................................ trimmers and pruners................................................................... Digitized Tree for FRASER Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation........... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 894,000 159,000 52,000 27,000 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no minimum educational requirements for entrylevel positions in grounds maintenance. In 2000, most workers had a high school education or less, although a diploma is necessary for some jobs. Short-term on-the-job training usually is sufficient to teach new hires how to operate equipment such as mowers, trim mers, leafblowers, and small tractors, and to follow correct safety procedures. Entry-level workers must be able to follow directions and leam proper planting procedures. If driving is an essential part of a job, employers look for applicants with a good driving record and some experience driving a truck. Workers who deal directly with customers must get along well with people. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals, because grounds maintenance workers often work with little supervision. Laborers who demonstrate a willingness to work hard and quickly, have good communication skills, and take an interest in the business may advance to crew leader or other supervisory posi tions. Advancement or entry into positions such as grounds man ager or landscape contractor usually requires some formal education beyond high school, and several years of progressively more re sponsible experience. Most States require certification for workers who apply pesti cides. Certification requirements vary, but usually include passing a test on the proper and safe use and disposal of insecticides, herbi cides, and fungicides. Some States require that landscape contrac tors be licensed. The Professional Grounds Management Society (PGMS) offers certification to grounds managers who have a combination of 8 years of experience and formal education beyond high school, and pass an examination covering subjects such as equipment management, personnel management, environmental issues, turf care, ornamen tals, and circulatory systems. The PGMS also offers certification to groundskeepers who have a high school diploma or equivalent, plus 2 years of experience in the grounds maintenance field. The Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA) of fers the designations Certified Landscape Professional or Certified Landscape Technician to those who meet established education and experience standards and pass an ALCA examination. The handson test for technicians covers areas such as maintenance equipment operation and the installation of plants by reading a plan. A written safety test also is administered. Some workers with groundskeeping backgrounds may start their own businesses after several years of experience. Job Outlook Those interested in grounds maintenance occupations should find plentiful job opportunities in the future. Because of high turnover, a large number of job openings is expected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. These occupations attract many part-time workers. Some take grounds maintenance jobs to earn money for school or simply to secure an income until they find a better-paying job. 304 Occupational Outlook Handbook Because wages for beginners are low and the work is physically demanding, many employers have difficulty attracting enough work ers to fill all openings. Employment of grounds maintenance workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010, in response to increasing demand for groundskeeping and related ser vices. Expected growth in the construction of commercial and industrial buildings, shopping malls, homes, highways, and recre ational facilities should contribute to demand for these workers. The upkeep and renovation of existing landscaping and grounds are continuing sources of demand for grounds maintenance work ers. Owners of many existing buildings and facilities, including colleges and universities, recognize the importance of “curb appeal” and are expected to use grounds maintenance services more exten sively to maintain and upgrade their properties. Homeowners also are expected to continue using landscaping services to maintain the beauty and value of their property. As the “echo” boom generation (children of baby boomers) comes of age, the demand for parks, athletic fields, and recreational facilities also can be expected to sustain the demand for grounds maintenance workers. Job opportunities for nonseasonal work are more numerous in regions with temperate climates, where landscaping and lawn ser vices are required all year. However, opportunities may vary de pending on local economic conditions. Earnings Median hourly earnings in 2000 of grounds maintenance workers were as follows: First-line supervisors/managers of landscaping, lawn service, and groundskeeping workers.......................................................... Tree trimmers and pruners................................................................... Pesticide handlers, sprayers, and applicators, vegetation............ Landscaping and groundskeeping workers..................................... $ 14.70 11.41 11.11 8.80 Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of landscaping and groundskeeping workers in 2000 were as follows: Local government.................................................................................. Real estate agents and managers........................................................ Subdividers and developers................................................................. Landscape and horticultural services................................................ Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services....................... Real estate operators and lessors........................................................ $11.41 9.05 8.71 8.63 8.34 8.18 Related Occupations Grounds maintenance workers perform most of their work outdoors and have some knowledge of plants and soils. Others whose jobs may require that they work outdoors and are otherwise related are agricultural workers; farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers; forest, conservation, and logging workers; landscape architects; and biological scientists. Sources of Additional Information For career and certification information on tree trimmers and prun ers, contact: >• National Arborist Association, 3 Perimeter Rd., Unit I, Manchester, NH 03103. Internet: http://www.natlarb.com For information on work as a landscaping and groundskeeping worker, contact: >- Professional Lawn Care Association of America, 1000 Johnson Ferry Rd. NE., Suite C-135, Marietta, GA, 30068-2112. Internet: http://www.plcaa.org >• Associated Landscape Contractors ofAmerica, 150 Elden St., Suite 270, Herndon, VA, 20170. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis For information on becoming a licensed pesticide sprayer, con tact your State’s Department of Agriculture. Pest Control Workers (0*NET 37-2021.00) Significant Points • • • Pesticides used by pest control workers can pose health risks. Federal and State laws require licensure through training and examination. Job prospects should be favorable for qualified applicants because many people do not find pest control work appealing. Nature of the Work Roaches, rats, mice, spiders, termites, fleas, ants, and bees—few people welcome them into their homes or offices. Unwanted crea tures that infest households, buildings, or surrounding areas are pests that can pose serious risks to human health and safety. It is a pest control worker’s job to eliminate them. Pest control workers locate, identify, destroy, and repel pests. They use their knowledge of pests’ lifestyles and habits, along with an arsenal of pest management techniques—applying chemicals, setting traps, operating equipment, and even modifying structures— to alleviate pest problems. The best known method of pest control is pesticide application. Pest control workers use two different types of pesticides—general use and restricted use. General use pesticides are the most widely used and are readily available; in diluted concentrations, they are available to the public. Restricted use pesticides are available only to certified professionals for controlling the most severe infesta tions. Their registration, labeling, and application are regulated by Federal law, interpreted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), because of their potential harm to pest control work ers, customers, and the environment. Pesticides are not pest control workers’ only tool, however. Pest control workers increasingly use a combination of pest management techniques, known as integrated pest management. One method involves using proper sanitation and creating physical barriers, for pests cannot survive without food and will not infest a building if they cannot enter it. Another method involves using baits, some of which destroy the pests, and others that prevent them from repro ducing. Yet another method involves using mechanical devices, such as traps, that do not allow pests to reenter the environment. Integrated pest management is becoming popular for several rea sons. First, pesticides can pose environmental and health risks. Second, some pests are becoming more resistant to pesticides in certain situations. Finally, an integrated pest management plan is more effective in the long term than use of a pesticide alone. Most pest control workers work in one of three positions—pest control technician, applicator, or supervisor. Position titles vary by State, but the hierarchy—based on training and responsibility re quired—remains consistent. Pest control technicians identify problem areas and operate and maintain traps. They assist applicators by carrying supplies, orga nizing materials, and preparing equipment. In addition, they may make sales presentations on pest control products or services. Tech nicians are licensed to apply pesticides only under an applicator’s supervision. Service Occupations 305 Certified pest control applicators, sometimes called extermina tors, perform the same tasks technicians do. But they also are cer tified to apply all pesticides, both general use and restricted use, without supervision and are licensed to supervise and train techni cians in pesticide use. Within this group of workers are several subspecialties, including termite exterminators and fumigators. Termite exterminators are applicators who specialize in con trolling termites. They use chemicals and modify structures to eliminate termites and prevent reinfestation. To treat infested areas, termite exterminators drill holes and cut openings into build ings to access infestations. To prevent further infestation, they modify foundations and dig holes and trenches around buildings. Some termite exterminators even repair structural damage caused by termites. Fumigators are applicators who control pests using poisonous gases called fumigants. Fumigators pretreat infested buildings by examining, measuring, and sealing the buildings. Then, using cyl inders, hoses, and valves, they fill structures with the proper amount and concentration of fumigant. They also monitor the premises during treatment for leaking gas. To prevent accidental fumigant exposure, fumigators padlock doors and post warning signs. Pest control supervisors, also known as operators, direct service technicians and certified applicators. Supervisors are licensed to apply pesticides, but they usually are more involved in running the business. Supervisors are responsible for ensuring employee adher ence to rules and must resolve problems with regulatory officials. Pest control workers may come into contact with dangerous chemicals while treating buildings for pest problems. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Most States require each pest control establishment to have a super visor; self-employed business owners usually are supervisors. Working Conditions Pest control workers must kneel, bend, reach, and crawl to inspect, modify, and treat structures. They work both indoors and out, in all weather conditions. During warm weather, applicators may be un comfortable wearing the heavy protective gear—such as respira tors, gloves, and goggles—required for working with pesticides. Almost half of all pest control workers work a 40-hour week, but about a quarter work more hours. Pest control workers often work evenings and weekends, but many work consistent shifts. There are health risks associated with pesticide use. Various pest control chemicals are toxic and could pose health risks if not used properly. Extensive training required for certification and the use of recommended protective equipment minimizes these health risks, resulting in fewer reported cases of lost work. Because pest control workers travel to visit clients, the potential risk of motor vehicle accidents is another occupational hazard. Employment Pest control workers held about 58,000 jobs in 2000; 79 percent of workers were employed in the services to buildings industry. They are concentrated in States with warmer climates. About 14 percent were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma or equivalent is the minimum qualification for most pest control jobs. Although a college degree is not re quired, almost half of all pest control workers have either attended college or earned a degree. Pest control workers must have basic skills in math, chemistry, and writing. Because of the extensive interaction that pest control workers have with their customers, employers prefer to hire people who have good communication and interpersonal skills. In addi tion, most pest control companies require their employees to have a good driving record. Pest control workers must be in good health because of the physical demands of the job, and they also must be able to withstand extreme conditions—such as the heat of climbing into an attic in the summertime or the chill of sliding into a crawlspace during winter. Both Federal and State laws regulate pest control workers. These laws require them to be certified through training and examination, for which most pest control firms help their employees prepare. Workers may receive both formal classroom and on-the-job train ing, but they also must study on their own. Because the pest control industry is constantly changing, workers must attend continuing education classes to maintain their certification. Requirements for pest control workers vary by State. Pest con trol workers usually begin their careers as apprentice technicians. Before performing any pest control services, apprentices must at tend general training in pesticide safety and use. In addition, they must train in each pest control category in which they wish to prac tice. Categories may include general pest control, rodent control, termite control, fumigation, and ornamental and turf control. Training usually involves spending 10 hours in the classroom and 60 hours on the job for each category. After completing the required training, apprentices can provide supervised pest control services. Apprentices have up to 1 year to prepare for and pass the written examinations. Upon successful completion of the exams, the apprentice becomes licensed as a technician. To be eligible to become applicators, technicians need 1 year of experience, 6 months of which must be as a licensed technician. This requirement is sometimes waived for individuals who have 306 Occupational Outlook Handbook either a college degree in biological sciences or extensive related work experience. To become certified as applicators, technicians must pass an additional set of category exams. Depending on the State, applicators must attend additional classes every 1 to 6 years to be recertified. Applicators with several years of experience often become super visors. To qualify as a pest control supervisor, applicators must pass State-administered exams and have experience in the indus try, usually a minimum of 2 years. Many supervisors are self-em ployed, reflecting the relative ease of entry into the field and the growing need for pest control. Therefore, the pest control industry provides a good opportunity for people interested in operating their own business. Job Outlook Job prospects should be favorable for qualified applicants because many people do not find pest control work appealing. Employment of pest control workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. In addition to job openings aris ing from employment growth, opportunities will result from work ers transferring to other occupations or leaving the labor force. Demand for pest control workers is projected to increase for a number of reasons. An expanding client base will develop as envi ronmental and health concerns, greater numbers of dual-income households, and improvements in the standard of living convince more people to hire professionals rather than attempt pest control work themselves. In addition, tougher regulations limiting pesti cide use will demand more complex integrated pest management strategies. Greater concerns about the effects of pesticide use in schools has increasingly prompted more school districts to investi gate alternative means of pest control, such as integrated pest man agement. Furthermore, use of some newer materials for insulation around foundations has made many homes more susceptible to pest infestation. Finally, continuing population shifts to the more pestprone sunbelt States should increase the number of households in need of pest control. Earnings The hierarchy ofpest control positions also applies to earnings. Pest control supervisors usually earn the most and technicians the least, with earnings of certified applicators falling somewhere in between. Earnings data do not distinguish among job titles, however. Median hourly earnings of full-time wage and salary pest con trol workers were $10.65 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.73 and $13.58. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.09, and the top 10 percent earned over $16.95. Many pest control workers are employed under a wage plus com mission system, which rewards workers who do their job well. Some firms offer bonuses to workers who exceed their performance goals. Related Occupations Pest control workers visit homes and places of business to provide building services. Other workers who provide services to buildings include building cleaning workers; various construction trades work ers, including carpenters and electricians; and heating, air-condi tioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers. Sources of Additional Information Private employment agencies and State employment services offices have information about available job opportunities for pest control workers. For information about the training and certification required in your State, contact your local office of the U.S. Department of Ag riculture or your State’s Environmental Protection Agency. Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations Chefs, Cooks, and Food Preparation Workers (0**NET 35-1011.00, 35-2011.00, 35-2012.00, 35-2013.00, 35-2014.00, 35-2015.00, 35-2021.00) Significant Points • • • Many young people work as chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers—almost 20 percent are between 16 and 19 years old. Almost 1 out of 2 food preparation workers are employed part time. Job openings are expected to be plentiful through 2010, primarily reflecting substantial turnover in this large occupation. Nature of the Work A reputation for serving good food is essential to the success of any restaurant or hotel, whether it offers exotic cuisine or hamburgers. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are largely responsible for establishing and maintaining this reputation. Chefs and cooks do this by preparing meals, while other food preparation workers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis assist them by cleaning surfaces, peeling vegetables, and perform ing other duties. In general, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes. In the course of their work they use a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and other equipment, including ovens, broil ers, grills, sheers, grinders, and blenders. Chefs and head cooks often are responsible for directing the work of other kitchen work ers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Some chefs and head cooks also help plan meals and develop menus. Large eating places tend to have varied menus and kitchen staffs often include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or apprentice chefs and cooks, along with other less skilled kitchen workers. Each chef or cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—vegetable, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Executive chefs and head cooks coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and often direct the preparation of certain foods. They decide the size of servings, plan menus, and buy food supplies. Although the terms chef and cook still are used interchangeably, chefs tend to be more highly skilled and better trained than most cooks. Due to their skillful preparation of traditional dishes and refreshing twists in creating new ones, many chefs have earned fame for both them selves and for the establishments where they work. The specific responsibilities of most cooks are determined by a number of factors, including the type of restaurant in which they work. Institution and cafeteria cooks, for example, work in the Service Occupations 307 kitchens of schools, cafeterias, businesses, hospitals, and other in stitutions. For each meal, they prepare a large quantity of a limited number of entrees, vegetables, and desserts. Restaurant cooks usu ally prepare a wider selection of dishes, cooking most orders indi vidually. Short-order cooks prepare foods in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service. They grill and garnish hamburg ers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook french fries, often work ing on several orders at the same time. Fast food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food, such as hamburgers and fried chicken, which are prepared to order or kept warm until sold. Private house hold cooks plan and prepare meals, clean the kitchen, order grocer ies and supplies, and also may serve meals. Other food preparation workers, under the direction of chefs and cooks, perform tasks requiring less skill. They weigh and mea sure ingredients, go after pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. These workers also clean, peel, and slice vegetables and fruits and make salads. They may cut and grind meats, poul try, and seafood in preparation for cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment, utensils, dishes, and silverware. The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depends on the type of establishment. For example, fast-food establishments offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. Small, full-service restaurants offering casual dining often feature a lim ited number of easy-to-prepare items supplemented by short-order specialties and ready-made desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers. Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modem equipment, convenient work areas, and air conditioning, but many kitchens in older and smaller eating places are not as well equipped. Working conditions depend on the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers usu ally must withstand the pressure and strain of working in close quar ters, standing for hours at a time, lifting heavy pots and kettles, and working near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and bums, but injuries are seldom serious. Work hours in restaurants may include early mornings, late eve nings, holidays, and weekends. Work schedules of chefs, cooks and other kitchen workers in factory and school cafeterias may be more regular. Nearly 3 in 10 cooks and 1 out of 5 other kitchen and food preparation workers have part-time schedules, compared to 1 out of 7 workers throughout the economy. The wide range in dining hours creates work opportunities at tractive to homemakers, students, and other individuals seeking supplemental income. For example, about 27 percent of kitchen and food preparation workers are 16-19 years old. Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Similarly, establishments at vacation resorts usually only offer seasonal employment. Employment Chefs, cooks and food preparation workers held more than 2.8 mil lion jobs in 2000. The distribution ofjobs among the various types of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers was as follows: Food preparation workers.................................................................... Cooks, restaurant................................................................................... Cooks, fast food..................................................................................... Cooks, institutionand cafeteria........................................................... Cooks, short order................................................................................. Chefs and head cooks........................................................................... Cooks, private household.................................................................... 844,000 668,000 522,000 465,000 205,000 139,000 5,200 Almost 60 percent of all chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers were employed in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking places. About 20 percent worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing homes. Grocery stores, hotels, and other organizations employed the remainder. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are essential to the success of any restaurant or full-service hotel. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers start as fast-food or short-order cooks, or in other lower skilled kitchen positions. These positions require little education or training, and most skills are learned on the job. After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and cooking skills, these workers may be able to ad vance to an assistant cook position. Although a high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school courses in business arith metic and business administration are particularly helpful. Many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of education, provide on-the-job training and summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers with aspirations of becoming cooks. Large corpo rations in the food service and hotel industries also offer paid intern ships and summer jobs, which can provide valuable experience. To achieve the level of skill required of an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant, many years of training and experience are 308 Occupational Outlook Handbook necessary. An increasing number of chefs and cooks obtain their training through high school, post-high school vocational programs, or 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks also may be trained in apprenticeship programs offered by professional culinary institutes, industry associations, and trade unions. An example is the 3-year apprenticeship program administered by local chapters of the Ameri can Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training pro grams for cooks and chefs. People who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be able to start in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in a lower skilled kitchen job. Their education may give them an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring standards often are high. Although some vocational programs in high schools offer training, employers usually prefer training given by trade schools, vocational centers, colleges, pro fessional associations, or trade unions. Postsecondary courses range from a few months to 2 years or more and are open, in some cases, only to high school graduates. About 8 to 15 years as a cook is required to become a fully qualified chef. Those who gain experi ence, including in a supervisory capacity, may become executive chefs with responsibility for more than one kitchen. The U. S. Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students in these programs usu ally spend most of their time learning to prepare food through actual practice. They leam to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in menu planning, determination of portion size, food cost control, purchasing food supplies in quantity, selec tion and storage of food, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also leam hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in supervisory and man agement skills sometimes is emphasized in courses offered by pri vate vocational schools, professional associations, and university programs. Across the Nation , a number of schools offer culinary courses. The American Culinary Federation has accredited over 100 train ing programs and a offers a number of apprenticeship programs around the country. Typical apprenticeships last three years and combine classroom and work experience. Accreditation is an in dication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regard ing course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. The American Culinary Federation also certifies pastry professionals, culinary educators, and chefs and cooks at the levels of cook, work ing chef, executive chef, and master chef. Certification standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. Important characteristics for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include the ability to work as part of a team, a keen sense of taste and smell, and personal cleanliness. Most States require health certificates indicating that workers are free from communi cable diseases. Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for most other food and beverage preparation and service occupa tions. Many chefs and cooks acquire high-paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from one job to another. Besides culinary skills, advancement also depends on ability to supervise less skilled workers and limit food costs by minimizing waste and accurately anticipating the amount of perishable supplies needed. Some chefs and cooks go into business as caterers or restaurant owners, while others become instructors in vocational programs in high schools, community colleges, or other academic institutions. A number of cooks and chefs advance to executive chef positions or supervisory or management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis and larger, more elegant restaurants. (See the separate Handbook statement on food service managers.) Job Outlook Job openings for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to be plentiful through 2010. While job growth will create new positions, the overwhelming majority ofjob openings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave this large occupational group. Minimal educational and training requirements, combined with a large number of part-time positions, make employment as chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers attractive to people seek ing a short-term source of income and a flexible schedule. In com ing years, these workers will continue to transfer to other occupations or stop working to assume household responsibilities or to attend school full time, creating numerous openings for those entering the field. Job openings stemming from replacement needs will be supple mented by new openings resulting from employment growth, as overall employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions over the 2000-10 period. Employment growth will be spurred by increases in population, household income, and leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more often. In addition, growth in the number of two-income households will lead more families to opt for the convenience of dining out. Projected employment growth, however, varies by specialty. Increases in the number of families and the more affluent, 55-andolder population will lead to more restaurants that offer table ser vice and more varied menus—resulting in faster-than-average growth among higher-skilled restaurant cooks. As more Ameri cans choose more full-service restaurants, employment of fast-food cooks is expected to decline and employment of short-order cooks, most of whom work in fast-food restaurants, is expected to grow more slowly than average. Duties of cooks in fast-food restaurants are limited; most workers are likely to be combined food prepara tion and serving workers, rather than fast-food cooks. In addition, fast-food restaurants increasingly offer healthier prepared foods, further reducing the need for cooks. Employment of institution and cafeteria chefs and cooks also will grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Their employment will not keep pace with the rapid growth in the educa tional and health services industries—where their employment is concentrated. In an effort to make “institutional food” more attrac tive to students, staff, visitors, and patients, high schools and hos pitals increasingly contract out their food services. Many of the contracted food service companies emphasize simple menu items and employ short-order cooks, instead of institution and cafeteria cooks, reducing the demand for these workers. Earnings Wages of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers depend greatly on the part of the country and the type of establishment in which they are employed. Wages usually are highest in elegant restau rants and hotels, where many executive chefs are employed. Median hourly earnings of head cooks and chefs were $12.07 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.98 and $16.75. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.39, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.77 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of head cooks and chefs in 2000 were: Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services.................. Hotels and motels................................................................ Eating and drinking places.................................................... $16.50 15.78 11 03 Service Occupations 309 Median hourly earnings of restaurant cooks were $8.72 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.35 and $ 10.33. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.30, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $12.43 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of restaurant cooks in 2000 were: Hotels and motels..................................................................................... Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services........................... Eating and drinking places..................................................................... $9.97 9.68 8.57 Median hourly earnings of cooks in fast-food restaurants were $6.53 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $5.90 and $7.53. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.49, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $8.43 per hour. Median hourly earnings in eating and drinking places, the industry employing the largest number of fast-food cooks, were $6.52 in 2000. Median hourly earnings of short-order cooks were $7.55 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.32 and $9.20. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.67, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.83 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the indus tries employing the largest number of short-order cooks in 2000 were: Hotels and motels..................................................................................... Miscellaneous amusement and recreation services.......................... Eating and drinking places..................................................................... Gasoline service stations......................................................................... Grocery stores............................................................................................ 7.94 7.57 6.87 6.60 $9.37 8.50 8.29 7.65 7.52 Median hourly earnings of food preparation workers were $7.38 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.28 and $8.81. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.67, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 10.65 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of food preparation workers in 2000 were: Elementary and secondary schools....................................................... Hospitals...................................................................................................... Grocery stores............................................................................................ Nursing and personal care facilities..................................................... Eating and drinking places..................................................................... $8.14 8.12 7.90 7.56 6.88 Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from their em ployees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging pro vided, and some employers do so. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers who work full time often receive typical ben efits, but part-time workers usually do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restau rant Employees International Union and the Service Employees In ternational Union. Related Occupations Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include food processing occupations such as butchers and meat cutters, and bakers. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis >- National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org For information on the American Culinary Federation’s appren ticeship and certification programs for cooks, as well as a list of accredited culinary programs, send a self-addressed, stamped enve lope to: > American Culinary Federation, 10 San Bartola Dr., St. Augustine, FL 32085. Internet: http://www.acfchefs.org For general information on hospitality careers, contact: >- International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 3205 Skipwith Rd., Richmond, VA 23294-4442. Internet: http://www.chrie.org $8.66 Median hourly earnings of institution and cafeteria cooks were $8.22 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.70 and $10.24. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.84, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 12.5 3 per hour. Median hourly earn ings in the industries employing the largest number of institution and cafeteria cooks in 2000 were: Hospitals...................................................................................................... Nursing and personal care facilities..................................................... Eating and drinking places..................................................................... Elementary and secondary schools....................................................... Child day care services............................................................................ Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen work ers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is avail able from: Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers (0**NET 35-3011.00, 35-3021.00, 35-3022.00, 35-3031.00, 35-3041.00, 35-9011.00, 35-9021.00, 35-9031.00) • • • Significant Points Most jobs are part time and many opportunities exist for young people—nearly 2 out of 3 food counter and fountain workers are 16 to 19 years old. Job openings are expected to be abundant through 2010, reflecting substantial turnover. Tips comprise a major portion of earnings; consequently, keen competition is expected for bartender, waiter and waitress, and other jobs in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments where potential earnings from tips are greatest. Nature of the Work Whether they work in small, informal diners or large, elegant res taurants, all food and beverage serving and related workers aim to help customers have a positive dining experience in their establish ments. These workers greet customers, take food and drink orders, serve food, clean up after patrons, and prepare tables and dining areas. The largest group of these workers, waiters and waitresses, take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, prepare itemized checks, and sometimes accept payments. Their specific duties vary considerably, depending on the establishment where they work. In coffee shops, they are expected to provide fast and efficient, yet courteous service. In fine restaurants, where gourmet meals are accompanied by attentive formal service, waiters and waitresses serve meals at a more leisurely pace and offer more personal ser vice to patrons. For example, servers may recommend a certain wine as a complement to a particular entree, explain how various items on the menu are prepared, or complete preparations on a salad or other special dishes at tableside. Additionally, waiters and wait resses may check the identification of patrons to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. 310 Occupational Outlook Handbook Depending on the type of restaurant, waiters and waitresses may perform additional duties usually associated with other food and beverage service occupations. These tasks may include escorting guests to tables, serving customers seated at counters, setting up and clearing tables, or operating a cash register. However, formal res taurants frequently hire other staff to perform these duties, allowing their waiters and waitresses to concentrate on customer service. Bartenders fill drink orders that waiters and waitresses take from customers. They prepare standard mixed drinks and, occasionally, are asked to mix drinks to suit a customer’s taste. Most bartenders know dozens of drink recipes and are able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste, even during the busiest periods. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders collect payment, operate the cash register, clean up after customers leave, and often serve food to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders also check identification of customers seated at the bar, to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies. They often form attractive displays out of bottles and glassware and wash the glass ware and utensils after each use. The majority of bartenders who work in eating and drinking estab lishments directly serve and interact with patrons. Because cus tomers typically frequent drinking establishments for the friendly atmosphere, most bartenders must be friendly and helpful with cus tomers. Bartenders at service bars, on the other hand, have little contact with customers because they work in small bars in restau rants, hotels, and clubs where only waiters and waitresses serve drinks. Some establishments, especially larger ones, use automatic equipment to mix drinks of varying complexity at the push of a button. Even in these establishments, however, bartenders still must be efficient and knowledgeable in case the device malfunctions or a customer requests a drink not handled by the equipment. Hosts and hostesses try to create a good impression of a restau rant by warmly welcoming guests. Because hosts and hostesses are restaurants’ personal representatives, they try to insure that service is prompt and courteous and that the meal meets expectations. They may courteously direct patrons to where coats and other personal items may be left and indicate where patrons can wait until their table is ready. Hosts and hostesses assign guests to tables suitable for the size of their group, escort patrons to their seats, and provide menus. They also schedule dining reservations, arrange parties, and organize any special services that are required. In some restau rants, they also act as cashiers. Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by cleaning tables, remov ing dirty dishes, and keeping serving areas stocked with supplies. They replenish the supply of clean linens, dishes, silverware, and glasses in the dining room and keep the bar stocked with glasses, liquor, ice, and drink garnishes. Bartender helpers also keep bar equipment clean and wash glasses. Dining room attendants set tables with clean tablecloths, napkins, silverware, glasses, and dishes and serve ice water, rolls, and butter. At the conclusion of meals, they remove dirty dishes and soiled linens from tables. Cafeteria atten dants stock serving tables with food, trays, dishes, and silverware and may carry trays to dining tables for patrons. Dishwashers clean dishes, kitchen and food preparation equipment, and utensils. Counter attendants take orders and serve food at counters. In cafeterias, they serve food displayed on counters and steam tables, carve meat, dish out vegetables, ladle sauces and soups, and fill beverage glasses. In lunchrooms and coffee shops, counter atten dants take orders from customers seated at the counter, transmit orders to the kitchen, and pick up and serve food. They also fill cups with coffee, soda, and other beverages and prepare fountain https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Among their many duties, food and beverage servers are responsible for preparing dining areas and setting tables. specialties, such as milkshakes and ice cream sundaes. Counter attendants prepare some short-order items, such as sandwiches and salads, and wrap or place orders in containers for carry out. They also clean counters, write itemized checks, and sometimes accept payment. Some food and beverage serving workers take orders from cus tomers at counters or drive-through windows at fast-food restau rants. They pick up the ordered beverage and food items, serve them to a customer, and accept payment. Many of these are com bined food preparation and seizing workers who also cook and package food, make coffee, and fill beverage cups using drink-dis pensing machines. Other workers serve food to patrons outside of a restaurant envi ronment, such as in hotels, hospital rooms, or cars. Working Conditions Food and beverage service workers are on their feet most of the time and often carry heavy trays of food, dishes, and glassware. During busy dining periods, they are under pressure to serve cus tomers quickly and efficiently. The work is relatively safe, but care must be taken to avoid slips, falls, and bums. Part-time work is more common among food and beverage serv ing and related workers than among workers in almost any other occupation. Those on part-time schedules include nearly half of all waiters and waitresses, and about 6 out of 10 food counter atten dants, compared to almost 1 out of 7 workers throughout the economy. While about half of all bartenders work full time, 36 percent work part time and the remainder work a variable schedule. The wide range in dining hours creates work opportunities at tractive to homemakers, students, and others seeking supplemental income. In fact, nearly 2 out of 3 food counter attendants are be tween 16 and 19 years old. Many food and beverage serving and related workers work evenings, weekends, and holidays. Some work split shifts—they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for evening hours. Employment Food and beverage serving and related workers held 6.5 million jobs in 2000. Combined food preparation and serving workers held about 2.2 million of these jobs; waiters and waitresses, about 2 million; dishwashers, 525,000; dining room and cafeteria atten dants and bartender helpers, 431,000; counter attendants, 421,000; Service Occupations 311 bartenders, 387,000; hosts and hostesses, 343,000; and non restaurant food servers, 205,000. Restaurants, coffee shops, bars, and other retail eating and drink ing places employed the overwhelming majority of food and bever age service workers. Others worked in hotels and other lodging places, bowling alleys, casinos, country clubs, and other member ship organizations. Jobs are located throughout the country but are typically plenti ful in large cities and tourist areas. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment, and some workers alternate between summer and win ter resorts, instead of remaining in one area the entire year. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are no specific educational requirements for food and bever age service jobs. Although many employers prefer to hire high school graduates for waiter and waitress, bartender, and host and hostess positions, completion of high school usually is not required for fast-food workers, counter attendants, and dining room atten dants and bartender helpers. For many people, a job as a food and beverage service worker serves as a source of immediate income, rather than a career. Many entrants to these jobs are in their late teens or early twenties and have a high school education or less. Usually, they have little or no work experience. Many are full-time students or homemakers. Food and beverage service jobs are a major source of part-time employment for high school and college students. Because maintaining a restaurant’s image is important to its suc cess, employers emphasize personal qualities. Food and beverage serving and related workers are in close contact with the public, so these workers should be well spoken and have a neat, clean appear ance. They should enjoy dealing with all kinds of people and pos sess a pleasant disposition. Waiters and waitresses need a good memory to avoid confusing customers’ orders and to recall faces, names, and preferences of frequent patrons. These workers should also be good at arithmetic so they can total bills without the assistance of a calculator or cash register if necessary. In restaurants specializing in foreign foods, knowledge of a foreign language is helpful. Prior experience wait ing on tables is preferred by restaurants and hotels that have rigid table service standards. Jobs at these establishments often have higher earnings, but they may also have higher educational require ments than less demanding establishments. Usually, bartenders must be at least 21 years of age, but employ ers prefer to hire people who are 25 or older. Bartenders should be familiar with State and local laws concerning the sale of alcoholic beverages. Most food and beverage serving and related workers pick up their skills on the job by observing and working with more experi enced workers. Some employers, particularly those in fast-food restaurants, use self-instruction programs with audiovisual presen tations and instructional booklets to teach new employees food preparation and service skills. Some public and private vocational schools, restaurant associations, and large restaurant chains pro vide classroom training in a generalized food service curriculum. Some bartenders acquire their skills by attending a bartending or vocational and technical school. These programs often include instruction on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail reci pes, attire and conduct, and stocking a bar. Some of these schools help their graduates find jobs. Although few employers require any level of educational attainment, some specialized training is usu ally needed including food handling training and legal issues in cluding serving alcoholic beverages and tobacco. Employers are more likely to hire and promote based on people skills and personal Digitizedqualities for FRASER rather than education. Food and beverage service workers https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis are in close contact with the public, so they should present them selves well and have a neat and clean appearance. Due to the relatively small size of most food-serving establish ments, opportunities for promotion are limited. After gaining some experience, some dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers are able to advance to waiter, waitress, or bartender jobs. For waiters, waitresses, and bartenders, advancement usually is lim ited to finding a job in a more expensive restaurant or bar where prospects for tip earnings are better. A few bartenders open their own businesses. Some hosts and hostesses and waiters and wait resses advance to supervisory jobs, such as maitre d’hotel, dining room supervisor, or restaurant manager. In larger restaurant chains, food and beverage service workers who excel at their work often are invited to enter the company’s formal management training pro gram. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on food service managers.) Job Outlook Job openings are expected to be abundant for food and beverage serving and related workers. Overall employment of these workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2000-10 period, stemming from increases in population, personal incomes, and leisure time. While employment growth will produce many new jobs, the overwhelming majority of openings will arise from the need to replace the high proportion of workers who leave this occupation each year. There is substantial move ment into and out of the occupation because education and training requirements are minimal, and the predominance of part-time jobs is attractive to people seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. However, keen competition is expected for bartender, waiter and waitress, and other food and beverage service jobs in popular restaurants and fine dining establishments, where potential earnings from tips are greatest. Projected employment growth between 2000 and 2010 varies by type of job. Employment of combined food preparation and serving workers, which includes fast-food workers, is expected to increase faster than average in response to the continuing fast-paced lifestyle of many Americans and the addition of healthier foods at many fast-food restaurants. Increases in the number of families and the more affluent, 55-and-older population will result in more restaurants that offer table service and more varied menus—lead ing to fast as average growth for waiters and waitresses and hosts and hostesses. Average employment growth is projected for bar tenders as drinking of alcoholic beverages outside the home—par ticularly cocktails—continues among after-work “happy hour” groups and weekend patrons. A decline is expected in the employ ment of dining room attendants, as waiters and waitresses increas ingly assume their duties. Earnings Food and beverage serving and related workers derive their earn ings from a combination of hourly wages and customer tips. Earn ings vary greatly, depending on the type of job and establishment. For example, fast-food workers and hosts and hostesses usually do not receive tips, so their wage rates may be higher than those of waiters and waitresses and bartenders, who may earn more from tips than from wages. In some restaurants, these workers contrib ute a portion of their tips to a tip pool, which is distributed among the establishment’s other food and beverage serving and related workers and kitchen staff. Tip pools allow workers who normally do not receive tips, such as dining room attendants and dishwash ers, to share in the rewards of a well-served meal. In 2000, median hourly earnings (not including tips) of waiters and waitresses were $6.42. The middle 50 percent earned between 312 Occupational Outlook Handbook $5.88 and $7.26. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.49, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.15 per hour. For most waiters and waitresses, higher earnings are primarily the re sult of receiving more in tips rather than higher hourly wages. Tips usually average between 10 and 20 percent of guests’ checks, so waiters and waitresses working in busy, expensive restaurants earn the most. Bartenders had median hourly earnings (not including tips) of $6.86 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.10 and $8.44. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.59, and the high est 10 percent earned more than $ 11.14 an hour. Like waiters and waitresses, bartenders employed in public bars may receive more than half of their earnings as tips. Service bartenders often are paid higher hourly wages to offset their lower tip earnings. Median hourly earnings (not including tips) of dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers were $6.53 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $5.97 and $7.62. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.54, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.26 an hour. Most received over half of their earnings as wages; the rest of their income was a share of the proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly earnings of hosts and hostesses were $6.95 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.18 and $8.11. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.65, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.59 an hour. The majority of their earn ings are received from wages. In some cases, wages were supple mented by a share of the proceeds from tip pools. Median hourly earnings of counter attendants in cafeterias, food concessions, and coffee shops (not including tips) were $6.72 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.07 and $8.05 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.59, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.92 and hour. Median hourly earnings of combined food preparation and serv ing workers, including fast food, were $6.52 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $5.92 and $7.52. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.51, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $8.64 an hour. Although some counter attendants receive part of their earnings as tips, fast-food workers usually do not. Median hourly earnings of dishwashers were $6.69 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.05 and $7.86. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.58, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $8.81 an hour. Generally these are part-time positions receiving very low wages due to the nature of the work and auto mation. Median hourly earnings of nonrestaurant food servers were $7.07 in 2000. In establishments covered by Federal law, most workers begin ning at the minimum wage earned $5.15 an hour in 2000. How ever, various minimum wage exceptions apply under specific circumstances to disabled workers, full-time students, youth under age 20 in their first 90 days of employment, tipped employees, and student-learners. Tipped employees are those who customarily and regularly receive more than $30 a month in tips. The employer may consider tips as part of wages, but the employer must pay at least $2.13 an hour in direct wages. Employers also are permitted to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of any meals or lodging provided. However, many employers provide free meals and fur nish uniforms. Food and beverage service workers who work full time often receive typical benefits, while part-time workers usually do not. In some large restaurants and hotels, food and beverage serving and related workers belong to unions—principally the Hotel Em ployees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Ser vice Employees International Union. Related Occupations Other workers whose jobs involve serving customers and helping them enjoy themselves include flight attendants, tour and travel guides, and gaming services workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the State employment service. A guide to careers in restaurants, a list of 2- and 4-year colleges that have food service programs, and information on scholarships to those programs is available from: >• National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org For general information on hospitality careers, contact: >- International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 3205 Skipwith Rd., Richmond, VA 23294-4442. Internet: http://www.chrie.org Healthcare Support Occupations Dental Assistants (0**NET 31-9091.00) Significant Points • Rapid employment growth and substantial replacement needs should result in good job opportunities. • Dentists are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures. • Infection control is a crucial responsibility of dental assistants. Proper infection control protects patients Digitized for and FRASER members of the dental health team. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nature of the Work Dental assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and labo ratory duties. They work chairside as dentists examine and treat patients. They make patients as comfortable as possible in the den tal chair, prepare them for treatment, and obtain dental records. Assistants hand instruments and materials to dentists, and keep pa tients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. As sistants also sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment, prepare tray setups for dental procedures, and instruct patients on postoperative and general oral health care. Some dental assistants prepare materials for making impressions and restorations, expose radiographs, and process dental x-ray film as directed by a dentist. They also may remove sutures, apply anes thetics to gums or cavity-preventive agents to teeth, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. Service Occupations 313 Virtually all dental assistants work in a private dental office. A small number work in dental schools, private and government hos pitals, State and local public health departments, or clinics. Dental assistants hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients ’ mouths dry and clear. Those with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions taken by dentists, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Dental assistants with office duties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform different clinical tasks. (See the state ment on dental hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area usually is near the dental chair so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication and hand them to the dentist when needed. Dental assistants wear gloves, masks, eyewear, and protective clothing to protect themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Following safety procedures also minimizes the risks associated with the use of radiographic equipment. Almost half of dental assistants have a 35- to 40-hour work week, which may include work on Saturdays or evenings. Employment Dental assistants held about 247,000 jobs in 2000. Almost 2 out of 5 worked part time, sometimes in more than one dental office. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most assistants learn their skills on the job, though some are trained in dental assisting programs offered by community and junior col leges, trade schools, technical institutes, or the Armed Forces. As sistants must be a dentist’s “third hand”; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, can work well with others, and have good manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices. The American Dental Association’s Commission on Dental Ac creditation approved 248 dental assisting training programs in 2000. Programs include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental of fices. Most programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior colleges lead to an associate degree. All programs re quire a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require a typing or science course for admission. Some private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but the Com mission on Dental Accreditation does not accredit these. Some States regulate the duties dental assistants may complete through licensure or registration. Licensure or registration may re quire passing a written or practical examination. States offering licensure or registration have a variety of schools offering courses— approximately 10 to 12 months in length—that meet their State’s requirements. Some States require continuing education to main tain licensure or registration. A few States allow dental assistants to perform any function delegated to them by the dentist. Individual States have adopted different standards for dental assistants who perform certain medical duties, such as radiological procedures. Completion of the Radiation Health and Safety exami nation offered by the Dental Assisting National Board, Inc. (DANB) meets those standards in 31 States. Some States require the comple tion of a State-approved course in radiology as well. Certification is available through DANB and is recognized or required in 20 States. Other organizations offer registration, most often at the State level. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifications and professional competence, and may be an asset when seeking employment. Candidates may qualify to take the DANB certification examination by graduating from an accred ited training program or by having 2 years of full-time, or 4 years of part-time, experience as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have current certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Recertification is offered annually for applicants who have earned continuing education credits. Without further education, advancement opportunities are lim ited. Some dental assistants become office managers, dental assist ing instructors, or dental product sales representatives. Others go back to school to become dental hygienists. For many, this entrylevel occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a steppingstone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs. Job Outlook Job prospects for dental assistants should be good. Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010. In addition, numerous job openings will occur due to the need to replace assistants who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Many oppor tunities are for entry-level positions offering on-the-job training. 314 Occupational Outlook Handbook Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and older people will fuel demand for dental services. Older dentists, who are less likely to employ assistants, will leave and be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one, or even two. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures. Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental assistants were $12.49 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.99 and $15.51 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.26, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $18.57 an hour. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be con tingent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association’s 1999 Workforce Needs Assessment Survey, almost all full-time dental assistants employed by private practitio ners received paid vacation. The survey also found that 9 out of 10 full- and part-time dental assistants received dental coverage. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations supporting health practitioners include medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, phar macy aides, pharmacy technicians, physical therapist assistants and aides, and veterinary technologists, technicians, and assistants. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities and accredited dental assis tant programs is available from: >- Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org For information on becoming a Certified Dental Assistant and a list of State boards of dentistry, contact: ► Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 676 North Saint Clair, Suite 1880, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.danb.org For general information about continuing education for dental assistants, contact: >• American Dental Assistants Association, 203 North LaSalle St., Suite 1320, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.dentalassistant.org Medical Assistants (0*NET 31-9092.00) • • Significant Points Medical assistants is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2010. Job prospects should be best for medical assistants with formal training or experience. Nature of the Work Medical assistants perform routine administrative and clinical tasks to keep the offices and clinics of physicians, podiatrists, chiroprac tors, and optometrists running smoothly. They should not be con fused with physician assistants who examine, diagnose, and treat patients under the direct supervision of a physician. (Physician assistants are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, depending on office location, size, and specialty. In small prac tices, medical assistants usually are “generalists,” handling both Digitizedadministrative for FRASER and clinical duties and reporting directly to an of fice manager, physician, or other health practitioner. Those in large https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis If .. « y a4 m V, The duties ofmedical assistants varyfrom office to office, depending on office location, size, and specialty. practices tend to specialize in a particular area under the supervi sion of department administrators. Medical assistants perform many administrative duties. They answer telephones, greet patients, update and file patient medical records, fill out insurance forms, handle correspondence, schedule appointments, arrange for hospital admission and laboratory ser vices, and handle billing and bookkeeping. Clinical duties vary according to State law and include taking medical histories and recording vital signs, explaining treatment procedures to patients, preparing patients for examination, and assist ing the physician during the examination. Medical assistants col lect and prepare laboratory specimens or perform basic laboratory tests on the premises, dispose of contaminated supplies, and steril ize medical instruments. They instruct patients about medication and special diets, prepare and administer medications as directed by a physician, authorize drug refills as directed, telephone pre scriptions to a pharmacy, draw blood, prepare patients for x rays, take electrocardiograms, remove sutures, and change dressings. Medical assistants also may arrange examining room instruments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Assistants who specialize have additional duties. Podiatric medical assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop x rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide medical eye care. They conduct di agnostic tests, measure and record vision, and test eye muscle func tion. They also show patients how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses; and they apply eye dressings. Under the direction of the physician, they may administer eye medications. They also maintain optical and surgical instruments and may assist the oph thalmologist in surgery. Working Conditions Medical assistants work in well-lighted, clean environments. They constantly interact with other people, and may have to handle sev eral responsibilities at once. Most full-time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. Some work part-time, evenings, or weekends. Employment Medical assistants held about 329,000 jobs in 2000. Sixty percent were in physicians’ offices, and about 15 percent were in hospitals, including inpatient and outpatient facilities. The rest were in nurs ing homes, offices of other health practitioners, and other health care facilities. Service Occupations 315 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer graduates of formal programs in medical assisting. Such programs are offered in vocational-technical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and in colleges and universities. Postsecondary programs usually last either 1 year, resulting in a certificate or diploma, or 2 years, resulting in an associate degree. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology as well as typing, transcrip tion, recordkeeping, accounting, and insurance processing. Stu dents learn laboratory techniques, clinical and diagnostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles, medication administration, and first aid. They study office practices, patient relations, medical law, and eth ics. Accredited programs include an internship that provides prac tical experience in physicians’ offices, hospitals, or other healthcare facilities. Two agencies recognized by the U.S. Department of Education accredit programs in medical assisting: the Commission on Accredi tation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). In 2001, there were about 500 medical assisting programs accredited by CAAHEP and about 170 accredited by ABHES. The Commit tee on Accreditation for Ophthalmic Medical Personnel approved 14 programs in ophthalmic medical assisting. Formal training in medical assisting, while generally preferred, is not always required. Some medical assistants are trained on the job, although this is less common than in the past. Applicants usu ally need a high school diploma or the equivalent. Recommended high school courses include mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, computers, and office skills. Volunteer experience in the healthcare field also is helpful. Although there is no licensing for medical assistants, some States require them to take a test or a course before they can perform cer tain tasks, such as taking x rays. Employers prefer to hire experi enced workers or certified applicants who have passed a national examination, indicating that the medical assistant meets certain stan dards of competence. The American Association of Medical As sistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; the American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants awards the Podiatric Medical Assistant Certified creden tial; and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Oph thalmology awards credentials at three levels—Certified Ophthalmic Assistant, Certified Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Oph thalmic Medical Technologist. Medical assistants may be able to advance to office manager. They may qualify for a variety of administrative support occupations, or may teach medical assisting. Some, with additional education, enter other health occupations such as nursing and medical technology. Medical assistants deal with the public; therefore, they must be neat and well-groomed and have a courteous, pleasant manner. Medical assistants must be able to put patients at ease and explain physicians’ instructions. They must respect the confidential nature of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2010 as the health services industry expands because of technological advances in medicine, and a growing and aging population. It is one of the fastest growing occupations. Employment growth will be driven by the increase in the number of group practices, clinics, and other healthcare facilities that need a high proportion of support personnel, particularly the flexible medical https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis assistant who can handle both administrative and clinical duties. Medical assistants primarily work in outpatient settings, where much faster than average growth is expected. In view of the preference of many health care employers for trained personnel, job prospects should be best for medical assistants with formal training or experience, particularly those with certification. Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary, depending on experience, skill level, and location. Median annual earnings of medical assis tants were $23,000 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,460 and $27,460 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,700, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32,850 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of medical assistants in 2000 were as follows: Offices and clinics of medical doctors............................................. Hospitals.................................................................................................. Health and allied services, not elsewhere classified...................... Offices of osteopathic physicians...................................................... Offices of other health practitioners................................................. $23,610 22,950 22,860 21,420 20,860 Related Occupations Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assis tants, medical records and health information technicians, medical secretaries, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, CAAHEP-accredited edu cational programs in medical assisting, and the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: ► The American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.aama-ntl.org Information about career opportunities and the Registered Medi cal Assistant certification exam is available from: >- Registered Medical Assistants of American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068-5765. Internet: http://www.amtl.com For a list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medi cal assisting, contact: ► Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, 803 West Broad St., Suite 730, Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.abhes.org Information about career opportunities, training programs, and the Certified Ophthalmic Assistant exam is available from: >- Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2995. Internet: http://www.jcahpo.org Information about careers for podiatric assistants is available from: >- American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2124 S. Austin Blvd., Cicero, IL 60650. Medical Transcriptionists (0*NET 31-9094.00) • • • Significant Points Employers prefer medical transcriptionists who have completed a vocational school or community college program. Employment is projected to grow faster than average due to increasing demand for medical transcription services. Some medical transcriptionists enjoy the flexibility of working at home, especially those with previous experience in a hospital or clinic setting. 316 Occupational Outlook Handbook Nature of the Work Medical transcriptionists, also called medical transcribers and medi cal stenographers, listen to dictated recordings made by physicians and other healthcare professionals and transcribe them into medi cal reports, correspondence, and other administrative material. They generally listen to recordings on a special headset, using a foot pedal to pause the recording when necessary, and key the text into a per sonal computer or word processor, editing as necessary for gram mar and clarity. The documents they produce include discharge summaries, history and physical examination reports, operating room reports, consultation reports, autopsy reports, diagnostic imaging studies, and referral letters. Medical transcriptionists return tran scribed documents to the dictator for review and signature, or cor rection. These documents eventually become part of patients’ permanent files. To understand and accurately transcribe dictated reports into a format that is clear and comprehensible for the reader, medical tran scriptionists must understand medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, diagnostic procedures, and treatment. They also must be able to translate medical jargon and abbreviations into their expanded forms. To help identify terms appropriately, transcrip tionists refer to standard medical reference materials—both printed and electronic; some of these are available over the Internet. Medi cal transcriptionists must comply with specific standards that apply to the style of medical records, in addition to the legal and ethical requirements involved with keeping patient records confidential. iML \V-', \ use medical reference materials to ensure that DigitizedTranscriptionists for FRASER medical terms are correctly identified. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Experienced transcriptionists spot mistakes or inconsistencies in a medical report and check back with the dictator to correct the information. Their ability to understand and correctly transcribe patient assessments and treatments reduces the chance of patients receiving ineffective or even harmful treatments and ensures high quality patient care. Currently, most healthcare providers transmit dictation to medi cal transcriptionists using either digital or analog dictating equip ment. With the emergence of the Internet, some transcriptionists receive dictation over the Internet and are able to quickly return transcribed documents to clients for approval. As confidentiality concerns are resolved, this practice will become more prevalent. Another emerging trend is the implementation of speech recogni tion technology, which electronically translates sound into text and creates drafts of reports. Reports are then formatted; edited for mistakes in translation, punctuation, or grammar; and checked for consistency and possible medical errors. Transcriptionists work ing in specialized areas with more standard terminology, such as radiology or pathology, are more likely to encounter speech recog nition technology. However, use of speech recognition technol ogy will become more widespread as the technology becomes more sophisticated. Medical transcriptionists who work in physicians’ offices and clinics may have other office duties, such as receiving patients, scheduling appointments, answering the telephone, and handling incoming and outgoing mail. Medical secretaries, discussed else where in the Handbook, may also transcribe as part of their jobs. Court reporters, also discussed elsewhere in the Handbook, have similar duties, but with a different focus. They take verbatim re ports of speeches, conversations, legal proceedings, meetings, and other events when written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspondence, records, or legal proof. Working Conditions The majority of these workers are employed in comfortable settings, such as hospitals, physicians’ offices, clinics, laboratories, medical libraries, government medical facilities, or at home. An increasing number of medical transcriptionists telecommute from home-based offices as employees or subcontractors for hospitals and transcrip tion services or as self-employed independent contractors. Work in this occupation presents few hazards, although sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring, and workers can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye problems due to strain and risk re petitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome. The pres sure to be accurate and fast also can be stressful. Many medical transcriptionists work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed medical transcriptionists are more likely to work ir regular hours—including part time, evenings, weekends, or on an on-call basis. Employment Medical transcriptionists held about 102,000 jobs in 2000. About 2 out of 5 worked in hospitals and about another 2 out of 5 in phy sicians’ offices and clinics. Others worked for laboratories, col leges and universities, transcription services, and temporary help agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer to hire transcriptionists who have completed postsecondary training in medical transcription, offered by many vocational schools, community colleges, and distance-learning programs. Completion of a 2-year associate degree or 1-year cer tificate program—including coursework in anatomy, medical terminology, medicolegal issues, and English grammar and Service Occupations 317 punctuation—is highly recommended, but not always required. Many of these programs include supervised on-the-job experience. Some transcriptionists, especially those already familiar with medi cal terminology due to previous experience as a nurse or medical secretary, become proficient through on-the-job training. The American Association for Medical Transcription (AAMT) awards the voluntary designation, Certified Medical Transcriptionist (CMT), to those who earn passing scores on written and practi cal examinations. As in many other fields, certification is recognized as a sign of competence. Because medical terminology is constantly evolving, medical transcriptionists are encouraged to regularly up date their skills. Every 3 years, CMTs must earn continuing educa tion credits to be recertified. In addition to understanding medical terminology, transcription ists must have good English grammar and punctuation skills, as well as familiarity with personal computers and word processing software. Normal hearing acuity and good listening skills also are necessary. Employers often require applicants to take pre-employment tests. With experience, medical transcriptionists can advance to su pervisory positions, home-based work, consulting, or teaching. With additional education or training, some become medical records and health information technicians, medical coders, or medical records and health information administrators. Job Outlook Employment of medical transcriptionists is projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Demand for medical transcription services will be spurred by a growing and aging population. Older age groups receive proportionately greater numbers of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that require documentation. A high level of demand for transcription services also will be sustained by the continued need for electronic docu mentation that can be easily shared among providers, third-party payers, regulators, and consumers. Growing numbers of medical transcriptionists will be needed to amend patients’ records, edit for grammar, and discover discrepancies in medical records. Advancements in speech recognition technology are not projected to significantly reduce the need for medical transcriptionists be cause these workers will continue to be needed to review and edit drafts for accuracy. In spite of the advances in this technology, it has been difficult for the software to grasp and analyze the human voice and the English language with all its diversity. There will continue to be a need for skilled medical transcriptionists to iden tify and appropriately edit the inevitable errors created by speech recognition systems, and create a final document. Hospitals will continue to employ a large percentage of medical transcriptionists, but job growth will not be as fast as in other areas. Increasing demand for standardized records in offices and clinics of physicians should result in rapid employment growth, especially in large group practices. Job opportunities should be the best for those who earn an associate degree or certification from the Ameri can Association for Medical Transcription. Earnings Medical transcriptionists had median hourly earnings of $12.15 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.07 and $14.41. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.66, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.70. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical transcription ists in 2000 were as follows: Offices and clinics of medical doctors........................... Hospitals................................................................................... Mailing, reproduction, and stenographic services......................... https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 12 14 11,47 Compensation methods for medical transcriptionists vary. Some are paid based on the number of hours they work or on the number of lines they transcribe. Others receive a base pay per hour with incentives for extra production. Large hospitals and healthcare or ganizations usually prefer to pay for the time an employee works. Independent contractors and employees of transcription services almost always receive production-based pay. According to a 1999 study conducted by Hay Management Con sultants for the American Association for Medical Transcription, entry-level medical transcriptionists had median hourly earnings of $ 10.32 and the most experienced transcriptionists had median hourly earnings of $13.00. Earnings were highest in organizations em ploying 1,000 or more workers. Transcriptionists receiving pro duction-based pay earned about 7 to 8.5 cents per Standardized Line (based on a 65-character line, counting all keystrokes). However, independent contractors—who have higher expenses than their cor porate counterparts, receive no benefits, and face higher risk of ter mination than employed transcriptionists—typically charge about 12 to 13 cents per Standardized Line. Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are court reporters, secretaries and admini strative assistants, receptionists and information clerks, and human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping. Other work ers who provide medical support include medical assistants and medical records and health information technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as a medical transcriptionist, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: >- American Association for Medical Transcription, 3460 Oakdale Rd., Suite M, Modesto, CA 95355-9690. Internet: http://www.aamt.org State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for medical transcriptionists. Nursing, Psychiatric, and Home Health Aides (0**NET 31-1011.00, 31-1012.00, 31-1013.00) Significant Points • • Job prospects for nursing and home health aides will be very good because of fast growth and high replacement needs in these large occupations. Minimum education or training is generally required for entry-level jobs, but earnings are low. Nature of the Work Nursing and psychiatric aides help care for physically or mentally ill, injured, disabled, or infirm individuals confined to hospitals, nursing and personal care facilities, and mental health settings! Home health aides duties are similar, but they work in patients’ homes or residential care facilities. Nursing aides, also known as nursing assistants, geriatric aides, unlicensed assistive personnel, or hospital attendants, perform rou tine tasks under the supervision of nursing and medical staff. They answer patients’ call bells, deliver messages, serve meals, make beds, and help patients eat, dress, and bathe. Aides also may provide 318 Occupational Outlook Handbook skin care to patients; take temperatures, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure; and help patients get in and out of bed and walk. They also may escort patients to operating and examining rooms, keep patients’ rooms neat, set up equipment, store and move supplies, or assist with some procedures. Aides observe patients’ physical, mental, and emotional conditions and report any change to the nurs ing or medical staff. Nursing aides employed in nursing homes often are the princi pal caregivers, having far more contact with residents than other members of the staff. Because some residents may stay in a nursing home for months or even years, aides develop ongoing relation ships with them and interact with them in a positive, caring way. Psychiatric aides, also known as mental health assistants or psy chiatric nursing assistants, care for mentally impaired or emotion ally disturbed individuals. They work under a team that may include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, social workers, and therapists. In addition to helping patients dress, bathe, groom, and eat, psychiatric aides socialize with them and lead them in educa tional and recreational activities. Psychiatric aides may play games such as cards with the patients, watch television with them, or par ticipate in group activities such as sports or field trips. They ob serve patients and report any physical or behavioral signs that might be important for the professional staff to know. They accompany patients to and from examinations and treatments. Because they have such close contact with patients, psychiatric aides can have a great deal of influence on their outlook and treatment. Home health aides help elderly, convalescent, or disabled per sons live in their own homes instead of in a health facility. Under the direction of nursing or medical staff, they provide healthrelated services, such as administering oral medications. (Personal and home care aides, who provide mainly housekeeping and rou tine personal care services, are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Like nursing aides, home health aides may check pulse, temperature, and respiration; help with simple prescribed exer cises; keep patients’ rooms neat; and help patients move from bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Occasionally, they change nonsterile dressings, give massages and alcohol rubs, or assist with braces and artificial limbs. Experienced home health aides also may assist with medical equipment such as ventilators, which help patients breathe. Most home health aides work with elderly or disabled persons who need more extensive care than family or friends can provide. Some help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short term needs. DigitizedAides for FRASER help care for physically or mentally ill, injured, disabled, or https://fraser.stlouisfed.org infirm individuals. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In home healthcare agencies, a registered nurse, physical thera pist, or social worker usually assigns specific duties and supervises home health aides. Aides keep records of services performed and patients’ condition and progress. They report changes in patients conditions to the supervisor or case manager. Working Conditions Most full-time aides work about 40 hours a week, but because patients need care 24 hours a day, some aides work evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Many work part time. Aides spend many hours standing and walking, and they often face heavy workloads. Because they may have to move patients in and out of bed or help them stand or walk, aides must guard against back injury. Aides also may face hazards from minor infections and major dis eases, such as hepatitis, but can avoid infections by following proper procedures. Aides often have unpleasant duties, such as emptying bedpans and changing soiled bed linens. The patients they care for may be disoriented, irritable, or uncooperative. Psychiatric aides must be prepared to care for patients whose illness may cause violent be havior. While their work can be emotionally demanding, many aides gain satisfaction from assisting those in need. Home health aides may go to the same patient’s home for months or even years. However, most aides work with a number of differ ent patients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Home health aides often visit multiple patients on the same day. Home health aides generally work alone, with periodic visits by their supervisor. They receive detailed instructions explaining when to visit patients and what services to perform. Aides are individu ally responsible for getting to patients’ homes, and they may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one patient to another. Because mechanical lifting devices available in institu tional settings are seldom available in patients’ homes, home health aides are particularly susceptible to injuries resulting from overex ertion when assisting patients. Employment Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides held about 2.1 million jobs in 2000. Nursing aides held about 1.4 million jobs, home health aides held roughly 615,000 jobs, and psychiatric aides held about 65,000 jobs. About one-half of nursing aides worked in nursing homes, and about one-fourth worked in hospitals. Most home health aides were employed by home health agencies, visit ing nurse associations, social services agencies, residential care facilities, and temporary-help firms. Others worked for home health departments of hospitals and nursing facilities, public health agen cies, and community volunteer agencies. Most psychiatric aides worked in psychiatric units of general hospitals, psychiatric hospi tals, State and county mental institutions, homes for mentally re tarded and psychiatric patients, and community mental health centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In many cases, neither a high school diploma nor previous work experience is necessary for a job as a nursing, psychiatric, or home health aide. A few employers, however, require some training or experience. Hospitals may require experience as a nursing aide or home health aide. Nursing homes often hire inexperienced work ers who must complete a minimum of 75 hours of mandatory train ing and pass a competency evaluation program within 4 months of employment. Aides who complete the program are certified and placed on the State registry of nursing aides. Some States require psychiatric aides to complete a formal training program. Service Occupations 319 The Federal Government has enacted guidelines for home health aides whose employers receive reimbursement from Medicare. Federal law requires home health aides to pass a competency test covering 12 areas: Communication skills; documentation ofpatient status and care provided; reading and recording vital signs; basic infection control procedures; basic body functions; maintenance of a healthy environment; emergency procedures; physical, emotional, and developmental characteristics of patients; personal hygiene and grooming; safe transfer techniques; normal range of motion and positioning; and basic nutrition. A home health aide may take training before taking the compe tency test. Federal law suggests at least 75 hours of classroom and practical training supervised by a registered nurse. Training and testing programs may be offered by the employing agency, but must meet the standards of the Flealth Care Financing Administration. Training programs vary depending upon State regulations. The National Association for Home Care offers national certifi cation for home health aides. The certification is a voluntary dem onstration that the individual has met industry standards. Nursing aide training is offered in high schools, vocational-tech nical centers, some nursing homes, and some community colleges. Courses cover body mechanics, nutrition, anatomy and physiology, infection control, communication skills, and resident rights. Per sonal care skills such as how to help patients bathe, eat, and groom also are taught. Some facilities, other than nursing homes, provide classroom instruction for newly hired aides, while others rely exclusively on informal on-the-job instruction from a licensed nurse or an experi enced aide. Such training may last several days to a few months. From time to time, aides may also attend lectures, workshops, and in-service training. These occupations can offer individuals an entry into the world of work. The flexibility of night and weekend hours also provides high school and college students a chance to work during the school year. Applicants should be tactful, patient, understanding, healthy, emotionally stable, dependable, and have a desire to help people. They should also be able to work as part of a team, have good com munication skills, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Home health aides should be honest, and discreet because they work in private homes. Aides must be in good health. A physical examination, includ ing State regulated tests such as those for tuberculosis, may be required. Opportunities for advancement within these occupations are lim ited. To enter other health occupations, aides generally need addi tional formal training. Some employers and unions provide opportunities by simplifying the educational paths to advancement. Experience as an aide can also help individuals decide whether to pursue a career in the healthcare field. Job Outlook Overall employment of nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides is projected to grow faster than the average through the year 2010, although individual occupational growth rates vary. Home health aides are expected to grow the fastest, as a result of growing de mand for home healthcare from an aging population and efforts to contain healthcare costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing facilities as quickly as possible. Consumer preference for care in the home and improvements in medical technologies for in home treatment also will contribute to much faster than average employment growth for home health aides. Nursing aide employment will not grow as fast as home health aide employment, largely because nursing aides are concentrated in https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis the relatively slower-growing nursing home sector. Nevertheless, employment of nursing aides is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations in response to increasing emphasis on rehabilitation and the long-term care needs of a rapidly growing elderly population. Financial pressure on hospitals to discharge patients as soon as possible should produce more nursing home admissions. Modem medical technology will also increase the employment of nursing aides. This technology, while saving and extending more lives, increases the need for long-term care pro vided by aides. Employment ofpsychiatric aides—the smallest of the three oc cupations—is expected to grow as fast as the average. The number ofjobs for psychiatric aides in hospitals, where one-half of psychi atric aides work, will decline due to attempts to contain costs by limiting inpatient psychiatric treatment. Employment in other sec tors will rise in response to growth in the number of older persons— many of whom will require mental health services, increasing public acceptance of formal treatment for drug abuse and alcoholism, and a lessening of the stigma attached to those receiving mental health care. Numerous openings for nursing and home health aides will arise from a combination of fast growth and high replacement needs for these large occupations. Turnover is high, a reflection of modest entry requirements, low pay, high physical and emotional demands, and lack of advancement opportunities. For these same reasons, many people are unwilling to perform this kind of work. There fore, persons who are interested in this work and suited for it should have excellent job opportunities. Earnings Median hourly earnings of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants were $8.89 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.51 and $10.59 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.48, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 12.69 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants in 2000 were as follows: Personnel supply services....................................................................... Local government..................................................................................... Hospitals..................................................................................................... Nursing and personal care facilities..................................................... Residential care......................................................................................... $9.82 9.66 9.42 8.61 7.96 Median hourly earnings of psychiatric aides were $ 10.45 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.38 and $13.02 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.10, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.50 an hour. Median hourly earnings of psychiatric aides in 2000 were $12.61 in State government and $10.50 in hospitals. Nursing and psychiatric aides in hospitals generally receive at least 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for lateshift work, and pension plans also are available to many hospital and some nursing home employees. Median hourly earnings of home health aides were $8.23 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.13 and $9.88 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.14, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $ 11.93 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of home health aides in 2000 were as follows: Nursing and personal care facilities..................................................... Personnel supply services....................................................................... Residential care......................................................................................... Home health care services...................................................................... Individual and family services............................................................... $8.65 8.60 8.16 7.91 7.89 320 Occupational Outlook Handbook M Home health aides receive slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. They usually are paid only for the time worked in the home; they normally are not paid for travel time be tween jobs. Most employers hire only on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits. Related Occupations Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides help people who need routine care or treatment. So do childcare workers, medical assis tants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, personal and home care aides, and physical therapist assistants and aides. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities may be obtained from local hospitals, nursing homes, home healthcare agencies, psychi atric facilities, State boards of nursing, and local offices of the State employment service. General information about training and referrals to State and local agencies about opportunities for home health aides, a list of relevant publications, and information on certification are avail able from: >- National Association for Home Care, 228 7th St. SE., Washington, DC 20003. Internet: http://www.nahc.org Occupational Therapist Assistants and Aides __________ _______ (0**NET 31-2011.00, 31-2012.00) • • • Significant Points Certified occupational therapist assistants must complete an associate’s degree or certificate program. In contrast, occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. Aides are not licensed, so by law they are not allowed to perform as wide a range of tasks as occupational therapist assistants do. Employment is projected to increase much faster than the average, as rapid growth in the number of middleaged and elderly individuals increases the demand for therapeutic services. Nature of the Work Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the direc tion of occupational therapists to provide rehabilitative services to persons with mental, physical, emotional, or developmental impair ments. The ultimate goal is to improve clients’ quality of life by helping them compensate for limitations. For example, occupa tional therapist assistants help injured workers reenter the labor force by helping them improve their motor skills or help persons with learning disabilities increase their independence, by teaching them to prepare meals or use public transportation. Occupational therapist assistants help clients with rehabilita tive activities and exercises outlined in a treatment plan developed in collaboration with an occupational therapist. Activities range from teaching the proper method of moving from a bed into a wheel chair, to the best way to stretch and limber the muscles of the hand. Assistants monitor an individual’s activities to make sure they are performed correctly and to provide encouragement. They also record their client’s progress for use by the occupational therapist. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis An occupational therapist assistant helps a patient restore mobility in her hand. If the treatment is not having the intended effect, or the client is not improving as expected, the therapist may alter the treatment pro gram in hopes of obtaining better results. In addition, occupational therapist assistants document billing of the client’s health insur ance provider. Occupational therapist aides typically prepare materials and assemble equipment used during treatment and are responsible for a range of clerical tasks. Duties can include scheduling appoint ments, answering the telephone, restocking or ordering depleted supplies, and filling out insurance forms or other paperwork. Aides are not licensed, so by law they are not allowed to perform as wide a range of tasks as occupational therapist assistants. Working Conditions The hours and days that occupational therapist assistants and aides work vary, depending on the facility and whether they are full or part-time employees. Many outpatient therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours, to help coincide with patients personal schedules. Occupational therapist assistants and aides need to have a mod erate degree of strength, due to the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. For example, in some cases, assistants and aides need to help lift patients. Additionally, con stant kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods all are part of the job. Employment Occupational therapist assistants and aides held 25,000jobs in 2000. Occupational therapist assistants held about 17,000 jobs, and occu pational therapist aides held about 8,500. About 30 percent of as sistants and aides worked in hospitals, 25 percent worked in offices of occupational therapists, and 20 percent in nursing and personal care facilities. The remainder primarily worked in offices and clin ics of physicians, social services agencies, outpatient rehabilitation centers, and home health agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons must complete an associate’s degree or certificate program from an accredited community college or technical school to qualify for occupational therapist assistant jobs. In contrast, occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their training on the job. There were 185 accredited occupational therapist assistant pro grams in the United States in 2000. The first year of study typically Service Occupations 321 involves an introduction to healthcare, basic medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology. In the second year, courses are more rig orous and usually include occupational therapist courses in areas such as mental health, gerontology, and pediatrics. Students also must complete supervised fieldwork in a clinic or community set ting. Applicants to occupational therapist assistant programs can improve their chances of admission by taking high school courses in biology and health and by performing volunteer work in nursing homes, occupational or physical therapist’s offices, or elsewhere in the healthcare field. Occupational therapist assistants are regulated in most States, and must pass a national certification examination after they gradu ate. Those who pass the test are awarded the title of certified occu pational therapist assistant. Occupational therapist aides usually receive most of their train ing on the job. Qualified applicants must have a high school di ploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to help people in need. Applicants may increase their chances of getting a job by volunteering their services, thus displaying initiative and aptitude to the employer. Assistants and aides must be responsible, patient, and willing to take directions and work as part of a team. Furthermore, they should be caring and want to help people who are not able to help themselves. Job Outlook Employment of occupational therapist assistants and aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2010. Federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the job market for occupa tional therapist assistants and aides in the near term. Flowever, over the long run, demand for occupational therapist assistants and aides will continue to rise, with growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function. Growth will result from an increas ing population in older age groups, including the baby-boom gen eration, which increasingly needs occupational therapy services as they become older. Demand also will result from advances in medi cine that allow more people with critical problems to survive and then need rehabilitative therapy. Third-party payers, concerned with rising health care costs may begin to encourage occupational thera pists to delegate more of the hands-on therapy work to occupational therapist assistants and aides. By having assistants and aides work more closely with clients under the guidance of a therapist, the cost of therapy should be more modest than otherwise. Sources of Additional Information For information on a career as an occupational therapist assistant and a list of accredited programs, contact: >- The American Occupational Therapy Association, 4720 Montgomery Ln., P-O. Box 31220, Bethesda, MD 20824-1220. Internet: http://www.aota.org Pharmacy Aides (0*NET 31-9095.00) Significant Points • • • Many pharmacy aides work evenings, weekends, and some holidays. Eight out of 10 jobs are in retail pharmacies. Job opportunities are expected to be good, especially for those with related work experience. Nature of the Work Pharmacy aides help licensed pharmacists with administrative duties in mnning a pharmacy. Aides often are clerks or cashiers who pri marily answer telephones, handle money, stock shelves, and per form other clerical duties. They work closely with pharmacy technicians. Pharmacy technicians usually perform more complex tasks than do assistants, although, in some States, their duties and job titles overlap. (See the statement on pharmacy technicians else where in the Handbook.) Aides refer any questions regarding pre scriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist. (See the statement on pharmacists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Aides have several important duties that help the pharmacy to function smoothly. They may establish and maintain patient pro files, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. Accurate recordkeeping is necessary to help avert a potentially dangerous drug interaction. Because many people have medical insurance to help pay for the prescription, it is essential that pharmacy aides effi ciently and correctly correspond with the third-party insurance pro viders to obtain payment. They also maintain the inventory and inform the supervisor of stock needs so that the pharmacy has the vital medications for those who need them. Some also clean phar macy equipment, help with the maintenance of equipment and sup plies, and manage the cash register. Earnings Median annual earnings of occupational therapist assistants were $34,340 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,280 and $40,690. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,970, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,370. Median annual earnings of occupational therapist assistants in 2000 were $33,390 in hospitals. Median annual earnings of occupational therapist aides were $20,710 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,510 and $28,470. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,370, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,900. Related Occupations Occupational therapist assistants and aides work under the direc tion of occupational therapists. Other occupations in the healthcare field that work under the supervision of professionals include den tal assistants, medical assistants, pharmacy technicians, and physi cal therapist assistants and aides. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Helping to keep complete and accurate medication records is an important duty ofpharmacy aides. 322 Occupational Outlook Handbook Working Conditions Pharmacy aides work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and wellventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Aides work the same hours as pharmacists. This includes eve nings, nights, weekends, and some holidays. Because some hospi tal and retail pharmacies are open 24 hours a day, aides may work varying shifts. There are many opportunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings. Employment Pharmacy aides held about 57,000 jobs in 2000. Over 80 percent were in retail pharmacies, either independently owned or part of a drug store chain, grocery store, department store, or mass retailer. The vast majority of these are in drug stores. Thirteen percent were in hospitals, and the rest were in mail-order pharmacies, clinics, pharmaceutical wholesalers, and the Federal Government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most pharmacy aides receive informal on-the-job training, but em ployers favor those with at least a high school diploma. Prospec tive pharmacy aides with experience working as a cashier may have an advantage. Employers also prefer applicants with strong cus tomer service and communication skills and experience managing inventories and using a computer. Aides entering the field need strong spelling, reading, and mathematics skills. Successful pharmacy aides are organized, dedicated, friendly, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take direc tions. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy aides cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Strong interpersonal and communication skills are needed because there is a lot of inter action with patients, coworkers, and healthcare professionals. Team work is very important because aides are often required to work with technicians and pharmacists. Pharmacy aides almost always are trained on the job. They may begin by observing a more experienced worker. After they become familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures, they begin to work on their own. Once they become experienced work ers, they are not likely to receive additional training, except when new equipment is introduced or when policies or procedures change. To become a pharmacy aide, one should be able to perform rep etitious work accurately. Aides need good basic mathematics skills and good manual dexterity. Because they deal constantly with the public, pharmacy aides should be neat in appearance and able to deal pleasantly and tactfully with customers. Some employers may prefer people with experience typing, handling money, or operating specialized equipment, including computers. Advancement usually is limited, although some aides may de cide to become a pharmacy technician or to enroll in pharmacy school to become a pharmacist. Job Outlook Job opportunities for full- and part-time work are expected to be good, especially for aides with related work experience. Job open ings will be created by employment growth and by the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Employment of pharmacy aides is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010 due to the in creased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population and to the greater use of medication. The increased number of middleaged and elderly people—who, on average, use more prescription drugs than do younger people—will spur demand for aides in all practice settings. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Cost-conscious insurers, pharmacies, and health systems will continue to emphasize the role of aides. As a result, pharmacy aides will assume responsibility for more routine tasks previously per formed by pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, thereby giving pharmacists more time to interact with patients and affording tech nicians more time to prepare medications. Median hourly earnings of pharmacy aides were $8.52 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.16 and $10.58; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.12, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.14. Median hourly earnings of pharmacy aides were $8.02 in drug stores and proprietary stores, $ 11.17 in hospitals, and $8.47 in grocery stores in 2000. Related occupations The work of pharmacy aides is closely related to that of pharmacy technicians. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical transcriptionists, medical records and health information technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, and surgical technologists. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact local employers or local offices of the State employment service. Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides (0*NET 31 -2021.00, 31 -2022.00) _____________________________ Significant Points • • • Employment is projected to increase much faster than the average, as rapid growth in the number of middleaged and elderly individuals increases the demand for therapeutic services. Licensed physical therapist assistants have an associate’s degree, but physical therapist aides usually leam skills on the job. More than two-thirds of jobs for physical therapist assistants and aides were in hospitals or offices of physical therapists. Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants and aides perform components of physi cal therapy procedures and related tasks selected by a supervising physical therapist. These workers assist physical therapists in pro viding services that help improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suftering from injuries or disease. Patients include accident victims and individu als with disabling conditions, such as low back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy. Physical therapist assistants perform a variety of tasks. Com ponents of treatment procedures performed by these workers, un der the direction and supervision of physical therapists, involve exercises, massages, electrical stimulation, paraffin baths, hot and cold packs, traction, and ultrasound. Physical therapist assistants record the patient’s responses to treatment and report to the physi cal therapist the outcome of each treatment. Service Occupations 323 Physical therapist assistants help patients with stretching exercises during treatment. Physical therapist aides help make therapy sessions productive, under the direct supervision of a physical therapist or physical thera pist assistant. They usually are responsible for keeping the treat ment area clean and organized and preparing for each patient’s therapy. When patients need assistance moving to or from a treat ment area, aides push them in a wheelchair, or provide them with a shoulder to lean on. Because they are not licensed, aides do not perform the clinical tasks of a physical therapist assistant. The duties of aides include some clerical tasks, such as ordering depleted supplies, answering the phone, and filling out insurance forms and other paperwork. The extent to which an aide or an assistant performs clerical tasks depends on the size and location of the facility. Working Conditions The hours and days that physical therapist assistants and aides work vary, depending on the facility and on whether they are full or part time employees. Many outpatient physical therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours, to help coincide with patients’ personal schedules. Physical therapist assistants and aides need to have a moderate degree of strength, due to the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. For example, in some cases, assistants and aides need to help lift patients. Additionally, constant kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods are all part of the job. Employment Physical therapist assistants and aides held 80,000 jobs in 2000. Physical therapist assistants held about 44,000 jobs; and physical therapist aides held about 36,000. They work alongside physical therapists in a variety of settings. More than two-thirds ofjobs for assistants and aides were in hospitals or offices of physical thera pists. Others work in nursing and personal care facilities, outpa tient rehabilitation centers, offices and clinics of physicians, and home health agencies. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Physical therapist aides are trained on the job, but physical thera pist assistants typically earn an associate’s degree from an accred ited physical therapist assistant program. Licensure or registration is not required in all States for the physical therapist assistant to practice. The States that require licensure stipulate specific educa tional and examination criteria. Complete information on practice acts and regulations can be obtained from the State licensing boards. Additional requirements may include certification in CPR and other first aid and a minimum number of hours of clinical experience. According to the American Physical Therapy Association, there were 268 accredited physical therapist assistant programs in the United States as of 2001. Accredited physical therapist assistant programs are designed to last 2 years, or 4 semesters, and culminate in an associate’s degree. Programs are divided into academic study and hands on clinical experience. Academic coursework includes algebra, anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and psychol ogy. Before students begin their clinical field experience, many programs require that they complete a semester of anatomy and physiology and have certifications in CPR and other first aid. Both educators and prospective employers view clinical experience as an integral part of ensuring that students understand the responsibili ties of a physical therapist assistant. Employers typically require physical therapist aides to have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to as sist people in need. Most employers provide clinical on-the-job training. Job Outlook Employment of physical therapist assistants and aides is expected to grow much faster than the average through the year 2010. Fed eral legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy ser vices may adversely affect the job market for physical therapist assistants and aides in the near term. However, over the long run, demand for physical therapist assistants and aides will continue to rise, with growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function. The rapidly growing elderly population is particu larly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions that require therapeutic services. These patients often need additional assis tance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. The large baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. Additionally, future medical develop ments should permit an increased percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating added demand for therapy services. Licensed physical therapist assistants can enhance the costeffective provision of physical therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated, and a treatment plan is designed by the physical thera pist, the physical therapist assistant can provide many aspects of treatment, as prescribed by the therapist. Earnings Median annual earnings of physical therapist assistants were $33,870 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,830 and $40,440. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,150, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,610. Median annual earn ings of physical therapist assistants in 2000 were $33,660 in offices of other healthcare practitioners and $33,820 in hospitals. Median annual earnings ofphysical therapist aides were $ 19,670 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $16,460 and $23,390. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,590, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28,800. Median annual earn ings of physical therapist aides in 2000 were $18,320 in offices of other healthcare practitioners and $19,840 in hospitals.
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